bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International and Supranational Law
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter turns to international and supranational law. It focuses on international law in the context of the Council of Europe (CoE) and on supranational law in the context of the European Union (EU). The chapter first discusses the concept of jurisdiction and its formative status in national, international, and supranational law, after which it provides a more in-depth overview of international law and supranational law. This involves a discussion of the relationship between national constitutions and the binding force of international treaties, the role of consent and custom in the force of international law, and the legal effect of fundamental principles and mandatory law that no state can ignore. Next, the special case of the supranational EU jurisdiction is introduced, notably the distribution of sovereignty between the member states and the Union and the most important legislative instruments: regulations and directives. Finally, the mutually constitutive relationship between internal and external sovereignty is connected with the idea of an international rule of law that addresses states as fiduciary agents of the international legal order.
Privacy and Data Protection
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter covers privacy and data protection. This entails a series of legal requirements for development and design, for the default settings, and for the employment of computer architectures. In addition, the chapter defines the right to privacy as a subjective right, attributed by objective law, which may be national (constitutional) law, international human rights law, or supranational law (EU fundamental rights law). The chapter first confronts the landscape of human rights law at the global, national, and EU level. It then inquires into the right of privacy, as guaranteed under the ECHR and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFREU), and finally provides an extensive analysis of the new fundamental right to data protection, as guaranteed by the CFREU and protected by the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
Copyright in Cyberspace
Authors: Hildebrandt Mireille 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter is an introduction to the domain of intellectual property (IP) rights, notably copyright. For computer scientists, the most relevant part of copyright law concerns copyright on computer programs, or software. Copyright on software is the enabling precondition for the General Public Licence (GPL) and the open source initiative. Before discussing copyright on software, however, this chapter first investigates the position of IP law in the context of constitutional democracy and clarifies that IP law is private law. From there, the chapter provides an overview of the various types of IP that are most relevant, after which it turns to the history, objectives, and scope of copyright protection. Finally, this chapter discusses EU copyright law and the issues of open source and free access.
Institutional Expression
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The chapter demonstrates that the very act of reacting to atrocities, and institutionalization itself, has expressive meaning. Institutions rely on symbolism, rituals, and mimetic practices in order to ensure their own survival. This also applies to international criminal courts and tribunals. Sometimes the ‘medium is the message’. Throughout history, the establishment of institutions has sent different signals, such as memory and remembrance, shame and apology, renewal of community relations, hope and belief or protest. International criminal justice relies on action. Speech act theory is helpful to understand the various meanings of institutional action. Acts, such as jurisdictional determinations (e.g. complementarity), preliminary examinations or investigations, arrests, or cooperation create new narrative subjects, entail commands or incentives for action, or convey attitudes. Outreach and legacy strategies involve strong didactic rationales. They are often more geared towards one-sided expression rather than two-way communication or mutual learning
Ethics Through History
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This book is a selective discussion of the tradition in moral philosophy that runs from Socrates to the present. The main themes: (1) Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, and the Stoics take different positions in debates the relation between morality (including right action and the character of virtuous agents) and the human good. Aquinas’ version of an Aristotelian view identifies the human good with the fulfilment of human nature and capacities in a just society. These facts about the human good can be discovered by rational reflexion on human nature and human needs. (2) These views both about the content of ethics and about the sources of ethical knowledge are questioned by Scotus and later writers on natural law. Voluntarists take the principles of natural law and moral right to be the products of will; naturalists take them to be discovered by reason. (3) The dispute about will and reason is the source of the long dispute between sentimentalists (Hutcheson, Hume) and rationalists (Butler, Price, Reid) about whether moral judgment has a non-rational or a rational basis. Kant tries to resolve this dispute. (4) These arguments lead to further discussion about what makes morally right actions right. Sentimentalists, followed by Mill and Sidgwick and by later utilitarians, argue that actions are right in so far as they maximize pleasure. Others, including the rationalists, Kant, Ross, and Rawls, argue that moral principles are not subordinate to utility.
New biomarkers in SLE: from bench to bedside
Authors: Capecchi Riccardo , Puxeddu Ilaria , Pratesi Federico , Migliorini Paola 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Biomarkers may have a diagnostic or monitoring value, or may predict response to therapy or disease course. The aim of this review is to discuss new serum and urinary biomarkers recently proposed for the diagnosis and management of SLE patients. Novel sensitive and specific assays have been proposed to evaluate complement proteins, ‘old’ biomarkers that are still a cornerstone in the management of this disease. Chemokines and lectins have been evaluated as surrogate biomarkers of IFN signature. Other cytokines like the B cell activating factor (BAFF) family cytokines are directly related to perturbations of the B cell compartment as key pathogenetic mechanism of the disease. A large number of urine biomarkers have been proposed, either related to the migration and homing of leukocytes to the kidney or to the local regulation of inflammatory circuits and the survival of renal intrinsic cells. The combination of traditional disease-specific biomarkers and novel serum or urine biomarkers may represent the best choice to correctly classify, stage and treat patients with SLE.
Takotsubo syndrome and rheumatic diseases—a critical systematic review
Authors: Lin Weiqin , Tay Sen Hee , Mak Anselm 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Since its description in 1990, Takotsubo syndrome (TTS), an acute cardiac condition triggered by physical or emotional stress, has been believed to be related to catecholamine surge from overwhelming sympathetic activity. While symptomatology, biochemical features, ECG and echocardiogram alterations are largely indistinguishable from acute coronary syndrome, the absence of culprit coronary lesions often necessitates further investigations, uncovering underlying inflammatory processes. Mechanistically, animal models of TTS reveal early neutrophil infiltration followed by staged ingression of two subtypes of macrophages (M1, M2) mediating initial acute inflammatory changes (M1), followed by switching to anti-inflammatory signals (M2) that enhance myocardial tissue recovery. Here, we begin with a description of two TTS patients with primary Sjögren’s syndrome and Takayasu’s arteritis, followed by a systematic literature review that summarizes the demographic and clinical features of TTS patients with rheumatological conditions. Potential impact of disease manifestations and treatment of rheumatological conditions on TTS are critically discussed.
Reducing Stigma Toward Individuals With Schizophrenia Using a Brief Video: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Young Adults
Authors: Amsalem Doron , Yang Lawrence H , Jankowski Samantha , Lieff Sarah A , Markowitz John C , Dixon Lisa B 
Published: July 2020

AbstractObjectiveStigma decreases healthcare seeking and treatment adherence and increases the duration of untreated psychosis among people with first-episode psychosis (FEP). This study evaluated the efficacy of a brief video-based intervention in reducing stigma among youth toward individuals with FEP and schizophrenia. We hypothesized that the social-contact-based video intervention group would reduce stigma more than written vignette and control groups, and the vignette more than the control group.MethodsUsing Amazon Mechanical Turk, we recruited and assigned 1203 individuals aged 18–30 to either (a) video intervention, (b) written description of the same content (“vignette”), or (c) nonintervention control arm. In the 90-second video intervention, an empowered young woman with schizophrenia described her FEP and the aspects of successful coping with her everyday life difficulties, exposing the viewer to schizophrenia in the context of her personal narrative. Web-based self-report questionnaires assessed stigma domains, including social distance, stereotyping, separateness, social restriction, and perceived recovery.ResultsA MANOVA showed a significant between-group effects for all 5 stigma-related subscales (P &lt; .001). Post hoc pairwise tests showed significant differences between video and vignette vs control for all 5 stigma domains. Video and vignette groups differed significantly on social distance, stereotyping, and social restriction. Secondary analyses revealed gender differences across stigma domains in the video group only, with women reporting lower stigma.ConclusionsA very brief social contact-based video intervention efficaciously reduced stigma toward individuals with FEP. This is the first study to demonstrate such an effect. Further research should examine its long-term sustainability.
Spinal Casting for the Treatment of Severe Early Onset Scoliosis: Utilization of a Nonsurgical Health Care Provider for Cast Application
Authors: Dermott Jennifer A. , Zeller Reinhard , Lebel David E. 
Published: July 2020

Background:
Spinal casting with the aim of delaying surgical intervention is a widely accepted but resource intensive conservative management strategy used by spine surgeons to treat severe early onset scoliosis. Opting to use a nonsurgical health care provider for cast application may be an effective use of human resources if the quality of care is not compromised. This study aimed to evaluate the outcomes of spinal cast treatment utilizing a nonsurgical health care provider for cast application.

Methods:
This is a chart and radiographic review of all 30 patients that initiated spinal cast treatment between 2007 and 2018 and have at least 2-year follow-up. A spine surgeon applied all casts before July 14; a physical therapist (PT) applied all subsequent casts. Comparative analyses were performed for baseline data and the amount of correction achieved in initial cast. Complications and delay time to surgery were recorded.

Results:
The PT cast 16 patients (12 female, 10 idiopathic, 64 casts total), average age 3.8±1.4 years and mean major curve of 63±18 degrees. Similarly the spine surgeon cast 14 patients (11 female, 8 idiopathic, 53 casts total), average age 4.4±1.7 years (P=0.30) and mean major curve of 63±11 degrees (P=0.93). In the initial cast the PT obtained 55%±13% (28±12 degrees) correction and the surgeon 44%±12% (36±12 degrees, P=0.09). The average number of casts was similar (4.0 vs. 3.8, P=0.7). The PT had 1 patient develop superior mesenteric artery syndrome, which resolved with cast removal, and the surgeon had 2 patients require extra care related to skin breakdown. With average follow-up of 4.15 years (range, 2.0 to 5.8 y) 11/14 PT patients demonstrate curve improvement compared with their initial presentation and 2 patients have undergone surgical intervention (3.2 and 4.3 y after first cast). The surgeon’s average delay time to surgery was 4.3 years (range, 1.8 to 8.7 y after first cast, n=10).

Conclusions:
The results of this study support our current model of care utilizing a nonsurgical health care practitioner for spinal cast application.

Level of Evidence:
Level III—retrospective comparative.
Disparities in Surgical Recommendation for Stage I Non–Small Cell Lung Cancer
Authors: Rapp Joseph L. , Tuminello Stephanie , Alpert Naomi , Flores Raja M. , Taioli Emanuela 
Published: July 2020

Objectives:
Sociodemographic disparities in lung cancer prevalence, treatment options offered, and outcomes have been well documented. In stage I non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the standard of care is surgical resection. This study explores disparities in surgical recommendations in stage I NSCLC, when surgery is considered curative.

Materials and Methods:
Patients diagnosed with primary stage I NSCLC from 2007 to 2016 were identified from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database (N=56,534). Associations between sociodemographic variables and surgical recommendation were assessed using multivariable logistic regression models. Survival impact was investigated using Cox-proportional hazards regression and propensity matching techniques.

Results:
Of the 76.9% patients recommended surgery, 95% underwent surgery. Recommended surgery was inversely associated with increasing age (P<0.01), non-Hispanic Black race (adjusted odds ratio [ORadj] 0.64, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.59-0.70), Hispanic ethnicity (ORadj 0.75, 95% CI: 0.67-0.84), nonprivate/Medicare insurance (Medicaid: ORadj 0.55, 95% CI: 0.51-0.60; insured with unknown plan: ORadj 0.74, 95% CI: 0.69-0.79; uninsured: ORadj 0.45, 95% CI: 0.36-0.55), and single status (ORadj 0.66, 95% CI: 0.63-0.70). Patients who were not recommended surgery were at increased risk of death compared with those who were recommended.

Conclusion:
In a cohort of NSCLC patients, nonclinical factors identified a subgroup of patients who were less likely to be recommended surgery.
A Novel Quantitative Method for Analyzing Desmopressin in Human Plasma Using Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry
Authors: de Jager Nico C. B. , Heijdra Jessica M. , Pistorius Marcel , Kruip Marieke J. H. A. , Leebeek Frank W. G. , Cnossen Marjon H. , Mathôt Ron A. A. 
Published: July 2020

Background:Desmopressin (d-aminod-arginine vasopressin: dDAVP) is used for the treatment of patients with hemophilia A and Von Willebrand disease. Studies on the rationale of dosing are scarce and mainly focus on the underlying causes of the vast differences in desmopressin response among individuals. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the quantification of desmopressin in human plasma for identifying its pharmacokinetics and its therapeutic effect relationship in patients with bleeding disorder.Methods:The method entails solid-phase extraction with ion exchange for sample clean-up, followed by an LC-MS/MS run. The technique has been validated for analytical selectivity as well as specificity, process efficiency, linearity, accuracy, imprecision, and stability.Results:This method showed good selectivity because no significant chromatographic matrix interferences were observed. The determination coefficient (R2) of the calibration curves was ≥0.990. Analyte accuracy ranged from 89.2% to 111.8%, and the between- and within-run imprecision was less than 9.3% in a plasma concentration and range from 60 to 3200 pg/mL. Samples were stable during 3 freeze/thaw cycles with an additional 120 hours of storage at room temperature (21°C–24°C) and 96 hours in the autosampler (10°C). The total run time was approximately 5 minutes.Conclusions:The LC-MS/MS method presented enables quantification of desmopressin in human plasma, and it is sensitive, specific, efficient, accurate, and precise. This analytical technique is a valuable and useful tool to study the interpatient variability of pharmacokinetics.
Experimental models of sarcoidosis: where are we now?
Authors: Jeny Florence , Grutters Jan C. 
Published: July 2020

Purpose of review
Sarcoidosis remains a mysterious disease that presents many challenges both in pathogenetic understanding and in the management of patients. This review presents experimental models for sarcoidosis developed since 2016 and discusses their strengths and weaknesses and how they have contributed to the understanding and therapeutic approaches in this disease. In addition, future directions are proposed to overcome the limitations of current models.

Recent findings
New cellular models using infectious antigen as trigger, and transgenic models in mice have recently been developed to study signaling pathways potentially implicated in the pathogenesis of sarcoidosis.

Summary
No model fully reproduces sarcoidosis, but most of them generate data supporting key concepts and some open up therapeutic perspectives, like mTOR inhibition or IL-1β blocking. However, there are still many limitations to these models, largely related to the complexity of sarcoidosis, which might be overcome with new technologies, such as mathematical modeling.
Immunology of sarcoidosis: old companions, new relationships
Authors: Cinetto Francesco , Scarpa Riccardo , Dell’Edera Alessandro , Jones Mark G. 
Published: July 2020

Purpose of review
The immune determinants of granuloma formation and disease progression in sarcoidosis have not been completely disclosed, and the role of both innate and the adaptive immunity is still under investigation.

Recent findings
M2 macrophage polarization, previously thought to be a specific feature of a progressing and fibrosing disease, has been related to the initial steps of granuloma formation both in animal and in-vitro models. The dysregulation of specific metabolic pathways and autophagy has been associated with disease activity and progression. T cells have been reported to be strongly influenced by a macrophage-driven microenvironment and more dangerous when acquiring hybrid phenotypes (e.g. Th17.1) or even becoming anergic, leading to disease chronicization. Locally released serum amyloid A was suggested to induce a more pro-inflammatory Th17 transcription program. The possible role of in-situ humoral immunity and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells has also been highlighted.

Summary
Evidence points at microenvironment and cell functional features rather than cell polarization or differentiation as determinants of pathogenesis. In terms of therapeutic implications, future advances will rely on molecular disease profiling, aiming at personalized and combined therapeutic approaches.
Actions of immune cells in the hypertensive kidney
Authors: Lu Xiaohan , Crowley Steven D. 
Published: July 2020

Purpose of review
Inflammatory processes play a critical role in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Innate and adaptive immune responses participate in blood pressure (BP) elevation and end-organ damage. In this review, we discuss recent studies illustrating mechanisms through which immune cells and cytokines regulate BP via their actions in the kidney.

Recent findings
Cells of the innate immune system, including monocytes, neutrophils, and dendritic cells, can all promote BP elevation via effects on kidney function. These innate immune cells can directly impact oxidative stress and cytokine generation in the kidney and/or present antigens to lymphocytes for the engagement of the adaptive immune system. Once activated by dendritic cells, effector memory T cells accumulate in the hypertensive kidney and facilitate renal salt and water retention. Individual subsets of activated T cells can secrete tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-17a (IL-17a), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), each of which has augmented the elevation of blood pressure in hypertensive models by enhancing renal sodium transport. B cells, regulate blood pressure via vasopressin receptor 2 (V2R)-dependent effects on fluid transport in the kidney.

Summary
Immune cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems drive sodium retention and blood pressure elevation in part by altering renal solute transport.
The importance of anal cancer screening and high-resolution anoscopy to gastroenterology practice
Authors: Bull-Henry Kathy , Morris Bridget , Buchwald Ulrike K. 
Published: July 2020

Purpose of review
Although human papillomavirus (HPV)-related anal squamous cell cancer (ASCC) is rare, its incidence has been rising and in high-risk populations exceeds the incidence of cancers for which screening programs are implemented. Therefore, targeted screening techniques are being evaluated with high-resolution anoscopy (HRA) as the current gold standard because of its ability to detect anal intraepithelial dysplasia (AIN) and premalignant high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs). However, a scarcity of trained providers presents a barrier to screening.

Recent findings
ASCC incidence is rising especially in elderly women and young black men. Premalignant HSIL may not only progress to ASCC but also regress. Biomarkers such as HPV type, p16 immunostaining and DNA methylation markers may emerge as predictors of disease progression.
HRA with acetic acid and Lugol's iodine staining can be used to detect HSIL and ASCC. Recent studies suggest that anal cancer screening may have an impact on the stage of ASCC at diagnosis and the incidence of anal cancer.
The Anal Cancer HSIL Outcomes Research (ANCHOR) study is underway to determine whether treating HSIL effects ASCC incidence.

Summary
Although there are no consensus screening guidelines for anal cancer, it is reasonable to screen high-risk populations with physical examination, anal cytology and HRA. Gastroenterologists can support anal cancer screening programmes through identifying patients at risk, performing noninvasive screening and considering to incorporate endoscopic techniques to examine the anal canal.

Video abstract

http://links.lww.com/COG/A32.
18F-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography in muscle-invasive bladder cancer
Authors: Einerhand Sarah M.H. , van Gennep Erik J. , Mertens Laura S. , Hendricksen Kees , Donswijk Maarten L. , van der Poel Henk G. , van Rhijn Bas W.G. 
Published: July 2020

Purpose of reviewIn this narrative review, we assessed the role of18F-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose-positron emission tomography/CT (FDG-PET/CT) in preoperative staging and response evaluation of neoadjuvant chemotherapy in muscle-invasive bladder carcinoma (MIBC), and to assess its incremental value to contrast-enhanced (CE)CT and MRI in terms of patient management at initial diagnosis and detection of recurrence.Recent findingsA literature search in PubMed yielded 46 original reports, of which 15 compared FDG-PET/CT with CECT and one with MRI. For primary tumor assessment, FDG-PET/CT proved not accurate enough (13 reports;n = 7–70). For lymph node assessment, sensitivity of FDG-PET/CT is superior to CT with comparable specificity in 19 studies (n = 15–233). For detection of distant metastases, data from eight studies (n = 43–79) suggests that FDG-PET/CT is accurate, although comparative studies are lacking. Limited evidence (four studies,n = 19–50) suggests that FDG-PET/CT is not accurate for response evaluation of neoadjuvant chemotherapy. FDG-PET/CT incited change(s) in patient management in 18–68% of patients (five reports;n = 57–103). For detection of recurrence, seven studies (n = 29–287) indicated that FDG-PET/CT is accurate.SummaryMost studies evaluated FDG-PET/CT for lymph node assessment and reported higher sensitivity than CT, with comparable specificity. FDG-PET/CT showed incremental value to CECT for recurrence and often incited change(s) in patient management.