bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The design(ing) of language
Authors: Goodall Grant 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Courses on invented languages can do much more than just introduce students to linguistics. Through three case studies, it is shown that as students learn how to design a language, they also learn about the design of human language in a way that is unlikely to occur in other courses. The first case study involves the creation of a lexicon, in relation to John Wilkins’ invented language of 1668 and to Saussurean arbitrariness, commonly regarded as a fundamental design property of human language. The second case study concerns phonemic inventories. By designing their own from scratch, students see the competing pressures that phonemic inventories must satisfy in all languages. The third case study concerns inflectional morphology and the pressures that determine the form of particular morphemes. All of these case studies are accessible to students and help them engage with important aspects of the design properties of human language.
Teaching invented languages as an introductory course
Authors: Berry James A. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the introduction of an invented languages course to the English Department of a comprehensive state university in the midwestern United States in Fall 2016. The department has limited offerings in linguistics, with no major or minor. The course acted primarily as an applied introductory class without prerequisites, open to students with varied academic backgrounds in linguistics. Because this course was the only exposure to linguistics some students would have in their academic careers, teaching it called for some constraints. An early-semester look at international auxiliary languages such as Esperanto inspired several students to create invented languages that were easy to learn. At the same time, those with a more extensive background created more complex structures. The resulting projects ranged from minimal to highly developed; overall, though, the students maintained a high level of enthusiasm and interest in their work.
Bringing language construction from the classroom to the community
Authors: Gillon Carrie , Delmonico Edward , Martinez Randi , Morrell Spencer 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses the connection between constructed language courses and opportunities to connect with the wider community. Conlang courses are a fruitful way to engage and attract students into linguistics, but they can also be used to bring linguistics into the world at large. The focus of this chapter is a Special Topics in Linguistics class at Arizona State University. This chapter describes the course structure, discusses the pros and cons of this particular structure, and provides examples of the languages created in the class. This course also led to unexpected opportunities to bring linguistics into the larger community, in the form of panels at two different fan conventions. During each panel, the students described their own languages, and the choices they made in creating them. This chapter provides example slides from these panels and discusses the process of creating the panels, the outcomes, and the resulting interactions with the public.
Extraterrestrial message construction
Authors: Wells-Jensen Sheri , Spallinger Kimberly 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter presents a set of exercises ready for use in the classroom, in which students use basic pattern recognition skills to solve an “alien” message that includes both numbers and other elements. The other elements define relations among the numbers, and students determine how those relations can be mapped to words in a human language—whatever the language of instruction. Rationale for the utility of this approach is discussed, as are ways to modify the instructions to present the exercises to student populations with different levels of sophistication in math and computation, and different levels of linguistic training. The exercise and rationale exemplify one way in which constructed languages can be used to introduce key concepts in linguistics for students from a variety of academic disciplines.
Artistry in language invention
Authors: Peterson David J. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Courses in language construction are often taught with an eye to generating interest in the linguistics major from undergraduate students who might otherwise be uninterested in taking an introductory course. With the focus primarily on linguistics, the artistry of language invention is often lost. This chapter lays out a method of teaching and evaluating language construction that is rigorous, informed by linguistics, and takes language creation seriously as an art form. Specifically, this chapter argues for the importance of instruction in naturalistic language creation. Two forms of naturalism are introduced and contrasted: weak naturalism (based on statistical typological patterns) and strong naturalism (based on simulating natural linguistic evolution). The chapter closes with an extended example of a homework assignment employing some of the ideas introduced in the chapter, plus a word of caution about the use of linguistic theory in a course on language construction.
The ecology and biogeography of endemism
Authors: Thompson John D. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractEndemism is a primary characteristic of the Mediterranean flora. The Mediterranean region contains several zones rich in endemic species. These hotspots of endemism also have a high diversity of total species. The recurrent conjunction of endemism and high species diversity in different parts of the region represents the cornerstone of Mediterranean plant biodiversity. The causes and origins of patterns of diversity and endemism, on both a biogeographic and local scale, are the main subjects of this chapter, which will first invoke the diverse origins of the flora, a premier cause of the patterns we now observe. A major theme this chapter will then develop is the examination of correlated patterns of diversity and endemism in relation to the historical biogeography of islands and mountains that are rich in endemic plants. As the chapter advances it will become more and more apparent that the history of mountain formation is a key element in the high rates of endemic plants both in continental areas and on islands. Finally, the ecological and biological correlates of endemism are treated, in particular the niche in which endemic plants have evolved and persisted.
The evolution of a cultural heritage
Authors: Thompson John D. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThe origins of the cultivation and domestication of many fruit, legume, and cereal crops can be traced to the eastern fringe of the Mediterranean region where the ‘Fertile Crescent’ blends into the western steppe zones of the Irano–Turanian floristic province. This chapter describes this early cultivation and domestication and the traces of migration of domesticated species across the Mediterranean in the hands of human populations. The evolution of Mediterranean crops, flowers, and fruit trees during the process of domestication has involved an amazing diversity of species. Their patterns of differentiation across the Mediterranean often resemble those of wild species treated in chapter 3. This chapter also discusses the important links between human populations and plants and the growing interdependencies of these links.
Plant traits and ecological dynamics
Authors: Thompson John D. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThis chapter examines the multiple facets of trait variation and ecological dynamics in the contemporary Mediterranean landscape. Climatic constraints and transitions are paramount here. Diverse functional traits and strategies have evolved to avoid or tolerate the summer drought and the irregularity of spring rainfall. Annual plants do their best to avoid such constraints, and the role of functional traits in the regeneration niche and life-history strategy is undeniable. Perennial plants face the challenge of surviving their first summer and from then on illustrate a demographic persistence strategy. Dispersal and establishment generate interactions among species across a mosaic landscape where transitions between positive and negative interactions characterize successional dynamics. The study of two main features of the Mediterranean flora, its response to fire, and the diversity of aromatic plants illustrate well the importance of plant traits in the ecological dynamics of populations and communities in the mosaic landscape.
Science and nature in a changing Mediterranean world
Authors: Thompson John D. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThe Mediterranean world is changing, perhaps faster than we realize and faster than it ever has before. As scientists, our role here is to provide information to help integrate such changes into political decision for nature conservation. This chapter is focused on issues and approaches that allow us to perform this role and bring science and nature conservation together, and promote this venture to enhanced political will to preserve the capacity for species to evolve. The historical triptych of factors that have conditioned plant evolution in the Mediterranean presented in previous chapters is replaced here by a triad of ecological interdependencies that ultimately provide a framework to develop an ecological solidarity to conserve evolutionary potential. The chapter leads to the conclusion of this book that it is in the construction of this ecological solidarity that our true responsibility as scientists can be revealed.
Changes of regulatory models
Authors: Gellert Raphaël 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Chapter 4 explains the rationale for changing regulatory models from the standpoint of regulation theory. A newer model of regulation known as meta regulation is sought as a solution to the main issues plaguing command and control regulation. Namely, the effectiveness of deterrence strategies has often been deceiving, and linear processes of standard setting and the safeguards associated thereto have not always managed to properly address the harms stemming from data processing practices. Therefore, evolutions in regulation models have sought to address these two issues by resorting to more collaborative models of regulation. Following collaboration between regulators and regulatees, enforcement will cease to be sought through punishment, but rather, through collaboration and dialogue between the regulator and the regulatee; the object of such dialogue being a problematisation of how best to achieve regulatory goals. Simultaneously, in terms of standard setting and safeguards, new regulation models will consist in endowing regulatees with regulatory responsibility (in terms of implementing or even devising standards and safeguards), and enabling regulators to assess their performance. Particular emphasis is put on the responsibilisation of the regulatees. The latter is the necessary condition for any collaborative model of regulation. Meta regulation is the collaborative model of regulation at stake. It does bestow regulatory tasks (ie standard setting, monitoring, and behaviour control) upon regulatees, and it underpins the risk-based approach to data protection. Such responsibility, however, also entails a re-coding of the regulatees activities as a matter of risk management.
Good Result or Bad Deal?
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Poised to begin negotiations for EEC accession, Prime Minister Wilson called a snap general election and lost to Edward Heath’s Conservative Party. Heath was a life-long pro-European but there were opponents of EEC entry, led by the disgraced rebel, Enoch Powell, within Tory ranks. The Conservatives adopted the Labour government’s accession strategy. But, out of government, the Labour Party turned against membership. Pro-EEC Labour rebels, led by former Chancellor of the Exchequer Roy Jenkins, voted with Heath to secure parliamentary approval for accession. To prevent the Labour Party voting to take the UK out of the EEC, Wilson promised that he would renegotiate the terms agreed by Heath and put them to the electorate. The EEC countries, especially France, struck a hard deal with the UK and Heath was obliged to accept disadvantageous terms for UK accession.
Accession, Renegotiation, Referendum, 1973–1975
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The first year of Britain’s EEC membership did not run smoothly. The Americans unilaterally declared it ‘the Year of Europe’. Heath was accused by Kissinger of destroying the special relationship. The Arab–Israeli war caused an oil crisis in which the UK, relatively unscathed, did not help her partners. Early in 1974, Heath lost a General Election and was replaced by Wilson. Wilson and Foreign Secretary Callaghan faced a divided Cabinet and Labour Party as they set about renegotiating the terms of Britain’s EEC membership. The improvements they secured, after a second General Election in October 1974, were slight but enough to get the deal through the Cabinet. Labour Ministers campaigned in the referendum on opposite sides, but support for remaining from all the main Party leaders and the Press helped secure a significant majority for staying.
One Foot In and One Foot Out, 1990–1997
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
John Major had none of Thatcher’s reservations about German reunification and wanted to put Britain at the heart of Europe. But he faced growing Euroscepticism inside the Conservative Party. At Maastricht, Major secured for the UK the right to opt out or, later to opt in, to the proposed European single currency. The significance of this opt out for the longer term British sense of detachment from the rest of the EU was not then obvious. The ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in the UK, and the Major government, both nearly foundered, when the UK was forced out of the Exchange Rate Mechanism in 1991. Europe became a toxic issue in the Conservative Party. Mad Cow Disease triggered a policy of non-cooperation by the UK with the rest of the EU. Major championed the enlargement of the EU to include the newly freed countries of eastern and central Europe.
Brown and Cameron
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
As Prime Minister, Gordon Brown practised a form of muscular inter-governmentalism, often creating largely invented conflicts with EU partners to demonstrate toughness. He played a positive role in the EU in the 2008 financial crisis. His successor, David Cameron, had hoped to stop the Conservative Party from ‘banging on about Europe’, but the issue of Europe rose in prominence as immigration from the EU became a part of the UKIP threat. The Cameron-led coalition changed the law to provide for referendums on major treaty transfers of powers to the EU. By 2012, Cameron had become convinced of the need for an ‘in’ or ‘out’ referendum. He was caught between insisting that the EU needed to reform and his simultaneous argument that the UK had a vital national interest in remaining a member. His renegotiation was discounted in the Press and by the public.
Max Planck Institute and Habilitation
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The chapter describes the first job as a researcher in legal history in the newly founded Max-Planck-Institut for the History of European Private Law in Frankfurt, his work on the relationship between constitutional and private law in the nineteenth century, his Habilitation on the same subject, the novelty and importance of the subject. The year 1968, student protest movement, his involvement in two reform movements in connection with 1968, one concerning the Cusanuswerk (scholarship fund of the Catholic Church), the other the Max-Planck-Society.
Karlsruhe: From Scholarship to Practice
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
In 1987 Dieter Grimm was elected justice of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany. The chapter describes the background of the election, the moving from Bielefeld to Karlsruhe (the residence of the Court), the subject matters for which he became responsible as judge rapporteur (esp. freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of radio and TV, freedom of association), the additional subject matters he acquired over time (esp. privacy, data protection), criticism of the Court’s jurisprudence in these fields, his very influential and widely discussed separate opinion in the case “Riding in the Forest.”
Europe
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The chapter deals with the impact of European interpretation on the national constitution and the national constitutional courts. It reflects Dieter Grimm’s position on a European constitution, his controversy with Jürgen Habermas, his thesis of the “over-constitutionalization” of the EU as one of the most important, but at least noticed causes of the diminishing acceptance of the EU.
Berlin and the Institute for Advanced Study
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
After the end of his term as justice, Dieter Grimm moved from Karlsruhe to Berlin where he joined the Faculty of Law of Humboldt University and became permanent fellow and a year later rector of the Wissenschaftskolleg, Institute for Advanced Study. This chapter is devoted to the six years where he directed the Kolleg, the selection of forty fellows from all disciplines and continents for each academic year, the priorities that he set, the recruitments of legal scholars, and the role and impact of legal science in general among the various disciplines.
Conclusion
Authors: Torrance Alexis 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The Conclusion is written in two parts. The first offers a twelfth-century Byzantine Christological debate as a lens through which to understand the varied findings of the preceding chapters. This is the little-studied ‘my Father is greater than I’ controversy, one which it is argued ultimately revolves around the nature of Christ’s humanity. The discussion of this controversy is in turn related to the results of earlier chapters. The second part brings the cumulative findings of the book into conversation with the Christocentric theological anthropology of the contemporary Orthodox patrologist and theologian John Behr, identifying areas of agreement but also disagreement. The Conclusion ends with a reiteration of the book’s central claim regarding the importance of the doctrine of Christ’s humanity for the articulation of an Orthodox theological anthropology that is faithful to its Byzantine inheritance.
Character, Content, and Reference
Authors: Kulvicki John 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Pictures are profitably understood as having character, content, and referents. All of these are kinds of meaning. Following Kaplan (1989), character is a function from a context to a content, and in different contexts, pictorial characters yield different pictorial contents. Content is a function from circumstances of evaluation to extensions. Pictorial content is purely attributive, in that it does not include particular individuals, and in that sense, it is like the content of a description. It is neither definite nor indefinite, but communicative uses of pictures can determine definiteness. Pictures can thus refer in the manner of definite or indefinite descriptions. This constitutes a semantic frame within which the rest of the book investigates varieties of pictorial meaning.
Pictorial Dthat
Authors: Kulvicki John 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Though pictorial content is purely attributive, in some contexts of use pictures have singular contents. One way in which this can happen is akin to Kaplan’s (1978) dthat operation. The attributive content of a picture can denote something in context, and that denotation can become a new pictorial content under the right circumstances. So, the pictorial content becomes a character, which, in context, delivers a new, singular content. Police sketches, postcard pictures, photo rosters, and some portraits illustrate this phenomenon. As with cases in the philosophy of language, these interpretations are established by considering cases of reasonable and unreasonable interpretation of different communicative acts. They show that in some cases pictures are used to deliver individuals, rather than to say this or that about some individual.
Historical Overview of Japanese Society, Health, and Health Inequalities from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Hiyoshi Ayako , Kondo Naoki 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
In the previous century, Japan rose from poverty and destruction. High levels of social inequalities before World War II were greatly equalized in the 1960–1980 period. Population health, indicated by life expectancy, height, mortality, and self-rated health, improved. Health inequalities were reduced in line with these improvements. In the past 30 years Japan has experienced low economic growth, rapid ageing, and resource constraints, with some widening of income inequalities. All are indicators of a challenging population health situation. However, health inequalities narrowed for a period in the 1990s and the early 2000s. Limited evidence suggests health inequalities have widened in recent years. Narrowing health inequality after 1990 was partly the result of worsening health in high socioeconomic groups. In the past, the combination of social structure, economic growth, culture, and social policies resulted in remarkable health development and limited health inequalities. Increased research and monitoring is needed to understand these trends, and to support policy development to reduce health inequalities as Japan changes.
Geographic Disparities in Health
Authors: Nakaya Tomoki , Hanibuchi Tomoya 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter highlights the geographical aspects of health disparities in Japan at different levels, from the 47 prefectures nationally to the neighbourhood level. In the post-war period, Japan has successfully attained the longest life expectancy in the world. At the same time, it has substantially reduced geographical disparities among the prefectures. This indicates that reducing such disparities in living standards may also be related to improving the health of a country’s entire population. However, disparities of health have appeared among populations living in socially segmented areas in large neighbourhoods of metropolitan regions. Such neighbourhood-scale disparities in health are associated with a number of environmental characteristics of Japanese neighbourhoods reflecting socioeconomic segregation and development histories of residential areas. In the era of a super-aging society that contains the threat of re-widening social inequalities, Japan faces challenges to build health-supportive environments for tackling multi-scale disparities.
Japan in Long View
Authors: Brunner Eric , Cable Noriko , Iso Hiroyasu 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This book brings together the work of leading researchers in the fields of epidemiology and public health in Japan. Authors reflected on the evolution of health in the population since the first Tokyo Olympic/Paralympic Games. Content is organized according to (1) stages of the life course, (2) major chronic diseases and risk factors, and (3) some significant institutional or geographical connections of Japan to the planet. This chapter summarizes a number of messages and research questions for further discussion. The array of evidence confirms a fundamental idea in social epidemiology: the importance of living conditions—economic, social, institutional, cultural—as the main determinants of the health of populations. More specifically, the official statistics and epidemiological studies based on the Japanese population provide a detailed account of the transitions from a young middle-income country to a super-ageing high-income country. Over this period of transition, including recent years of economic slowdown, Japanese health and longevity has not stopped improving.