bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Spending Too Much on the Wrong Things
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter addresses overspending in health care. Americans spend half as many days in hospital as persons living in other high-income countries. They take fewer pills per person, and they have fewer doctors per capita. Yet Americans spend two to three times as much on health care as other countries, and they have poorer health outcomes. This is because they overpay. Talking about overspending suggests that certain partners in the health system are charging more than they should. Since about one third of health care spending is related to hospitals and another 20% is paid to health care providers, these are the obvious culprits. If Americans spent less on hospitals and clinicians, they could spend more on the social services required to prevent or reduce illness, to make their entire population healthier.
High Pay Gets Higher, Low Pay Gets Lower
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter studies the effects of wages on health. A 2018 health policy brief in Health Affairs highlights fluctuations in wages and how population health reflects these changes. In the brief, the authors emphasize that the labor market does not strictly follow basic economic assumptions. In particular, an increase in wages may not reduce quantity or quality of work, as an economist critiquing minimum wage hikes might expect. Instead, the study’s authors argue that increased wages can improve productivity by boosting morale. Wages between 1979 and 2013 rose notably only for those with very high pay; people in the middle wage group have not seen much of an increase in pay over the years. Meanwhile, those with very low wages have almost exclusively seen drops in their pay over the decades. The study authors then explain how increases in the minimum wage can positively impact health, citing prior research on the connections to lower smoking, fewer missed work days, and improved birthweight. With many states looking to raise their minimum wages, the authors recommend that those still caught in the debate should approach the decision from both a health and economic perspective.
Homelessness
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter assesses the effects of homelessness on public health. Homelessness has the power to move people to action like few other issues. Unfortunately, efforts to tackle homelessness have fallen short. Historically, making housing contingent on sobriety and employment has imperiled millions. Encouragingly, Housing First—a program that provides housing and support services without requiring employment or pretreatment for mental health conditions and substance use disorders—has started to gain traction. The program has led to improvements in housing stability, reduced hospitalizations and use of emergency departments, and better quality of life. Adding to the challenge, however, is the fact that over 8 million more Americans are just one step away from homelessness. Unlike the homeless, they are often invisible. Preventing homelessness in these lower income households requires the creation of a living wage. Prevention is also about identifying risk and providing supportive services when an individual or family is on the brink.
Documenting Delays in EMS Wait Times
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at the delays in emergency medical services (EMS). In a 2018 study, researchers assessed 63,000 cardiac arrest EMS encounters to determine whether ambulance response times were longer in low-income versus high-income urban zip codes. They found that the total EMS time for low-income communities was 3.8 minutes (10%) longer than in high-income neighborhoods. The possible barriers impeding faster care from emergency medical technicians (EMTs) in low-income neighborhoods might include congested streets, narrow doorways, and buildings without elevators. The authors cite several additional barriers, such as scene safety and distance from a hospital, which may have contributed to the differences in total time. Although a minute may not appear to be an important difference, survival may be determined in this short time. Indeed, the authors note that cardiac care delayed by just 1–4 minutes has been associated with increased mortality.
Good App Hunting
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter highlights health apps. Health apps primarily perform three functions: they monitor, measure, and manage. The first generation of apps were largely about self-monitoring. These “do it yourself” kinds of apps had users record and consider their own data—food ingested, mood, glucose levels—and offered these users opportunities to modify their behavior. Next came measuring, quantifying apps, which soon became sensor-based, including recordings of heart rate, steps walked, sleep stages, and food labels. Such sensors limited manual input and offered novel “health” markers to monitor. It is now the era of the “prescribable” app—an app for the treatment of managing conditions anytime, anywhere. Some of these apps have even been recommended by health providers. The most commonly trialed apps are those that are designed to address conditions with the largest global health burden: diabetes, mental health, and obesity. However, of all the health apps on the market, only a few dozen have ever been tested using randomized trials. Thus, there is a need for efficacy assessment, a reliable source of quality information—a Consumer Reports for health-related apps—and a recognized national organization that can evaluate and decide which are useful and safe. Even a modestly effective app, if available to millions of users, could have an enormous impact on the public’s health.
Mental Health on Campus
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on mental health in schools. There is a clear-cut case for investment in campus mental health services: 30% of depressed students eventually drop out, and research suggests that one fifth of this drop-out rate can be averted by early intervention and treatment. This means that for every 500 incoming students, a robust mental health system would help 30 more complete college, adding about $1 million in tuition to that school. Based on the cost of providing mental health services, for every $1 spent on such services, there is a $2 increase in school revenue. This calculation presents only a narrow perspective. Since lifetime earnings follow from successful graduation, there is even greater value to an at-risk student if he or she is not derailed by a mental health problem during college. Ultimately, screening and intervention programs are investments in academic achievement and will have downstream effects on the public’s health.
Modern Literariness
Authors: Kahn Victoria 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the meaning of literariness in the aftermath of Kantian aesthetics. It focuses on the work of Søren Kierkegaard and J. M. Coetzee. It argues that, despite the strong formal differences between the texts of Kant, Kierkegaard, and Coetzee, all are engaged in a conversation about the kinds of belief we address to things that we make, and all three contribute to the construction of a specifically modern, formalist idea of literariness. This modern idea of literariness represents a declension from the heroic idea of poetic making characteristic of the early modern period.
Introduction
Authors: Byford Andy 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The book’s introduction sets out the historical, social, cultural, and political background, linking the rise of child science in Russia and elsewhere with processes of rapid modernization characteristic of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The chapter begins by relating the emergence of the sciences of the child at this particular historical juncture to the expansion of the professional middle classes, highlighting the role that the concept of development played in the latter’s social self-understanding, which in turn helped shape the ideologies of the rising welfare/warfare states. The historical roots of the child study movement are identified in an evolving post-Enlightenment biopolitics of childhood. The chapter stresses the normative nature of the sciences of child development and outlines the different kinds of norms that came to shape this field’s interests and priorities. Next, the chapter dwells on the multidisciplinary and inter-professional character of child science, elaborating how this both influenced and problematized its mobilization and self-identification as a movement. Also highlighted is the transnational nature of this movement. An analysis of the positioning of Russians within it is followed by a discussion of the path that child science took in the Soviet Union in the interwar era. The concluding section is a review of extant historiography on Russo-Soviet child science and a brief outline of the content and approach of the present study.
The Imperfect Child
Authors: Byford Andy 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the crucial role that the diagnostics and treatment of ‘imperfections’ in the child population played in the formation and growth of Russian child science. It emphasizes the plurality, indeterminacy, and intermixing of diagnostic regimes, which led to ambiguity and vagueness in the definition of infringements of the norm in child development. Analysis opens by considering the emergence of mental testing in Russia as a new means of measuring development and diagnosing deviations from the ‘normal’. It first looks at the fostering of mental testing as a purported ‘scientific’ substitute for school assessments and thus, potentially, a new way of framing educational norms. It then scrutinizes the use of mental testing on the boundaries between neuropsychiatric and psycho-educational diagnostics. The chapter then shifts from problems of diagnostics to those of therapeutics, by looking at the creation of special establishments for ‘defective’ children in the late tsarist period. While medical discourse dominated this domain, it ultimately generated hybrid forms of therapeutics, institutionalized as ‘curative pedagogy’, which stretched across medical, pedagogical, and correctional domains. The chapter concludes with an examination of pathologizations of children in the context of large-scale social upheavals, such as revolution and war. It examines two exemplary case studies in this context—the ‘epidemic’ of ‘child suicides’ in the wake of Russia’s 1905 revolution and the moral panic surrounding the effects of total war on the psychology of the Russian child during the First World War.
Child Science in Revolution
Authors: Byford Andy 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The chapter explains the rapid development of the child science network in the early Soviet era in the midst and aftermath of the post-revolutionary civil war. All-out ‘struggle’ with ‘delinquency’ and ‘defectiveness’ associated with millions of child vagabonds (besprizorniki), was crucial to the initial phase of expansion. The institutionalization of ‘defectology’, which built on the pre-revolutionary ‘curative pedagogy’, saw particular growth at this juncture. A parallel cause of expansion, which became more dominant from around 1923–4, was the imperative to adjust norms of educational development in order to create an education system for a mass child population that was, for the most part, still being brought up in contexts of exceptionally low levels of literacy and schooling. This took place through progressive educational experimentalism, based on both native and imported models, while at the same time prompting the rooting of the legitimacy of pedagogical innovations in a new science of child development. The chapter also places the expansion of the Soviet sciences of the child in the context of the Bolshevik early 1920s’ ‘revolutionization’ of the human sciences, notably psychology. The analysis concludes by scrutinizing two particularly prominent programmes of innovation in the human sciences of this era—‘reflexology’, based on the neuroscientific paradigms of both Vladimir Bekhterev and Ivan Pavlov; and ‘psychoanalysis’, billed as ‘Freudo-Marxism’. Both thrived in the contexts of trauma and transformation that defined the first half of the Soviet 1920s; though both also failed to survive state-enforced accelerated industrial modernization, which, by the end of the 1920s, introduced new priorities—institutional centralization, political alignment, and social discipline.
Conclusion
Authors: Byford Andy 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The book’s conclusion discusses ways in which pedology and its legacies have been framed in late Soviet and post-Soviet Russia, while at the same time providing an overview of this book’s core contributions to the historiography and conceptualization of Russo-Soviet child science. The chapter begins with a summary of how pedology’s ‘ghost’ was treated in the late Soviet Union and how some of its strands ended up ‘haunting’ other institutional, disciplinary, or occupational frameworks. This is followed by a discussion of post-Soviet narratives about pedology and its fateful demise, especially constructions of pedology as a ‘repressed science’ (repressirovanaia nauka). The chapter critiques the rhetorical reification of pedology as a science that has developed in this context. It also considers the emergence in contemporary Russia of a number of movements focused on the scientific study of the child, which, in one way or another, make reference to the legacies of early twentieth-century Russo-Soviet child science (childhood studies, pedagogical anthropology, psycho-pedagogical diagnostics). The chapter ends with a summary of the book’s main conclusions, tying together key analytical points made across the preceding chapters. This section emphasizes the interest and importance that the history of child science presents for Russo-Soviet history more generally and revisits the question of where and how Russo-Soviet child science fits into a transnational history of this complex field.
Pacts
Authors: Fiore Alessio 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
It deals with pacts, local bi-lateral agreements that filled the void left by the collapse of a universally-recognized central power. Like oaths of fidelity these could also be between social equals or superiors/inferiors; horizontal or vertical. They begin to be recorded in substantial numbers from c.1080, especially in the regions where the Investitures Conflict/Civil War created a situation of war and fear. In Po Plain they don’t appear until the first decade of the twelfth century. Generally speaking there is deep connection between pacts and conflict—either between the two parties involved or with a third party not included in the pact. There is interesting comment about the possible realities behind the formal ceremonies and language of pacts, for example stratagems for allowing defeated parties to ‘save face’. All of this is generally accompanied by ritual. There is an interesting section at the end of this chapter discussing the implications of pacts and the reasons for proliferation, utilizing social theory and drawing parallels with other periods and areas. In Italy it is not just that state power was ‘privatized’ as in France, but entirely new forms, structures and idioms of social relations, amongst which were pacts, emerged.
Violence
Authors: Fiore Alessio 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter deals with violence. It includes some graphic accounts of seigneurial violence. These should not be treated superficially as ‘historiographical voyeurism’ but rather considered as manifestations of the ritualistic nature of violence and assessed with regard to their impact in collective local memory. Texts reveal violence to be on the increase in the eleventh century. Also the nicknames of the lords offers a vivid testimony of their attitude toward violence. It often took on a ritual character and was designed to overawe, intimidate, and impose social superiority. Beatings, torture, torching, and rape became part of everyday experience of Italian peasantry from the late eleventh century. Other examples of seigneurial violence over small towns, such as the Frangipane in Terracina, and imperial representatives in Piacenza and Treviso follow.
Using Criminal Law to Enforce Statutory Employment Rights
Authors: Cabrelli David 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the current terrain of criminal law as a technique of labour market regulation. It identifies a range of possible interactions between the criminal law and civil law in the legal enforcement of labour standards. Sometimes fundamental labour rights, such as the right not to be unfairly dismissed or the right not to be discriminated against, are protected exclusively through a ‘private’ enforcement model at the initiative of the individual right-holder. Sometimes there will be exclusive enforcement through the criminal law with no private right of civil action, as under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. Finally, there may be mixed enforcement regimes where there is a combination of criminal and civil measures linked to specific statutory rights, as with the enforcement of the National Minimum Wage Act 1998.
The Criminalization of Workplace Harassment and Abuse
Authors: Bogg Alan , Freedland Mark 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the legal treatment of workplace harassment and abuse. In the wake of social and political activism focused on sexual harassment, the legal regulation of harassment has been under intensive scrutiny. In the English context, harassment is already regulated by an extensive body of legal norms. The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 is an interesting example where legislation provides for parallel tortious and criminal liability for the same wrong. The chapter develops the idea that criminal liability has had a ‘dragging’ effect on the civil liability regime, the effect of which has been to undermine the effectiveness of the legal response. This is because the paradigm of criminal liability has treated harassment as a personalized wrong, reflecting the structure of the criminal process to allocate censure and blame to culpable agents. The effect of this has been to obscure the structural and organizational context to harassment and abuse, which propagates in circumstances of insecurity, precarity, and non-decent work. As an alternative, the chapter defends an organizational framing of criminal liability based upon a health and safety model. It develops this model of criminal liability drawing upon the value of human dignity.
Human Rights, Labour Rights, and Criminal Wrongs
Authors: Mantouvalou Virginia 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter assesses the contribution of the criminal law in protecting the fundamental human rights of workers. Fundamental human rights identify the basic moral entitlements of workers. These entitlements have a special normative significance in the polity. Accordingly, serious violations of those entitlements by powerful private actors would seem to count as public wrongs against the polity’s ‘civil order’, as constituted by its most fundamental rights. The chapter discusses the position of criminal law under the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR), and the interpretation of the state’s positive obligation to protect as encompassing a positive obligation to criminalize certain public wrongs against fundamental entitlements. This chapter also emphasizes how the European Court of Human Rights has developed an approach to criminalization that is sensitive to its effects in the real world. It is not sufficient to have criminal laws on the statute books. Those criminal laws must be investigated and enforced effectively, with adequate support and protection for victims, and the state also has a duty to dismantle the structural determinants of vulnerability such as those constituted by its own visa regimes.
Victim or Perpetrator? The Criminalization of Migration and the Idea of ‘Harm’ in the Labour Market Context
Authors: Costello Cathryn 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter provides powerful arguments against the criminalization of irregular migration. It does so by testing the extensive criminalization of irregular migrants against standard liberal principles of criminalization. The chapter argues that it is very difficult to identify any direct wrongs or harms to others that arise in virtue of ‘irregular’ migration. Furthermore, a malum prohibitum offence cannot be justified. Against these weak arguments in favour of criminalization, this chapter identifies compelling reasons against criminalization. Criminalization leads to further criminalization, which ultimately undermines both migrants’ and local workers’ fundamental rights. It also blocks discussion of one particularly worker-protective regulatory response to irregular migration, namely regularization. In truth, the criminalization of migrants represents a context where there has been a decisive rupture with liberal principles of criminalization.
Criminalization, Social Exclusion, and Access to Employment
Authors: Pittard Marilyn J 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter provides a critical analysis of the impact of criminalization practices on access to employment in Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom. As increasing numbers of citizens are subject to criminal conviction, often the very ones who have already experienced social and economic disadvantage, this can create a further barrier to labour market participation and to full integration into society. Thus, the criminal law can be instrumental in creating a stratified precariat based upon ‘discreditable’ statuses, creating structural traps in forms of employment with poor conditions and prospects. The chapter explores the ways in which labour laws may on the one hand aggravate this form of social exclusion, or may on the other hand relieve such social exclusion by allowing past criminal convictions eventually to be concealed and forgotten. The chapter’s normative concern is to find the right balance in this respect between, on the one hand, the necessary safeguarding of the employing enterprise, its workers and the recipients of its services, and, on the other hand, the maximizing of the possibility of rehabilitation into society of those with criminal convictions.
Restorative Regulation of Criminality at Work in Canada
Authors: Archibald QC Bruce P 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter suggests a way of enriching the normative theorization of the interface between labour law and criminal law in Canada. It homes in on the role of the criminal law in enforcing worker-protective labour standards, in particular with regard to workplace health and safety. Focusing specially on penal policy in respect of violations of health and safety standards by employing enterprises and by individual members of the staff of those enterprises, this chapter contends that there is real scope for bringing to bear the principles and tenets of restorative justice upon the practice of applying criminal or quasi-criminal sanctions in this regulatory domain. This might generate some more nuanced and creative regulatory approaches than those which are sometimes manifested in high-profile corporate criminal prosecutions and by the imposition of blockbusting fines upon such corporations. Moreover, the chapter argues that certain of the currently much-discussed human capabilities approaches to legal regulation might be deployed to develop and flesh out a methodology of restorative justice in this particular context.