bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
State-like entities in past eras of international law
Authors: Nicholson Rowan 
Published: November 2019

AbstractThis chapter is about the personality of state-like entities in eras before international law became an unquestionably global system—before, roughly, the early twentieth century. It focuses on differences between Western and non-Western entities in the preceding period, which present a number of intertwined complications. One of these is that Western ideas about international law were not familiar to or not accepted by state-like entities in Africa, Asia, and elsewhere, many of which had their own, incompatible ideas. Another is that Westerners dismissed these entities as insufficiently ‘civilized’ to participate fully in international law. The chapter concludes that, although both Western and non-Western entities have always had a degree of personality, it cannot be explained solely in terms of statehood in a clear technical legal sense.
Prolegomena
Authors: Perry Steven F. , Lambertz Markus , Schmitz Anke 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Probably no process epitomizes life more than respiration. By respiration we mean the cascade of energy-producing biochemical reactions called oxidative phosphorylation, powered by a gradient of oxidation. Structure and function are intimately connected, forming an entity called a faculty. In this book, we focus on the functional and evolutionary morphology of the respiratory faculty, many of the components of which are older than the first animals, indeed older than life itself. The initial steps until the first animals arose are summarized here in a hypothetical scenario and provided together with an introduction to several other conceptual approaches that we have adhered to throughout this book.
Respiratory faculties of amphibious and terrestrial invertebrates
Authors: Perry Steven F. , Lambertz Markus , Schmitz Anke 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the respiratory faculties of invertebrate air breathers. Although the partial pressure of oxygen in water is the same as in the surrounding atmosphere, the oxygen content per unit volume is around 30 times less due to its relatively low solubility in water. So it is no wonder that there is evidence for invertebrate animals on land as early as from the Palaeozoic. In spite of this apparent metabolic advantage, aside from some annelid groups, the only invertebrates to truly call dry land their home are some snails and arthropods. Among the latter, we see several independent origins of air breathing, and crustaceans present a particularly interesting study group in this regard. Arachnids and insects, on the other hand, were from the beginning terrestrial and air breathing, and insect tracheae form the most effective respiratory system going.
Respiratory faculties of amphibious and terrestrial craniotes
Authors: Perry Steven F. , Lambertz Markus , Schmitz Anke 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter introduces the ‘who has what’ in terms of air-breathing respiratory faculties for craniotes. Air breathing has arisen independently dozens of times among ray-finned fishes, but none has become completely terrestrial. The lobe-finned fishes eventually gave rise to amphibians and amniotes, and we see an increased importance of primarily lung-based air breathing. A muscular mechanism for lung ventilation (a buccal pump in amphibians and primarily a negative pressure aspiration mechanism in amniotes), pulmonary veins that return oxygenated blood to the heart, and some mechanism for partial or complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood masses at the heart are seen. Each major tetrapod group, in fact, has its own specific breathing mechanism. The chapter examines in some detail low-performance and high-performance faculties, the latter being particularly realized in the diaphragm-powered, ventilated pool system of the mammalian bronchoalveolar lung, and in the cross-current system of the avian lung–air sac system.
The evolution of water-breathing respiratory faculties in craniotes
Authors: Perry Steven F. , Lambertz Markus , Schmitz Anke 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
The major components of the respiratory faculty (gill structure, muscular ventilation, central heart and erythrocyte-containing blood, and pH-sensitive control of breathing) appear to have been present in craniotes from the very beginning. But the details are so different in the most basally radiating group, hagfish, corroborating that they separated very early from the stem line. In the other groups, progressive changes are seen in the structure of the gills, heart, haemoglobin, as well as in the control of breathing. In particular, a major and progressive change in gill structure is seen when comparing sharks to teleosts, with several intermediary forms realized.
The bottom line
Authors: Perry Steven F. , Lambertz Markus , Schmitz Anke 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the most important aspects of the entire book. Writing an abstract of a summary can result in a ‘bouillon cube’ of information that is nearly incomprehensible, so this sticks to the most far-reaching observations and conclusions. The structure–function unit referred to here as the respiratory faculty did not just suddenly appear, but rather bits and pieces of it are recognizable even in most basally branching metazoan lineages. The use of mitochondria in an aerobic atmosphere to produce large amounts of energy-carrying molecules precipitated a kind of arms race, whereby the individuals that could compete better for food sources or become predatory could become part of an evolutionary cascade. These new animals moved into another realm, but the old ones did not necessarily disappear: they just did what they always did, maybe a little better. In the most diverse lineages of invertebrates and craniotes we see similar changes appearing: gills with counter-current exchange, highly specialized oxygen-carrying proteins, a partly or completely closed circulatory system that includes the gas exchange organs, lungs. The more extreme the grounds for specialization, the more similar are these structures and functions. Often the functional result remains unchanged or becomes improved while the anatomical cause changes dramatically, but just as often structures change little but minor functions become major ones: a phenomenon called exaptation. This book has looked at most major animal groups and these principles turn up everywhere. It talks about multidimensional forces at work in a multidimensional world, and respiration is the keystone to it all.
Contractarianism and the Moral Equality of Civilians
Authors: Benbaji Yitzhak , Statman Daniel 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
The chapter proposes a contractarian account of the strict prohibition against targeting civilians and of the limited permission to collaterally harm them. It shows that under an arrangement by which states hold armies whose role is self-defence and deterrence from aggression, a contract granting immunity to civilians from direct attack is mutually beneficial to all decent parties. It would immunize even civilians who are culpable for the threat against which the just side is fighting. The permission to inflict collateral damage on civilians is also explained on contractarian grounds. The chapter concludes by discussing the rules of warfare in asymmetrical conflicts.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Benbaji Yitzhak , Statman Daniel 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
In this chapter we offer some concluding remarks. We point to the limitations of contractarianism, to its advantages over revisionism, and to its practicality. We show that for contractarianism wars are not necessarily ‘moral tragedies’, as they are for revisionists because wars do not necessarily involve unavoidable wrongdoing. According to contractarianism, combatants participating in war can do so without violating the rights of either combatants or civilians of the enemy side. The chapter also shows how even revisionists rely at times on contractualist premises to justify adherence to rules which they regard as unjustified in terms of ‘deep morality’. We also criticize the way this notion is utilized, especially the distinction between ‘deep morality’ and non-deep morality (associated with compliance with the laws of war). The distinction creates the impression that one should give priority to considerations stemming from deep morality over those stemming from shallow morality. But clearly, even revisionists do not assume such a priority—neither in general, nor in the field of war. Finally, the chapter highlights the ‘realist’ aspect of contractarianism, namely, its scepticism about the termination of wars and warfare. This scepticism has to do with the existence of evil individuals and of rogue states, but also with benign self-interest coupled with epistemic shortcomings and a constant suspicion of others. Given this realist assumption, states would be better off agreeing on rules to regulate war that would, on the one hand, facilitate effective self-defence, while on the other, reduce the killing and harm they cause.
Conclusion
Authors: Park Yoosun 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Social work equivocated. Social work organizations did not support mass removal, landing mostly on the stance that individual adjudication of loyalty rather than wholesale removal was the preferable course. But neither, on the whole, did they oppose wholesale removal, abdicating their right to and responsibility for contesting the wisdom of the government at war. Neither the disciplinary publications nor the archival records of workers in the field provide an unmitigated critique of the events. Even the YWCA, the best of social work in these events, followed the same racist schema that enabled the removal and incarceration. The history presented here is all the more disturbing because it is that of social workers doing what seemed to them to be more or less right and good.
One Health and Zoonotic Uncertainty in Singapore and Australia: Examining Different Regimes of Precaution in Outbreak Decision-Making
Authors: Degeling C , Gilbert G L , Tambyah P , Johnson J , Lysaght T 
Published: November 2019

AbstractA One Health approach holds great promise for attenuating the risk and burdens of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) in both human and animal populations. Because the course and costs of EID outbreaks are difficult to predict, One Health policies must deal with scientific uncertainty, whilst addressing the political, economic and ethical dimensions of communication and intervention strategies. Drawing on the outcomes of parallel Delphi surveys conducted with policymakers in Singapore and Australia, we explore the normative dimensions of two different precautionary approaches to EID decision-making—which we call regimes of risk management and organizing uncertainty, respectively. The imperative to act cautiously can be seen as either an epistemic rule or as a decision rule, which has implications for how EID uncertainty is managed. The normative features of each regime, and their implications for One Health approaches to infectious disease risks and outbreaks, are described. As One Health attempts to move upstream to prevent rather than react to emergence of EIDs in humans, we show how the approaches to uncertainty, taken by experts and decision-makers, and their choices about the content and quality of evidence, have implications for who pays the price of precaution, and, thereby, social and global justice.
Difference-in-Differences as an Alternative to Pretest–Posttest Regression for Social Work Intervention Evaluation and Research
Authors: Rose Roderick A , Bowen Natasha K 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Nonrandomized evaluation designs are an important part of social work research because randomization is not always feasible in social work settings. Although randomly assigned groups are assumed to be equivalent, nonrandomly assigned groups are not. In nonrandomized settings, designs with multiple waves are ideal, but two-wave designs are still widely used. A common method for estimating a treatment effect in nonrandom two-wave designs is the pretest–posttest model. However, depending on relationships among participants and the method of assignment to treatment groups, researchers should consider a difference-in-differences approach to testing treatment effects. Authors describe and compare the pretest–posttest and difference-in-differences approaches and assumptions and offer guidelines, developed from a literature review, about the conditions under which each model is likely to be best. Authors also demonstrate the decision-making process and application of the methods in an evaluation of an elementary school intervention program.
A bispecific soluble receptor fusion protein that targets TNF‐α and IL‐21 for synergistic therapy in inflammatory arthritis
Authors: Park Jin‐Sil , Yoo Seok‐Ho , Lim Mi‐Ae , Ryu Jun‐Geol , Oh Hye‐Joa , Hwang Sun‐Hee , Yang SeungCheon , Jung Kyung‐Ah , Yoon Sunha , Park Bum‐Chan , Park Sung‐Hwan , Kim Ho‐Youn , Cho Mi‐La , Park Young‐woo 
Published: November 2019

AbstractThis study was aimed at investigating the therapeutic effects of BITRAP, a bispecific fusion protein targeting TNF‐α and IL‐21, on the development of autoimmune arthritis in humans and mice. To verify the effects of BITRAP in human, peripheral blood mononuclear cells were cultured with BITRAP under IL‐17‐producing T (Th17) cell‐polarizing conditions or osteoclast differentiation conditions. BITRAP treatment inhibited the production of IL‐17 and vascular endothelial growth factor but increased the production of IL‐10 in CD4+ T cells, as well as directly suppressed osteoclastogenesis. Collagen‐induced arthritis (CIA) and IL‐1R antagonist (IL‐1Ra) knockout mice were treated with BITRAP. Following injection in CIA mice, BITRAP rapidly migrated into the inflamed joints and remained there for 72 hours. Application of BITRAP attenuated the severity of autoimmune arthritis in CIA and IL‐1Ra knockout mice by reducing the numbers of inflammatory cytokine‐expressing cells and Th17 cells and antibody secretion. Finally, BITRAP suppressed STAT3 phosphorylation, as well as production of IL‐17 and TNF‐α, in murine splenic CD4+ T cells. These findings suggest that BITRAP, a bispecific fusion protein targeting TNF‐α and IL‐21, may be an effective treatment to overcome the limitations of anti‐TNF therapy for patients with rheumatoid arthritis.
Asymmetric functions of a binuclear metal center within the transport pathway of a human zinc transporter ZIP4
Authors: Zhang Tuo , Sui Dexin , Zhang Chi , Cole Logan , Hu Jian 
Published: November 2019

AbstractMetal clusters are exploited by numerous metalloenzymes for catalysis, but it is not common to utilize a metal cluster for substrate transport across membrane. The recent crystal structure of a prototypic Zrt‐/Irt‐like protein (ZIP) metal transporter from Bordetella bronchiseptica (BbZIP) revealed an unprecedented binuclear metal center (BMC) within the transport pathway. Here, through a combination of bioinformatics, biochemical and structural approaches, we concluded that the two physically associated metal‐binding sites in the BMC of human ZIP4 (hZIP4) zinc transporter exert different functions: one conserved transition metal–binding site acts as the transport site essential for activity, whereas the variable metal–binding site is required for hZIP4's optimal activity presumably by serving as a secondary transport site and modulating the properties of the primary transport site. Sequential soaking experiments on BbZIP crystals clarified the process of metal release from the BMC to the bulky solvent. This work provides important insights into the transport mechanism of the ZIPs broadly involved in transition metal homeostasis and signaling, and also a paradigm on a novel function of metal cluster in metalloproteins.
Structure-based design of a Cortistatin analog with improved immunoregulatory activity against inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
Authors: Rol Álvaro , Todorovski Toni , Martin-Malpartida Pau , Escolà Anna , Gonzalez-Rey Elena , Aragón Eric , Verdaguer Xavier , Vallès-Miret Mariona , Farrera-Sinfreu Josep , Puig Eduard , Fernández-Carneado Jimena , Ponsati Berta , Delgado Mario , Riera Antoni , Macias Maria J. 
Published: November 2019

SummaryUlcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) that lead to chronic inflammations of the gastrointestinal tract due to an abnormal response of the immune system. Finding new effective drugs to tackle IBD represents a major therapeutic concern since IBD incidence and prevalence is increasing worldwide. Recent studies positioned Cortistatin (CST) as a candidate for IBD treatment due to its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity. Here, we studied the structural properties of CST using NMR and synthesized and characterized new analogs displaying enriched populations of some native conformations. One of them, Analog 5, preserved the activity against IBD with an increased half-life in serum, overcoming the native hormone limitation and opening the door for the use of CST analogs as therapeutic agents. This work represents a new approach to the rational design of molecules to treat IBD and a possibility for patients that fail to respond to other therapies.Graphical abstract
Meta-control of the exploration-exploitation dilemma emerges from probabilistic inference over a hierarchy of time scales
Authors: Marković Dimitrije , Goschke Thomas , Kiebel Stefan J. 
Published: November 2019

AbstractCognitive control is typically understood as a set of mechanisms which enable humans to reach goals that require integrating the consequences of actions over longer time scales. Importantly, using routine beheavior or making choices beneficial only at a short time scales would prevent one from attaining these goals. During the past two decades, researchers have proposed various computational cognitive models that successfully account for behaviour related to cognitive control in a wide range of laboratory tasks. As humans operate in a dynamic and uncertain environment, making elaborate plans and integrating experience over multiple time scales is computationally expensive, the specific question of how uncertain consequences at different time scales are integrated into adaptive decisions remains poorly understood. Here, we propose that precisely the problem of integrating experience and forming elaborate plans over multiple time scales is a key component for better understanding how human agents solve cognitive control dilemmas such as the exploration-exploitation dilemma. In support of this conjecture, we present a computational model of probabilistic inference over hidden states and actions, which are represented as a hierarchy of time scales. Simulations of goal-reaching agents instantiating the model in an uncertain and dynamic task environment show how the exploration-exploitation dilemma may be solved by inferring meta-control states which adapt behaviour to changing contexts.
Maternal Effect Senescence and Fitness: A Demographic Analysis of a Novel Model Organism
Authors: Hernández Christina M. , van Daalen Silke F. , Caswell Hal , Neubert Michael G. , Gribble Kristin E. 
Published: November 2019

AbstractMaternal effect senescence—a decline in offspring fitness with maternal age—has been demonstrated in a range of taxa, including humans. Despite decades of phenotypic studies, it remains unclear how maternal effect senescence impacts population structure or evolutionary fitness. To understand the impact of maternal effect senescence on population dynamics, fitness, and selection, we used data from individual-based culture experiments on the microscopic aquatic invertebrate,Brachionus manjavacas(Rotifera), to develop a series of matrix population models in which individuals are classified jointly by age and maternal age. By comparing the results derived from models with and without maternal effects, we found that the fitness difference due to maternal effect senescence arises primarily through decreased fertility, particularly at maternal ages corresponding to the peak reproductive output. In all models, selection gradients decrease with increasing age. They also decrease with maternal age for large maternal ages, implying that maternal effect senescence can evolve through the same process as in Hamilton’s theory of the evolution of demographic senescence. We find that maternal effect senescence significantly alters population structure and fitness forB. manjavacas, a species with high maternal investment and maximum reproduction in early-to mid-life. The models developed here were built with data from an emerging model organism, and are widely applicable to evaluate the fitness consequences of maternal effect senescence across species with diverse aging and fertility schedule phenotypes.
Adolescent substance use and functional connectivity between the ventral striatum and hippocampus
Authors: Huntley Edward D. , Marusak Hilary A. , Berman Sarah E. , Zundel Clara G. , Hatfield Joshua R.B. , Keating Daniel P. , Rabinak Christine A. 
Published: November 2019

AbstractNeurodevelopmental explanations for adolescent substance use have focused on heightened sensitivity of the brain’s reward system, centered around the ventral striatum (VS). Recent evidence demonstrates increased functional connectivity between the VS and hippocampus in adolescents relative to adults, suggesting that the adolescent brain may learn from subsequent exposure to risks/rewards. However, a link between VS-hippocampal circuitry and adolescent substance use has yet to be established. Two separate longitudinal studies were conducted to evaluate whether variation in VS-hippocampal resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) predicts subsequent adolescent substance use. Study 1 consisted of 19 youth recruited from a high sociodemographic risk population (N = 19; 14 female; 47% Black Non-Hispanic, 32% White Non-Hispanic). To replicate results of Study 1, Study 2 utilized data from the National Consortium on Adolescent Neurodevelopment and Alcohol, an ongoing multi-site imaging study (N= 644; 339 female; 11% Black Non-Hispanic, 11% Hispanic/Latino, 66% White Non-Hispanic). Resting-state fMRI data were collected at a baseline time point and lifetime and past year self-reported substance use was collected at a follow up visit. Regression models tested whether baseline VS-hippocampal rs-FC predicted substance use at follow up. Across both studies, higher VS-hippocampal rs-FC at baseline predicted greater substance use at follow up. These data provide the first evidence linking increased VS-hippocampal connectivity with greater adolescent substance use. Results fit with the emerging idea that adolescent substance use is driven by not only a heightened sensitivity to reward, but also a stronger link between reinforcement learning and episodic memory for rewarding outcomes.