bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reconstructing History
Authors: Striedter Georg F. , Northcutt R. Glenn 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This introductory chapter describes the book’s general approach and underlying philosophy. The authors adopt a definition of biological homology that recognizes the hierarchical nature of biological organization and allows for any aspects of a character to change over the course of evolution. The only essential homology criterion is that the characters in question must have been retained from a common ancestor, rather than having evolved independently in multiple lineages. These fundamental ideas are discussed in the context of related concepts, notably “field homology” and the homology of cell types and developmental pathways. Although it is easy to get tangled up in questions about the homology or non-homology of individual characters, the book’s main concern is the evolution and natural history of entire organisms and the lineages to which they belong.
The Origin of Vertebrates
Authors: Striedter Georg F. , Northcutt R. Glenn 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Some time in the Ediacaran or early Cambrian period, the first vertebrates emerged. Compared to the invertebrate chordates, early vertebrates were active predators, rather than suspension feeders. This change in behavior was facilitated by several major morphological innovations, including pharyngeal muscles that pump water through the pharynx, vascularized gills, paired image-forming eyes, a complex vestibular apparatus, lateral line receptors, taste buds, and a well-developed olfactory system. Early vertebrates also evolved several new brain regions, notably the telencephalon and the midbrain. Developmentally, most of these innovations were linked to the emergence of two novel embryonic tissues, namely placodes and neural crest. Although these tissues and their adult derivatives did not evolve “out of nothing,” they represent genuine innovations that contributed substantially to the evolutionary success of the vertebrate lineage.
The Invasion of Land
Authors: Striedter Georg F. , Northcutt R. Glenn 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Basal stem tetrapods were fully aquatic but spent time at the water surface breathing air, which was useful at the end of the Devonian, when aquatic oxygen levels were low. After the Devonian, early tetrapods became fully terrestrial, at least as adults. This transition involved major changes in the musculoskeletal system for locomotion and the evolution of new modes of feeding. Aerial vision required changes in the eye but then allowed for high-resolution vision over long distances. In contrast, the lateral line systems are useless in air and were lost in fully terrestrial tetrapods. The brains of early tetrapods were relatively simple, possibly simplified through a process called paedomorphosis. The telencephalon’s main function in early tetrapods was to inhibit or disinhibit the lower brain regions. Later tetrapods diverged into extant amphibians and amniotes. Within the amphibian lineage, anurans evolved a tympanic ear, which increased their ability to hear airborne sounds.
The Long Reach of Self-Control
Authors: Baumeister Roy F. , Vonasch Andrew J. , Sjåstad Hallgeir 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Abundant evidence suggests that people exert self-control as if the exertions consumed a limited energy resource, akin to the folk notion of willpower. After exerting self-control, subsequent efforts at self-control are often relatively feeble and unsuccessful. The state of low willpower is called ego depletion. Studies on ego depletion have shown effects on intelligent thought (which is impaired during ego depletion), decision-making (depleted persons shift to more superficial ways of choosing, or prefer to avoid making choices), and passivity (depleted people become more passive). The psychological processes of self-regulation and ego depletion are linked to physical energy, as indicated by evidence that hunger makes people more short-sighted, and that food intake tends to counteract ego depletion. Depletion increases in response to interpersonal conflict, poor sleep, and confronting uncertainty. In daily life, good self-control is linked to avoiding problems and temptations, low stress, and higher happiness.
Exploring the Roles of Emotions in Self-Control
Authors: Scarantino Andrea 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Self-control has been understood since Ancient Greece as reason winning in the battle with emotion. This is an idea that contemporary “divided mind” accounts of self-control take for granted, assuming that emotions are a threat to one’s ability to do what one judges best, all things considered. This historically influential picture neglects the emotions’ potential as tools for self-control. This chapter argues that emotions can help self-control by virtue of how they motivate, by virtue of how they feel, and by virtue of how they evaluate the self. At the same time, each of these three channels can also lead emotions to undermine self-control. Thus, whereas a “divided mind” account recommends fostering self-control by preventing emotions from interfering, the author recommends fostering self-control by developing affective strategies that harness the distinctive powers of emotions to work for self-control rather than against it.
Introduction
Authors: Elliott Kamilla 
Published: June 2020

AbstractAdaptation studies in the humanities has grown exponentially as a field since 1990, and many new theories have been brought to bear on it in the twenty-first century. Even so, adaptation scholars continue to view the field as theoretically lacking. For most, the problem of theorizing adaptation is that scholars are using the “wrong” theories, a problem to be remedied by using the “right” theories, although what the “right” theories are continues to be contested, even in an age of theoretical pluralism. This introduction inaugurates the book’s investigation of how and why the ways in which theorization has been practiced in the humanities generally has been wrong for adaptation studies particularly and offers an overview of the ways in which the chapters aim to redress the dysfunctional relationship between theorization and adaptation in the humanities.
The Rhetoric of Theorizing Adaptation
Authors: Elliott Kamilla 
Published: June 2020

Abstract“Refiguring Theorization” shifts from macroscopic historical and theoretical metacriticism to microscopic analyses of rhetoric. Theorizing adaptation has unfolded not only at the level of books, chapters, articles, and reviews but also at the level of sentences, phrases, words, and pieces of words. Analyzing relations between parts of speech governed by the laws of grammar makes clear that some problems of theorizing adaptation lie within the systems and structures of rhetoric itself. A microscopic study of rhetoric takes larger discourses to pieces not only to understand their workings but also as a prelude to constructing new discourses of theorizing adaptation. Rhetoric’s conjoined persuasive and aesthetic functions render it particularly resonant for pondering the relationship between theoretical discourses and aesthetic practices, with potential for refiguring that relationship. Figurative rhetoric (or figuration) is central to this endeavor, providing a variegated, adaptive rhetoric with potential to forge new ways of thinking, speaking, and writing about adaptation, theorization, and their relationship to each other.
The origins of Nazi persecution and victimization of neuroscientists in Germany, Austria, and Poland
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Beginning with even some famous neuroscientists in the nineteenth century anti-Semitism prevented professional promotions and left Jews as outsiders. This included Oppenheim, Flatau, Freud, Liepmann, Weigert, Lewandowsky, Edinger, and others. The specialties of neurology and psychiatry in the first place were fringe areas in which Jews could gravitate and build careers in a field others shunned. But pervasive and insidious discrimination existed in most German and Austrian universities, and Jewish neuroscientists were rarely made department chairs or institute heads. In some instances independent hospitals or clinics in larger cities such as Berlin or Vienna could be headed by Jews, but this became increasingly rare and these dreams were shattered at the onset of the Nazi era. Even as heads of some independent hospitals Jewish neuroscientists faced intolerable degrees of hatred and roadblocks, but persevered and contributed heavily to the growth of neuroscience.
“Three generations of imbeciles are enough”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Eugenic principles originated in the nineteenth century, along with the related subject of racial hygiene. Eugenics became popular globally, not just in Germany, and was seen as a solution to society’s problems of poverty, crime, and mental illness. Neuroscientists flocked to eugenics, but long before that they helped popularize scientific racism by espousing ideas about smaller skull sizes in so-called “inferior” races. Even famous neuroscientists of the nineteenth and early twentieth century became staunch eugenicists, including Forel, Möbius, Anton, Lundborg, Lennox, and Foster Kennedy. Thus, it isn’t surprising that leading up to the Nazi era, neuroscientists were some of the biggest proponents of forced sterilization and even euthanasia programs as negative eugenics measures to rid society of unwanted elements, including neurologic and psychiatric patients who were seen as “burdens.” Notably, not all neuroscientists believed in eugenic measures on these patients, with some calling for “exoneration of the feebleminded.”
Gleichschaltung and “de-Jewification” in German university neurology departments
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
In at least 26 instances of “non-Aryan” neuroscientist dismissal, their replacements were involved in racial hygiene consequences such as aiding the vehement forced sterilization program, euthanasia of neuropsychiatric patients, or collection of brain tissue and research on these expendable victims. The hardest-hit departments were in the major German cities, especially Berlin, where both the university and multiple smaller hospitals and institutes were decapitated and where Jews had been directors prior to the Nazi power seizure. University neurology departments in Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Bonn, Heidelberg, and Breslau were also heavily incapacitated by dismissals. Those who took over the positions of dismissed neuroscientists were often members of not only the Nazi party, but multiple subsidiary agencies, such as the SS, SA, and others, likely reflecting deeper commitment to Nazi ideology. Six known “Aryan” neuroscientists emigrated from Germany, reflecting the fact that support of the regime was neither mandatory, nor the only solution.
Forced sterilization under the NazisPreventing people with neuropsychiatric disorders from polluting the German gene pool
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The first negative eugenic measure passed by the Hitler regime in July 1933 was the forced sterilization law, which primarily targeted neuropsychiatric patients with “feeblemindedness,” schizophrenia, and epilepsy. Also included were Huntington’s chorea, bipolar disorder, and alcoholism, along with other congenital defects. The law was based on a prior Weimar Germany draft that was never enacted. Although Germany was late to enact a sterilization law, it was more rapidly implemented and executed than in other countries. In 12 years of the Nazi regime, 400,000 people were forcibly sterilized. The hypocritical execution of the law, supposedly foolproof because of the use of “hereditary health courts” and appeals courts, resulted in people of lower socioeconomic background being preferentially affected, and also in non-hereditary forms of diseases (e.g., symptomatic epilepsy) being included. Most in German neuroscience also seemed unconcerned with the 0.5% mortality rate of sterilization procedures, resulting in at least 2000 deaths.
“Beautiful mental defectives” and “lovely idiots”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Some German and Austrian neuroscientists, instead of condemning the patient murder, actually saw a great opportunity in the euthanasia programs. The opportunity was for scientific research on a scale that would never have been possible without the murder programs. The brain parts of these murdered “beautiful defectives” would be used during and long after the war in scientific publications, largely containing mere pathologic descriptions or regarding hereditary causes of neurologic disease. Brain transfer networks existed based on individual scientific interests of neuropathologists at various German institutes; thus, a symbiotic relationship can be seen in the neuroscientists’ desire for scientific material and research funding, which fueled and further intensified the killers’ desire to eliminate patients. The lack of humanity and ethics by Hallervorden, Ostertag, and others regarding this indirect collaboration in killing is striking, as is their lack of repentence or informing future generations about the unethical provenance of the “material.”
Just “rabbits”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Neuropsychiatric patients were also subjected to various experiments during the euthanasia programs. The unethical experiments ranged from photography using restraints, to inducing hypoxic or hypercarbic states in epileptics to monitor electroencephalographic changes, to exposing children to hypoxia to induce seizures, to inoculating spinal fluid with monkey fluids to transmit a potential multiple sclerosis-causing viral agent, and tuberculosis experiments. These “expendable” patients were loaned from local mental institutions, and some died during the experiments. Results were published in scientific journals and continued to be cited as legitimate experiments long after the war. The individual scientists did not face any sanctions for the unethical experimental designs. Justifications given were that the patients were demented and couldn’t experience pain, or that the experimenter was in the vacuum chamber with the children. But the experiments violated 1931 Weimar guidelines and the Hippocratic Oath, even if formal ethical restrictions were not standardized at the time.
“Washing the black sheep white again”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The first postwar period (1945–50) consisted, importantly, of the Nuremberg Medical Trial and formation of the Nuremberg Code for medical ethics. During the initial period most collaborator neuroscientists, even those involved in patient selection for euthanasia, escaped largely unscathed. The latter faced temporary career setbacks but re-emerged in the next decade professionally. The second period (1950–70) included a seminal event, the Hallervorden Affair, which pertained to the 1953 International Neuropathology Conference in Lisbon. Former Dutch neuroscientist resistor Rademaker and the Dutch delegation withdrew when they found out Hallervorden was presenting, leading to Hallervorden and Spatz’s withdrawal but only after fiery correspondence on both sides of the argument. Some collaborator neuroscientists continued to support sterilization, and even spoke against victims’ rights. Overall, only three of 25 (12%) of collaborators ever publicly repented for their involvement in Nazi programs, suggesting against an ability to rehabilitate for this directly involved group.
A.S. Byatt’s Biological Reason
Authors: Hanson Clare 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 2 places A.S. Byatt’s four-volume novel sequence the Quartet in the context of Michel Foucault’s The Order of Things, a frequent point of reference for her fiction. It traces her engagement with the question of genetic determinism, which she reads through the lens of a debate between Noam Chomsky and Jean Piaget, and her exploration of alternative theories of ‘soft inheritance’. It notes her interest in neo-Darwinian theories of sex (especially those of John Maynard Smith) and her awareness of the problematic imbrication of these theories with current social assumptions, especially in a period just on the cusp of second-wave feminism. It also considers her reflections on changes in scientific methodology, from the origins of botany in the taxonomy of Linnaeus to present-day awareness of anthropogenic climate change.
Empires of Antiquities
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Empires of Antiquities is a history of the rediscovery of the imperial civilizations of the ancient Near East in a modern imperial order that evolved between the outbreak of the First World War and the decolonization of the British Empire in the 1950s. It explores the ways in which near eastern antiquity was redefined and experienced, becoming the subject of imperial regulation, modes of enquiry, and international and national politics. A series of globally publicized spectacular archaeological discoveries in Iraq, Egypt, and Palestine, which the book follows, made antiquity material visible and accessible as never before. The book demonstrates that the new definition and uses of antiquity and their relations to modernity were inseparable from the emergence of the post-war international imperial order, transnational collaboration and crises, the aspirations of national groups, and collisions between them and the British mandatories. It uniquely combines a history of the internationalization of archaeology and the rise of a new “regime of antiquities” under the oversight of the League of Nations and its institutions, a history of British attitudes to, and passion for, near eastern antiquity and on-the-ground colonial policies and mechanisms, as well as nationalist claims on the past. It points to the centrality of the new mandate system, particularly mandates classified A in Mesopotamia/Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan, formerly governed by the Ottoman Empire, and of Egypt, in the new archaeological regime. Drawing on an unusually wide range of materials collected in archives in six countries, as well as on material and visual evidence, the book weaves together imperial, international, and national histories, and the history of archaeological discovery which it connects to imperial modernity.
Prehistories for Modernity
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 7 considers the discovery, after the First World War, of the prehistoric Near East and explores its far-reaching impact on discourses on the origins of humans, their migrations, and the migration of civilizations, on time and its scale, and the relationship between recorded history and prehistory. The chapter focuses on two sites of excavations: the Middle and Lower Stone Age hangouts of the Wadi al-Mugharah on Mount Carmel in Palestine, situated near the developing town of Haifa, and the late Neolithic Tell Arpachiyah in northern Iraq, bordering Mosul. Both engendered considerable scholarly, popular, and political attention, and both demonstrate the variety and scope within prehistory and its immense stretch, covering at least 500,000 years. Near Eastern prehistory relativized senses of time, dwarfed history, and contested biblical narratives and temporality. The chapter examines the excavations in the Carmel caves against the backdrop of mandatory development policies and modernization. It demonstrates how discoveries of rich Palaeolithic tool cultures spurred comparisons between modern humans and hominins. It sets the representations of Neanderthals in broader debates on prehistoric people and their humanity, paying special attention to the attitudes of prehistorians such as Dorothy A. Garrod who conducted the Carmel excavations and Jacquetta Hawkes, a popularizer of prehistory in her poetry and autobiographical writing on prehistoric women. Neolithic Arpachiyah, too, spurred analogies by its excavators, chiefly Max Mallowan, between prehistoric and contemporary Mesopotamia and the multi-ethnic population of the newly independent Iraq, and of Syria.
The Road to Alexandria, the Paths to Siwa
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 10 examines the rediscovery, between the early 1920s and the 1950s, of the Graeco-Roman Near East, particularly Egypt. It considers the writings and activities of archaeologists, explorers, modernist writers, and journalists, who experienced and represented Near Eastern remnants of a Hellenism associated with the short-lived world empire of Alexander the Great and its Ptolemaic successors. After briefly considering writings on Graeco-Roman Transjordan, the chapter looks at the imagining and representations of Ptolemaic Alexandria, focusing on the writings of E. M. Forster, Mary Butts, Henry Vollam Morton, and a host of British, American, and Egyptian intellectuals, authors, and explorers. These authors perceived and experienced modern Alexandria as a Greek rather than an Egyptian city and comprehended it by invoking a cosmopolitan Graeco-Roman past. Alexandria served as a launching board to revivals of Alexander’s travels in Egypt’s Western Desert, to the oasis of Siwa, reputed place of his deification. The chapter traces re-enactments of classical texts on Alexander, as a form of appropriation by repetition and interpretation, of an imperial Graeco-Roman past. It demonstrates how imperial visions and itineraries were coupled with technologies of mechanized mobility in the desert in specially developed desert automobiles, iconized as emblems of imperial mobility and modernity. It thus showcases the relationship between the rediscovery of antiquity, technologies, and imperial defence. These are illustrated in the activities of explorer and military man and physicist Ralph Alger Bagnold. Some of the writings examined here expand beyond the formal end of British rule in the Near East, indicating the persistence of British imperial presences in the region immediately before and after the formal end of empire.
Property Rights: A Re-Examination
Authors: Penner J. E 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Ranging over a host of issues, Property Rights: A Re-Examination pinpoints and addresses a number of theoretical problems at the heart of property theory. Part 1 reconsiders and refutes the bundle of rights picture of property and the related nominalist theories of property, showing that ownership reflects a tripartite structure of title, the right to immediate, exclusive, possession, and the power to licence what would otherwise be a trespass, and to transfer ownership. Part 2 explores in detail the Hohfeldian theory of jural relations, in particular liberties and powers and Hohfeld’s concept of ‘multital’ jural relations, and shows that this theory fails to illuminate the nature of property rights, and indeed obscures much that it is vital to understand about them. Part 3 considers the form and justification of property rights, beginning with the relation an owner’s liberty to use her property and her ‘right to exclude’, with particular reference to the tort of nuisance. Next up for consideration is the Kantian theory of property rights, the deficiencies of which lead us to understand that the only natural right to things is a form of use- or usufructory-right. Part 3 concludes by addressing the ever-vexed question of property rights in land.