bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comparing Depth Sizing of Complex Field SCC (NNpH and High pH) Between ILI, NDT and Laboratory Methods
Authors: Gamboa Erwin , Hazeltine Alex , Cano Diego , Cornejo Alan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Through-wall morphology of high-pH SCC (HpH SCC) cracks and near-neutral-pH SCC (NNpH SCC) cracks tend to be distinctly different due to the different driving mechanisms. NNpH SCC cracks tend to be dozens (if not hundreds) of micrometers wide throughout the whole crack depth, whereas HpH SCC cracks are much tighter, narrowing down to almost sub-micrometer width at the crack tip. Both types of cracks can display varying degrees of branching, and in the case of HpH SCC, some cracks can grow at angles inclined away from the perpendicular (i.e., away from the through-wall direction). All of these morphological complexities present great challenges for in-line inspection (ILI) tools (including those based on electromagnetic acoustic induced technology [EMAT]) for the purposes of detecting and sizing such complex anomalies.
Recent EMAT inspections of operating 22″ and 24″ gas pipelines (API5L X52, both built in 1960) found NNpH and HpH SCC, respectively. Samples from each pipeline were cut out. Then, artificial EDM notches were machined into them and reinspected by EMAT pull-tests, with selected “natural” SCC and “artificial” EDM anomalies analysed further by PAUT and precise destructive (metallographic) methods. This paper presents the results of the comparison of assessed depths between the three methods, encompassing artificial EDM flaws as well as “natural” NNpH SCC and complex (inclined angle) HpH SCC anomalies.
Improvement of ILI Sizing Accuracy for Problematic Corrosion Profiles: A PRCI/PHMSA Project
Authors: Cazenave Pablo , Jimenez Katina , Krishnamurthy Ravi , Shall Zoe 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In March 2019, the United States Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) issued a Research Announcement to improve the detection capability and sizing accuracy of In-Line Inspection (ILI) systems for various types of anomalies. The objective is to focus on those anomalies that represent the most significant risk threats to the safe operation of pipeline systems and also reduce the number of excavations required for integrity management.
Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI) Project NDE-4-19 was created in December 2019 as part of this initiative. The multi-phased PHMSA-PRCI-Blade Energy project aimed to conduct a collaborative study involving pipeline operators, ILI Technology Providers (TPs), subject matter experts, and consultants to quantitatively measure and improve the detection and sizing capabilities of current ILI systems for challenging and problematic corrosion features.
A data-driven approach was devised, which factually identified problematic corrosion shapes and profiles by reviewing recent Root-Cause-Analysis (RCA) reports of corrosion-related pipeline failures that had previously been inline inspected. This information was used to design and construct an ILI corrosion test string containing complex features with similar profiles. All such profiles were then documented using the best possible Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques.
Three participating ILI TPs proposed appropriate inspection tools based on their knowledge of the string containing complex corrosion features.
A series of blind pull-through tests of the ILI systems were conducted, and the participating ILI TPs delivered standard ILI reports for performance evaluation. The ILI TPs received detailed feedback identifying the detection and sizing gaps. They were given a limited subset sample of detailed 3D corrosion profile data to identify potential sources of detection and sizing improvement.
A second series of ILI tests were performed, and the changes in detection capability and sizing accuracy were analyzed and quantified for each problematic corrosion profile, identifying the improvements and the remaining gaps.
The results and findings of this 3.5-year-long project are presented in this article.
Assessment of Pipeline Damages Caused by Ship Anchor-Chain Drag Incidents
Authors: Arumugam Udayasankar , Krishna Shree , Milligan Ryan , Krishnamurthy Ravi 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Offshore pipelines are at increased risk of damage from dropped objects such as anchors, chains, and dumped rock debris from fishing or other activities. Depending on the complexity of vessel movements and the duration, it can lead to varying magnitudes of global and local damage to the pipeline. Pipeline global damage includes buckling and pipeline bending, which leads to a high tensile stress/strain state that could cause girth weld failure. The local damage is often formed by contact between the anchor/chain and pipe, causing pipe crushing, dents, buckle/wrinkles, gouges, cracks, or a combination of these, which could trigger immediate or delayed failures. Sometimes, vortex-induced vibration (VIV) may occur at the displaced pipe (free-span) segment, which requires evaluation and mitigation. Sub-sea pipeline damage could involve environmental consequences such as a spill, asset loss, and possibly even casualty. For this reason, relevant investigations should include realistic engineering assessments and, if possible, mitigate prior to consequential damages.
A comprehensive assessment methodology was developed here and is presented in some detail. The ductile failure damage methodology has been applied to dent assessments in pipelines, thermal fatigue, and expandables. However, the application of this to large displacement problems, such as anchor drag, is novel. Further, this is the only approach that uses plasticity and does not use a fracture mechanics parameter. Some key assessment elements include understanding global pipeline displacement, material properties, local damage assessment using the plastic strain limit damage model such as the Ductile Failure Damage Indicator (DFDI), local stresses and strains, and fatigue analysis utilizing the actual operational pressure fluctuation data. One anchor-chain drag incident was modeled, and the observations were predicted through finite element modeling and analysis (FEA). The methodology was verified using full-scale testing of the local dent damage. The results from two different anchor drags are discussed in this paper.
Experimental Studies of Compression and Impact Behaviours of Traditional Versus Alternative Polymer Support Materials for Pipelines
Authors: Gadala Ibrahim M. , Beauregard Yannick , Martens Michael 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Non-metallic materials such as polymers and woods are commonly used as pipeline supports to distribute loads and dissipate mechanical vibrations. Neoprene is a synthetic rubber material widely used for these purposes but is softer than other common polymer materials such as Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMW) or Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). It is also generally less available and more expensive than natural materials like woods. Because there is an apparent lack of data on the compressive and impact resistance behaviors of pipe support materials, dedicated experiments were conducted on Neoprene, UHMW, Polyethylene (PE), PTFE, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polyurethane (PU), and wood samples in this study. The influences of several factors such as temperature, layering, strain rate, and vibration frequency were evaluated. Understanding the differences in mechanical behaviour of these materials is important for pipeline design and stress calculations/simulations.
For compression tests, a 10″ (25.4 cm) diameter conical shaped custom compression platen was designed and analyzed numerically with Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to ensure it met specific weight, maximum deflection, and alignment requirements. These custom platens were fabricated for the experiments from 1018 steel case-hardened for durability and stiffness. For impact experiments, a 12″ (30.5 cm) diameter pipe was set up on a supporting bracket with isolation liners (test materials) sandwiched between the pipe and the support and between the pipe and the bracket. Accelerometer sensors were installed on the pipe and underneath the two support legs of the assembly. Transfer functions on the pipe wall and underneath left and right support legs were measured when impacted using a calibrated force hammer.
Compression tests under monotonic loading showed that PTFE was the stiffest material tested at maximum load, approximately 18% stiffer than Neoprene. Layering had an insignificant effect on the final compressive strain values at the maximum compressive load. However, between 10–100 MPa (1.45 ksi – 14.5 ksi) during the compression stroke, the stiffness of the overall sample is ∼10% lower with more than one layer. Impact tests revealed that PVC and Neoprene materials were more effective than PU in dampening the vibration response in the lower frequency range up to 700 Hz and higher frequency vibrations in the range 1000 Hz through 2000 Hz. None of the tested materials were effective in dampening the pipe vibrations excited in the range between 700 Hz and 1000 Hz.
A Comparison of Wavelet Transform-Based and Fourier Transform-Based Denoising Methods for Strain-Based Pipeline Dent Assessments
Authors: Lin Junxiong , Zhou Wenxing 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Dents are a common type of mechanical damage on buried steel pipelines resulting from external interference such as excavation activities near the pipeline right of way and rock impact. The strain-based dent assessment using dent signals obtained from inline caliper tools is commonly employed in practice to identify critical dents for mitigation. However, the strains evaluated using the dent signals are sensitive to noises contained in signal. Developing an effective denoising method is therefore crucial to the strain-based dent assessment. This paper compares the effectiveness of the wavelet transform- and Fourier transform-based denoising methods for dent signals. Three-dimensional elasto-plastic finite element analysis (FEA) is employed to simulate indentation scenarios on an unpressurized X60 pipeline segment with an outside diameter of 609.6 mm and a wall thickness of 7.6 mm. The FEA-simulated dent geometry is then employed to generate both noise-free and noisy dent signals by simulating the measuring process of a caliper tool with representative longitudinal and circumferential sampling resolutions. The noisy dent signals are obtained by adding Gaussian white noises to the noise-free signals. The wavelet transform- and Fourier transform-based denoising methods are applied to the generated noisy signals. The dent strains are evaluated using the denoised signals; furthermore, the true dent strains are evaluated using the noise-free signals. The effectiveness and practicality of the two denoising methods are evaluated and compared by comparing the root mean squared error and accuracy of the dent strains obtained from the denoised signals. Based on the analysis results, recommendations are provided regarding the suitable denoising method for practical strain-based dent assessment.
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Management Program for Onshore Pipelines
Authors: Tehsin Nauman , Al-Rabeeah Mohammed A. , Alghamdi Abdullah S. , Al-Hashem Murtadah A. , Aljama Mohammed F. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) on buried pipelines results from simultaneous presence of tensile stress, corrosive environment, and material that is susceptible to SCC. In-Line-Inspection (ILI) using smart tools have been effective in the industry for locating and sizing SCC on pipelines. However, there are some inherent limitations in ILI tools, therefore pipeline operators must develop a comprehensive SCC Integrity Management plan.
Saudi Aramco operates a combined pipeline network of approximately 26,000 kilometers in length. A significant number of Saudi Aramco pipelines were built prior to 1980 with tape coated pipelines, thereby increasing the pipeline network susceptibility to SCC. Saudi Aramco initiated the inspection of these vintage pipelines using Ultrasonic Crack Detection In-Line-Inspection (UTCD ILI) tools and Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer ILI (EMAT ILI) tools respectively to detect the presence of Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). In-Line-Inspection (ILI) results from a total of 21 pipelines showed presence of SCC. These cracks were later verified through direct assessment results. ASME B31.8S provides a criterion for gauging the severity of SCC by comparing the ratio between failure pressure and maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP). This paper will cover details of the SCC integrity management planning including but not limited to the pre-validation SCC control and mitigation measures and post-inspection SCC mitigation measure.
An Operator’s Experience of Managing the Hard Spot Threat
Authors: Vervake Gary , Bag Debartha , Kindel Sam , Shabarchin Oleg , Bolf Brady 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Hard Spots are a recognized pipe manufacturing threat classified under ASME B31.8S for managing system integrity of Natural Gas (NG) transmission pipelines. Hard spots with sufficiently high hardness properties may be susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen stress cracking (HSC). Enbridge experience of managing Hard Spot threat through a Hard Spot ILI program is discussed in this paper. Enbridge has run roughly 2500 miles of Hard Spot tool in its US and Canadian transmission pipelines. Overall tool performance is discussed for both baseline from the perspective of initial Hard Spot callouts and subsequent in-the ditch validation of Hard Spot features. ILI reported Hard Spot features, feature confirmation in the ditch, and subsequent metallurgical laboratory assessment, has been discussed for Enbridge’s gas transmission system. Tool performance has been discussed leveraging Enbridge’s vast mileage of Hard Spot data using API 1163 unity plot methodology comparing tool called features and in-the-ditch and laboratory validation data. Finally, Enbridge’s Bellhole inspection and repair protocol has been discussed specific to related digs for managing the Hard Spot threat.
Leak Detection Using Pressure Transmitters for Pipeline Networks Carrying Multi-Phase Fluids
Authors: Roxas Michael , Girard Matthew , Gunasekaran Prakash , Mokamati Satya 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
With increasing environmental concerns, regulatory and CSA Z662-23 standard requirements [1], leak detection in all pipelines has become a top priority for the energy industry in recent years. Real time leak detection on the upstream pipeline gathering networks carrying emulsions from oil wells to separation facilities is very challenging due to the presence of multiple fluid phases in the pipelines. Due to the unavailability of minimum required instrumentation, SCADA/telemetry on the gathering pipeline network and operational complexity, conventional leak detection methods such as volume balance or real time transient modeling are not possible to implement on these pipelines. In addition, the cost-effectiveness of these technologies doesn’t make it economically feasible to implement them. In this paper, an approach to monitor the emulsion pipeline networks for leak detection using a pressure-based machine learning algorithm is presented. The machine learning-based algorithm uses the pressure data from the beginning and end points of the network to form a closed system that supports creating a decision on whether there is a leak within the pipeline or not.
This paper will demonstrate that with pressure transmitters at the beginning and end points of the pipeline network carrying emulsions, it is feasible to monitor the state of the emulsion pipelines and measure its effectiveness using leak sensitivity, algorithm reliability and robustness during abnormal and degraded operating conditions as the key metrics. The paper will delve into the intricacies of high-frequency data transmission IoT devices to a private cloud system, which plays a pivotal role in continuously monitoring pipeline networks for leaks. The application of this algorithm will be shown for three different pipeline networks with each pipeline containing fluids that have different phase compositions. The paper describes the performance of this algorithm for incidents ranging from small leaks equivalent to a quarter inch leak hole and a full-bore pipeline rupture, which equates to a loss of volume approximately equal to 5–50% of the nominal pipeline flow rate.
Experimental and Statistical Analyses of the Tribological and Weathering Behaviors of Pipeline Support Materials
Authors: Gadala Ibrahim M. , Beauregard Yannick , Martens Michael 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Polymers such as Neoprene, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Ultra-high-molecular-weight (UHMW) polyethylene (PE) are typically used as an intermediary layer between the pipeline or piping structures and rigid ground supports. Neoprene is a commonly used support material but suffers from water accumulation problems and subsequent corrosion of the pipe surfaces in contact with it. Although alternative materials are available, there is a lack of comprehensive data on their friction behaviors with various pipe surface conditions, or their weathering behavior in common environmental conditions. Therefore, in this study friction experiments were conducted on various material/surface combinations, and weathering experiments were conducted on common support materials in relevant environmental conditions. Friction results show that material combinations with Neoprene have the highest static coefficient of friction (CoF), on average. In contrast, combinations with PTFE or in some cases UHMW-PE have the lowest static CoF behaviors, on average. The results of this study are important as inputs in pipeline structural design calculations and vibrational studies or dynamic loading simulations. Comparisons of the performance of various pipe support materials is also useful for high-level material selection and screening purposes.
Mechanical Response and Deformation Behavior of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Buried Steel Pipeline Under Reverse Fault
Authors: Kong Tianwei , Liu Xiaoben , Huang Wei , Zhang Dong , Shi Ning , Wang Hao , Zhang Hong 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In order to investigate the effect of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) on the mechanical response and deformation behavior of buried pipeline under reverse fault, numerical simulation model of carbon fiber reinforced buried steel pipeline under three-dimensional reverse fault is established. The effects of different factors, such as CFRP wrapping thickness, CFRP wrapping length and CFRP wrapping angle on the mechanical response of the pipelines were studied. The results show that with the increase of fault displacement, the structural instability of the pipeline without CFRP wrapping first occurs in the hanging. The ability of the pipeline to resist fault displacement can be greatly improved by wrapping just 10mm thick CFRP. The wrap length has a great influence on the buckling position of the pipeline. The smaller wrap angle is more conducive to increasing the ability of the pipeline to resist fault displacement. For the actual pipeline through the reverse fault, CFRP should be conducted near the fault plane to prevent buckling, the wrap thickness is recommended to be 20mm, the wrap length is recommended to be greater than 30m at both ends of the fault plane, and the wrap angle is recommended to be 15 °.
Local Buckling Failure Analysis of Large-Diameter Steel Pipe With Geometrical Imperfection: A Full Scale Experimental and Numerical Study
Authors: Yu Jiaying , Liu Xiaoben , Wang Yanbing , Zhang Dong , Sun Chao , Chen Pengchao , Zhang Hong , Wang Hao 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The analysis of local buckling behaviors in urban heated water steel pipelines currently relies on empirical formulas derived from axial buckling load principles within elastic thin shell theory.* There is a pressing need to explore more rational elastoplastic failure criteria for pipelines subjected to temperature loads and to propose improved methods for designing anti-buckling wall thickness. In this study, we investigate the local buckling behavior of large-diameter steel pipelines with geometric imperfections under axial compressive loads through a combination of full-scale experiments and numerical simulations. Utilizing a validated numerical algorithm for shell buckling analysis, we develop a refined three-dimensional numerical model integrating solid elements to simulate soil and shell elements to represent the pipeline. This model enables the examination of local buckling behavior in buried pipelines with initial geometric imperfections under temperature loads. Through a parametric 3D numerical model, we systematically explore the quantitative impacts of pipeline geometry parameters (such as pipe diameter and wall thickness), initial imperfection size (including defect width and out-of-straightness), and in-service loads (such as internal pressure and temperature) on the thermal buckling behavior of buried pipelines. We propose empirical formulas to predict peak plastic strain and deformation in the pipe. The findings presented herein furnish theoretical underpinnings for wall thickness design and safety assessment of buried large-diameter steel pipes.
Strain Demand Prediction Model of Buried Pipeline Subjected to Tectonic Fault Displacement Via Deep Learning Models
Authors: Fu Mengkai , Zhang Hong , Zhang Dong , Shao Jia , Bai Luyao , Chen Pengchao , Wang Hao , Liu Xiaoben 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The geological hazard such as strike-slip fault is one of the primary threats to the integrity and the safety of in-service pipeline in China, which triggers ground movement leading to the large-scale deformation and serious tensile and compressive failure on pipeline which will cause serious economic and social disruptions, so it is significant to carry out the precise pipeline mechanical response for effective assessments of safety status prediction. Therefore, the accurate numerical simulation of pipeline crossing geological hazards area is established based on the finite element method software ABAQUS with the consideration of the elastoplastic property of high-grade X80 pipe steel. With the combination of ABAQUS and Python, the pipeline under different working condition such as pipeline geometric dimensioning, soil surface movement, pipeline inner pressure and soil type was formulated and the maximum strain of pipeline database for machine learning and deep learning models’ training and validation dataset was formed according to the database above. Base on this database, models including the Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Categorical Boosting (CatBoost) and improved Residual Neural Network (ResNet) model were trained and validated. The results show that the finite element-deep learning conjoint analysis method has the significant advantages of high prediction accuracy. This research serves as a valuable reference and useful guide for the safety state analysis of pipeline under geological hazard.
Numerical Analysis of Cold Bending of Pipelines
Authors: Eskandari Farzad , Kenny Shawn , Fatemi Ali , Martens Michael 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Cold bends are used to accommodate directional changes in the pipe horizontal alignment or vertical profile. Industry standards and current engineering practice provide guidance on the fabrication of cold bends. There is no explicit constraint on the location of the longitudinal seam weld, in relation to the neutral axis of the bending plane, provided the pipe is greater than 305 mm in diameter with a D/t ratio less than 70. Improved understanding on the influence of the seam weld and bend angle on the pipe mechanical deformation, stress and strain response is needed. The outcomes from this study can be used to inform the critical parameters influencing the cold bending of longitudinal seam welded pipe.