bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dragging Them over the Finish Line
Authors: Levin Dov H. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Chapter 6 begins the analysis of the effects of partisan electoral interventions on election results through a statistical test, using PEIG, of the four main hypotheses developed in Chapter 2. Full support is found for the first three hypotheses. Partisan electoral interventions are found to increase the vote share of the preferred candidate/party by 3% on average—enough in many cases to determine the result. Overt interventions are found to be more effective than covert ones in both the statistical and the substantive sense. However, unlike in later elections, electoral interventions in founding elections usually harm the aided side, reducing its vote share by 6.7% on average. The chapter concludes by examining whether there are any significant differences in the effectiveness of the specific assistance that is provided by the foreign power and/or the overall magnitude of this aid.
The (In)famous Election
Authors: Levin Dov H. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Chapter 8 examines the case of the Russian partisan intervention in the 2016 U.S. elections in light of this book’s arguments and the currently available information. It first analyzes the causes of this intervention, finding preliminary support for the theoretical framework on why such meddling occurs. It then studies the effects of the Russian covert intervention on the election results, with the main focus on the hacking and document-leaking component, using multiple methods: estimating their effects using PEIG and aggregate data from the U.S. in 2016, two pre-election surveys with relevant questions, and Google search data on these leaks in the U.S. and the key “swing states.” It finds that the Russian intervention had a significant pro-Trump effect on the results and it was probably large enough to have led Hillary Clinton to lose at least 75 EC votes—sufficient to lead to her defeat in the electoral college.
Conclusions
Authors: Levin Dov H. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Chapter 9 first briefly summarizes the findings from the preceding chapters regarding the causes of partisan electoral interventions and their effects on election results. It then discusses the wider contributions of this study to other subfields in international relations and comparative politics. It then assesses the policy implications of this research to cybersecurity. It first describes the need of policymakers in democratic countries to take immediate precautions in order to prevent the digitization (via cryptocurrencies) of another long-standing method of electoral intervention—covert campaign funding. It then discusses how the use of electronic voting methods of various kinds threatens to inadvertently bring back a pre-modern method of intervention—meddling in the vote tallies, and the best ways to prevent that “doomsday” scenario from occurring. The chapter concludes with future directions for research in this regard.
External Interventions and Civil Wars: Why Focus on Non-State Actors?
Authors: Akcinaroglu Seden , Radziszewski Elizabeth 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Existing research on the impact of external interventions into civil wars focuses mostly on states and international organizations. With the expansion of private military and security companies’ (PMSCs) presence in civil wars, there is a need to better understand the impact of such non-state actors on conflict dynamics. This chapter highlights the importance of understanding conditions under which PMSCs are more militarily effective in conflict zones, describes the existing focus in the study of PMSCs, and introduces a new theoretical focus that links variation in market competition to military effectiveness. It addresses previous data in the study of PMSCs and focuses on the benefits of new data, with specific focus on international PMSCs’ presence in major and minor civil wars.
Global Competition, Corporate Structure, and PMSCs’ Accountability in Civil Wars
Authors: Akcinaroglu Seden , Radziszewski Elizabeth 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
The rise of global competition marked by the expansion of the private military and security industry has pushed companies to gain a competitive edge. To secure capital and, occasionally, to signal commitment to accountability in response to competition, some companies have changed their corporate structure and become publicly traded corporations. Publicly traded companies have more stakeholders than private companies; this makes them accountable not only to the clients but also to the public and the media. As publicly traded PMSCs face greater reputational costs for engaging in criminal behavior, they are less likely to commit fraud and human rights abuses and be more military effective than private PMSCs. Data on fraud and human rights abuses in Iraq (2003–2019) show that publicly traded PMSCs exhibit higher levels of corporate professionalism. Greater professionalism by publicly traded PMSCs should help tilt the balance of power in favor of the government and contribute to shorter conflicts.
Market Factors and PMSCs’ Effectiveness in Conflict Termination
Authors: Akcinaroglu Seden , Radziszewski Elizabeth 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter presents the results of empirical analysis of local and global competition’s impact on PMSCs’ performance in civil wars from 1990 to 2008. Findings suggest that both market mechanisms contribute to conflict termination, but there is some limitation to the benefit. Mainly, local competition has a positive effect in major wars involving conventional tactics and some guerrilla warfare but is less significant in the most difficult conflict environments. Companies’ corporate structure, a factor linked to the global-competition dynamic, can affect military effectiveness in conflicts involving fewer casualties and more guerrilla warfare. The positive effect is also evident in hard-to-end conflicts but not the subset of the most complex environments, as publicly traded PMSCs may strategically avoid the most extreme conflict zones. Finally, results show that interventions by multiple PMSCs offer more benefits for conflict termination than interventions involving states or international organizations.
Civic Strengthening
Authors: Field Sandra Leonie 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter establishes a neo-Spinozist criterion of popular power, whereby power is judged by the systematic effects and outcomes of a political order; and popularity lies in the degree to which those effects and outcomes durably uphold equality (glossed as mutual independence of citizens) and participation. The chapter provides a taxonomy of organizational elements that might best address the third Hobbesian problem—the problem of democracy’s perverse effects—not through Hobbesian repression and fragmentation, but through empowering the citizenry and encouraging the growth of non-oligarchic collective formations in the social body. In this frame, both social movements and popular plebiscites are decentred: they are no longer the exemplary expression of popular power as per the radical democrats, but, rather, partial elements within a larger political ecology that may or may not have an overall popular character. Popular power emerges as a difficult political achievement stabilized by good institutional design.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Nicola J. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter sets out the context and rationale for the book, arguing that the study of capitalism needs to engage more closely with the study of sexuality, and vice versa. In order to advance this agenda, the chapter calls for international political economy and queer theory to combine their contributions through development of the field of queer political economy. The author then outlines the book’s key methodological moves and, in particular, its focus on sex work together with its genealogical approach to discourse analysis. As well as describing and justifying what the book is and does, the chapter also reflects on the book’s limitations, including the choice to consider the specific case of Britain rather than offering a general history of capitalism.
Queer Political Economy
Authors: Smith Nicola J. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter outlines the scholarly debate and theoretical architecture that underpin the rest of the book. In recent years, queer theory has come under fire for being outdated, even redundant, on the grounds that its interest in the fluidity of identity comes at the expense of political economic analysis. Contesting such claims, the chapter contends that queer theory is well suited to the study of global capitalism when pursued as a project that is both feminist and historical in approach. To this end, the author brings together the insights of Michel Foucault and Silvia Federici to develop a new framework for analyzing the intersections and contradictions between capitalism and sexuality. The chapter then explicates this framework through discussion of sex work as a particularly interesting and important site for applying the tools of queer political economy.
Sex, Work, and the Victorians
Authors: Smith Nicola J. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Focusing on Victorian England, this chapter examines how sex was increasingly constructed as something that was primarily biological in nature, and how this was bound up with discourses of prostitution as a threat to the reproduction of the body politic. In the first section, the author considers how the pathologization of commercial sex as abnormal and unhealthy worked to naturalize the public/private split on which capitalist development rested. In the second section, the author connects the medical, moral, and juridical regulation of sex work to the suppression and stimulation of other modes of sexual deviance including homosexuality. In the final section, the author explores the role of race and empire in constituting white, bourgeois sexuality as natural, privileged, and the antithesis of commercialized sex.
The Cycle of Polarization
Authors: Balkin Jack M. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
American politics features very long cycles of polarization and depolarization between the political parties. Politics polarized around the Civil War and remained polarized until the end of the Gilded Age. Then began a long period of depolarization. Polarization started increasing once again in the middle of the twentieth century, and we are now at the peak of the current cycle. Polarization is a characteristic feature of the Reagan regime. Although Republican politicians used strategies of polarization to gain power, polarization made it increasingly difficult for them to govern, and will eventually lead to the regime’s undoing.
The Turn of the Cycles
Authors: Balkin Jack M. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
In the emerging party system, the Democrats will probably be the dominant party. The two major political parties will face off over identity issues like race, sexuality, and religion, but each party will be internally divided over issues of class and economic inequality. These fissures will become more pronounced over time and provide a long-term path for depolarization. Because each party will have a populist and a neoliberal wing, new forms of cross-party alliances will become possible—although the Democrats will remain more economically egalitarian than the Republicans for the foreseeable future. Whoever figures out how to create these cross-party coalitions will drive the direction of reform. The next regime will probably be turbulent and politics will be anything but peaceful. Real change that breaks the stranglehold of economic inequality will only come from difficult times that still lay ahead. The good news is that the cycles of constitutional time are slowly turning. The elements of renewal are available, if people have the courage to use them.
From Command and Control to a More Liberal Order: 1950–2018
Authors: Panagariya Arvind 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
The chapter provides an overview of India’s economic policies and growth experience from 1951 to 2018. The period is divided into four phases: 1951–81, 1981–88, 1988–2003, and 2003–18. A command-and-control and autarkic regime led to abysmal growth during the first phase. The second phase saw a mild transition toward a liberal regime and a slight uptick in growth. Reforms began in earnest in 1991, after which growth jumped as well. The economy grew especially rapidly during 2003–12, when extreme poverty saw a sharp decline. This growth made the government complacent, however, and it returned to several socialist-era policies during 2009–14. That led to a sudden slowdown in growth between 2012 and 2014. A new government came into office in 2014 and resumed reforms, and the economy grew 7.5 percent annually during 2014–19. The chapter concludes by making a case for accelerated economic reforms.
This Sporting Life
Authors: Colls Robert 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This is a history of sport as one of England’s great civil cultures. It addresses ‘sports’ as athletic competitions, ‘sport’ as fun and games and showing off, and sporting occasions as a mixture of both. The subject does not lend itself to simple definitions, and the book does not try to impose any. By and large, it takes sport as it found it in the lives of the people. Drawing on a wide range of sources, from oil paintings to handbills, from the criminal to the constitutional, all the chapters begin with a ‘thick’ description of a sporting event before spreading the net to bring in the longer history, and meaning, of the sport in question. No one ever doubted that there was more to sport than sport itself. Prize-fighting and riding found particular favour with the army, cricket and rowing with the public schools, hockey and lacrosse with the education of middle-class girls, scarves and colours with the part sport played in the invention of the modern university. Above all, sport in England was recognized as liberty, the physical freedom to be. Of course, sport was not liberty’s only expression. There was always politics. Puritans fought a civil war for liberty and saw sport as a snare and a sin. For the first 100 years of this book, Methodists (and not only them) saw sportsmen as creatures of greed and corruption. This Sporting Life tries to show the reader some part of what it was like to be alive, and feel alive, rich and poor, men and women, young and old, in England, between 1760 and 1960.
Religious Practices in the Sanskrit Epics
Authors: Brockington John 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Both the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, the two texts usually designated jointly as the Sanskrit Epics, are major sources for the history of religious and social ideas. Because their authors tend to present ideals and practices in a living situation, this material is potentially even more valuable, although the specific nature of the episodes raises greater difficulties and uncertainties in their interpretation. We must also guard against too readily reading into various terms their later technical meanings, even in the didactic parts of the Mahābhārata to which scholars most often refer. Moreover, a given word’s spread of meaning may well encompass both religious and more secular meanings; an excellent example of this is the term mantra, which not only designates the Vedic utterances used in connection with sacrifice and similar rituals but quite as frequently denotes the kind of consultation, counsel, or advice exchanged between kings and their counsellors (commonly mantrin). This issue is made all the more complex by the long period (perhaps fifth century bc to fourth century ad) over which both the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa have reached their present form, during which both society and religion undoubtedly changed appreciably. This chapter discusses these developments.
Measuring Innovation
Authors: Lidova Natalia 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Pūjā is often perceived as a predominantly Hindu form of veneration of gods, as it is currently the main ritual for almost one billion followers of Hinduism (about 15 per cent of the world’s population), with approximately 800 million of them living in India. It is less known that pūjā is also used as the main ritual in other religious communities, specifically different groups of contemporary Buddhists and Jains, as well as of Sikhs and various India-orientated spiritual practices and religious movements such as ISKCON. This makes pūjā not only a pan-Indian form of worship but the worldwide ritual that crossed the borders of its native country and gained many adepts all over the world. This chapter examines the genesis and development of this religious practice.
The Quest for Liberation-in-Life
Authors: Birch Jason 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
The Haṭha- and Rājayoga texts which were composed before the Haṭhapradīpikā (mid-fifteenth century ce) provide a window onto what might be considered the formative phase of these types of yoga. This chapter will present the first survey of this corpus’ content on liberation (moḳsa) and meditative absorption (generally known as samādhi). Although each text contains distinctive features and teachings, this survey reveals the principal meaning of the term rājayoga and several pervasive themes, such as the transformational role of the practice of samādhi and the general acceptance of liberation-in-life (jīvanmukti) as the goal of yoga. After discussing the relationship between Rājayoga and liberation-in-life, an essential conception of which can be traced back to earlier Kaula traditions, the chapter concludes by examining how the author of the Haṭhapradīpikā interpreted this relationship and resolved tension between transcendence and power, which is apparent in many of the earlier works.
The Edinburgh Book Trade and Vernacular Literature, 1500–1660
Authors: Fox Adam 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Chapter 2 surveys the development of the book trade in Edinburgh during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries with a particular emphasis on the production and circulation of more popular works in Scots and English. It traces the development of printing in Edinburgh, looks at the expansion of booksellers in the city, and examines the role of travelling chapmen in disseminating literature across Scotland and into England. The remarkable inventories of Thomas Bassandyne and Robert Gourlaw are examined in some detail in order to shed light on the extensive range of vernacular literature from the London market that was being sold in the Scottish capital in the later sixteenth century.
Little Pamphlets and Story Books
Authors: Fox Adam 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Chapter 10 charts the development of the little pamphlets and booklets printed in early modern Scotland. Most were produced from single sheets of paper and sometimes from half-sheets. They contained works of edification, instruction, and entertainment. Some of these ‘story books’ were reprinted from the English market and others were of Scottish provenance; some were in verse and others in prose. Their contents included sermons, godly tales, and collections of songs or ‘garlands’, together with compilations of humorous anecdotes and jests. During the eighteenth century these small tracts became one of the most popular forms of reading matter and they remained so into the nineteenth century, when they first came to be known in Scotland as ‘chapbooks’.
Conditional Reasoning Part I
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Three types of conditional are distinguished: the material conditional, indicative conditional, and subjunctive/counterfactual conditional. The apparent difference in truth conditions of each is suggestive of different psychological procedures used in the evaluation of each. The psychology of the material conditional is then examined. Despite procedures in formal logic that are suggestive of sui generis imaginative states (e.g., “assuming” a proposition for conditional proof, or for reductio), we need not countenance the use of such states within the psychological procedures used to carry out the inferences. Further, work in psychology has long suggested that humans do not, as a rule, reason in accordance with normative standards appropriate to the material conditional. A popular alternative proposal in psychology is that conditional reasoning involves the use of mental models (Johnson-Laird & Byrne, 2002). The use of mental models is shown to be consistent with conditional reasoning involving only sequences of beliefs.
Conditional Reasoning Part II
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
The influential idea that the Ramsey test provides a proper analysis of the psychological means by which we evaluate indicative and subjunctive conditionals is explained. Several recent views have implicated sui generis imaginative states in the psychological implementation of the Ramsey test. The comparative relevance of the Ramsey test to indicative and subjunctive conditionals is explained. It is then argued that one can accept the basic insight afforded by the Ramsey test without concluding that sui generis imaginative states are used in conditional reasoning. A simpler, more parsimonious approach involves only beliefs. Anyone who could have used sui generis imaginative states to arrive at a belief in a new conditional via the Ramsey test could have, with equal warrant, inferred the conditional from their standing beliefs. Finally, it is shown how the imaginings that occur in response to philosophical thought experiments can in fact be sequences of beliefs.
Creativity
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Comparatively easy questions we might ask about creativity are distinguished from the hard question of explaining transformative creativity. Many have focused on the easy questions and, in so doing, have offered no reason to think that the imagining relied upon in creative cognition cannot be reduced to more basic folk psychological states. The relevance of associative thought processes to songwriting is then explored as a means for understanding the nature of transformative creativity. Productive artificial neural networks—known as generative antagonistic networks (GANs)—are recent examples of how a system’s ability to generate creative products can be both finely tuned by prior experience and grounded in strategies that are inarticulable to the system itself. Further, the kinds of processes exploited by GANs need not be seen as incorporating anything akin to sui generis imaginative states. The chapter concludes with reflection on the added relevance of personal character to explanations of creativity.
Against Following Orders
Authors: Tadros Victor 
Published: September 2020

AbstractThis chapter argues against the popular thought that superiors in the armed forces can issue authoritative commands to those below them in the chain of command. This culture of subservience is widely supported. The chapter suggests that whilst combatants sometimes have a duty to do what they are commanded to do, this is not because those giving them commands have authority. In doing so, it argues against popular instrumental accounts of practical authority, such as Joseph Raz’s service conception of authority. These arguments can be extended to a further set of cases where instrumental defences of authority have been influential: the solution of coordination problems.
Why Law and Morality Should Converge
Authors: Tadros Victor 
Published: September 2020

AbstractMany people reject equality of combatants, and non-combatant immunity, as moral matters. They think that it is normally wrong to kill just combatants, and sometimes permissible to kill some non-combatants. Many with this view also think that their moral views should not be reflected in the law. The main arguments that have been given for this view are based on the incentives that combatants would have were law to reflect morality. This chapter argues against these views, suggesting that there are other ways to alter the incentives given to states and combatants that do not rely on altering substantive law.