bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Domains of Warfare
Authors: McCosker Sarah 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines ‘domains’ of warfare, which are generally understood as the operational environments in which armed conflict occurs, and to which international humanitarian law (IHL) therefore applies. Until recent decades, domains of armed conflict have been largely predicated on geospatial conceptions, denoting the physical places where armed conflict has customarily occurred: land, sea, and air. General IHL applies across all these areas—including the fundamental principles of humanity, military necessity, and proportionality; restrictions or prohibitions of certain means and methods of warfare; and basic rules requiring humane treatment of persons and respect for civilians and civilian property. Over time, however, the particular exigencies of land, sea, and air warfare have led to the development of some specific IHL rules and principles tailored to each of those environments. Discussing domains of armed conflict therefore offers a window into the historical development of IHL. It shows how the emergence of new operational environments and new means and methods of armed conflict catalyses efforts at legal regulation, which can lead to the development of new domains or sub-sets of IHL. The chapter then considers how the idea of a domain might apply to armed conflict in outer space, and armed conflict involving cyber operations and other emerging capabilities.
International Humanitarian Law and the Conduct of Hostilities
Authors: Schmitt Michael N 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the principles and rules of international humanitarian law (IHL) that govern the conduct of hostilities by states and other participants during an armed conflict. The term ‘conduct of hostilities’ refers to the application of force in the course of such conflicts. In particular, it encompasses the various methods (tactics) and the means (weapons) that are used during the hostilities. Those aspects of IHL that address the conduct of hostilities can best be understood by reference to a normative typology consisting of foundational principles, general principles, and rules. There are two foundational principles underlying the IHL applicable to the conduct of hostilities: military necessity and humanity. Whereas foundational principles broadly inform IHL, general IHL principles are the sources of individual rules. Rules are the instruments by which states, the sole generators of IHL, agree to limit their freedom of action, and that of other participants, during an armed conflict. The chapter then looks at certain new technologies warfare and highlights the key legal issues they raise with respect to the conduct of hostilities.
Methods of Warfare
Authors: Gaggioli Gloria , Melzer Nils 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter studies the rules of international humanitarian law (IHL) which regulate methods of warfare. The so-called ‘Hague Law’, which regulates the use of means and methods of warfare so as to mitigate—as much as possible—the ‘calamities of war’, is the oldest branch of IHL. Its basic tenet can be summarized in three fundamental maxims. The first maxim expresses the basic principle of military necessity, which limits the permissibility of means and methods of warfare to what is actually required for the achievement of a legitimate military purpose. The second maxim provides the basis for the prohibition of means and methods of warfare that are of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering to combatants. The third maxim concerns the principle of distinction, which prohibits not only direct attacks against civilians and the civilian population, but also indiscriminate means and methods of warfare. Both the prohibition of unnecessary suffering and the principle of distinction are regarded as ‘cardinal principles’ of IHL by the International Court of Justice and, in this basic form, are universally accepted as part of customary international law. The chapter then outlines the current state of the law regulating methods of warfare.
Weapons
Authors: Casey-Maslen Stuart 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on weapons, which are integral to the use of force. However, there is no accepted definition of what constitutes a weapon under international law. It seems clear, though, that the notion is broader than ‘arms’, which are factory-produced weapons, especially when destined for the military market. The notion of a weapon would thus encompass a dual-use item, such as a knife, and adapted devices such as improvised explosive devices (IEDs) or a ‘dirty bomb’, where radioactive material is associated with conventional explosives. The term could also be applied to the use of the internet in a cyber-attack wherein computer code is ‘weaponized’, for instance, in viruses or worms. International humanitarian law (IHL) has traditionally focused on prohibiting or restricting the use of weapons—whether under its Geneva law or Hague law branches—while disarmament law addressed their manufacture and supply. In the future, IHL will need to apply additional restrictions to specific means or methods of warfare. As of now, there are a number of challenging regulatory issues in the area of weapons law, including fully autonomous weapons, cyber weapons, and nuclear weapons, as well as the use of conventional weapons in space.
Volume uncertainty of (7) Iris shape models from disc-resolved images
Authors: Dudziński G , Podlewska-Gaca E , Bartczak P , Benseguane S , Ferrais M , Jorda L , Hanuš J , Vernazza P , Rambaux N , Carry B , Marchis F , Marsset M , Viikinkoski M , Brož M , Fetick R , Drouard A , Fusco T , Birlan M , Jehin E , Berthier J , Castillo-Rogez J , Cipriani F , Colas F , Dumas C , Kryszczynska A , Lamy P , Le Coroller H , Marciniak A , Michalowski T , Michel P , Santana-Ros T , Tanga P , Vachier F , Vigan A , Witasse O , Yang B 
Published: October 2020

ABSTRACT
High angular resolution disc-resolved images of (7) Iris collected by VLT/SPHERE instrument are allowed for the detailed shape modelling of this large asteroid revealing its surface features. If (7) Iris did not suffer any events catastrophic enough to disrupt the body (which is very likely) by studying its topography, we might get insights into the early Solar system’s collisional history. When it comes to internal structure and composition, thoroughly assessing the volume and density uncertainties is necessary. In this work, we propose a method of uncertainty calculation of asteroid shape models based on light curve and adaptive optics (AO) images. We apply this method on four models of (7) Iris produced from independent Shaping Asteroids using Genetic Evolution and All-Data Asteroid Modelling inversion techniques and multiresolution photoclinometry by deformation. Obtained diameter uncertainties stem from both the observations from which the models were scaled and the models themselves. We show that despite the availability of high-resolution AO images, the volume and density of (7) Iris have substantial error bars that were underestimated in the previous studies.
Bayesian analysis of running holographic Ricci dark energy
Authors: George Paxy , Mathew Titus K 
Published: October 2020

ABSTRACT
Holographic Ricci dark energy evolving through its interaction with dark matter is a natural choice for the running vacuum energy model. We have analysed the relative significance of two versions of this model in the light of type Ia supernovae (SN1a), the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), the Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations (BAO), and Hubble data sets using the method Bayesian inferences. The first one, model 1, is the running holographic Ricci dark energy (rhrde) having a constant additive term in its density form and the second is one, model 2, having no additive constant, instead the interaction of rhrde with dark matter (ΛCDM) is accounted through a phenomenological coupling term. The Bayes factor of these models in comparison with the standard Lambda cold dark matter have been obtained by calculating the likelihood of each model for four different data combinations, SNIa(307)+CMB+BAO, SNIa(307)+CMB+BAO+Hubble data, SNIa(580)+CMB+BAO, and SNIa(580)+CMB+BAO+Hubble data. Suitable flat priors for the model parameters has been assumed for calculating the likelihood in both cases. Our analysis shows that, according to the Jeffreys scale, the evidence for ΛCDM against both model 1 and model 2 is very strong as the Bayes factor of both models are much less than one for all the data combinations.
Satellite measurements of artificial light at night: aerosol effects
Authors: Cavazzani S , Ortolani S , Bertolo A , Binotto R , Fiorentin P , Carraro G , Zitelli V 
Published: October 2020

ABSTRACT
The study of artificial light at night (ALAN) by satellite is very important for the analysis of new astronomical sites and for the long-term temporal evolution observation of the emission from the ground. The analysis of satellite data presents many advantages but also some critical points because of fluctuations in measurements. The main result of this paper is the discovery of a correlation between these fluctuations and the aerosol concentration combined with cloud cover and lunar cycles. In this work, we also present a mathematical empirical model for the light pollution propagation study in relation to the aerosol concentration detected by satellite. We apply this model to the astronomical site of Asiago (Ekar Observatory) providing a possible explanation for the temporal ALAN fluctuations detected by satellite. Finally, we validate the results with the ground collected data.
Polydisperse streaming instability – I. Tightly coupled particles and the terminal velocity approximation
Authors: Paardekooper Sijme-Jan , McNally Colin P , Lovascio Francesco 
Published: October 2020

ABSTRACT
We introduce a polydisperse version of the streaming instability (SI), where the dust component is treated as a continuum of sizes. We show that its behaviour is remarkably different from the monodisperse SI. We focus on tightly coupled particles in the terminal velocity approximation and show that unstable modes that grow exponentially on a dynamical time-scale exist. However, for dust to gas ratios much smaller than unity, they are confined to radial wavenumbers that are a factor $\sim 1/{\overline{\rm St}}$ larger than where the monodisperse SI growth rates peak. Here ${\overline{\rm St}}\ll 1$ is a suitable average Stokes number for the dust size distribution. For dust to gas ratios larger than unity, polydisperse modes that grow on a dynamical time-scale are found as well, similar as for the monodisperse SI and at similarly large wavenumbers. At smaller wavenumbers, where the classical monodisperse SI shows secular growth, no growing polydisperse modes are found under the terminal velocity approximation. Outside the region of validity for the terminal velocity approximation, we have found unstable epicyclic modes that grow on ∼104 dynamical time-scales.
ThermoMutDB: a thermodynamic database for missense mutations
Authors: Xavier Joicymara S , Nguyen Thanh-Binh , Karmarkar Malancha , Portelli Stephanie , Rezende Pâmela M , Velloso João P L , Ascher David B , Pires Douglas E V 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Proteins are intricate, dynamic structures, and small changes in their amino acid sequences can lead to large effects on their folding, stability and dynamics. To facilitate the further development and evaluation of methods to predict these changes, we have developed ThermoMutDB, a manually curated database containing &gt;14,669 experimental data of thermodynamic parameters for wild type and mutant proteins. This represents an increase of 83% in unique mutations over previous databases and includes thermodynamic information on 204 new proteins. During manual curation we have also corrected annotation errors in previously curated entries. Associated with each entry, we have included information on the unfolding Gibbs free energy and melting temperature change, and have associated entries with available experimental structural information. ThermoMutDB supports users to contribute to new data points and programmatic access to the database via a RESTful API. ThermoMutDB is freely available at: http://biosig.unimelb.edu.au/thermomutdb.
PubChem in 2021: new data content and improved web interfaces
Authors: Kim Sunghwan , Chen Jie , Cheng Tiejun , Gindulyte Asta , He Jia , He Siqian , Li Qingliang , Shoemaker Benjamin A , Thiessen Paul A , Yu Bo , Zaslavsky Leonid , Zhang Jian , Bolton Evan E 
Published: October 2020

AbstractPubChem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) is a popular chemical information resource that serves the scientific community as well as the general public, with millions of unique users per month. In the past two years, PubChem made substantial improvements. Data from more than 100 new data sources were added to PubChem, including chemical-literature links from Thieme Chemistry, chemical and physical property links from SpringerMaterials, and patent links from the World Intellectual Properties Organization (WIPO). PubChem's homepage and individual record pages were updated to help users find desired information faster. This update involved a data model change for the data objects used by these pages as well as by programmatic users. Several new services were introduced, including the PubChem Periodic Table and Element pages, Pathway pages, and Knowledge panels. Additionally, in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, PubChem created a special data collection that contains PubChem data related to COVID-19 and the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).
DDBJ update: streamlining submission and access of human data
Authors: Fukuda Asami , Kodama Yuichi , Mashima Jun , Fujisawa Takatomo , Ogasawara Osamu 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The Bioinformation and DDBJ Center (DDBJ Center, https://www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp) provides databases that capture, preserve and disseminate diverse biological data to support research in the life sciences. This center collects nucleotide sequences with annotations, raw sequencing data, and alignment information from high-throughput sequencing platforms, and study and sample information, in collaboration with the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI). This collaborative framework is known as the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration (INSDC). In collaboration with the National Bioscience Database Center (NBDC), the DDBJ Center also provides a controlled-access database, the Japanese Genotype–phenotype Archive (JGA), which archives and distributes human genotype and phenotype data, requiring authorized access. The NBDC formulates guidelines and policies for sharing human data and reviews data submission and use applications. To streamline all of the processes at NBDC and JGA, we have integrated the two systems by introducing a unified login platform with a group structure in September 2020. In addition to the public databases, the DDBJ Center provides a computer resource, the NIG supercomputer, for domestic researchers to analyze large-scale genomic data. This report describes updates to the services of the DDBJ Center, focusing on the NBDC and JGA system enhancements.
Circulating plasmablasts and high level of BAFF are hallmarks of minimal change nephrotic syndrome in adults
Authors: Oniszczuk Julie , Beldi-Ferchiou Asma , Audureau Etienne , Azzaoui Imane , Molinier-Frenkel Valérie , Frontera Vincent , Karras Alexandre , Moktefi Anissa , Pillebout Evangeline , Zaidan Mohamad , El Karoui Khalil , Delfau-Larue Marie-Hélène , Hénique Carole , Ollero Mario , Sahali Dil , Mahévas Matthieu , Audard Vincent 
Published: October 2020

Abstract

Background
The recent success achieved with the use of B cell-depleting agents in some patients with minimal change nephrotic syndrome (MCNS) suggests an unexpected role for B lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of this immune-mediated glomerular disease. Nevertheless, no extensive B-cell phenotyping analysis has ever been performed in untreated adult patients soon after MCNS diagnosis.

Methods
We investigated the distribution of the different B-cell subpopulations in 22 untreated adult patients with biopsy-proven MCNS [MCNS relapse (MCNS-Rel)]. We compared these data with those for 24 healthy controls, 13 MCNS patients in remission (with no specific treatment) and 19 patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN).

Results
Patients with MCNS-Rel or IMN had higher proteinuria and lower serum albumin and gammaglobulin levels (P &lt; 0.0001 for all comparisons) than MCNS patients in remission. Plasmablasts were the only B-cell subsets present at significantly higher levels in MCNS-Rel patients than in the patients of the other three groups (P &lt; 0.05 for all comparisons). The lower albumin levels and higher proteinuria levels were positively correlated with the percentage of circulating plasmablasts (Spearman test’s ρ = −0.54, P = 0.01 and ρ = 0.65, P = 0.002, respectively). Similarly, the increase of immunoglobulin M (IgM) and the decrease of IgG levels were significantly associated with the percentage of plasmablasts in MCNS-Rel patients (Spearman’s ρ = 0.36, P = 0.01 and Spearman’s ρ = −0.60, P = 0.01, respectively). Increased production of interleukin (IL)-21, IL-6 and B-cell activating factor (BAFF) in the serum of MCNS-Rel patients was found significantly correlated with the percentage of plasmablasts (ρ = 0.72, P = 0.0002, ρ = 0.49, P = 0.04 and ρ = 0.62, P = 0.009, respectively).

Conclusions
An increase in the proportion of circulating plasmablasts seems to be a hallmark of untreated MCNS in adult patients. Further studies are required to more precisely determine the phenotype and functions of these cells.
The natural history of vestibular schwannoma growth—prospective 40-year data from an unselected national cohort
Authors: Reznitsky Martin , Petersen Mette Marie Babiel Schmidt , West Niels , Stangerup Sven-Eric , Cayé-Thomasen Per 
Published: October 2020

Abstract

Background
Optimal management of vestibular schwannoma (VS) is still debated and thus international consensus has not been achieved. Treatment options are observation, radiotherapy, and surgery. Knowledge on the natural history of tumor growth is essential for choice of treatment modality. The aim is to present intra-/extrameatal tumor growth and management data from a prospective, unselected national cohort of patients diagnosed with VS during the period 1976–2015.

Methods
Since 1976, all data from patients diagnosed with sporadic VS in Denmark have been referred to our national treatment center, where they have been entered prospectively into the national database. Data on tumor localization, growth, and treatment were retrieved. Growth definition: &gt;2 mm by linear measurement, in accordance with the Tokyo 2001 consensus-meeting recommendations.

Results
3637 cases of VS were diagnosed, in which 1304 patients had surgery and 21 received radiotherapy post diagnosis. 2312 patients were observed with mean follow-up of 7.33 years. Of these, 434(19%; 102 intra-and 332 extrameatal tumors) changed to active treatment during the observation period due to tumor growth. 5 years after diagnosis, 21% of the intrameatal tumors exhibited growth during observation, whereas 37% of extrameatal tumors had grown, increasing to 25% intrameatal and 42% extrameatal after 10 years. Following growth, the intrameatal tumors were mostly observed further and the extrameatal mostly underwent surgery. Tumor growth occurred mainly within the first 5 years post diagnosis.

Conclusion
This natural history study documents the growth occurrence of both intra-and extrameatal VS during the first 12 years after diagnosis and should be used in patient counseling, management, and treatment decision making.
Minimally Invasive Posterior Cervical Foraminotomy Using 3-Dimensional Total Navigation: 2-Dimensional Operative Video
Authors: Kirnaz Sertac , Nangunoori Raj , Wong Taylor , Schmidt Franziska Anna , Härtl Roger 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Minimally invasive posterior cervical foraminotomy (MPCF) has shown comparable outcomes to those of an open approach, with shorter operation times and length of hospital stays, as well as decreased blood loss and inpatient analgesic use. This surgical technique is mainly used to treat unilateral radiculopathy due to foraminal soft disc fragments or bone spurs. Three-dimensional (3D) navigation-guidance facilitates the surgical workflow, and it is utilized in planning the incision, determining the extent of the medial facetectomy, and confirming sufficient decompression, especially in the lower cervical spine and cervicothoracic junction, where the shoulders make localization with fluoroscopy difficult. In this video, we present the case of a 49-yr-old male patient with mechanical neck pain and C8 radiculopathy due to multilevel cervical spinal stenosis with disc herniations and C7-T1 right-sided foraminal stenosis. There was loss of cervical lordosis at the upper levels. The patient underwent anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) at the C4-5, C5-6, and C6-7 levels to treat mechanical neck pain and restore lordosis. In order to avoid an extra-level fusion and preserve motion, we performed a right-sided C7-T1 MPCF using a portable intraoperative computed tomography (iCT) scanner (Airo®; Brainlab AG, Feldkirchen, Germany), combined with 3D computer navigation to address the patient's radicular symptoms.
Patient consent was obtained prior to performing the procedure.
High-Mg# Adakitic Rocks Formed by Lower-crustal Magma Differentiation: Mineralogical and Geochemical Evidence from Garnet-bearing Diorite Porphyries in Central Tibet
Authors: Wang Jun , Dan Wei , Wang Qiang , Tang Gong-Jian 
Published: October 2020

AbstractModern arc adakites with high Mg# values (molar 100 × Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratio) are generally considered products of interaction between melts derived from subducted oceanic crust and/or eroded forearc crust and peridotite in the mantle wedge. An alternative model, in which high-Mg# adakitic rocks are produced by garnet fractionation of mantle-derived magmas, has been proposed based on whole-rock geochemical variations; however, magmatic garnet has not been found in high-Mg# adakitic rocks, and little is known about the physical conditions required for this magmatic differentiation. Here we report geochronological, mineralogical and geochemical data for Late Triassic garnet-bearing high-Mg# (Mg# = 45–56) adakitic diorite porphyries and garnet-free non-adakitic diorite porphyries with Mg# &gt; 62 from central Tibet. Consistent compositional correlation between Ca-rich garnet crystals, their host rocks and zircon autocrysts suggests that the garnet crystals grew in their host magmas. Amphibole, garnet, zircon and the host rocks display increasing Dy/Yb ratios with increasing magma differentiation. Pristine magmas in equilibrium with amphibole that crystallized prior to garnet are not adakitic. The garnet-bearing high-Mg# adakitic rocks were probably generated by the fractionation of pyroxene, amphibole and garnet at ∼1 GPa from a primitive andesitic parent that was geochemically similar to the garnet-free diorite porphyries. The primitive andesitic magmas with enriched isotope compositions ([87Sr/86Sr]i &gt; 0·709, ɛNd[t] &lt; −3·4) may be derived from shallow melting of subduction-enriched lithospheric mantle in a post-collisional, extensional setting resulting from oceanic slab breakoff. The most likely scenario for garnet crystallization is that mantle-derived hydrous (H2O &gt;5 wt %) magmas stalled, cooled isobarically and differentiated at the base of the crust. This study provides direct mineralogical evidence for the generation of high-Mg# adakitic rocks by crystal fractionation involving garnet, rather than by interaction between crust-derived melt and the mantle, although the latter is potentially a frequent occurrence in the mantle wedge.