bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rome, Religion, and Christian Emperors
Authors: Gassman Mattias P. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The controversy over the altar of Victory shows how pagans and Christians expressed competing ideas on the public role of religion in an increasingly Christian empire. In 382, Gratian revoked funding from the Roman state priesthoods and removed the altar from the Senate house. Following Gratian’s death in 383, the Senate appealed to his brother, Valentinian II, through the urban prefect, Symmachus, whose communiqué was successfully countered by Ambrose of Milan. Recent scholarship has favoured Symmachus’ account, which it sees as an appeal for religious tolerance, and argued that the affair was decided by the power politics of a child emperor’s unstable court. In response, this chapter argues that Symmachus was actually trying to exclude the emperor’s Christianity from public decision-making. All religions may, for Symmachus, lead to God, but the old cults are Rome’s divinely appointed defence, as well as the bond between Senate and emperors. Ambrose put Valentinian’s duty to God at the heart of his appeal. Ambrose’s Senate contained many Christians, and Ambrose was bound to resist an emperor who endorsed pagan sacrifices (the closest either work comes to explicit political gamesmanship). Together, their works show how malleable Rome’s public religion still was, more than seventy years after Constantine embraced Christianity.
Conclusion
Authors: Gassman Mattias P. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Fourth-century writers dealt with traditional religion and its shifting place in Roman society with the help of myth, philosophy, and observation of cultic practice. These were not mere ‘antiquarian’ endeavours but resources that fleshed out a picture of traditional religion whose frame was set by each author’s social situation and theological convictions. The diversity of the resultant texts precludes a grand narrative of pagan evolution, or even of the formation of a new conception of ‘paganism’ or of ‘religion’. Nevertheless, the long arc of polemical discourse from Diocletian to Valentinian II testifies to the importance of the changing legal and political context that framed each author’s approach to pagan cult. It also makes clear the abiding differences that separated Christians from pagans, despite shared civic space and social ties. Much the same remained true, after decades of anti-pagan legislation, in Augustine’s early-fifth-century North Africa, where devout Christians struggled (sometimes violently) with influential pagans. Faced by the fall of Rome, Augustine produced City of God, whose only ancient Latin rival for breadth and theological vision is Lactantius’ Divine Institutes. Traditional religion was a still-potent reality in a Roman Empire that was no longer definitely pagan but not yet definitively Christian.
Introduction
Authors: Huss Boaz 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The introduction presents Martin Buber’s early 20th century attempt to expose the existence of “Jewish mysticism,” and the later establishment of the academic study of Jewish mysticism by Geshom Scholem, and the revolution that occurred in the study of Jewish mysticsm in the 1980’s. The introduction outlines the genealogical study and critical examination of the concept and research field of Jewish mysticism that will be presented in the book, and explains that it seeks to expose the deep-rooted factors that have guided (and continue to guide) the identification of Kabbalah and Hasidism as mysticism, and how these influence the ways in which these movements are interpreted and studied. It discussed that two central claims that guide the discussion in this book. The first is that mysticism, in general, and Jewish mysticism, in particular, are not natural and universal phenomena that were discovered by researchers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Rather, these are discursive constructs which served to catalogue, compare, and explain a broad range of cultural products and social structures not necessarily related to one another. The second claim that guides the discussion of the study of Jewish mysticism involves the theological assumptions that underpin the category of mysticism.
“Authorized Guardians”
Authors: Huss Boaz 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The chapter examines phenomena that remained outside the scope of what was considered Jewish mysticism: the topics scholars chose to ignore. It discusses how researchers of Jewish mysticism relate to contemporary Hasidic and Kabbalistic movements and examines why the category was not applied to these movements. The chapter examines the claim of Buber, Scholem, and many of their followers that the Hasidism of the eighteenth century was the final stage of Jewish mysticism. It reveals why later forms of Kabbalah and Hasidism were not regarded as authentic expressions of Jewish mysticism, and why they did not, therefore, receive any scholarly attention but were the object of contempt. In this chapter, I show that the disregard of Scholem and his pupils toward the Kabbalistic formations of their times derived from a national-theological position and an Orientalist ambivalence. The researchers of Jewish mysticism—who viewed themselves as the authorized guardians of the Kabbalah—believed that the authentic continuation of the Jewish mystical tradition was rather to be found in academic research, which would reveal the historical significance of Kabbalah and Hasidism, and their mystical and metaphysical origins.
Other Objections to Modal Normativism
Authors: Thomasson Amie L. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter responds to other objections to modal normativism, including alleged counterexamples in which we have an apparent rule without a necessity (for example, in “I am here now”), or in which we appear to have a necessity without a rule (for example, in claims that numbers exist necessarily). It then turns to respond to allegations that the view is implicitly circular, since semantic rules must themselves be understood in modal terms, or since we must also take into account the consequences of the rules and so invoke a notion of logical necessity. In responding to these objections, the chapter also points to non-descriptivist approaches that have been developed for nomological necessity and logical necessity.
Ontological Advantages
Authors: Thomasson Amie L. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter aims to make clear the ontological consequences of adopting a modal normativist position. By combining normativism with the easy approach to ontology, we can see that modal normativism gives us a form of simple realism, according to which there are modal facts, properties, and even possible worlds, in the only sense that has sense. Such entities are not, however, “posited” as truthmakers that are supposed to “explain” what “makes our modal claims true.” But although the normativist accepts that there are modal facts and properties, the view also brings ontological advantages, avoiding ontological problems that plague traditional realist views, including placement problems and the grounding problem. The normativist view is also compared here to the forms of “classificatory conventionalism” advocated by Ross Cameron and Theodore Sider.
The Roman World of Early Christianity
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Drawing on conventional terminology and concepts, this chapter describes the religious world in which Christianity emerged. It is impossible to offer an accurate count of the number of gods, divinized beings, daimonions, and numina that were thought to populate the universe and have direct influence on the lives of people. It was quite literally “a world full of gods.” Cultural divisions and a wide range of religious practices also existed across the spectrum of what is typically called popular piety, and the more philosophical appropriation of ideas of the divine. According to a scheme that would prove to be foundational, there were three general categories of Roman religion: the gods of poets or what Varro called the “mythical”; the natural (that is, physical) gods of philosophers; and the gods of cultic or civil theology (that is, of the state).
Philosophy as Protagonist
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the work of Athenagoras of Athens. Along with other Christian intellectuals, Athenagoras writes (in 176/177 ce) in response to a wave of localized persecutions and the popular rise of untenable claims against Christians. Throughout disparate parts of the Roman Empire, the lack of specific jurisprudence concerning the Christians produced the repetition of precedents resulting in the arrest and execution of Polycarp, the famous bishop of Smyrna, and the riotous action taken against random Christians in Lyons and Vienne (central Gaul). Whether he knew of particular incidents or others, Athenagoras is familiar enough with the Christian situation to ask for “an end to the slaughter at the hands of lying informers.” The chapter also examines the work of Theophilus of Antioch.
Brilliant Diatribe
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the work of Tertullian of Carthage. No Christian apologetic author could match Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (Tertullian) in his sardonic rhetorical style and massive erudition when writing against Christian heretics, fellow Catholics, and menacing pagans. His handful of apologetic works represent an apex in the refinement of refuting pagan denigrations of Christianity during the second and third centuries. Most remarkable in Tertullian’s case is that the reader encounters not merely another body of apologetic texts that marshaled philosophical or historical arguments against pagan condemnations, but the invention of a series of related texts advising Christians how they should live in and respond to a hostile culture.
Apology as Dialogue and Appeal
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter presents a reading of the Octavius, which is cast as a transcription of an earlier dialogue that purportedly took place in Ostia between three lawyers and friends: Marcus Minucius Felix, Caecilius Natalis, and Octavius Januaris. The text is set in a dialogical format that is clearly meant to recall the philosophical dialogues of Cicero, though it is less of a dialogue as it is actually composed of two speeches: one by Caecilius, defending the pagan position; and one by Octavius the Christian. Minucius functions as the arbitrator between the two others, though his actual role is the narrator of the exchange. The three lawyers are on holiday in Ostia, chatting as they walk along the shoreline, when the subject turns to religion; their conversation becomes a debate presenting both sides of the pagan-vs.-Christian arguments as commonly portrayed at the end of the second century. The chapter also considers the work of Thracius Caecilianus Cyprianus, bishop of Carthage.
Apologist Par Excellence
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the work of Eusebius of Caesarea, who is best known as the early Church’s historian, as the author of the Life of Constantine, and supposedly for being on the “Arian” side in the debate before the Council of Nicaea (325). It is less known that Eusebius devoted much of his adult life and senior years to producing apologetic works which constituted a central pillar in the treasury of his writings. In sheer volume, apologetic material surpasses all the rest of his works combined. Eusebius employs several different literary styles in his apologetic writing. In the midst of it all he never strays far from the notion that the Gospel is an invitation to all people of all nationalities and in all stations of life.
Fifth-Century Anti-Pagan Polemic Expressions
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at the continued tensions between Christians and pagans in the fifth century. At the beginning of the fifth century, a Western bishop, Maximus of Turin (died between 408 and 423), earnestly warned his congregation about their lack of vigilance when it came to casting out all pagan religious paraphernalia from their households and places of business. By the end of the second decade of the fifth century, it was necessary to exclude pagans from imperial administration and the judiciary. Over the next forty years, the open practice of paganism was threatened with capital punishment several times. All of this, however, seems to have had little effect in preventing vital locales of paganism, and from pagans holding positions close to the imperium.
Why Does Prison Social Order Vary?
Authors: Skarbek David 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 1 discusses how all prisons share essential features. Prisoners, who have either been charged with or convicted of a crime, are forced to relocate to a facility for confinement. Once there, the captive must usually interact with other people in the same situation. They suffer the pains of imprisonment, which often includes deprivation of liberty, goods and services, heterosexual relationships, autonomy, and security. Prisoners tend to come from relatively disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. All prisons are based on coercion, and prisoners have no voluntary exit option. The chapter then shows how there is nevertheless, tremendous variation in life behind bars. In some prisons, informal institutions are incredibly important; in others, they are nearly non-existent. In some places, prisoners create hierarchy and organizations to rule; in others, norms prevail. Finally, the chapter outlines how the book will help explain how these different systems of governance arise.
Extending Rawlsian Justice to Nonhuman Animals
Authors: Roberts-Cady Sarah 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Rawls’s theory does not, as many philosophers assume, rule out the possibility of justice for nonhuman animals. A careful reading of Rawls shows that the issue hinges on the answer to this question: would it be reasonable for moral agents to agree to terms of social cooperation that include protections for animals? To establish that it is reasonable, one must make an argument for these legal protections that is grounded in public reason alone. Such arguments exist and, indeed, dominate discussions of the status of animals. Accordingly, a Rawlsian framework can be used to argue for justice for animals.
Global Health Impact
Authors: Hassoun Nicole 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Every year 9 million people are diagnosed with tuberculosis, every day more than 13,400 people are infected with AIDs, every 30 seconds malaria kills a child. Many people suffer and die young because they cannot access essential medicines. This book argues that people have a right to access these medicines and proposes some new Global Health Impact labeling, investment, and licensing strategies that encourage pharmaceutical companies to improve global health (global-health-impact.org/new). The idea is to rate these companies based on their medicines’ impacts. Highly rated companies will get a Global Health Impact label to use on their products. Socially responsible investment companies and universities might also take the ratings into account in making investment or licensing decisions. After arguing that people do have a right to access essential medicines, this book explores this proposal, its philosophical justification, and its prospects for success.
Moral Messiness
Authors: Brownlee Kimberley 
Published: July 2020

AbstractSome intimate associations simply should not exist—that much is uncontroversial. But once they do exist, the moral ballgame changes. For instance, a person who has no right to form an association might gain a right to remain in it once it exists. This chapter considers intriguing puzzles that arise in the aftermath of morally problematic associative decisions. One is the parasite problem, in which one person illegitimately piggybacks on another person’s undisputed associational rights which require the first person’s participation. Parasites illegitimately occupy the associative roles to which their rights attach. Can they bootstrap themselves into associative legitimacy? Should we worry about the precedent this might set? When are third parties required or forbidden to interfere? As this chapter shows, there are no simple answer to these questions. All ex ante solutions—relying on arguments about defeasibility, conditionality, and group rights—flounder. Only a case-by-case analysis will do justice to these intricacies of sociability.
Introduction
Authors: Pierson Christopher 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The Introduction outlines the overall structure of this third volume of Just Property. The book consists of five pairs of chapters, devoted to ‘liberals’ (1 and 2), ‘libertarians’ (3 and 4), ‘social democrats’ (5 and 6), ‘radical conservatives’ (7 and 8), and ‘feminists’ (9 and 10). In each case, I begin by giving a sense of what each of these approaches stands for, in general, before giving some indication of how property fits into that account. In each case, the remaining space is given over to a detailed interrogation of particular thinkers, followed by a conclusion which seeks to relate this body of work to the various ways in which property claims are justified. In every instance, my authors are chosen above all because what they say is interesting, rather than because they are representative. The Conclusion returns to the project’s opening questions about property and inequality and about property under the imperative of growth to limits. It judges that we need, as a political community, to re-think the ways in which we allocate property, and suggests some of the ways in which we could do this.
Libertarians II
Authors: Pierson Christopher 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter continues the evaluation of ideas about property amongst libertarians. I explore a number of key ideational moves through which libertarians seek to save their views from the ambiguities in Nozick’s account. These ideas include claims about a natural right to appropriate, the absence of limits upon individual acquisition of property, and a particular understanding of the consequences of ‘owning ourselves’, of ‘mixing one’s labour’, and of seeing property as an ‘action’. I offer a substantial critique of all these defences of unlimited acquisition. I consider the rather different libertarianism defended in John Tomasi’s Free Market Fairness before moving on to the distinctive position developed by so-called ‘left libertarians’. Key libertarians ‘on the right’ are Edward Feser, Lloyd P. Gerson, John Sanders, Jan Narveson, David Schmidtz, A.John Simmons, and Bas van der Vossen. My key ‘left libertarians’ are Hillel Steiner, Michael Otsuka, and Phillippe Van Parijs.
Radical Conservatives II
Authors: Pierson Christopher 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter continues the evaluation of ideas about property amongst radical conservatives. The focus is on three English writers: William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton, and Hilaire Belloc. They all condemned recent changes in the property order in Britain and called for radical reform to reverse it. Cobbett was concerned above all with the disruption to an established, paternalistic property order in the countryside, which disruption he associated, above all, with a new commercial order, paper money, and excessive taxation. He wished to see the old, and benign, property regime in agricultural areas re-established. Chesterton and Belloc were also hostile to commercialism and ‘new money’. They advocated a radical redistribution of private property and were associated with a political movement designed to achieve this, distributism. For them, property was a conservative principle and encouraged conservative behaviour—but only when widely distributed. This required a radical redistribution—and it might take a revolution to achieve it.
Kant and Women
Authors: Varden Helga 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThis chapter provides an interpretation of Kant’s own account of the traditional genders (man and woman) with particular attention to the historically oppressed gender (woman). I explain how Kant’s full account of human nature, including his teleological arguments, in combination with how we use the imagination aesthetically when being sexual, loving, or gendered inform his account of the traditional gender ideals of the man and the woman: the man associated with the idea of the sublime; the woman with that of the beautiful. The chapter concludes by arguing that although Kant himself failed to solve the puzzle of genders, sexual or gendered identities, and sexual orientations—including how they do not fit neatly into the two traditionally dominant categories of man and woman—his general suggestions that understanding sex, love, and gender requires appeals to embodied, social human nature, teleological judgments, and an aesthetic use of the imagination are worth exploring further.
Introduction
Authors: Lustig Doreen 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Corporations have limited responsibilities in international law but enjoy far-reaching rights and privileges. International legal debates often conceive of this issue as a problem of business accountability for human rights violations. Conceptually, the issue of corporations in international law has focused on whether or not they are, or ought to be, recognized as ‘subjects’ of responsibility in international law and on the adequate conceptual analogy to the corporation. The introduction presents an alternative way of thinking about the role of international law and its relevance to the private business corporation. It traces the emergence of the contemporary legal architecture for corporations in international law and shows how modern international law constitutes a framework within which businesses and governments allocate resources and responsibilities—a framework that began to operate as early as the late-nineteenth century and continued throughout the twentieth century.
The Nature of the Nazi State and the Responsibility of Corporate Officials at Nuremberg
Authors: Lustig Doreen 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 4 explores how various conceptions of the Nazi totalitarian state influenced the findings and prosecutions of the Industrialist Trials at Nuremberg conducted against key officials in the Flick, Krupp, and I.G. Farben companies. The chapter considers the influence of the Frankfurt School and Franz Neumann’s theory of the Nazi state as Behemoth on the prosecution’s innovative theory of the Nazi regime. The tribunals’ legal reasoning rejected Neumann’s theory of Behemoth and insisted instead on a link being established with state authority, influence, or control as a basis for the responsibility of corporate officials. The chapter analyses the shortcomings of the tribunals’ approach in meeting the normative challenge of the Industrialist Trials, namely to develop principles for establishing responsibilities among businesspersons operating as such. Furthermore, it reveals how the tribunals’ conceptions of the corporate veil of the state, the company, and the relation between them served as a shield against individual responsibility.
Self-Evidence, Proof, and Disagreement
Authors: Clarke-Doane Justin 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that our mathematical beliefs have no better claim to being a priori justified than our moral beliefs. In particular, they have no better claim to being self-evident, provable, plausible, “analytic,” or even initially credible than our moral beliefs, despite widespread allegations to the contrary. It considers the objection that pervasive and persistent moral disagreement betrays a lack of parity between the cases, and argues that there is no important sense in which there is more moral than mathematical disagreement, or in which moral disagreement is less tractable than mathematical disagreement. A common argument to the contrary simply confuses logic with mathematics (though can even make a parity argument in the case of metalogic). The chapters conclude with the suggestion that the extent of disagreement in an area, in any familiar sense, is of little epistemological consequence.