bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Weathering Winner-Take-All
Authors: Velthuis Olav , Doorn Niels van 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
Over the last decade, the global sex industry has been radically transformed by the rise of webcam sex platforms. This chapter shows how rankings are constitutive of competition in this new, emerging part of the sex industry. The ranking algorithms are highly contested among performers, in particular because of their opaque nature and the strong winner-take-all dynamics which they propel. Creating deep uncertainty and anxiety among performers, the algorithms are widely seen as unfair. However, the wider assemblage of market devices constituted by webcam sex platforms enable performers to circumvent the rankings at least to some degree. Moreover, on discussion forums where performers negotiate strategies to make a living, they actively share experiences of algorithms on competing platforms, discuss which algorithm suits their interests best, and consider vacating to rival platforms. Indeed, how market competition is organized within platforms, is constrained by competition between platforms.
The Freedom of Criticism
Authors: Small Helen 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
This chapter turns to the terrain of cultural criticism, with a predominantly literary focus. It develops an account of the attraction of Arnoldian criticism (with its ‘free play of ideas’) to the strong ironies, comic flair, and ‘sarcastic turns’ of cynicism—modes of argument that challenge and assist Arnold’s critical authority, and that become the subject of his most explicit critical reflection when he writes about a German literary cynic, of the generation before him, for whom he had a keen affection: Heinrich Heine. The chapter traces the process by which the kinds of cynicism that Arnold admired and (finally) found wanting in Heine became components of the style and content of his own public moralism, increasingly targeted to the work of describing and attacking the opponents of ‘culture’. The final section of the chapter considers a late reanimation of Arnold’s cynicisms in the context of his encounters with American democratic culture.
Random Genetic Drift in Small Populations
Authors: Hartl Daniel L. 
Published: August 2020

AbstractChapter 6 deals with the consequences of random genetic drift in finite populations and includes details of the diffusion approximations and their solutions as well as conditional diffusion processes. It includes probabilities of fixation and conditional times to fixation for neutral and nonneutral alleles. Various scenarios of mutation, migration, and selection are examined with regard to the stationary distributions of allele frequency. The Ewens sampling formula and its importance is discussed, as well as its implications for the distribution of the number of alleles in samples. An analysis of allozyme polymorphisms supports the hypothesis that most amino acid polymorphisms in natural populations are slightly deleterious.
Molecular Population Genetics
Authors: Hartl Daniel L. 
Published: August 2020

AbstractChapter 7 is an introduction to molecular population genetics that includes the principal concepts of nucleotide polymorphism and divergence, the site frequency spectrum, and tests of selection and their limitations. Highlighted are rates of nucleotide substitution in coding and noncoding DNA, nucleotide and amino acid divergence between species, corrections for multiple substitutions, and the molecular clock. Discussion of the folded and unfolded site frequency spectrum includes the strengths and limitations of Tajima’s D, Fay and Wu’s H, and other measures. The chapter also discusses an emerging consensus to resolve the celebrated selection–neutrality controversy. It also includes examination of demographic history through the use of ancient DNA with special emphasis on the surprising findings in regard to the ancestral makeup of contemporary human populations. Also discussed are the population dynamics of transposable elements in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Population Genetics of Complex Traits
Authors: Hartl Daniel L. 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
Chapter 8’s focus is on the genetic architecture of complex traits determined jointly by multiple genes and environmental factors. Sometimes called quantitative genetics, the basic concepts include components of genetic and environmental variance, genotype-by-environment interaction, genotype-by-environment association, correlation between relatives, and broad-sense and narrow-sense heritability. It distinguishes between physiological and statistical epistasis, and it shows why the former can be large while the latter may be negligible. Various types of artificial selection are considered, and individual truncation selection is examined in detail, culminating in the famous prediction equation R = h2S. Special topics include genomic selection, correlated response, selection limits, and the heritability of liability of threshold traits.
Complex Traits in Natural Populations
Authors: Hartl Daniel L. 
Published: August 2020

AbstractThis chapter could as well be titled “Population Genomics,” although many aspects of population genomics are integrated throughout the other chapters. It includes estimates of mutational variance and standing variance, phenotypic evolution under directional selection as measured by the linear selection gradient, and phenotypic evolution under stabilizing selection. It explores the strengths and limitations of genome-wide association studies of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and expression (eQTLs) to detect genetic influencing complex traits in natural populations and genetic risk factors for complex diseases such as heart disease or diabetes. The number of genes affecting complex traits is considered, as well as evidence bearing on the issue of whether complex diseases are primarily affected by a very large number of genes, almost all of small effect, and how this bears on direct-to-consumer and over-the-counter genetic testing. The population genomics of adaptation is considered, including drug resistance, domestication, and local selection versus gene flow. The chapter concludes with the population genomics of speciation as illustrated by reinforcement of mating barriers, the reproducibility of phenotypic and genetic changes, and the accumulation of genetic incompatibilities.
Spiritual Traditions and the Virtues
Authors: Wynn Mark R. 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
This book develops a philosophical appreciation of the spiritual life. Specifically, it aims to show how a certain conception of spiritual good, one that is rooted in Thomas Aquinas’s account of infused moral virtue, can generate a distinctive vision of human life and the possibilities for spiritual fulfilment. Among other matters, the text examines the character of the goods to which spiritual traditions are directed; the structure of such traditions, including the connection between their practical and creedal commitments; the relationship between the various vocabularies that are used to describe, from the insider’s perspective, progress in the spiritual life; the significance of tradition as an epistemic category; and the question of what it takes for a spiritual tradition to be handed on from one person to another. So, while the discussion aims to make some contribution to the discipline that we standardly call the philosophy of religion, it has a rather different focus from some familiar ventures in the field, in so far as it starts from a consideration of the nature of spiritual goods and of traditions that seek to cultivate such goods. In his account of the virtues, Aquinas suggests how it is possible for our relations to the everyday world to be folded into our relations to the divine or sacred reality otherwise understood. In this sense, he is offering a vision of how it is possible to live between heaven and earth. This book considers how that vision may be extended across the central domains of human thought and experience, and how it can deepen and diversify our understanding of what it is for a human life to be lived well.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Wynn Mark R. 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
This brief concluding section notes one further dialectical context within which the main themes of this book may be located. Secular critiques of religion commonly suppose that theistic accounts of the world, if true, would establish a distinction between humanly endorsed values and the values that are in some way embedded in the nature of things—so undermining the freedom of human beings to live according to their own sense of what is good. This section responds to this objection, noting how it rests on a misreading of the structure of religious commitment, as that has been understood here.
Introduction
Authors: Wilson T. K. 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
How has political violence changed over the long term? This introduction makes the case for looking closely at specific acts—or ‘repertoires’—of violent action. Only through such a fine-grained approach can the distinctively modern quality to contemporary violence be isolated analytically: including its frequently impersonal nature—the killing of strangers referenced in the book’s title. The definitional and geographical parameters of the study are briskly sketched: and the overall structure delineated. An early emphasis is placed here on both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors in shaping modern political violence. Push factors concern chiefly the rise of the modern western state undergirded by bureaucracies of extraordinary coercive power and reach. ‘Pull’ factors refer to the technological and social changes that open up radically new opportunities and possibilities for violence.
The Resources of Civilization
Authors: Wilson T. K. 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
Borrowing from a phrase of Gladstone’s, this chapter offers thematic reflections on the long-term trajectory outlined in Chapters One and Two. It notes the general aggregation of coercive state power up until the advent of the ‘network society’ of the late twentieth century. Frustratingly for analysts, risk managers, and prophets, the early twen ty-first century looks set to remain open-ended. In any longer-term perspective, the domestic strength of Western governments remains massively impressive. Their coercive capabilities and bureaucratic information-processing capacities remain intact, if they have not actually been enhanced by the information-processing revolutions. States, in short, may not be intrinsically much weaker than they were before the 1990s. And the conspiracies they face remain, if anything, more primitive. But public moods are certainly more febrile: more alarmist, more confused, and more embittered.
The Epistemic Innocence of Irrational Beliefs
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
Ideally, we would have beliefs that satisfy norms of truth and rationality, as well as fostering the acquisition, retention and use of other relevant information. In reality, we have limited cognitive capacities and are subject to motivational biases on an everyday basis, and may also experience impairments in perception, memory, learning, and reasoning in the course of our lives. Such limitations and impairments give rise to distorted memory beliefs, confabulated explanations, elaborated delusional beliefs, motivated delusional beliefs, and optimistically biased beliefs. In the book, Bortolotti argues that some irrational beliefs qualify as epistemically innocent, where the notion of epistemic innocence captures the fact that in some contexts the adoption, maintenance or reporting of the beliefs delivers significant epistemic benefits that could not be easily attained otherwise. Epistemic innocence is a weaker notion than epistemic justification, as it does not imply that the epistemic benefits of the irrational belief outweigh its epistemic costs. However, it clarifies the relationship between the epistemic and psychological effects of irrational beliefs on agency. It is misleading to assume that epistemic rationality and psychological adaptiveness always go hand-in-hand, but also that there is a straight-forward trade off between them. Rather, epistemic irrationality can lead to psychological adaptiveness and psychological adaptiveness in turn can support the attainment of epistemic goals. Recognising the circumstances in which irrational beliefs enhance or restore epistemic performance informs our mutual interactions and enables us to take measures to reduce their irrationality without undermining the conditions for epistemic success.
Optimistically Biased Beliefs
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
In this chapter, the author argues that optimistically biased beliefs that agents tend to have about themselves and their future have the potential for epistemic innocence. Such beliefs—inflated beliefs about the agent’s self-worth and rosy predictions about the agent’s health prospects or romantic relationships—are not sufficiently sensitive to the evidence available to the agent and count both as ill-grounded and impervious to counterevidence. However, optimistic beliefs also play a role in supporting agency. When agents believe that they are skilled and that things are going to go well for them, they are more motivated to continue to pursue their goals in the face of inevitable obstacles and setbacks. Persistence in goal pursuit sometimes translates in successful performance. Moreover, optimistic agents are more motivated to change their behaviour to achieve the goals they believe to be attainable, and thus cope better with crises in their health or relationships.
The Significance of Epistemic Innocence
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
In the concluding chapter, the author revisits the significance of the epistemic innocence framework in the light of the applications of epistemic innocence to distorted memory beliefs, confabulated explanations, elaborated delusional beliefs, motivated delusional beliefs, and optimistically biased beliefs in the preceding chapters. The somewhat counterintuitive conclusion is that some of the beliefs regarded as paradigmatic instances of epistemic irrationality can be attributed significant epistemic benefits, in the sense that they either enhance or restore epistemic functionality. The wider implications of the epistemic innocence project for research in philosophy and psychology are reviewed, and the limitations acknowledged.
Generality and Objectivity in Frege’sFoundations of Arithmetic
Authors: Demopoulos William 
Published: August 2020

AbstractThis chapter argues for two principal contentions, both of which mark points of divergence from the neo-Fregean position first developed in Crispin Wright’s monograph Frege’s Conception of Numbers as Objects, and developed further in an extended series of works by Wright and Bob Hale. First, that Frege can be regarded as addressing the apriority of arithmetic in a manner that is independent of the ideas that numbers are logical objects or that arithmetic is analytic or a part of logic. Second, that Frege can secure the objectivity of arithmetic in a way that is independent of the idea that numbers are logical objects.
Logicism and Second-Order Logic
Authors: Boolos George S. 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
This chapter outlines an argument to the effect that there is no reduction of arithmetical truth to logical truth, where “logic” is understood to be elementary (first-order) logic, or any system of logic whose theses form an effectively generable set. It suggests, however, that it leaves open the possibility of a significant reduction of arithmetic to something that might be called a system of logic. By investigating metatheoretic differences between first- and second-order logic, it explores the extent to which second-order logic might play a role in facilitating such a reduction.
Quandary and Intuitionism
Authors: Schiffer Stephen 
Published: August 2020

AbstractThis chapter offers a sustained commentary on Crispin Wright’s paper “On Being in a Quandary: Relativism, Vagueness, Logic Revisionism.” It begins by giving a brief introduction to the issues surrounding vagueness and the sorites paradox before going on to reconstruct the main argument of Wright’s paper “Vagueness: A Fifth Column Approach”. It then proceeds to endorse Wright’s principal reasons for discounting epistemicist and supervaluationist treatments of vagueness. The chapter then develops a critique of Wright’s technical notion of quandary and of his attempt to solve the Sorites Paradox along intuitionistic lines. Despite venturing some criticisms, the chapter concludes that Wright is correct in thinking that vagueness needs to be explained in terms of the sort of quandary state one is in when one takes a proposition to be borderline.
Inferentialism, Logicism, Harmony, and a Counterpoint
Authors: Tennant Neil 
Published: August 2020

AbstractInferentialism is explained as an attempt to provide an account of meaning that is more sensitive (than the tradition of truth-conditional theorizing deriving from Tarski and Davidson) to what is learned when one masters meanings. The logically reformist inferentialism of Dummett and Prawitz is contrasted with the more recent quietist inferentialism of Brandom. Various other issues are highlighted for inferentialism in general, by reference to which different kinds of inferentialism can be characterized. Inferentialism for the logical operators is explained, with special reference to the Principle of Harmony. The statement of that principle in the author’s book Natural Logic is fine-tuned here in the way obviously required in order to bar an interesting would-be counterexample furnished by Crispin Wright, and to stave off any more of the same.
CCCP
Authors: Hale Bob 
Published: August 2020

AbstractThis chapter is concerned with Crispin Wright’s critique, in his 2002 “The Conceivability of Naturalism,” of the well-known argument developed in Saul Kripke’s Naming and Necessity against the identity of pain with C-fibre firing. Kripke argued that if the identity held it would do so necessarily, so that the identity theorist would have the task of explaining away the apparent conceivability of pain without C-fibre firing and C-fibre firing without pain. Wright identified a principle underlying Kripke’s argument (the “Counter-Conceivability Principle,” to the effect that a clear and distinct conception of a situation is the best possible evidence of its possibility), and suggested that Kripke’s deployment of it against the identity theory resulted in failure. The present chapter raises some doubts about the details of Wright’s diagnosis of the flaw in Kripke’s argument, and makes a contribution of its own to our understanding of the aetiology of modal illusion.
A randomized trial of iPad distraction to reduce children’s pain and distress during intravenous cannulation in the paediatric emergency department
Authors: Ali Samina , Ma Keon , Dow Nadia , Vandermeer Ben , Scott Shannon , Beran Tanya , Issawi Amir , Curtis Sarah , Jou Hsing , Graham Timothy A D , Sigismund Leanne , Hartling Lisa 
Published: August 2020

Abstract

Objectives
We compared the addition of iPad distraction to standard care, versus standard care alone, to manage the pain and distress of intravenous (IV) cannulation.

Methods
Eighty-five children aged 6 to 11 years requiring IV cannulation (without child life services present) were recruited for a randomized controlled trial from a paediatric emergency department. Primary outcomes were self-reported pain (Faces Pain Scale-Revised [FPS-R]) and distress (Observational Scale of Behavioral Distress-Revised [OSBD-R]), analyzed with two-sample t-tests, Mann–Whitney U-tests, and regression analysis.

Results
Forty-two children received iPad distraction and 43 standard care; forty (95%) and 35 (81%) received topical anesthesia, respectively (P=0.09). There was no significant difference in procedural pain using an iPad (median [interquartile range]: 2.0 [0.0, 6.0]) in addition to standard care (2.0 [2.0, 6.0]) (P=0.35). There was no significant change from baseline behavioural distress using an iPad (mean ± SD: 0.53 ± 1.19) in addition to standard care (0.43 ± 1.56) (P=0.44). Less total behavioural distress was associated with having prior emergency department visits (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: −1.90 [−3.37, −0.43]) or being discharged home (−1.78 [−3.04, −0.52]); prior hospitalization was associated with greater distress (1.29 [0.09, 2.49]). Significantly more parents wished to have the same approach in the future in the iPad arm (41 of 41, 100%) compared to standard care (36 of 42, 86%) (P=0.03).

Conclusions
iPad distraction during IV cannulation in school-aged children was not associated with less pain or distress than standard care alone. The effects of iPad distraction may have been blunted by topical anesthetic cream usage.

Clinical trials registration
ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02326623.
Explainable Deep Learning Reproduces a ‘Professional Eye’ on the Diagnosis of Internal Disorders in Persimmon Fruit
Authors: Akagi Takashi , Onishi Masanori , Masuda Kanae , Kuroki Ryohei , Baba Kohei , Takeshita Kouki , Suzuki Tetsuya , Niikawa Takeshi , Uchida Seiichi , Ise Takeshi 
Published: August 2020

Abstract
Recent rapid progress in deep neural network techniques has allowed recognition and classification of various objects, often exceeding the performance of the human eye. In plant biology and crop sciences, some deep neural network frameworks have been applied mainly for effective and rapid phenotyping. In this study, beyond simple optimizations of phenotyping, we propose an application of deep neural networks to make an image-based internal disorder diagnosis that is hard even for experts, and to visualize the reasons behind each diagnosis to provide biological interpretations. Here, we exemplified classification of calyx-end cracking in persimmon fruit by using five convolutional neural network models with various layer structures and examined potential analytical options involved in the diagnostic qualities. With 3,173 visible RGB images from the fruit apex side, the neural networks successfully made the binary classification of each degree of disorder, with up to 90% accuracy. Furthermore, feature visualizations, such as Grad-CAM and LRP, visualize the regions of the image that contribute to the diagnosis. They suggest that specific patterns of color unevenness, such as in the fruit peripheral area, can be indexes of calyx-end cracking. These results not only provided novel insights into indexes of fruit internal disorders but also proposed the potential applicability of deep neural networks in plant biology.