bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Equality of Opportunity? Sex, Race, and Occupational Advantages in Promotion to Top-Level Management
Authors: Marvel John D 
Published: October 2020

AbstractWe examine how occupation, race, and sex interact to affect employees’ probability of promotion to the upper reaches of federal agencies’ personnel hierarchies. Three interrelated questions draw our attention. First, we are interested in whether employees who are members of an agency’s dominant occupational group are more likely to be promoted to Senior Executive Service (SES) positions than employees who are members of non-dominant occupational groups. Second, we are interested in whether any such occupational advantage, if it exists, is enjoyed equally by white men, white women, men of color, and women of color. Third, we examine whether the magnitude of dominant occupational advantages varies between agencies. We use rich, micro-level personnel data that span the years 1979–2013 to address these questions. Our results suggest that members of dominant occupations are more likely to be promoted than members of non-dominant occupations; that white men, white women, men of color, and women of color tend to benefit from this advantage equally; and that occupational advantages vary considerably between agencies.
Barriers to international travel in inflammatory bowel disease patients
Authors: Aluzaite Kristina , Greveson Kay , Ben-Horin Shomron , Leong Rupert , Haj Ola , Schultz Michael 
Published: October 2020

Abstract

Background
Inflammatory bowel disease poses substantial challenges to travel. We aimed to investigate inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD)-associated challenges to travel, information-seeking behaviour and associated factors.

Methods
We collected data on patients’ demographics, disease characteristics, travel barriers, information-seeking behaviour and travel outcomes in UK, Australia, New Zealand and Israel (2016–2018). Summary statistics were used to describe the sample, whereas multivariate binary and nominal logistic regression were used to model the outcome variables.

Results
Almost 75.4% (1878/2491) participants’ data were analysed with 71.14%, 15.4%, 11.2% and 2.1% from UK, Australia, NZ and Israel, respectively (76.3% females, 48.2% 30–49 years old 58.8% Crohn’s disease). About 7.7% of study participants sought medical advice/were hospitalised while overseas. About 43.8% cancelled/changed their plans due to IBD. The most common barriers were worry about toilet facilities (76.3%), cleanliness/sanitation (50.9%) and availability of medical care (41.1%). Only 60.5% sought travel advice; the most popular information source was IBD doctor/nurse (32.6%). Almost 32.6% of study participants did not get travel insurance that covered their IBD. Those who did not receive advice or found obtaining travel insurance difficult, were less likely to obtain travel insurance (P &lt; 0.001). Participants who travelled for work were more likely to be hospitalised/seek medical advice overseas and not obtain travel insurance.

Conclusions
We report a detailed investigation on the IBD-associated barriers while travelling abroad, common information-seeking behaviours and factors associated with worse outcomes. Importantly, patients from all the surveyed countries provided similar travel barrier and preparation habits, highlighting the consistent nature of the challenge.
The mechanism of regulation of photosystem I cross-section in the pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Authors: Giovagnetti Vasco , Ruban Alexander V 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Photosystems possess distinct fluorescence emissions at low (77K) temperature. PSI emits in the long-wavelength region at ~710–740 nm. In diatoms, a successful clade of marine primary producers, the contribution of PSI-associated emission (710–717 nm) has been shown to be relatively small. However, in the pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, the source of the long-wavelength emission at ~710 nm (F710) remains controversial. Here, we addressed the origin and modulation of F710 fluorescence in this alga grown under continuous and intermittent light. The latter condition led to a strong enhancement in F710. Biochemical and spectral properties of the photosynthetic complexes isolated from thylakoid membranes were investigated for both culture conditions. F710 emission appeared to be associated with PSI regardless of light acclimation. To further assess whether PSII could also contribute to this emission, we decreased the concentration of PSII reaction centres and core antenna by growing cells with lincomycin, a chloroplast protein synthesis inhibitor. The treatment did not diminish F710 fluorescence. Our data suggest that F710 emission originates from PSI under the conditions tested and is enhanced in intermittent light-grown cells due to increased energy flow from the FCP antenna to PSI.
Palestinian Refugees in International Law
Authors: Albanese Francesca P , Takkenberg Lex 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The Palestinian refugee question, resulting from the events surrounding the creation of the state of Israel seventy years ago, remains one of the largest and most protracted refugee crises of the post-Second World War era. Numbering over six million in the Middle East alone, Palestinian refugees’ status and treatment varies considerably according to the state or territory ‘hosting’ them, the UN agency assisting them, and political circumstances surrounding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict these refugees are naturally associated with. Despite being foundational to both the experience of the Palestinian refugees and the resolution of their plight, international law has not been a decisive factor in discussions concerning their fate. This compelling new edition offers a clear and comprehensive analysis of various areas of international law (including refugee law, human rights law, humanitarian law, the law relating to stateless persons, principles related to internally displaced persons, as well as notions of international criminal law), and probes the relevance of their interplay to the provision of international protection for Palestinian refugees and their quest for durable solutions.
Introduction to the Question of Palestinian Refugees and the Second Edition
Authors: Albanese Francesca P , Takkenberg Lex 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter introduces the readers to both rationale and content of the new expanded edition of Palestine Refugees in International Law. It underscores the legal and factual developments that motivated the authors to write what is in essence a new book on the foundations of the first edition. It provides an overview of its structure and key messages, the methodology and some of the key terminology used in the book (e.g. ‘Palestine refugee’ vs ‘Palestinian refugee’). It explains how international law is used throughout the book and why a holistic approach to the Palestinian question is necessary not only to effectively grant them the protection they are entitled to under international law but also to advance toward just a durable solutions to their plight.
The Status of Palestinian Refugees in the Middle East and North Africa
Authors: Albanese Francesca P , Takkenberg Lex 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at the history, status, and treatment of Palestinian refugees in the Arab world. Arab countries have generally supported Palestinians, including refugees, in the name of Arab brotherhood and solidarity, but at times also despised them, as a result of political factors and interests. In general, they have been granted varying status and treatment, often within the same country, depending on a variety of factors, including: time of arrival and predominant political climate toward them; their socio-economic status and family, political, or religious affiliation; shifting attitudes toward the Palestinian leadership. The citizenship that Jordan granted to most 1948 Palestinian refugees, has proven carrying inequality. In Lebanon, Palestinian arrivals, largely Sunni Muslims, were perceived as a threat to the delicate balance between different religious groups and the related political status quo; discrimination has been the daily reality for three generations of Palestinians. In Iraq and Syria, Palestinian refugees were well treated until the wars of 2003 and 2011, respectively. In Egypt political shifts have dramatically marked the fate the Palestinians in the country. While welcoming Palestinians as an extraordinary work-force in the 1950s and through the 1970s, Arab rulers – from North Africa to the Arabian Peninsula – also perceived their unwavering Palestinian identity and the political message it encompassed as a possible destabilizing factor for their regimes. Vindictive policies, often aiming at targeting the PLO, have made Palestinians in the region vulnerable to abuses and further displacement. About 700,000 Palestinians, mostly children and grandchildren of the 1948 refugees, have been cumulatively displaced from Arab countries from the 1970s onward.
Palestinian ‘Diaspora’ in Europe, the Americas, Asia-Pacific, and Africa
Authors: Albanese Francesca P , Takkenberg Lex 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter highlights Palestinian dispersal in Europe, the Americas, Asia-Pacific, and Africa. Since the establishment of the State of Israel, members of the Palestinian (refugee) ‘diaspora’ have progressively found roots in all continents. Palestinians who were abroad at the end of the British Mandate and in 1948 were not allowed to return effectively became the first Palestinian refugees sur place. In the 1950s and 1960s, Palestinian refugees (including descendants) moved further afield from their places of residence (often de facto asylum), namely Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and present-day occupied Palestinian territory (oPt). They moved primarily to MENA countries, but also, to Western Europe and North America, looking for better life opportunities and increasingly, from the 1980s and 1990s, for international protection. This triggered the application of Article 1D(2) of the 1951 Refugee Convention discussed in Chapter II. In many countries, however, Article 1D continues not to be applied (or not applied properly), with claims of Palestinian refugees being assessed under Article 1A(2), downplaying the distinctive regime set up for them under the 1951 Convention, and the continuity of protection incorporated therein. Countries that offer more robust protection – including through accessible naturalization procedures – have steadily represented important destinations for Palestinians fleeing various parts of the Middle East in search of safe haven. However, in recent years restrictive asylum policies in Western countries (rectius, the Global North) may have contributed to an unprecedented rise in numbers of Palestinian refugees seeking sanctuary in new destinations. Ultimately, the growing Palestinian dispersal around the world, marked by growing vulnerability to protection therats, is a direct result of the failure to find a just solution to their plight.
Protection of Palestinian Refugees
Authors: Albanese Francesca P , Takkenberg Lex 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the protection dimension of the distinctive regime set up for Palestinian refugees in an historical and comparative fashion. It then addresses the need for international protection of Palestinian refugees. As Palestinian refugees in need of protection have spread outside UNRWA’s area of operations, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) became increasingly involved. Since the mid-2000s, cooperation between UNHCR and UNRWA has become more structured. As awareness of the protection needs of Palestinians has increased, so have the contributions of others, including UN agencies and human rights mechanisms, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the Palestinians’ own embassies. These developments reflect a profound change: a shift from treating protection of Palestinians as something exceptional and separate from the global regime for refugees to a recognition that their protection is and should be treated as an integral, albeit distinct, part of that regime. Ultimately, a major improvement in the protection of Palestinian refugees would occur if states and regional bodies fully honoured their commitments and obligations under international law, and, for those state parties to the international refugee regime, the obligations stemming from it. For this to happen and to ensure continuity of protection, the partnership between UNRWA and UNHCR should be upgraded through a comprehensive approach aimed at ensuring that practices fully align with the provisions of relevant UN resolutions, Article 1D of the 1951 Convention and human rights norms.
Alternatives to Treaty-Making— Informal
Agreements
Authors: Meyer Timothy 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
In international norm-making, actors other than States participate in ways that bear some similarities to norm-making among States. These alternatives to formal treaty-making produce a wide range of instruments with many different kinds of labels, such as MOUs, soft law, and political commitments. This chapter reviews the existing literature and practice on informal lawmaking. Section I begins by reviewing basic definitional issues, as well as three contexts in which international lawyers confront non-binding agreements. Section II canvasses the existing literature on why States and non-State actors turn to informal agreements. Section III turns to normative matters, arguing that non-binding agreements are not significantly less efficacious or accountable than binding international agreements. The chapter ends with a call for States to continue to develop guidelines for informal lawmaking — work already begun by the Inter-American Juridical Committee.
Who
Can Make Treaties? Other Subjects of International Law
Authors: Grant Tom 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter discuses treaty-making by ‘other subjects of international law’. These other subjects of international law may be divided into four categories. First, there are territories integral to a State — especially the units which constitute a federal State. Second, there are external territories, the foreign relations of which normally are the responsibility of a State albeit under a variety of relationships. Third, insurgent groups — entities which seek to displace an existing State in all or part of its territory and themselves to assume the functions of the State — have been said to enter into international agreements as well. Finally, private actors — including corporations, nongovernmental organizations and individuals — may be international law subjects for some purposes; the extent to which this is the case remains in flux.
NGOs
in International Treaty-Making
Authors: Raustiala Kal 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter surveys the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in treatymaking. It asks four key questions about the relationship between NGOs and treatymaking. First, what roles do NGOs play today in treaty processes, and how have these roles changed? Second, what explains the increased prominence of NGOs? Third, are NGOs a salutary addition to treatymaking or illegitimate special interests? And finally, Fourth, what is the broader significance of NGO activity for international law and international order? NGOs are clearly important players in treatymaking today. But their roles remain, to a large degree, circumscribed and controlled by States. At the most fundamental level, the presence of NGOs in contemporary treatymaking and implementation is a sign of the expansion of the domain of treatymaking.
Provisional Application of Treaties
Authors: Azaria Danae 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the provisional application of treaties, examining whether and how international law accommodates treaty-makers’ desire to apply their treaties sooner than the text’s entry-into-force provisions (or more pertinently domestic legal requirements) allow. Part I begins with an examination of the shift in terminology from ‘provisional entry into force’ to ‘provisional application’. Part II explores the formal source of the binding effect of provisional application and the forms it can take. Part III takes up the legal effects of provisional application. Part IV deals with the relationship between provisional application and domestic law, and Part V with the termination of provisional application. The chapter finishes with some conclusions on provisional application and the future developments in this area.
The
Relationship(s) between Treaties and Territory
Authors: Karagiannis Syméon 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the relationship between treaties and territory. Article 29 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties provides that ‘unless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, a treaty is binding upon each party in respect of its entire territory’. However, the provision quickly begs a question: Are States bound to apply all of their treaties’ provisions only on their national territory (or selected parts of it)? This chapter begins by examining the ambit of Article 29. It then contrasts the traditional territorial application of treaties with treaties that may be labelled as ‘non-territorial’ whether because of the treaty’s objects or parties. It closes with the more controversial topic of extraterritorial applications of treaties, examining whether and how States might be held to their treaty obligations in activities that they control outside their territory.
Treaty Amendments
Authors: Brunnée Jutta 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores treaty amendments — an area where the practice regularly departs from the default rules of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), including procedural mechanisms that affect amendments without requiring each party’s explicit consent. The Convention built on draft articles that the International Law Commission (ILC) submitted to the UN General Assembly in 1966. With some notable exceptions, the VCLT codified the existing customary international law on treaties. The topic of treaty amendment came to be included in the ILC’s draft articles only in 1964. Given the basic principle that a State’s rights under a treaty could not be modified without their consent, amendments were widely seen as raising political and diplomatic, rather than legal, issues.
Domestic Application of Treaties
Authors: Sloss David L 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter surveys how domestic legal systems approach treaty application and the varied treatment that results from different treaty types and domestic actor preferences. Traditional scholarship on the domestic application of treaties has focused on the distinction between monist and dualist legal systems. Part I of this chapter explains that distinction: in brief, the monist-dualist divide hinges on the role of the legislative branch in incorporating and implementing treaties domestically. Part II explains the distinction between horizontal, vertical, and transnational treaty provisions. Part III addresses the functional distinction between nationalist and transnationalist approaches to judicial application of treaties. Part IV discusses the crucial role of domestic courts in promoting compliance with treaty obligations, especially transnational and vertical treaty obligations.
Treaty Bodies and Regimes
Authors: Ulfstein Geir 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the current status of treaty bodies in international law and practice. Treaty bodies serve various functions. Some have many characteristics of an international organization (IO). In the international environmental context, treaty bodies have a multiplicity of tasks, including developing new substantive commitments, guiding sub-organs and the secretariat, and ensuring implementation of States’ obligations. The chapter explores why States have established treaty bodies the various structural forms they take, as well as their authority to act both internally and externally, on topics such as substantive decision-making, compliance, and coordination with other treaty bodies, IOs, and States. The analysis reveals how treaty bodies reflect developments towards an increasingly public character of international law, as international organs exercising functions delegated by States. They may also be seen as aspects of a growing international legalization, judicialization — and even constitutionalization — of international law.
Treaty Conflicts and Systemic Fragmentation
Authors: Borgen Christopher J 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines treaty conflicts and the systemic fragmentation of international law more generally. It focuses on fragmentation through the optic of conflicting obligations between treaties, as well as, to a lesser extent, between a treaty and another source of law. The chapter proceeds in three parts. Part I reviews the causes of normative conflict. Part II examines the various ways a treaty can conflict with another treaty or source of law. Part III surveys different techniques for addressing normative conflict via conflict avoidance clauses, treaty interpretation, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, and the classic canons of treaty construction (lex prior, lex posterior, and lex specialis). The chapter concludes with a discussion of the broader theme concerning international law’s systemic fragmentation.
The
Vienna Convention Rules on Treaty Interpretation
Authors: Gardiner Richard 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter offers a nuanced account of one of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties’s seminal contributions to international law — a single set of interpretative ‘principles’ if not actual rules. It addresses two questions. The first is in what sense are the Vienna rules on treaty interpretation ‘rules’? The second is how are the rules to be used in interpreting treaties? The answer to the first question provides much of the answer to the second one. But the second is worth additional attention, mainly because the rules’ application in practice reveals interpretations that do not stand out from simply reading them.
Specialized Rules of Treaty Interpretation
Authors: Çalı Başak 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter ask: Is the interpretation of treaties regulating international human rights a specialized regime? It starts by discussing what it means to have specialized rules for treaty interpretation in the field of international human rights treaties. It then turns to the interpretive strategies developed across human rights treaties. It shows that human rights treaty interpretation is specialized in the sense that making these treaties and their provisions ‘effective’ in application animates how human rights interpreters approach treaty interpretation. Next, the chapter considers how the forum for interpretation matters, be it specialized or generalist international bodies or domestic courts. It concludes by emphasising that the relationship between human rights treaty interpretation and general rules of treaty interpretation has a symbiotic relationship. Human rights treaty interpretation has not only produced specialised interpretive canons but has also extorted some influence on our understanding of the general rules of treaty of interpretation.