bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Revision of Material Requirements of the EPRG Tier 2 Guidelines for Weld Defect Acceptance
Authors: Hertelé Stijn , Huising Otto Jan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The 2014 modification of the EPRG Tier 2 guidelines for the assessment of girth weld defects includes a modified criterion for weld strength overmatching. First experiences have shown it to be highly restrictive and to potentially limit the use of manual girth welding techniques. Recognizing this, EPRG launched a project to develop a sound justification to a potential new modification of the EPRG weld strength criteria, supported by a database of mechanical weld characteristics provided by EPRG members and a probabilistic analysis. This paper summarizes the findings of the project.
The weld strength undermatch probability is strongly influenced by the ratio between overmatch criterion and standard deviation of pipe yield strength. The current guidelines correctly reflect the importance of this ratio, which is prescribed to be five. However, the requirements table of the guidelines mentions a fixed overmatch criterion of 100 MPa. The inherent assumption of 20 MPa for standard deviation of pipe yield strength is not mentioned and therefore easy to overlook. In the next issue the table will be modified such that it reflects the “five standard deviations” idea.
The modified requirements stimulate the use of pipeline steels with a lower variability yield strength, as illustrated by the Dutch code NEN 3650-2. This code involves pipe yield strength and overmatch criteria in line with the suggested modification.
Modernizing Aerial Patrol - Real Life Remote Sensing for Liquid Leak and Threat Detection Along the Right of Way: First Detection Demonstrations of a Real Pipeline Seeper Leak, Encroachments, and Exposed Pipes Using a Traditional Aerial Patrol Plane
Authors: Chenevey Paige , Thibeault Alexandre , Beard Joshua , Bergeron Eric 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Since the end of 2022, Marathon Pipe Line LLC (MPL) has been using and testing Flyscan Systems’ (Flyscan) remote sensing technology over their liquid pipeline right of way (ROW) to benchmark and validate the use of machine learning (ML) algorithms, photogrammetry, and hyperspectral imaging to perform real-time threat detection, liquid leak detection of crude oil and refined products, as well as other advanced imaging features related to geo-hazards.
This paper presents scientific approaches and real-life results from over 200 aerial patrols between November 2022 and December 2023, covering over 50,000 miles and identifying more than 3,000 potential threats over ROWs in diverse landscapes across the United States — from the subpolar forests of Alaska to the shrublands of Texas.
To the best of our knowledge, this paper also describes a reported finding where a hyperspectral system was used to detect a real underground seeper diesel leak during a ROW aerial patrol flight. Further examples noted in the paper include the detection of contaminated soils from third-party activity, the detection of real encroachment, and massive documentation of various types of objects in the ROW. Finally, examples of new imaging capabilities are discussed, including detection of exposed pipes after serious weather events, vegetation analysis, and erosion monitoring for Depth of Cover (DOC).
Design Code Considerations for Pipeline Overbends
Authors: Phillips Ryan , Martens Michael , Thompson Shawn , Barrett John 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipeline overbends have significant design challenges and require additional consideration. The significant initial out-of-straightness created by an overbend increases the risk for upheaval buckling. Upheaval buckling can be combated during the design phase using wall thickness, burial depths and backfill specifications. The design requirements may vary depending on the design guidelines and methodologies applied. The soil uplift boundary condition drives a considerable amount of the cost. Better defining the uplift response can aid designers in selecting the appropriate methodology to implement. Potentially reducing pipe stresses and the need for additional mitigations. As allowable pipeline upward deformation limits generally exceed the yield displacement of the backfill the residual soil uplift resistance should be considered in overbend design including upheaval buckling. This becomes a large strain problem that many analyses do not consider. The use of DnV backfill resistance guidelines provides more uplift resistance in drained soils than those provided by the currently applied ALA & PRCI guidelines. These DnV guidelines have been extensively validated for low cover to pipeline diameter ratios, and properly account for both soil weight and its shear resistance. These equations can then be utilized to provide a more accurate representation of actual response conditions, resulting in a more economical design.
Substantiation of Recommended Crack ILI Response, Onshore Pipelines
Authors: Lamborn Lyndon , Macrory Cara , Shie Taylor , Ibrahim Mahmoud 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
As pipeline crack threat management through in-line inspection (ILI) has now become standard practice, a normative response to inspection results is being recommended in the API RP 1176 refresh. Built upon primarily two data driven PRCI projects [1] [2], this paper links the findings of these two projects and provides additional justification for the normative crack ILI response criteria being integrated into the next release of API RP 1176.
Prior work is summarized herein to provide context includes historical incident and operator-provided ILI-NDE pair data analysis. This paper relates incident root causality to ongoing industry activities and adds a comprehensive crack reliability analysis demonstrating the effectiveness of the crack ILI response from a fully probabilistic viewpoint.
The reliability analysis operates on a comprehensive UTCD crack ILI dataset representative of current technology on actual operating assets in North America. The paper demonstrates that operator adherence to the recommended crack ILI response criteria results in acceptable reliability for a large real-world dataset. While there may be unique circumstances where crack ILI response criteria should be adjusted or augmented with other integrity provisions, the standard response proposed herein should be the industry baseline standard.
Forcing more stringent crack ILI response thresholds would not measurably reduce crack-related loss of containment incidents. Rather, such enforcement action would divert resources away from properly addressing incident root causes. Historical crack-related incidents have been demonstrated to have no causal links to response thresholds. Industry is taking appropriate action to address incident root causes and achieve reliability targets.
Development of Earthquake-Resistance Evaluation Method for Composite-Repaired Pipelines Considering Interface Delamination
Authors: Yamaguchi Hikaru , Mitsuya Masaki , Imai Yasuhito , Ohata Mitsuru 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Buried gas pipelines play a crucial role in our modern infrastructure, and hence, ensuring both safety and uninterrupted supply by prompt repair in case of damage is a critical need. The composite repair method has been utilized for emergency repairs in pipelines, yet the earthquake resistance of the composite-repaired pipeline remains uncertain. This study aims to evaluate the resistance of pipelines repaired with composite materials against earthquake ground displacement through experiments and finite element analysis incorporating a cohesive zone model. An axial loading test was performed on a test pipe repaired with composite materials. During the experiment, delamination occurred at the interface between the steel pipe and composite repair, leading to internal water leakage. The average local strain in the pipe at the onset of internal water leakage exceeded the strain demand imposed by earthquake ground displacement, indicating the earthquake resistance of the composite-repaired pipeline under the experimental conditions. A finite element analysis utilizing a cohesive zone model was carried out to replicate the experimental delamination. In this analysis, the delamination penetrated earlier than in the experiment, suggesting that the developed analysis method can conservatively evaluate the earthquake resistance of the composite-repaired pipeline. Furthermore, the developed analysis method was applied under conditions differing from the experiment. In all cases, the strain in the pipe exceeded the strain demand from earthquake ground displacement before interface delamination penetrated. These findings lead to the conclusion that the composite-repaired pipeline demonstrated earthquake resistance.
Hydrogen: Live Transmission
Authors: Koronka Max , Cosham Andrew , Simpson Gemma , Senior Gary , Thomson Nancy , Bladon Sophie 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The Local Transmission System (LTS) Futures project looks to produce a blueprint methodology for repurposing natural gas transmission pipelines to convey hydrogen. The project incorporates a range of small and full-scale testing and will culminate in a 6-month live trial whereby a 30 km, natural gas transmission pipeline shall be repurposed and operated with hydrogen. Mechanical testing of pipeline material, seam and girth welds in air and pressurized, gaseous hydrogen is underway to inform the development of repurposing standards. Full-scale burst testing of defects has been conducted to link small-scale testing to full-scale behaviour. Longer term, full-scale, fatigue testing of defects and new connections are underway. Operational activities, such as hydrogen flaring, live welding, and under-pressure drilling, have been investigated. An overview of testing completed to date is discussed.
Repair Welding of In-Service Hydrogen Pipelines - Concepts and Challenges -
Authors: Kaiser Sebastian , Erxleben Kjell , Rhode Michael , Kannengiesser Thomas 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Hydrogen is set as the energy carrier of tomorrow for a more sustainable fossil fuel free future. As this necessitates a reliable transport infrastructure, repurposing of the existing natural gas grid is planned. With regards to the well-known effect of hydrogen embrittlement, the compatibility of utilized materials must be investigated. First comprehensive studies on pipeline material hydrogen compatibility indicate that these materials can be applied to a certain extent. Nonetheless, the material compatibility is currently of high interest and focus of numerous research projects worldwide. However, pipelines require frequent maintenance and repair work. As part of these, in some cases it is necessary to do weldments onto pipelines while they are pressurized. This in-service welding introduces additional challenges for the material compatibility. Due to the resulting high temperatures, the metallurgical changes in the material and of course the presence of high-pressure hydrogen in the pipeline, additional investigations need to be conducted to ensure that no critical material degradation because of increased hydrogen absorption occurs and an overall material compatibility is given. For this reason, the present paper introduces in-service welding on pipelines. An overview of current research projects that deal with the application of in-service welding specifically on hydrogen pipelines and the emerging problems when applying these techniques on hydrogen pipelines is given. Methods of material testing, their limits and possible solutions are presented and discussed.
Effects of Corrosion Pit Idealization Shape on the Susceptibility of Crack Initiation in the Analysis of Pipeline Dents Interacting With Corrosion
Authors: Agbo Sylvester , Muntakim Abu , Scott Colin , Sadowski Mark 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
External corrosion pitting is a common material degradation mechanism for steel pipelines resulting in a reduction of the pipe wall thickness (WT) within a localized, affected area, hereafter referred to as metal loss (ML). In many cases, corrosion pits interact with other major pipeline defects, such as dents; such interacting features can potentially increase the susceptibility to failure of in-service pipelines since both defects are stress and strain concentrators. There has been a lack of clarity and consensus on the generally accepted geometrical shape that should be used to model ML in pipelines for engineering analyses. As a result, ML in pipelines is being idealized with various geometrical shapes such as sharp-edge rectangular shapes, curved-edge rectangular shapes, and semi-ellipsoidal shapes. The effect of these variations in idealization shapes of ML features, especially while interacting with pipeline dents, needs to be investigated to provide clarity and suggest the best approach to simulate ML features in pipelines with a higher margin of safety. In this study, pressurized steel pipe with an outside ML defect was modelled using a curved-edge rectangular shape, a sharp-edged rectangular shape and a semi-ellipsoidal shape in ABAQUS™. A comparison of both hoop and von Mises stresses, and the equivalent plastic strain distributions of the pressurized pipe with different ML shapes was investigated. The ML shapes were used to conduct dent-metal loss interaction analysis to investigate the effect of varying dent depth on the pipeline’s susceptibility to crack initiation. Specifically, this study examined different dent depths interacting with an ML feature that was used to evaluate the susceptibility to crack initiation using dent formation strain limit and the ductile failure damage indicator (DFDI). It was found that different shapes show different stress concentration distributions. The results show significant variations in the susceptibility to cracking in pipelines with varying dent depths interacting with ML. This outcome may have a significant impact on pipeline integrity assessment and management planning.
Development of an Ultrasonic ILI Tool for the Assessment of Crack-Type Anomalies in Ammonia-Carrying Pipelines
Authors: Karé Raymond , Thielager Norbert , Fischer Maximillian , Shannon Colton 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The in-line inspection (ILI) of pipelines used to transport anhydrous ammonia is challenging since several components that make up a typical ILI tool used for the inspection of oil and gas pipelines are not compatible with the anhydrous ammonia. Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) and Deformation (DEF) tools have been developed in the past to assess anhydrous ammonia pipelines for corrosion and deformation anomalies. However, assessing for crack-type anomalies has never been possible as no ammonia-compatible ultrasonic ILI tool has been developed. Feasibility studies have in the past been undertaken to address this problem but so far none of these investigations has resulted in a successful ultrasonic ILI tool build for inspection of ammonia carrying lines. As a result, the operators of these pipelines have been conducting ultrasonic ILI inspections using water to navigate the tool through the line during a hydrotest. This process is not only expensive, but it also causes months of interruptions in flow due to repairs and other factors related to the procedure. The opportunity to be able to conduct ultrasonic (crack) ILI inspections during the normal operation of this ammonia pipeline system would result in a significant cost saving for the client.
The paper will report on the findings of the project undertaken by NDT Global on behalf of NuStar Energy to investigate options for an ultrasonic ILI tool capable of detecting and sizing axial cracks, in particular fields of stress corrosion cracks (SCC), in ammonia-carrying pipelines. A description of the tool qualification and verification procedures will also be outlined.
An Analysis of Flow Strength Models for Failure Pressure Prediction of Metal Loss Features in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Authors: Scott Colin , Muntakim Abu 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Failure pressure prediction of metal loss features is a vital part of any pipeline integrity management program. Assessments are typically performed using the ASME B31G based models. These models have evolved over the years, from the original to modified B31G models, to effective area / RSTRENG models, to the most recent PSQR model. Some of these methodologies are also included in API 579, BS 7910 and DNV corrosion flaw assessments. Recent work by PRCI has demonstrated these models, although increasingly refined in their approach, maintain a conservative bias in their failure pressure predictions. This decreases efficiency of the owner’s integrity programs. Some analysts have attributed the conservatism to limitations in the flow strength models used in the assessments.
This work uses finite element methods to analyze the stress and strain distributions at the bases of long metal loss flaws to better understand plasticity behavior during plastic collapse. A key parameter of interest is the Ramberg-Osgood hardening exponent, which characterizes flow of material during the failure process. Materials with higher or lower hardening exponents show differences in their stress and strain distributions. In effect, there are multiple “shades of grey” between purely elastic and purely plastic behavior. This has a follow-on effect on how flow strength should be defined for different flaw geometries. In some cases, the current flow strengths models are suitable. In other cases, the definition needs refinement. Recognition of these effects can contribute to optimizing current models.
The study also looks at currently available failure pressure data, from both in-service and laboratory tests. The trends observed in the flow strength modelling are considered with respect to the true failure strength of metal loss flaws. The results of the study provide insights into limitations of the current flow strength models and suggest possible improvements for improved failure pressure predictions going forward.
A Spill Volume Calculation Approach and its Positive Impacts on Pipeline Risk Management
Authors: Pires Luis Fernando G. , Barreto Claudio , Mesquita Rodrigo S. N. , Pacheco Anderson , Bahiense Ana Paula 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The loss of containment in liquid pipelines is a significant concern for pipeline operators, service providers, and regulators. Estimating the potential spillage volume at a designated pipeline location is critical for societal risk analysis, environmental impact assessment, and emergency response planning.
The total spillage volume, after loss of containment, in each scenario consists of two parts: (a) the spill volume during operation while the pumps are active, and (b) the gravitational spillage volume after the pumps are shut down. A common industry practice to determine the operational spillage volume involves using commercial transient thermo-hydraulic simulation software. This software allows modeling the intended bore opening at a specified location and, through numerical simulation, defines the spillage volume within the time span required for the control room to detect the issue and respond by deactivating the pumps. Calculating this time span in advance for each scenario is essential.
In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the demand for spillage volume simulation in Brazil, propelled by the regulatory requirement for risk studies. This surge is particularly driven by the need for comprehensive environmental analyses related to pipeline water-crossings and quantitative risk assessments that consider the population residing in high-consequence areas. Brazilian environmental agencies now mandate the evaluation of three distinct pipeline failure scenarios: (i) a pinhole with a diameter ratio d/D of 5%, (ii) a hole with a 20% diameter ratio, and (iii) a rupture with 100% internal diameter size.
The increased demand has led to a significant rise in the utilization of numerical models and simulations. To meet this challenge, simplified hypotheses have been formulated. These hypotheses facilitate the computation of potential spillage volume during operation without relying on transient thermohydraulic software. Through the development and implementation of an algorithm, it becomes feasible to derive a comprehensive profile of the total spillage volume (both operational and gravitational) along the pipeline, based on the chosen discretization.
The innovative tool, MAVAZ, developed by SIMDUT/PUC and TRANSPETRO, has proven effective in meeting the requirements of Brazilian regulators. MAVAZ’s calculation modules consider factors such as valve closure and spill containment times, offering a comprehensive approach to spill event analysis. The continuous development of MAVAZ calculation modules over the years has enhanced the realism of potential maximum leaked inventories, resulting in a more accurate calculation, and reducing the level of conservatism. Consequently, there have been positive impacts on cost optimization associated with pipeline risk management, both in risk analysis studies and in mitigating potential consequences through improved emergency response resources.
Risk and Resistance Fragility Model of Natural Gas Transmission Pipeline
Authors: Peng Yi , Bozorgnia Yousef , Ayello Francois , Honegger Douglas , Kottke Albert 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper summarizes the findings from a research project focused on the quantification of seismic risk for natural gas pipelines and gas storage facilities in California. A comprehensive database, consisting of risk and resistance models of gas transmission pipelines, was developed using finite element analysis. This open-source computer tool can predict the probabilities of pipeline failure using pre-computed earthquake hazard estimates, facilitating informed decisions on pipeline maintenance and management.
This study began by establishing generic modeling approaches for quantification of seismic hazards such as surface faulting, liquefaction and landslides. Non-linear pipe-soil interaction finite element analyses (FEA) were conducted to assess the sensitivity of pipeline response to geohazard characteristics and pipeline specifications. Based on the sensitivity analysis results, each parameter was ranked by importance and 551,789 nonlinear pipe-soil interaction FEA were performed using ANSYS software. These simulations considered geohazard and variables of straight pipelines, such as length of pipeline exposed to ground movement, the direction and amplitude of ground movement, soil strength, depth of burial, pipe diameter, pipe wall thickness, etc.
The FEA results were aggregated into a comprehensive database, from which Bayesian network models to predict the level of pipe strain from ground displacement (strain demand) were created. Simultaneously, a fracture model was developed to determine the pipeline strain capacity. The strain demand and strain capacity models were then combined to predict the probability of pipeline failure. All results are integrated into a user-friendly, open-source platform designed for natural gas infrastructure risk assessment. While the current platform is specific to geohazards in California, providing open-source access allows users to adapt the platform to their specific needs. The platform allows users to (1) perform risk assessments at different levels of complexity and sophistication, (2) use the platform as a decision support system for proactive gas infrastructure risk management, and (3) create or upload new models and data if needed.