bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
“Protesting against an avalanche”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Neuroscientists were uniquely poised to resist Nazi racial hygiene policies because neuropsychiatric patients were the primary targets of such policies. In Germany, and later Austria, some isolated instances of “passive” resistance by neuroscientists occurred with questionable overall impact. These included changing patients’ diagnoses to non-hereditary causes or transient disorders not covered by the sterilization law. Or they included private protests against euthanasia of varying degrees, and transferring patients to non-euthanasia facilities. And the least impactful may have been protests against dismissal of Jewish colleagues, or simply leaving Germany. Very rarely, German neuroscientists were engaged in “active” resistance, which was generally futile. In the occupied countries of Denmark, Holland, Norway, and France, however, some neuroscientists engaged in early active resistance that saved colleagues, prevented indoctrination of medical societies, prevented euthanasia, and helped lead to Germany’s defeat. The early component seems to be crucial in this defeat of evil by ordinary goodness.
Blue Helmets’ Diversity
Authors: Bove Vincenzo , Ruffa Chiara , Ruggeri Andrea 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of whether it is better or worse to have many troops from multiple national armies within a United Nations peacekeeping mission. On the one hand, high levels of diversity create obvious organizational challenges and coordination problems. On the other, high levels of diversity produce a mix of complementary perspectives, skills, and solutions. Through case study analysis, the chapter traces the connections between field diversity and mission outcomes as they appear in three missions: UN missions in Lebanon (UNIFIL II), in Mali (MINUSMA), and in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA). Using statistical analysis, the chapter shows that high levels of field diversity have a substantial effect on the protection of civilian lives and reduces the number of battle-related deaths.
Diversity between Force Commander and Blue Helmets
Authors: Bove Vincenzo , Ruffa Chiara , Ruggeri Andrea 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the relationship between Force Commanders and their peacekeeping troops. The qualitative material suggests that strategic divergences or cross-cultural misunderstandings between peacekeepers and their Force Commander may jeopardize a mission’s effectiveness. Yet, a mission composed of troops with high distance from the Force Commander can be interpreted as a signal of the commitment of the wider United Nations, representing global interest in a local context. Moreover, when the potential negative effects of greater or lesser dissimilarity between Force Commanders and troops are tempered by contact and learning, peacekeeping effectiveness should improve. The net effect, assessed through quantitative analysis, suggests that dissimilarity between Force Commanders and peacekeepers matters mostly for protecting civilians, whereas it does not seem to be relevant for resolving the conflict between belligerents. Conversely, a greater linguistic distance between the Force Commander and Blue Helmets might hamper civilian protection.
Sir William Hamilton
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
William Hamilton epitomizes very clearly the challenge that contemporary philosophers face in studying their nineteenth-century predecessors. There can be few thinkers who have been the subject of such a massive reversal of reputational fortune as Hamilton, from being heralded in his day as a philosophical genius to being ignored by subsequent generations as a pompous blunderer. The chapter examines the central principles of Hamilton’s metaphysics, with special reference to his assertion of the relativity of knowledge and the law of the conditioned. The chapter considers how his metaphysical system relates both to that of Kant’s Critical philosophy and the Scottish common sense school, and examines its application to the specific concepts of substance and adjective, space and time, causality, free will and God.
Herbert Spencer
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the philosophy of Herbert Spencer which, after a discussion of his epistemology, focuses on his agnostic assertion of the unknowable as a means of reconciling the spheres of religion and science. Taking first a general perspective, the chapter examines his case against the possibility of religious knowledge as well as his claim that science too deals on with symbols or appearances, before considering in more detail his specific views about space, time, matter, force, causation, and human fee will. The discussion concludes with an examination of the way in which his psychology seemingly points in two opposite directions.
Thomas Henry Huxley
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
We have seen how in Hamilton, Mansel, and Spencer the combination of metaphysical realism and a belief in ‘the relativity of knowledge’ leads to agnosticism about ultimate reality—the position that cognition stands defeated before the ‘unconditioned’, or ‘absolute’, or ‘unknowable’. But the thinker most associated with the term ‘agnosticism’—indeed, the one who first came up with the word—was Thomas Henry Huxley. This chapter begins by examining Huxley’s own account of the origins of the term ‘agnosticism’ as well as his relationship with Herbert Spencer. Following a general discussion of his philosophical orientation that takes into account his suspicion of metaphysics, his strict adherence to scientific methodology, and his views about both Hume and Kant, the discussion moves on to consider in more detail his views about religion, causation, the external world, and the mind–brain relationship. The chapter concludes by contrasting Huxley’s views about ethics and evolution with those of Herbert Spencer.
The British Idealists
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
British Idealism came to the fore in the 1870s, by which time the figures of Mill and Hamilton were fast disappearing into history. Hence the Idealists’ two-fronted war on agnosticism and empiricism was conducted against more contemporary representatives such as Spencer and Huxley on the one hand, and Bain and Lewes on the other. But at the same time as criticizing rival approaches, more positively—both in theory and through the actual construction of bold metaphysical systems—the Idealists urged the potential of reason adequately to understand reality; for in their eyes the former was something fundamentally of a piece with the latter. The British Idealist movement lasted several decades and took in a great many names, but this chapter confines its attention to just four representative figures, John and Edward Caird, Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, and Henry Jones.
F. H. Bradley
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Earlier discussions of the development of agnosticism and of empiricism demonstrated how an initially quite clear and straightforward position, evolving through dialogue with its rivals, gradually developed into an orientation so complex and multiform that at times it might seem to be pointing in almost the exact opposite direction to that in which it first set out. The final chapter of this book uses an examination of the philosophy of F. H. Bradley to show that exactly the same process of contradictory and complex development holds true of Idealism also. After general consideration of his objections to empiricism and to unknowability, special attention is paid to an early discussion of his on the relativity of knowledge and to Collingwood’s thesis that his philosophy is best understood as polemic against Mansel. The chapter concludes with a consideration of his unorthodox belief that, idealism notwithstanding, reality must be understood transcending thought—a form of realism that which seem to bring his thought back round again to a position not so different from the agnosticism of Hamilton and Mansel from which our story started.
Introduction
Authors: Samet Klimchuck 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This introductory chapter provides an overview of this book’s study of the history of equity. In his celebrated Lectures on Equity, FW Maitland famously declared that all that could be said in answer to what is distinctive of the law of equity is that it comprises ‘that body of rules administered by our English courts of justice which, were it not for the operation of the Judicature Acts, would be administered only by those courts which would be known as Courts of Equity’. If Maitland was right, then there is no reason to think the law of equity names something about which there could be philosophical foundations. The contributors to this volume share, for the most part, and in various degrees, the view that Maitland was wrong. Since at least the time of Aristotle, equity has captured the interest of philosophers, and that fascination continues today. As equity’s place in the legal system continues to evolve, equity’s correction of the law, equity’s distinctiveness, and equity’s moral dimensions will continue to remain central questions. Philosophical analysis of these aspects of equity in general and equity in common law legal systems promises to help in understanding and better shaping these developments.
Aristotle at the Foundations of the Law of Equity
Authors: Klimchuk Dennis 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that equity in the Aristotelian sense of correcting for errors arising from the generality of law is no less available in common law than in equity. Indeed, Aristotle’s account is reflected, in remarkable details, in the common law interpretive doctrine of equitable construction. Lord Ellesmere’s appeal to Aristotle in The Earl of Oxford’s Case, then, would seem to undermine rather than support the claim to the jurisprudential independence of equity and jurisdictional independence of Chancery. However, there is another current in Aristotle’s account of equity, substantive rather than functional, that fares much better as the basis of an account of equity’s distinctiveness. This is the idea that equity enjoins persons from being sticklers for their rights in a bad way.
Equity as Supplemental Law
Authors: Miller Paul B 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that implicit in the idea that equity intervenes to prevent persons from inequitably standing on or opportunistically exploiting their legal rights is a remedial conception of equity, according to which its distinctiveness issues from the way it corrects for injustices arising from the strict application of law. While shedding important light on the nature of equity, exclusive focus on its remedial aspect has obscured a second, no less significant role played by equity, namely as a source of supplemental law. Equity does not only restrain or qualify the exercise of primary rights; it is also the source of such rights. Some such rights fill gaps remedially by establishing constraints on existing rights. Others fill gaps interstitially and so expand by adding to existing legal rights. In a third category, equity fills gaps by developing novel frameworks of rights. As such, while many doctrines of equity are remedial, part of what makes equity distinct are the distinctive resources it brings to the task of supplementing law.
The Constitution of Equity
Authors: Fox-Decent Evan 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter shows that a remedial conception of equity is incomplete, at least in the forms that cast its aim as enjoining opportunists and those who are sticklers for their rights in a bad way. Along with its anti-opportunist domain, equity has a jurisdictional sphere. In its jurisdictional sphere, equity’s concern is determining the rightful scope and exercise of other-regarding powers. An opportunist or a sticker in a bad way is just someone who has abused an other-regarding power. In this respect, equity and its doctrines exhibit a number of striking parallels with the jurisdiction and doctrines of administrative law. From this, the chapter then draws two conclusions. First, both domains express jurisdictional justice. Second, is either closely related to public law, or is really just a branch of public law. This second lesson explains a number of distinctive features of equity, for example its second-order structure, its historical deployment of the concept of conscience, and the characteristic properties of Equitable remedies.
Fusion of Law and Confusion of Equity
Authors: Smith Henry E 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues for viewing equity as a second-order system—law about law, or meta law—whose loss through fusion has created a variety of jurisprudential quandaries. On this view, equity serves as a second-order safety valve particularly suited to problems of great variability and uncertainty—including opportunism, conflicting rights, and multipolar conflicts—and although such problems were not the exclusive preserve or the only focus of equity courts, the former jurisdictional divide did much to highlight the second-order equitable function. The flattening out of this second-order equitable function through fusion of law and equity has intensified numerous jurisprudential controversies—including the debate between formalism and contextualism and the distinction between rules and standards—in contrast to the older, less polarized path of hybrid law-equity. Effacing distinctive second-order equity also leads to extreme views about the supposed death of contract and all-consuming tort. Even the relationship of law and morality tends to be more fraught when equity as meta law is taken off the table.
Frankish Expansion
Authors: Morton Nicholas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 1, Frankish Expansion, explores the chaotic years following the departure of the First Crusaders. In this period, the Frankish settlers who chose to remain and defend the newly-founded Crusader States were locked in an almost permanent state of war with many of their foes. This chapter recreates their military history, examining how such small numbers of Frankish knights could continue to expand their territories across the Levantine region. Working through each of the four Crusader States in turn, it examines the aspirations of these fledgling states and discusses their evolving strategic goals. In their early days, in the wake of the First Crusade and its military victories, these states could be extremely ambitious when selecting their targets, although their aspirations became more tempered in later years. Close attention is also paid to the level of co-operation demonstrated by these Frankish leaders, along with their willingness to seek allies among both their neighbours and the communities under their control.
The Rise of Nur al-Din 1149–74
Authors: Morton Nicholas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 5 The Rise of Nur al-Din focuses on the tumultuous years following the Second Crusade. This was an era when Nur al-Din was carving out an empire for himself, seizing Damascus, and coming into conflict with the Anatolian Seljuks and Fatimid Egypt. Many of his campaigns were directed against fellow Turks or other Muslim dynasties and for many periods the Crusader States were only infrequently threatened with invasion. In this chapter, the geopolitical implications of Nur al-Din’s actions are explored to show how the steady agglomeration of power under his rule fundamentally changed the Near East’s political balance. This chapter also contains substantial thematic discussion on the mercenary market in the Crusader States and the size of the armies deployed by the kingdom of Jerusalem.
Mandated Pasts
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 1 examines the new definitions of antiquity that emerged after the First World War and relates them to the new post-war imperial order and international system. It tracks the shift from a perception of ancient objects and monuments as the loot of victors, through their handling within the framework, which had first emerged in the nineteenth century, of laws of war, to their treatment as a part of policies of an imperial peace in the Middle East—in peace treaties and the new mandates system. The chapter follows the internationalization of the discourse on antiquity and the formation of a new “regime of antiquities”, a term referring to international and local mandatory legislation on archaeology and to practices of its monitoring. It offers a view “from above” of the new regime and its formulation by internationalist experts, within the League of Nations and its organizations for intellectual cooperation, such as the International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC) and International Museums Office (OIM), and of internationalist apparatuses, as well as considering the implementation of the regime “on the ground” by the antiquities’ administrations in mandate A territories, formerly under Ottoman rule (Palestine and Transjordan, and Iraq), and the nominally independent Egypt. The chapter demonstrates how the internationalist pull and discourse seeped to colonial rhetoric but conflicted with notions of imperial sovereignty and the power of the mandatories to implement policies on the ground. At the same time, visions of regional cooperation amongst archaeologists and national rights to patrimony were adopted by local archaeologists and nationalists.
Ur
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 5 focuses on Ur, Tell al-Muqayyar, in southern Iraq, and the discovery and popularization, after the First World War, of Sumerian civilization, largely unknown until then. Excavated between 1922 and 1934 by an Anglo-American expedition directed by Leonard Woolley, the most prominent public archaeologist of the Near East between the wars, Ur became a spectacle of a distant antiquity that was related to modernity. The discovery of Ur’s cemeteries, studied here, competed with the contemporary exposure of the tomb of Tutankhamun. The chapter considers Ur’s appeal as an “antique modern”, combining the drawing power of the biblical paradigm manifested in the identification between Ur, Abraham, and the birth of Abrahamic religions, and the appeal of the material riches discovered in the cemeteries, extracted from their place of origin and displayed in metropolitan museums and venues, a process which the chapter recovers. Represented as an Ur-culture, the place of origin of Near Eastern and world civilizations, older than Egypt, Ur was modernized and envisioned as the hub of a global ancient world, a vision that matched mandate notions about the development of Iraq. At the same time, evidence of live burials at the cemeteries was connected to mass killing during the First World War and the commemoration of the war dead. In addition to written, archival, and published sources, the chapter makes use of a wealth of visual representations, including aerial photography, illustrations, and archaeological objects.
Egyptian Antiquity, Imperial Politics, and Modernity
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 8 draws the web of relations between Egypt’s antiquity, empire, modernity, and internationalism from the outbreak of the First World War to decolonization. It focuses on the era between Britain’s unilateral granting of formal independence to Egypt in 1922 and the Anglo-Egyptian Agreement of 1936, and sets the imperial preoccupation with ancient Egypt in national and international contexts. The chapter fills a lacuna in the historiography of Egyptology and Egyptomania which has focused on the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922 and has largely overlooked the internationalist angles of the interwar obsession with ancient Egypt. The chapter maps the expansion of interest in Egypt beyond the pharaonic past and considers its extension to prehistoric Egypt. It relates Egyptology to the modernization of travel and speed technologies, and to popular representations of Egypt as a centre of globalized travel in a connective empire. The chapter further considers the roles of the global media in mediating between discoveries and transnational audiences. Following on the theme of the internationalization of Egypt’s past, it considers the presence of Egypt in material culture, particularly in eclectic styles and design which were associated with modernity, such as Art Deco architecture and fashion. One main argument of the chapter is that the interwar discovery of Egypt’s multiple pasts was characterized by an internationalization apparent in the politics of archaeology, the spread of the new regime of antiquities and cooperation between Egyptian nationalists and internationalist bodies, and in the mass production and consumption of Egyptiana.
Introduction
Authors: Moore Helen 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Beginning with the phenomenon of the postcolonial Amadis as manifested in the works of Gabriel García Márquez, Paul Muldoon, and Walt Whitman, this chapter analyses the cultural and historical flexibilities of Amadis that have recommended it to readers and writers in diverse periods, languages, and cultures. An overview of the genre of the Spanish books of chivalry (libros de caballerías) to which Amadis belongs, an account of its defining relationship with Don Quixote, and a survey of the French translations by Nicolas de Herberay that first mediated the romance to England, set the scene for the succeeding chapters.
Receiving Romance
Authors: Moore Helen 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter explains the book’s methodologies in the history of reading and elaborates its theory of ‘removed’ reading. ‘Removed’ reading describes the acquisition of familiarity with an anterior text through the reading of a posterior text in which it is embedded, as Amadis is in Don Quixote. The political and cultural conditions that determined and inflected Anglo-Spanish relations across the relevant centuries are outlined, and their implications for the reading of romance explored, as is the long-standing function of French as an intermediary for translated Spanish works in English. The second half of the chapter addresses the act and function of allusion-making, and outlines the modes and strategies of reading romance that are deployed or advocated in different historical periods and social contexts, with a particular focus on gender and reading.
The Legacy of Don Quixote
Authors: Moore Helen 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Reading Amadis in Jacobean England was conditioned by two publishing events: the appearance of the first part of Cervantes’s Don Quixote in 1605, and Munday’s 1618–19 edition of the first four books of Amadis. The revived Jacobean currency of the romance, alongside its association with Ovid and Sidney’s Arcadia as ‘arts of the heart’, explains its appearance in plays by Jacobean and Caroline dramatists including Jonson, Dekker, Massinger, Beaumont, Shirley, Brome, and Davenant. The second half of the chapter examines Amadis as the palimpsest upon which Don Quixote was written and highlights the theme of ‘ravery’ that links Amadis and Don Quixote, drawing examples from the satirical modes in which this topic is played out. This chapter therefore opens up a rich seam of literary allusion and parody that has not previously been studied, as well as shedding new light on the mechanics of reading Don Quixote in England.