bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
After Alfred
Authors: Stafford Pauline 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This book traces the development of a group of anonymous, vernacular, annalistic chronicles—‘the Anglo-Saxon chronicles’—from their genesis at the court of King Alfred to their end at the Fenland monastery of Peterborough. It reconsiders them in the light of wider European scholarship on the politics of history-writing. It covers all surviving manuscript chronicles, with detailed attention being paid to palaeography, layout, and content, and identifies key lost texts. It is concerned with production, scribe-authors, patrons, and audiences. The centuries these chronicles cover were critical to the making of England and saw its conquest by Scandinavians and Normans. They have long been part of the English national story. The book considers the impact of this on their study and editing. It stresses their multiplicity, whilst identifying a tradition of writing vernacular history. It sees that tradition as an expression of the ideology of a southern elite engaged in the conquest and assimilation of old kingdoms north of the Thames, Trent, and Humber. The book connects many chronicles to bishops and especially to archbishops of York and Canterbury. Vernacular chronicling is seen, not as propaganda, but as engaged history-writing closely connected to the court, whose networks and personnel were central to the production of chronicles and their continuation. The disappearance of the English-speaking elite after the Norman Conquest had profound impacts on them, repositioning their authors in relation to the court and royal power, and ultimately resulting in the end of the tradition of vernacular chronicling.
Order and Theology
Authors: Bain William 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThis chapter introduces political theology as an approach to interpreting and analysing the idea of order. The central claim is that widely held conceptions of international order, for example, a multitude of states organized in terms of a spontaneous balance of power or relationships self-consciously constructed through will and consent, reflect intellectual commitments that originate in medieval theology. Specifically, the chapter argues that modern thinking about international order is mediated by rival theories of order that arise out of medieval dispute about the nature of God and the extent of his power. Two overriding objectives guide this investigation. The first is to provide a better intellectual history of late medieval and early modern traditions of thought and to illuminate how they shape contemporary thinking about international order. The second is to conduct a theoretical investigation of international order in terms of its presuppositions. This involves interrogating the conditions and assumptions that render the idea of international order intelligible as what it is. Uncovering this theological inheritance repositions widely shared beliefs about the place of theology in modern international thought, the debates that define the theoretical cartography of the field, and the kind of knowledge that explains the idea of international order.
Rival Conceptions of Order
Authors: Bain William 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThis chapter lays out rival conceptions of order. The theory of immanent order is predicated on a doctrine of internal relations such that mutually related things jointly compose an interconnected whole. This whole imparts a necessary and rationally intelligible pattern of place and purpose, knowledge of which is acquired by investigating both efficient and final causes. The theory of imposed order is predicated on a doctrine of external relations. Singular things, having no intrinsic connections, enter into relations that are imposed from without, either by legislation or the force exerted by an impersonal mechanism. The result is a contingent pattern of order that is explained with reference to empirical observation and investigating efficient causes. Each of these theories of order presupposes a particular conception of God and a particular interpretation of the creation story in Genesis. These theories provide the ground of the argument that is developed throughout this book, namely that modern theories of international order are deeply indebted to ideas traceable to the biblical conception of God and the emphasis it places on will, power, and might. The implications here are twofold. First, modern international thought did not emerge de novo with the collapse of medieval Christendom. Second, particular conceptions of God give rise to analogies and metaphors that are used to comment on questions of politics and law. The chapter concludes by suggesting that the character of modern theories of international order is negotiated by the distinctive commitments of these rival theories.
Thomas Hobbes and the Divine Politics of Anarchy
Authors: Bain William 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThis chapter presents Thomas Hobbes as a theorist of imposed order. The central claim is that Hobbes’s conception of political order, an artificial arrangement arising from will and consent, reflects the intellectual commitments of nominalist theology. Uncovering the theological presuppositions of his thought opens space for an understanding of international order that is quite different from what the ‘Hobbesian’ tradition portrays as a domain of endemic violence. Hobbes is correctly imagined as a theorist of interstate society. The chapter examines the unity of philosophy and theology in Hobbes’s thought, focusing on a recurring analogy between divine action and human action. Human beings make and unmake their world, including the commonwealth, as God created the universe. Modern theorists reproduce these theological ideas when they invoke Hobbes to illustrate the character and consequences of anarchy. Hobbes, conceived as a theorist of imposed order, exemplifies what has become the dominant discourse of international order. The implication is that modern theories of international order might not be as uniquely modern or purely secular as contemporary theorists typically assume.
Political Theology II
Authors: Bain William 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThis chapter argues that the idea of a society of states (or international society) reflects the theory of imposed order. The central claim is that the constitutional character of international society is intelligible in terms of postulates that can be traced to nominalist theology. The society of states is an association composed of singular existents, with each being free in respect of all the others, which are related in a system of external relations—rules of law—that are legitimized by consent. The discussion explores the nominalist character of this way thinking in the context of medieval debates about the nature and government of the Church, which developed into a general theory of constitutional government. In this sense, a society of states, like a system of states, is a worldly application of nominalist theology. Differences between ideas of system and society are intelligible only from a position within a nominalist framework of thinking and knowing. The chapter concludes by discussing the indeterminacy of the theory of imposed order in a world that affords no recourse to God when trying to reconcile the demands of freedom and the requirements of order.
Law for Computer Scientists and Other Folk
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This book introduces law to computer scientists. Computer scientists develop, protect, and maintain computing systems in the broad sense of that term, whether hardware, software, or data. They may be focused on e.g. digital security, or on embedded systems, or on software science. The aim of this book is to convey the internal logic of legal practice, firmly grounded in legal theory. It attempts to bridge the gap between two scientific practices, and probe the middle ground to present a reasonably coherent picture of the grammar and vocabulary of law and the rule of law. This attempt is geared toward those with no wish to become lawyers but who are nevertheless forced to consider the salience of legal rights and obligations. Simultaneously, this book aims to help lawyers to review their own trade. It is a volume on law in an onlife world, presenting a coherent picture of how modern law operates, how it emerged in the context of printed text, and how it confronts its new, data-driven environment.
Law, Democracy, and the Rule of Law
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter faces the question of law's ‘mode of existence’, by asking what law does—and how. To accomplish this, the chapter explains the concept of the ‘sources of law’ and the nature of legal reasoning, notably the attribution of legal effect when specified legal conditions apply. The crucial distinction between primary (regulative) and secondary (constitutive) rules is discussed, thus demonstrating that law is not a ‘bag of rules’ but a dynamic architecture of legal norms (rules and principles). Finally, we address the question of the relationship between law, democracy, and the rule of law. To qualify as law, a normative framework must aim to sustain, develop, and balance certain values—even though they may be incompatible in concrete cases. These constitutive values are defined as legal certainty, justice, and instrumentality.
Private Law Liability for Faulty ICT
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers instances where ICT applications cause physical, material, economic, or emotional harm, with a focus on third party liability or tort law. The chapter should be read as an important example of how private law liability may step in to deter the development, sale, or usage of faulty ICT. It discusses the relevant legal conditions of damage, causation, fault liability, and strict liability, ending with questions around compensation and deterrence as the overarching goals of tort law.
Legal Personhood for AI?
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers legal personhood for artificial agents. It engages with the legal issues of autonomous systems, asking the question whether (and if so, under what conditions) such systems should be given the status of a legal subject, capable of acting in law and/or being held liable in law. The main reason for considering this option is the rise of semi-autonomous systems that display unpredictable behaviour, causing harm not foreseeable by those who developed, sold, or deployed them. Under current law it might be difficult to establish liability for such harm. To investigate these issues, the chapter explains the concepts of legal subjectivity and legal agency, before inquiring into the nature of artificial agency. Finally, the chapter assesses whether attributing legal personhood to artificial agents would solve the problem of private law liability for harm caused by semi-autonomous systems.
Closure: On Ethics, Code, and Law
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This concluding chapter investigates the distinction between law, code, and ethics, as well as their interrelationship and their interaction. It is intended for those interested in the nexus of law and ethics, in the light of code- and data-driven information and communication infrastructures (ICIs). One of the main differences between law and ethics is that law provides closure whereas ethics remains in the realm of reflection as it lacks the force of law. However, a second difference turns the previous statement inside out: whereas law and the rule of law introduce checks and balances and demand democratic participation (at least in constitutional democracies), ethics may be decided by tech developers or behind the closed doors of the board room of corporate business enterprise. It can thus obtain the force of technology. Paradoxically, once ethics gains the force of technology, the space for the practice of ethics is reduced.
Handle with Care
Authors: Aydın-Aitchison Andy 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The chapter starts with claims made for the potential historical value of a set of juridical by-products: the evidence gathered, presented, and scrutinized in international criminal courts. Recently, criminologists and others have started to make use of resources generated or collected by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) to describe and analyse international crimes. This chapter argues that while evidence and transcripts from international criminal courts have great potential as a source of data for analyses in criminology, and by extension other social sciences and historical research, they need to be handled with care. The chapter compares judicial and scholarly approaches, examines access and transparency issues around the construction of a body of evidence in the trial process and matters relating to witnesses. They make a strong case for using the ICTY as part of scholarly efforts to make sense of the violent disintegration of State and society in Yugoslavia.
The Peace versus Justice Debate Revisited
Authors: McAllister Jacqueline R. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Critics of international criminal tribunals (ICTs) charge that they undermine peace processes. Advocates of ICTs maintain that there can be no peace without justice. There is still much to learn about wartime ICTs’ impact on peace processes. This chapter addresses how the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) affected efforts to end the Bosnian War. Drawing on over 100 interviews with key stakeholders from the Bosnian peace process, and declassified data from the Clinton administration, the chapter finds that ICTY played a key role in facilitating peace efforts. Among other things, the ICTY’s indictments strengthened mediators’ hand in implementing crucial participation decisions. The ICTY also helped parties to overcome commitment problems. The analysis suggests that the ICTY’s cautious approach to indicting top leaders, coupled with the fact that mediators exercised discretion over the arrest and transfer of suspects, both capture why the ICTY facilitated, versus undermined peace efforts.
Justice as Message
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
International criminal justice is a form of social performance. It relies on messages, speech acts, and performatives practices in order to convey social meaning. Major criminal proceedings, such as Nuremberg or Tokyo and other post-Second World War trials have been branded as ‘spectacles of didactic legality’. However, the expressive and the communicative functions of law have been sidelined in institutional discourse and legal practice. The concept of expressivism is referred to in justifications of punishment or sentencing rationales. It appears as reference in scholarly treatises, but it has remained crucially underdeveloped. This book is an attempt to remedy this gap. It shows that expression and communication are not only an inherent part of the punitive functions of international criminal justice but represented in a whole spectrum of practices: norm expression and diffusion, institutional actions, performative aspects of criminal procedures, and repair of harm. It argues that expressivism is not a classical justification of justice or punishment on its own but rather a means to understand its aspirations and limitations, to explain how justice is produced, and to ground punishment rationales.
Remedial Expression
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The chapter argues that international criminal justice is more a project of accountability rather than a narrow punitive undertaking. The value of international criminal justice lies not necessarily in the severity of punishment or the infliction of ‘just deserts’ but rather in the publicity of the process, the condemnation of crimes, and the establishment of accountability towards a broader community. Expressive punishment is grounded in retributive-expressive justifications, preventive considerations, and restorative rationales, such as messages about equality of victims and offenders. This approach is able to accommodate a more holistic conception of punishment, including alternative sentences or modes of enforcement. Reparations have an important complementary function to punishment. Like punishment itself, they are an imperfect means to acknowledge responsibility, recognize victimhood, or remedy harm caused through crimes. Rather, they help to restore trust about civility and inspire commitment to a social contract among citizens, aimed at preventing future crimes.
International Criminal Law as Expressivist Justice
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter connects expressivism to justice discourse and different dimensions of justice. It claims that expressivism has a more complex role in international criminal justice than publicly admitted. It is a means to reaffirm the purposes and ambitions of the field and to encourage commitment to it, and to enact and perform law. It also provides a more realistic understanding of justice. It views justice not as something ‘objective’ or ‘definitive’ that can be delivered through criminal proceedings, but rather as an intersubjective process that is triggered through messages and communicative relationships: justice is a message.
Hobbes
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Hobbes rejects the view of Suarez and Grotius that human nature is essentially social, and therefore denies that morality is appropriate for human nature in its own right. Morality is good for human beings only in the specific conditions that require collective action for mutual protection and security. In these conditions, but not outside them, the observance of moral principles is in one’s interest. Hobbes justifies morality by its indirect effects, in two stages: (1) Individual moral rules do not refer to their good consequences, but none the less the consequence of general observance of the moral rules as a whole is the preservation of peace and security. (2) The preservation of peace and security for society as a whole is not confined to my security, but none the less my security is a consequence of the peace of society. Hobbes infers that observance of the moral rules is justifiable for me because it is in my interest.
Nietzsche
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Nietzsche questions the claim—accepted by sentimentalists, rationalists, and Kant—that we have good reasons for accepting moral principles and acting on them. We can see why this claim is open to question if we consider the origins of our moral beliefs and attitudes. They arise from the resentment of inferior people who feel humiliated by the achievements of others. The effect of general observance of moral principles can be seen in the modern democratic spirit, which restrains and penalizes the development of any capacities and talents that tend to make some people superior to others. Belief in the equal moral value of everyone is a consolation for inferior people. When we recognize this psychological basis for our moral outlook, we will be less inclined to suppose that it has any special authority.
Achieving Gender Equity Is Our Responsibility: Leadership Matters
Authors: Acosta David A. , Lautenberger Diana M. , Castillo-Page Laura , Skorton David J. 
Published: July 2020

Across academic medicine, and particularly among faculty and medical school leadership, the status quo is unacceptable when it comes to gender diversity, equity, and inclusion. The Association of American Medical Colleges has launched a bold gender equity initiative, endorsed by its Board of Directors, to implore academic medical institutions to take meaningful and effective actions.
Defining what progress should look like to guide these actions is worth deeper exploration. It is not enough to measure the representation of different genders at various levels of leadership within our institutions. Research and experience we share suggests more must be done, especially for women of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. What is needed is a fundamental conversation about privilege, intersectionality across different backgrounds, and progress.
Institutional leaders have a choice to make. Will we make gender equity a top priority system-wide because we recognize that doing so leads to organizational excellence? Do we understand that establishing a robust, comprehensive definition of gender equity and how it is practiced will result in better outcomes for all? And are we ready and able to prioritize and be accountable for efforts that are measurable, with clear definitions of progress; driven and reinforced by leadership directives; inclusive of all, including men as well as women of diverse backgrounds and orientations; and systemic rather than ad-hoc? Implementing such actions requires initiating difficult conversations, making conscious choices, and modeling best practices from leaders who have successfully made gender equity a priority.
Brain Tissue Oxygen Response as Indicator for Cerebral Lactate Levels in Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Patients
Authors: Hosmann Arthur , Schnackenburg Philipp , Rauscher Steffen , Hopf Andreas , Bohl Isabelle , Engel Adrian , Brugger Jonas , Graf Alexandra , Plöchl Walter , Reinprecht Andrea , Gruber Andreas 
Published: July 2020

Background:
Early detection of cerebral ischemia and metabolic crisis is crucial in critically ill subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) patients. Variable increases in brain tissue oxygen tension (PbtO2) are observed when the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) is increased to 1.0. The aim of this prospective study was to evaluate whether a 3-minute hyperoxic challenge can identify patients at risk for cerebral ischemia detected by cerebral microdialysis.

Methods:
Twenty consecutive severe SAH patients undergoing continuous cerebral PbtO2 and microdialysis monitoring were included. FiO2 was increased to 1.0 for 3 minutes (the FiO2 challenge) twice a day and PbtO2 responses during the FiO2 challenges were related to cerebral microdialysis–measures, ie, lactate, the lactate-pyruvate ratio, and glycerol. Multivariable linear and logistic regression models were created for each outcome parameter.

Results:
After predefined exclusions, 274 of 400 FiO2 challenges were included in the analysis. Lower absolute increases in PbtO2 (∆PbtO2) during FiO2 challenges were significantly associated with higher cerebral lactate concentration (P<0.001), and patients were at higher risk for ischemic lactate levels >4 mmol/L (odds ratio 0.947; P=0.04). Median (interquartile range) ∆PbtO2 was 7.1 (4.6 to 12.17) mm Hg when cerebral lactate was >4 mmol/L and 10.2 (15.76 to 14.24) mm Hg at normal lactate values (≤4 mmol/L). Median ∆PbtO2 was significantly lower during hypoxic than during hyperglycolytic lactate elevations (4.6 vs. 10.6 mm Hg, respectively; P<0.001). Lactate-pyruvate ratio and glycerol levels were mainly determined by baseline characteristics.

Conclusions:
A 3-minute FiO2 challenge is an easy to perform and feasible bedside diagnostic tool in SAH patients. The absolute increase in PbtO2 during the FiO2 challenge might be a useful surrogate marker to estimate cerebral lactate concentrations and might be used to identify patients at risk for impending ischemia.