bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quantitative Assessment of Incorrect Operations Threat
Authors: Tomar Pushpendra , Kaur Dawinder , Harron Lorna , Sen Millan , Fazli Samir 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Incorrect operations have risen to the second highest cause of incidents based on the Canadian Energy Regulator (CER) data from 2008 to September 2023 for incidents reported under the Onshore Pipeline Regulations and the Processing Plant Regulations. Despite its considerable impact on the performance of pipeline systems, a comprehensive understanding of what constitutes incorrect operations and the development of a robust risk assessment methodology for this specific threat remains limited.
Incorrect operation is identified as a threat in the American Society of Mechanical Engineering standard, ASME B31.8S Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines, Appendix A-8, which defines it as a time-independent issue involving deviations from proper operating procedures or a failure to adhere to established protocols. The crux of this paper lies in the introduction of an innovative and comprehensive method tailored explicitly to evaluate the diverse failure modes associated with incorrect operations. The methodology advocates a systems-based approach by establishing correlations between failure incidents and an array of contributing factors, spanning system intricacies, job-specific attributes, and individual behavioral facets.
The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) database was leveraged to establish baseline failure frequencies specific to this threat. Additionally, incorporating data provided by a pipeline operator, the assessment of the incorrect operations threat was modified by considering factors such as construction year, temperature, state/province, high-consequence areas (HCA), maintenance, and asset type. The paper details the methodology employed in creating the model, and a preliminary evaluation of the model results is presented. Furthermore, the paper explores opportunities for further refinement of the model, discussing the “ideal” model and the data required for the ideal model to be realized. In doing so, the research aims to enhance our comprehension of incorrect operations within the complex context of pipelines, fostering advancements in risk assessment methodologies for improved pipeline safety and reliability.
Technical Challenges and Strategies for the Repurposing of Existing Gas Distribution Pipeline Networks for Hydrogen Transport
Authors: Landschoot Derek , Gomez Johana , Burkinshaw Ollie , Baby Benjose , Shanks David 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Enbridge aims to assess the transport of hydrogen blends through an existing gas distribution network.
Demonstrating suitability of existing pipelines for hydrogen repurposing is a complex task, with limited industry consensus or historic empirical data on hydrogen pipelines adding uncertainty to the process. The 2023 edition of CSA Z662 [1] has provided some clarity through the Engineering Assessment approach introduced for hydrogen repurposing; however, it leaves aspects of the assessment to be further defined. Whilst more prescriptive requirements may be referred to in other standards, such as ASME B31.12 [2], these requirements are liable to change with regular updates and industry research on hydrogen.
The subject pipeline network poses particular challenges for Engineering Assessment due to assets being unpiggable, limited availability of integrity data, and the wide range of pipe populations, with construction spanning multiple decades. In the absence of specific data, inspection and testing are essential to reduce the conservatisms and refine risk assessments. Recognizing the challenges in collecting data for an unpiggable and urban distribution system, it is critical to optimize the strategy for testing and inspection.
This paper details a project completed between Enbridge and ROSEN to explore the effects of hydrogen on the integrity of the pipeline system in the face of limited data, with an approach centred around an extensive sensitivity study assessing fracture and fatigue. The approach also used an asset ranking model drawing on the findings of the sensitivity study to support effective targeting of inspection and testing to maximize the value from gathered data. In addition to the project findings, this paper provides insights on the implications for hydrogen repurposing of distribution pipelines and systems with limited specific data to support detailed Engineering Assessments.
Is Pipeline Safety Improving?
Authors: Hereth Mark , Skow Jason , Di Blasi Martin 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The analysis of historical gas transmission pipeline failure trends in North America shows an improvement over the last twenty years. Many factors are driving the improvement in pipeline safety performance; the introduction of Integrity Management in pipeline regulations, such as the US Code of Federal Regulations, has set forward minimum requirements and brought consistency across pipeline operators for the minimum level of care. This paper addresses the question, is integrity management having an impact on safety performance?
Many pipeline operators have extended the application of minimum requirements beyond high consequence areas. Operators have applied and developed advanced internal inspection technologies, threat analytics and integrity planning strategies. In addition, Operators are adopting reliability and risk management frameworks, not only to prioritized assessments in a baseline program, but to perform risk-informed integrity decision-making on an ongoing basis throughout the asset life-cycle.
This paper uses publicly available pipeline incident data sets to trend failures and incidents using technically-sound analysis techniques routinely used in high reliability industries to show evidence that pipeline safety continues to improve and that the current levels of safety and reliability are aligned with the expectations of the industry, the regulations, and the public. The paper focuses on pipelines rupture incidents classified by root cause threats, location classes, and health, safety and environmental consequences. A societal risk assessment is used to estimate pipeline residual risks and provide recommendations for integrity management frameworks to advance the standard of care through continual improvement.
Hard Spot Management Framework for Gas Transmission Pipelines Using Risk-Based Approach
Authors: Shabarchin Oleg , Janousek Austin , Bolf Brady , Moran Sean , Thompson Kelly , Malinowski Owen 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The presence of hard spots can be a concern for gas transmission pipeline integrity management because these manufacturing defects might fail under normal operational stress. Considering pipeline failures associated with hard spots and increasingly stringent regulatory requirements, there is a need for pipeline operators to establish a robust and efficient hard spot integrity management program. Currently many pipeline operators use industry susceptibility studies conducted in the early 2000s as a basis for their hard spot integrity management program. These studies identified that susceptibility to the hard spot threat is mostly associated with a specific pipeline steel plate manufacturer. However, these studies were limited by incomplete failure data, and lack of length-normalization, rendering them inadequate for comprehensive reliability and risk analysis. A systematic review of existing hard spot data and recent study performed by Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI) MAT-7-2 project suggests susceptibility to hard spots across a broader range of manufacturers and operating conditions. Herein, this paper discusses operators’ experience with the hard spot threat outlining learnings, findings, and challenges. Then, this study employs PRCI MAT-7-2 susceptibility criteria, integrating them with field verified-findings and operators’ experience to guide informed decisions in the pre in-line inspection stage, with the goal of establishing future inspection plan. This is achieved using a flexible Bayesian Network approach that captures uncertainties and interdependencies offering a more comprehensive solution than relying on traditional deterministic susceptibility guidelines. Next, the study extends to a post in-line inspection review of hard spots, using a risk-based approach to mitigate potentially injurious features. To accomplish this, the study leverages a structural reliability methodology using a hard spot failure pressure model applied in a Monte Carlo simulation. Such approach helps to rigorously account for uncertainties and quantify the probability of failure, considering essential factors such as ILI measurement error, pipe material properties, hard spot dimensions and hardness, etc. An operating scenario study is included to demonstrate the practical application of the proposed framework in effectively managing the hard spot threat in gas transmission pipelines.
Bayesian Approach to Coating Life Modelling for Probabilistic Corrosion Growth Rate Analysis
Authors: Stewart Ryan , Skow Jason , Jasper Evan , Schoenroth Kent 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Selecting the correct pipeline coating, ensuring its proper application, and maintaining it are essential for the long-term protection of pipelines against external corrosion. While industry guidance documents recommend quality assurance and quality control procedures for the maintenance and installation of coatings, the practical service life of pipeline coatings remains a challenge to estimate. As newer generation coating technology matures, anecdotal evidence suggests that coatings can remain reliable for decades under optimal environmental conditions.
The authors developed a model based on general industry knowledge of coatings across time and findings from integrity digs. A Bayesian model was used to provide a robust framework to integrate prior knowledge and observed data. In situations where empirical evidence is sparse or unavailable, subject matter expertise acts as an informative prior.
This paper introduces a Bayesian method that quantifies the practical service life of coatings and predicts the probability of the coating being intact for a given pipeline segment over time. The model incorporates subject matter expertise with observations from pipeline excavations that reveal the coating to be intact or not. The model is updated to account for the results from integrity digs. Using generalized industry benchmarks with specific inspection findings produces a more accurate estimation of coating integrity. The results are used to estimate the effective corrosion growth rates on a pipeline in a probabilistic pipeline assessment.
Consistently Inconsistent: Lessons From Operators Comparing Multiple IMU Data Sets
Authors: Dotson Rhett , Brown Alex , Jackson Briant 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Operators and regulators have demonstrated an increased awareness of the geohazard threat over the last decade. In response to this threat, many pipeline operators have begun integrating bending strain assessments based on IMU data into their integrity management programs. Bending strain assessments, which provide a direct measure of the pipe condition, can be a valuable tool in any geohazard integrity management program. Unfortunately, many operators encounter challenges or even confusion when they receive results from a bending strain assessment. The results from a bending strain assessment can be difficult to understand and even more difficult to properly sentence, especially if the assessment identifies hundreds of features. These challenges can be compounded if the operator acquires a second IMU data set and elects to perform another bending strain assessment or a strain change assessment comparing the two data sets. In these situations, operators often observe significant variations in the number of reported bending strain features and the reported strain magnitudes associated with those features. These challenges can rarely be solved by comparing the final reports as the graphical information for the bending strain features is often rendered differently between vendors. This paper presents the results of two case studies where each case study had multiple bending strain reports based on different IMU data sets. Both case studies demonstrated common challenges experienced by operators. Each assessment had significant differences in the number of reported bending strain features and the locations of those features. In both case studies, the information supplied with the final reports was insufficient to reconcile the differences between the two assessments. After demonstrating these challenges, the paper presents the results of the strain change assessments when these assessments are performed according to the same criteria and the identified features are fully reconciled. Based on these results, the paper identifies and discusses the causes of the variation in both case studies which includes gauge length, signal noise, and analyst judgment. The paper demonstrates how those variables can impact the results of a bending strain assessment, and the lessons learned from this case study. The paper concludes by identifying the necessary reporting requirements for bending strain or strain change assessments and makes recommendations on how results from these assessments can be standardized to help operators minimize future variations.
Circumferential Stress Corrosion Cracking, Bending Strains, Slopes and Landslides: An Operator’s Experience
Authors: Dewar Doug , Brimacombe Mark , Charlesworth Coleby 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Circumferential stress corrosion cracking (CSCC) requires a corrosive environment, susceptible pipeline material, and tensile stress. A Canadian operator’s data set is reviewed from a geotechnical point of view to determine the potential source(s) of axial tension required to create CSCC. The initial assessment of the dataset was presented in 2018 [1] focusing on crack characteristics, growth rates, and CSCC management programs. This paper focuses on geotechnical attributes, pipeline settings and ILI IMU data complemented by additional landslide monitoring data gathered over the past 5 years to refine initial interpretations. The hypothesis is that the primary source of axial tension creating CSCC occur from or can be contributed to by construction induced strains rather than landslides or extreme weather events.
Effective Integration of Commercial and Operational Risks
Authors: Ngo Chuong , Wright Charlene B. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper will focus on the process of aligning commercial performance targets with operational capability and resourcing. Though this concept is applicable to multiple sectors and businesses, this paper will focus on the midstream pipeline systems sector of the oil and gas industry.
Organizations aim to maximize performance and return on investment by setting strategic goals, objectives, and targets. Line of sight across the enterprise to corporate objectives and proper alignment to common strategic goals will enhance the likelihood of success, improve efficiency, maximize business performance and minimize risk. The process of refining goals and aligning priorities with finite resources is a complex task.
Many organizations are structured with intentional separation between commercial and operational functions. This may be due to the diversity of the skill sets required for each of the functions, or as a byproduct of accounting based decisions, but the separation introduces opportunities for misalignment of objectives. Segregation of reporting structures may create conflicting directives. Such misalignment could result in counter-productive resource drains driven by duplication of efforts, contradictory initiatives that can erode value, inability to react to market shifts, inability to capture opportunistic market demand, and potential misses in forecasted performance.
Commercial functions are market and customer-facing. They require a focus on market demand, forecasts, global and local market trends, price sensitivities, political and economic factors, and customer trends and opportunities. The main responsibility of this group is to understand which market opportunities offer maximum value. Commercial managers are incentivized through their performance structure to capture as much of the market as possible. They do not focus on engineering drawings, failure data, purchase orders, reliability graphs, work permits, sparing philosophies, and operational integrity factors that are the focus of their counterparts in Operations and Integrity. They assume that the physical asset is maintained, reliable, and available.
Alignment of commercial demand with operational capabilities is a key requirement to maximize return on investment. It provides both the revenue benefits as well as the cost to capitalize on the benefits. When goals are aligned and the “right” initiatives have been defined, the organization minimizes waste, ensures risk tolerances are aligned, and allows for resources to be efficiently optimized. With this approach, scenario planning, resource management, and business strategies can be better aligned to deliberately achieve maximum return on investment. This paper discusses considerations needed to effectively integrate commercial demand with operational readiness to reduce the possibility of an over-committed market position or an underutilized asset.
Enhancing Stress Corrosion Cracking Feature Identification Using EMAT Data and Field Learnings
Authors: Langlois-Rahme Gabriel , Shabarchin Oleg , Foster Alexander , Di Blasi Martin , Chen Xueze , Fredine Gordon 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
As data-driven decision making is becoming more critical in managing the integrity of natural gas transmission pipelines, this paper examines statistics on the identification of Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) using field excavations. The main tool used to detect SCC is the Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) In-line Inspection (ILI). This tool can detect many other less injurious stable features such as lack of fusion pipe mill anomalies. This paper provides novel data driven techniques to help operators differentiate non-injurious cracks and SCC from field learnings. These techniques include a general statistical model, an SME Based Logistic Regression Model, and a Data Driven Machine Learning Logistic Regression model for pipelines susceptible to high pH intragranular SCC, and near neutral pH trangranular SCC separately. Each technique provides a probability that an EMAT call is a true SCC anomaly. An impact assessment on each of these techniques is provided around quantitative risk assessments and risk informed decision making. These insights can be used for risk-informed decision making on Stress Corrosion Cracking Direct Assessments by incorporating the requirements around soil data and minimum Charpy V-Notch Toughness from the Mega Rules RIN-2.
Interfacial Turbulent Diffusivity Between Air and Natural Gas/Hydrogen Blends During Pipeline Purging Process and Implication on the Extent of the Interfacial Mixing Zone
Authors: Botros Kamal K. , Hill Colin , Ziade Paul , Johansen Craig , Van Boven Greg 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The aspiration for blending hydrogen (H2) into natural gas (NG) in gas transmission systems is high and is happening globally. However, several design and operational aspects need to be developed to ensure the safe and reliable delivery of these blends to the end users. One of these aspects is the development of an effective purging procedure of air with NG+H2 blends during the commissioning of a pipe section. An important factor in achieving effective and safe purging is to accurately determine the extent of the mixing zone between the purged air and the purging medium (NG+H2 blend in this case). Since hydrogen is recognized as having a much smaller molecular size than air and/or NG, its molecular diffusivity would be higher leading to a lower Schmidt number. The present research examines the aspects of interfacial turbulent diffusivity, which is key in determining the extent of the mixing zone between air and NG+H2 blends during purging. The investigation was carried out via large eddy simulation (LES) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations at different Reynolds numbers varying from 10,000 to 400,000. The spatial and temporal average of the turbulent diffusivity for an NG+H2 blend at 30% by mole H2 was extracted from the CFD results. It was found that the normalized turbulent diffusivity for the case of the NG+H2 blend studied is at least one-half order-of-magnitude higher than that from Taylor Theory, which is typically used for un-blended natural gas. The implication of this will be elucidated by examples to show that the extent of the mixing zone is longer for NG+H2 blends than that for un-blended NG. The ultimate application of the finding is to ensure that effective purging is achieved to prevent any possibility of an explosion of unpurged air, particularly when H2 is a constituent in the hydrocarbon gas mixture.
Pull Testing and Statistical Evaluation of ILI Capabilities on SSWC and Other Anomalies
Authors: Al-Hasani Zain , Cazenave Pablo , Jimenez Katina , Milligan Ryan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
TC Energy (TCE) operates and maintains natural gas, refined products, and crude oil pipelines in the USA, Canada, and Mexico. The network includes more than 93,000 kilometers (58,000 miles) of gas pipelines, transporting more than 30% of the North American natural gas demand.
As part of its Integrity Management Program, TCE identified Selective Seam Weld Corrosion (SSWC) as one of the significant threats for certain seam weld types in their pipeline system. It also identified In-Line Inspection as the preferred methodology to address it. In that regard, multiple ILI vendors have claimed capabilities in detecting, identifying, and sizing SSWC features, which require careful evaluation and assessment.
A pull-through testing exercise was designed to evaluate and validate those capabilities statistically. The evaluation aims to test multiple ILI systems from different ILI vendors for SSWC and other threats that have yet to be validated and to confirm the detection capabilities for specific pipe attributes. The final objective is to have an array of ILI vendors and technologies to address each threat cost-effectively.
The 24-inch diameter string constructed for this project included joints with synthetic and natural features, including SSWC, pits at the SW and in the pipe body, axial and circumferential slots in the pipe body, individual cracks, crack colonies, laminations, wrinkle bends, hard spots, dents with gouges and plain dents.
Five ILI systems from five ILI technology providers were tested.
The project included the pipe acquisition, the testing string design, the defect creation, the NDE and Lab evaluation of the reference data, the pull-through testing, the ILI vs Reference feature matching, and the statistical analysis of the results.
This paper presents the results of this study.