bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Perceptual Levels and Their Action-Theoretic Counterparts
Authors: Audi Robert 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapter 3 explains how perceptions are like actions in that some are, for a given perceiver at a given time, basic and others not. In neither case are the relevant by-relations—seeing x by seeing y and doing one thing by doing another—inferential. It is shown, however, that these points allow for our concepts and theories to influence perception. Several interpretations of theory-ladenness are described, and the chapter argues that perception itself is not inferential or, necessarily, theory-laden in depending on a theory or theoretical concepts. Our theories can influence what we perceive, particularly by leading us to see something as a theory says it is; but much as action constitutes a direct way in which, however complicated the causal underpinnings, we intervene in the world, perception constitutes a direct way in which, however long and complicated the causal conditions for it, the world intervenes in the mind.
Perception, Intuition, and Apprehension
Authors: Audi Robert 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter brings the theory of perception developed in Chapters 1 to 6 to bear on clarifying intuition, especially regarding abstract elements. Intuitive apprehension of these elements has much in common with perception. Such intuition is structurally parallel to perception, and it is experientially representational in a way that enables it to confer, as does perception, (prima facie) justification on beliefs. Moreover, both perception and intuitive apprehension are non-inferential, hence not premise-based. Both, given their status as embodying sensory or intuitive seemings, yield (and can explain) inclinations to believe and can explain belief-formation. Like perceptions, intuitions (in their occurrent forms) are direct responses to something one considers or otherwise experiences; they are not inferential responses to a premise. As experiential, non-inferential, and phenomenally representational, intuitions can confer justification on beliefs. This ascription of directness to intuitive apprehensions goes well with their role in explicating the self-evident—which, in certain cases, is paradigmatically intuitive—and thereby in accounting for a priori justification and knowledge.
The Crimes of Seditious Libel and Seditious Speech
Authors: Bird Wendell 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter provides the legal context for these discussions of eighteenth-century freedoms of press and speech and seditious publishing and speaking. The common law crimes of seditious libel and seditious words arose in England to criminalize dissent toward the king or government officials that could not successfully be suppressed as treason. The seventeenth-century crime of seditious libel was created by the Star Chamber’s Case of Libellis Famosis and other cases, and quickly attracted criticism for the Star Chamber’s prosecutions of such dissidents as Dr. Alexander Leighton, William Prynne, Dr. John Bastwick, Rev. Henry Burton, and John Lilburne. After the Revolution of 1688, that and other Star Chamber precedents were adopted by Lord Chief Justice John Holt, and an eighteenth-century framework of unique rules for prosecuting seditious libel was assembled by Holt in a series of cases, and was revised by Lord Chief Justice Mansfield.
The Emerging Broad British View of Freedoms of Press and Speech, Before the Colonial Crisis
Authors: Bird Wendell 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
For a time after licensing expired in England in 1695, some people identified freedom of press narrowly as freedom from licensing, but a broader concept was spreading. For example, Young Gentleman in 1712 said that one side sought restraint “either by reviving the [Licensing] Act . . . or by some other law” (like taxes), while the other side advocated “unrestrain’d freedom of the press” based on “the liberty and property of the subject, which all Britains are so tender of” and which “no act of Parliament . . . can infringe.” Increasingly, freedoms of press and speech were described as something more than freedom from prior restraint, such as “freedom . . . to communicate his sentiments to the public,” a right to publish, liberty of inquiry, freedom from any restraint, or security from prosecution. Cato’s Letters in 1720 stressed that if officials were trustees for the people, discussion and criticism of their trusteeship was a right.
The Dominant British View of Freedoms of Press and Speech, in the Decade Before Fox’s Libel Act and America’s Bill of Rights
Authors: Bird Wendell 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
In the 1780s in Britain, a broad view of freedoms of press and speech had become the dominant one, outside crown-appointed judges and Parliament. In response, Lord Mansfield reiterated his view that “liberty of the press consists in printing without any previous license.” Defense counsel in that leading libel prosecution questioned “how can it be said that the press is free because every thing may be published without a previous license, if the publisher of the most meritorious work . . . may be prosecuted” after publishing and with heavily biased rules? A large chorus of other writers said more categorically that criminal “trials for libels . . . are Star-Chamber law, which this country should not countenance,” and were inconsistent with “liberty of the press.” That broad understanding of freedoms of press and speech, which had become dominant in the 1780s, was the context in which Fox’s Libel Act became law in 1792.
The Dominant American View of Freedoms of Press and Speech, in the Decade Leading Up to Ratification of the Federal Bill of Rights
Authors: Bird Wendell 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
In the 1780s in America, the advocates of broad understandings of freedom of press and freedom of speech continued to argue, as “Junius Wilkes” did in 1782, that “[i]f a printer is liable to prosecution and restraint, for publishing pieces on public measures, conceived libellous, the liberty of the press is annihilated and ruined. . . . The danger is precisely the same to liberty, in punishing a person after the performance appears to the world, as in preventing its publication in the first instance. The doctrine of libels, is of pernicious consequence to the freedom of the press.” Many other essays in the 1780s showed the dominance of an expansive understanding of freedoms of press and speech, as did the declarations of rights of nine states. That was the context in which the First Amendment was adopted and ratified in 1789–1791. These conclusions about the prevalent and dominant understanding after the mid-1760s are flatly contrary to the narrow view of freedoms of press and speech stated by Blackstone and Mansfield, and restated by the neo-Blackstonians, who claim that the narrow understanding was not only predominant but exclusive through the ratification of the First Amendment and onward until 1798. This book’s conclusions are based on far more original source material than the neo-Blackstonians’ conclusions.
Who Gets Heard? Permission to Appeal Decisions
Authors: Hanretty Chris 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the “permission to appeal” (PTA) process at the Supreme Court. Each year more than two hundred litigants seek permission to appeal from the Supreme Court. Around one-third of these applications are successful. This chapter tries to explain rates of success. The key factors are the importance of the case the litigants are appealing, and the number of judges the appellants have convinced in lower courts. This matches the court’s own description of the cases it selects (“cases that raise arguable points of law of general importance”). However, the chapter also finds that governmental actors are more likely to gain permission to appeal even when controlling for importance and the balance of judicial opinion in lower courts.
Panel Formation
Authors: Hanretty Chris 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at the identity of the judges chosen to hear each case. The Supreme Court is unlike other courts: it does not sit en banc, and the five-, seven-, or nine-judge panels are not chosen randomly, but are drawn up by court officials working together with senior judges. This chapter looks at explanations of how these panels are chosen. The key finding is that specialists in the relevant area of law are prohibitive favorites to be chosen to hear cases in those areas of law—and this effect is stronger the more important the case is. There is no evidence of political factors playing a role—if anything, judges who agree with senior judges are less likely to be picked for important cases.
Conclusions: Specialism and the Primacy of the Legal
Authors: Hanretty Chris 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This final chapter draws out some of the key messages of the book—how the behavior of judges on the Supreme Court can be best characterized using legal factors; and that among these, specialization in areas of law plays a key role. A review of the different models presented in the book shows that legal factors predominate when explaining the initial selection of cases, the size of the panel, the identity of the lead opinion author(s), and the final outcome. The conclusion identifies the key findings for different audiences, and sets out directions for future research on judges in common law systems.
A Theory of Recognition
Authors: King Elisabeth 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter presents a theoretical framework for analyzing the adoption of ethnic recognition and its effects in conflict-affected contexts. It explains the book’s focus on leaders and the important decisions they face in managing ethnic divisions. It then presents possible explanations for the adoption of recognition, grouped into domestic and international explanations, and highlights what is missing from these accounts—namely, a focus on ethnic power configurations and how they influence leaders’ strategic concerns. The chapter then details the assuring effects of recognition on one hand and mobilization effects on the other, illustrating the mechanisms underlying each and the way these effects may influence the adoption or non-adoption of recognition as well as the effects of recognition on peace. The chapter also introduces the concept of “the dilemma of recognition” that arises for minority leaders and theorizes the implications for peace of recognition under different ethnic power configurations.
Ethnic Recognition Under Minority Rule in Ethiopia
Authors: King Elisabeth 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the adoption and effects on peace of past non-recognition and contemporary ethnic recognition under minority rule in Ethiopia. On the question of adopting ethnic federalism, it shows that the ruling Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) had a keen understanding of its minority position and appreciated the assuring benefits of recognition. While the TPLF acknowledged the mobilization risks of recognition, the nature of Ethiopia’s war-to-peace transition made it such that the new minority leadership needed to recognize ethnic groups in order to win power. On the question of effects on peace, the chapter assesses the assuring effects of ethnic federalism, the authoritarian strategies that the minority-led regime used to compensate against the mobilization risks, and the mixed implications for peace. The chapter concludes by considering future prospects after the 2018 change in leadership to a plurality Oromo leader for the first time in Ethiopian history.
The Illusion of Clinical Success
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses how clinicians struggle to identify and treat illnesses whose sources often lie outside the medical system. That is what makes root causes so powerful: they escape ready treatment and underlie a multiplicity of medical presentations. The same root cause can be responsible for a gastrointestinal or a respiratory problem, for an injury or a hepatic problem. This is why, when one thinks of the causes of medical problems strictly from an organ-based perspective, it is never enough. Because medical problems often do not arise in their end organs; they are bodily manifestations of underlying issues. These issues—such as inadequate housing, limited access to addiction treatment, poverty, and terrible neighborhoods—are medical challenges. As such, aside from being responsible for solving the immediate problem—the disease in front of them—clinicians must also grapple with the underlying causes. They can choose to become advocates, voices for public health outside of the hospital or clinic, or they can work within their day-to-day system, encouraging their hospital or clinic to embrace improving the underlying conditions that shape the health of patients.
Water Quality Violations
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on water quality violations in America. Most Americans have access to safe drinking water. However, there are pockets of American communities that are afflicted with high levels of contaminated water. In 2015, almost 10% of Americans were drinking contaminated water that violated water quality standards. The chapter then evaluates research at the University of California, Irvine, which examined water quality violations across the United States from 1982 to 2015. Researchers analyzed geographic and temporal patterns, with the goal of helping state enforcement agencies focus their attention on areas at high risk of contamination. The researchers cite decreasing population size and incomes as common obstacles faced by rural populations trying to follow water purification standards. Indeed, rural towns often rely on outside funding and low-interest government loans to support infrastructure to correct water quality violations. However, as of June 2017, over $600 million in grant funding was cut from Environmental Protection Agency drinking water programs. Such cuts, coupled with attempted environmental deregulation, threaten the public’s health.
Immigration and the Health of the Public
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter highlights the importance of the health of immigrants. The health of immigrants in their adopted home is strongly shaped by social, economic, and political conditions in that country. Legal status in the host country, for example, is associated with access to a broad range of health services and resultant better health. Perhaps unsurprisingly, aggressive anti-immigration policies create poor health for the population they target. For example, family separation and detention at the borders traumatize families, deepening the mental health needs of this vulnerable group. Moreover, federal raids can affect the birthweight of babies born to US-born Latina women, following immigration authority raids in search of undocumented Latinos. Ultimately, creating the conditions for immigrants to stay healthy helps everyone. Rather than listen to voices that rail against the imagined evils of immigration, people should do everything they can to maximize the health of immigrants, by working to include them in the fabric of American life and providing them with the basic social services they need in order to be well.
Out of School, out of Luck
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the health of students. Out-of-school suspension is linked to lower grades, increased expulsions, and increased risk of incarceration. Disciplinary action through suspension is centered on a student’s behavior, which is often influenced by complex social challenges such as poverty, mental illness, and lack of parental support. Indeed, most suspensions result from multiple school absences and tardy reports, which are commonly linked to difficult family situations. Moreover, teachers’ implicit biases also contribute to the harshness of the punishment they dispense. Research shows that students of color suffer from harsher disciplinary outcomes from white teachers than from teachers of the same race. And boys and black students make up the majority of suspension cases. There are ways people can address this unfairness. Schools in Massachusetts have attempted to collaborate with mental health professionals and social workers to support students undergoing traumatic experiences. Districts in Texas have introduced “personal break rooms” where children can calm down and redirect their emotions after a frustrating incident. These are examples of how people can address students’ behavior, while reducing the inequalities that can influence disciplinary actions. Such steps can help create better learning environments, with the aim of producing healthier students.
The Health of the Poorest 50%
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the health of the poorest 50% of Americans. Pretax income for the poorest 50% of Americans has remained the same over the past 40 years, while their after-tax income has dropped as taxes have increased for this same group. Regressive taxation has deepened wealth gaps, virtually assuring a continuing cycle of low income earning. The national share of income owned by the richest 50% of Americans has grown commensurately during this period, and the health indicators have responded accordingly. The slope of the income–health relationship has grown even steeper since 2000; the health advantage that those with higher incomes have over those with lower incomes is greater than it has been in the past four or more decades. Why is this? Americans continue to invest less in the social resources that can mitigate the challenges that come with a lower income, even as they spend ever more on high-end medicine that is accessed principally by those who can afford it. Social institutions like education that traditionally have led to social mobility and better health have become increasingly the provenance of the well-off.
Names Matter in the Opioid Epidemic
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses the stigma attached to those who use drugs. We are accustomed to using language to distance ourselves from those with substance use problems, making sure we mark those who use drugs as “the other,” as not like us. Indeed, we have used nouns to label those who use drugs so that they are discredited; this has consequences for their self-identity. Part of the challenge of the opioid epidemic is the ongoing stigmatization of persons who use drugs. We have shown ourselves to be comfortable letting the problems of persons who use drugs remain their business, deluding ourselves into thinking the health of drug users is not intimately tied to our own. The current epidemic has taught us that we all know someone who has developed a drug problem. In the face of this crisis, quibbling over words may seem like a distraction, a minor issue, but, in fact, using the right language to talk about drug use is a step toward ending this epidemic. It helps us remember drug use is not just a problem for “them,” but for everyone, and that only through compassion and collective effort can we effectively address the disease of addiction.
Invest in Health, Not Death
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter assesses the inevitability of death and the need to think about how people can live healthy lives, without ignoring how they end. Once people accept that they are going to die, how they spend their money and their time on health begins to shift. Perhaps death can help people focus on living better, on the conditions people need to create in order to generate health. Of course, people should not neglect the experience of dying. Two out of three Americans do not have advance directives that guide what treatments they receive if they are sick, and they cannot communicate the end-of-life care that they want. Engaging in a dialogue about how people manage the dying process can help correct this oversight. It is also important to remember those who are left. The dead leave behind the grieving, who can experience a burden of poor health that is directly linked to loss of their loved one. Ultimately, recognizing the inevitability of death can guide people toward ways in which they can live healthier, die with dignity, and ensure their loved ones are supported when they pass on.
Direct-to-Docs Opioid Marketing
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter addresses the pharmaceutical industry’s direct-to-physician marketing of opioids, a factor that has fueled the current addiction epidemic. A 2019 study sought to understand the relationship between mortality from opioid overdose and the pharmaceutical industry’s direct marketing of opioids to physicians. The study analyzed the association between three factors in every US county: the amount of marketing payments pharmaceutical companies made to physicians, opioid prescribing rates, and the number of overdose deaths. Researchers found that direct marketing of opioids to physicians was associated with increased opioid prescribing rates and increased overdose mortality 1 year after marketing engagements. As such, the national response to the opioid epidemic has focused in part on reducing the number of opioids prescribed by physicians. Additionally, the Physician Payments Sunshine Act promotes financial transparency between pharmaceutical companies and health care providers. By increasing regulation around pharmaceutical direct-to-physician marketing, and by making reports of pharmaceutical company payments to physicians available to the public, states have the potential to reduce overdose mortality.
Housing and the Public’s Health
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the importance of housing for public health. There are ample data linking poor housing conditions to a broad range of infectious diseases, chronic diseases, injuries, childhood development and nutrition issues, and mental health concerns. In addition, the burden of poor housing is not distributed evenly across populations. Families with fewer resources are likelier to live in unhealthy homes, and they are less likely to be able to improve the condition of their living situations. Moreover, high housing costs often put families and individuals in the position of having to trade between healthy housing and other basic necessities, such as food or medication. Structural forces perpetuate housing inequities. Landlords and real estate agents have contributed to racial/ethnic segregation by blocking minorities from moving to predominately white neighborhoods, which often leads to the exclusion of minorities from high-quality housing, schools, and other public services. Further, predominantly minority communities receive less investment from lenders to improve housing quality and neighborhood environments. Thus, improving housing must mean improving housing equity, so that all can access the benefits of having a safe, healthy place to live.
Making Aging Healthier
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter studies four new realities which need to be considered in addressing the needs of the aging population. First, healthy aging is the ultimate example of prevention in action. To age in a healthy way, we have to prevent disease from taking hold, suggesting a redoubled effort in preventing some of the conditions—such as obesity and substance use—that result in unhealthy older life. Second, we must take steps such as creating more accessible built environments, and ensuring older adults have volunteer opportunities, to make sure populations remain integrated in communities as they age. Third, we must close health gaps that exist among aging populations. These include gaps created by race, LGBTQ status, and socioeconomic status. Finally, we need to intensify our efforts to tackle the health challenges that older people face, such as Alzheimer’s disease.