bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Increase in Effectiveness of an Emergency Pipeline Repair System (EPRS) Can Be Measured by the Reduction in Downtime of a Pipeline Subject to Random 3rd Party Events
Authors: Mcintyre Thomas , Alani Ali , Curson Nigel 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper presents the typical steps taken to respond to an emergency pipeline damage scenario and the impact on downtime when the operator of the pipeline is not prepared. The industry standard method of preparing for an emergency damage event is an Emergency Pipeline Repair System (EPRS) which provides guidance on the likelihood of each type of damage event occurring, the best practices when assessing the damage and the best repair strategy for the damaged pipeline.
The paper focuses primarily on offshore pipelines and follows a hypothetical damage event with each stage of the emergency response and repair explored. The damage event example allowed for investigation of the emergency response and repair process for both an offshore pipeline with and without a comprehensive EPRS in place. For each stage, the tasks carried out when with and without an EPRS are detailed and an estimated time to complete each stage for the two scenarios is given. This allowed for comparison and discussion on the time saving benefits of an EPRS for offshore repair.
A discussion on the uncertainty of the estimated time to complete each stage of the emergency response and repair is given and highlights areas for potential further research. This uncertainty discussion is revisited in the conclusion where a plan to improve the time predictions made for the EPRS model is made.
Two case studies of third-party damage response to subsea pipelines are used as comparative cases to the hypothetical damage event case, the case studies cover a pipeline with a comprehensive EPRS in place and one without allowing for useful comparison and discussion on the accuracy of the estimated times given for each step of the EPRS.
Engineering Assessment of Hydrogen Embrittlement Susceptibility at Defects in Hydrogen Pipelines by Numerical Modeling
Authors: Xu Luyao , Finneran Shane 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Conversion of existing natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen and hydrogen blending gas is increasingly recognized as an effective method to decarbonize the energy system and accelerate the achievement of the net-zero emission goal in 2050. However, aged pipelines typically exhibit various defects such as corrosion, cracking, and mechanical damage. These defects can lead to uneven stress and strain distribution, and plastic deformation, which can serve as hydrogen traps to accumulate hydrogen atoms, thereby increasing hydrogen embrittlement (HE) risk at defects during hydrogen services.
Extensive research has been conducted globally, aiming to understand the degradation of the mechanical properties of pipeline steel and assess existing pipelines’ compatibility through theoretical and experimental methodologies and techniques, however, there are few studies on hydrogen atoms diffusion and accumulation behavior and the influence on the local degradation of material properties of steel at the defects. This deficiency in current research and industry standards underscores the urgent need for in-depth research and the development of reliable methodologies to assess the integrity of defects in hydrogen pipelines.
This paper demonstrates an advanced multiphysics field finite element analysis (FEA) approach to study the time-dependent atomic hydrogen diffusion, accumulation, and hydrogen-induced fracture toughness degradation at pipeline defects and evaluate the locally enhanced hydrogen embrittlement risk at the defect sites. It is expected that this research contributes to the further development of defect engineering assessment methodologies for hydrogen pipelines.
Consensus Engineering Requirements for Hydrogen Pipelines
Authors: Slater Simon , Shie Taylor , Noecker Fredrick F. , Gallon Neil , Sandana Daniel 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In June 2023, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) agreed that an update to ASME B31.12 was required. Especially relating to the technical standards for converting and operating hydrogen and hydrogen blend pipelines. It was acknowledged that the updates should be transferred over to ASME B31.8. To provide rapid development and implementation, the Emerging Fuels Institute (EFI), established by the Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI), developed a project to create Consensus Engineering Requirements (CERs) as a basis on ASME’s behalf. The CERs were completed in Q2 2024. Work is ongoing to progress the CERs through the ASME committee review process, with an expectation to implement the new guidelines for hydrogen pipelines in the 2026 version of ASME B31.8.
The CERs are predicated on the latest research related to pipeline transport of hydrogen gas and blended hydrogen gas developed by global industry expertise. The CER project team consisted of over 40 members, the majority of who are gas pipeline operators. The group worked in close collaboration with key stakeholders, including the tripartite members of PRCI, European Pipeline Research Group (EPRG) and Australian Pipeline Gas Association (APGA).
This paper presents a summary of the process used to create the CERs and guidance published by the EFI. It focuses on the significant technical issues that had to be resolved.
Because ASME codes are used throughout the world, it was important to create guidance that balanced local requirements and challenges with best practice. Consequently, significant effort was taken to align with industry experts and distill the level of knowledge into practical, concise, and robust requirements. The paper will provide the reader with a summary of the work performed by the EFI to move the industry forward at a rate matching the demand for hydrogen as an energy carrier.
Risk Assessment of the Transmission Pipeline Appurtenance Threat
Authors: Fazli Samir , Sen Millan , Akonko Saheed 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The Enbridge liquids pipeline system contains more than 28,000 KM of transmission pipe. Systemwide assessments are conducted to evaluate the risks associated with integrity threats, whereby historically the focus has been on crack, corrosion, dents, and geohazards. However, as reported in the API 2022 Performance Report, equipment failure is the leading cause of liquid pipeline releases. Correspondingly while release volumes are typically low, there are other threats such as appurtenances, which can lead to failure and warrant risk assessment.
Prior assessments used average historical failure rates for appurtenances which enabled high-level risk quantification; however, this approach was overly simplistic and did not differentiate between different characteristics of the same asset class. In 2021–2022 four appurtenance risk ranking models: valves, sleeves, flanges, and offtakes, were developed to enable comprehensive systemwide risk management. During model development, there was an objective to incorporate model inputs that are readily available from drawings and in-line inspection data. Correspondingly the model is easily implemental whereby the inputs included only: asset information (i.e. vintage, construction), site specific attributes (i.e. proximity to other appurtenances), and operational considerations (i.e. proximity to pump stations, pressure cycling, product types).
The steps conducted to enable risk assessment of the appurtenance threat included:
• Literature review of historical failures and failure modes based on operator specific databases and publicly available literature to identify key factors that lead to failures.
• Application of model factors based on appurtenance characteristics and subject matter expert input.
• Calibration of models so that the systemwide average and aggregated likelihood of failure align with those historically observed.
• Validation of models based on the predicted likelihood of failure for historically failed assets.
It was demonstrated that the models captured the key characteristics that impact possible failure modes for pipeline appurtenances.
Case Studies on Landslide Threats: Identification, Ground Modelling and Pipeline Structural Analysis
Authors: Senior Rebecca , Bainbridge James 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Geohazard management of pipelines in areas prone to landslides is an integrity threat that pipeline operators must address. The management process involves three key elements: (1) the identification of a developing hazard, (2) the evaluation of the nature of the threat and, (3) deciding on the most appropriate actions that are necessary to address the threat and to protect the pipeline.
There are many available methods that can assist with the three parts of this process. However, the availability of multiple approaches can make it difficult to know what the most effective method is in terms of collecting the right data, making reliable predictions of pipeline integrity, or accurately monitoring future changes in integrity. Any deficiencies in the process can be wasted effort and cost at best, but could also result in failure, with adverse consequences for safety and the environment as well as severe financial penalties.
In this paper, we present what we consider to be an effective and efficient management process for landslide threats to pipelines based on in-line inspection data integrated with detailed numerical modelling and structural analysis to evaluate pipeline integrity. In-line inspection provides factual data on the presence and effects of displacement loads on the pipeline as well as significant additional data on factors that control the structural capacity of the pipeline. The alignment of integrity calculations with measured inspection data enables the process to be validated and improves confidence in the predicted results. The process is comprehensively illustrated through a range of case studies. The significant potential of a novel inertial measurement unit technology (PipeDrift) for monitoring at an increased interval and reduced lead time is also covered.
Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of Compression Sleeves
Authors: Savari Ardeshir , Prestie Zach , Khayami Farbod , Park Simon , Hugo Ronald 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In recent years, metallic compression sleeves have gained prominence due to their role in enhancing the integrity of pipeline systems. These sleeves can potentially extend the operational life of pipelines by mitigating crack propagation and strengthening material properties. They offer an economically viable repair method, reducing operational disruptions and risks associated with installation, especially under challenging operating conditions. While preliminary studies have been promising, a more detailed understanding of stress dynamics during both the installation process and subsequent operation of the sleeves is needed. This research aims to conduct thermo-mechanical evaluations of Type-A compression sleeves, which are notable for their absence of end fillet welds. We utilize finite element (FE) analysis with the intention of providing insight into the reliability assessment of these systems. The current study employs a coupled field transient system, accommodating the simultaneous application of mechanical variables, such as internal pressure, and thermal factors due to sleeve preheating and welding. This approach mirrors the steps of sleeve installation, from changes in operating pressure and induction heating to welding and cooling. Moreover, the study examines the performance of compression sleeves through a sensitivity anlaysis of significant parameters including internal pressure, mechanical properties of epoxy resin, tolerance fit, and contact between pipe, epoxy resin, and compression sleeve. This study holds significant promise in guiding the compression sleeve application procedures, structural design, and material choices, culminating in enhanced structural robustness and dependability of pipe systems.
Full-Scale Testing of Circumferential Stress-Corrosion Cracking Features in Pipelines: Bridging the Gap in Integrity Management
Authors: Boyce Devin , Mokry Curtis , Jensen Kalen , Brimacombe Mark , Upadhyaya Jay , Chen Qishi 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Circumferentially oriented crack-like features, particularly those associated with circumferential stress-corrosion cracking (C-SCC), have emerged as a rising integrity challenge for pipeline operators. Despite considerable advancements in testing and model validation for axially oriented features, there remains a notable gap in understanding the load-carrying capacity of pipe with circumferentially oriented crack-like features. To address this knowledge deficit and enhance integrity management understanding around circumferential cracking, a Joint Industry Project (JIP) was undertaken with 10 pipeline operators. The JIP’s second phase was recently completed, which involved comprehensive full-scale testing of pipes with both machined circumferential features and natural C-SCC features from excavated pipe sections that were donated by JIP members.
The primary aim of Phase 2 of the JIP was to contribute to the integrity management of circumferential crack-like flaws identified during in-line inspection, supporting decisions such as selecting excavation sites, planning mitigation measures, determining monitoring actions, and predicting failure loads. The JIP’s focus was on assessing the load-carrying capacity of pipe affected by C-SCC in a biaxial load-state (i.e. internal pressure and axial load) by evaluating the impact of flaw dimensions, internal pressure, and natural flaws (in comparison to machined ones). The full-scale test data was also used to evaluate existing failure prediction models (see IPC2024-133091).
Testing of various flaw depths and length-to-depth ratios showed a maximum axial load reduction of 35% compared to the predicted failure load of pristine pipe. There was a minimal reduction in failure load between hoop stresses of 30% and 50% specified minimum yield stress (SMYS), and a moderate reduction between 50% and 72% SMYS when assessing the effect of internal pressure. Pipes that had severe natural flaws (up to 94% of wall thickness) were still able to carry loads that were considerably higher than predicted. Additionally, burst testing confirmed that circumferentially oriented crack-like features still maintain considerable burst capacity.
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the executed test program, including the outcomes and findings. The investigation scrutinizes the impact of flaw dimensions, internal pressure, and the distinction between natural and machined flaws on the load-carrying capacity of the tested pipes. As pipeline integrity remains a paramount concern, the outcomes of this study will contribute significantly to advancing the field and improving the industry’s ability to manage and mitigate the risks associated with circumferential crack-like flaws. Completion of this phase represents a significant stride in understanding the load-carrying capacity and model limitations related to C-SCC.
Validation of Dent Fatigue Life Screening and Assessment Methods in API RP 1183
Authors: Tiku Sanjay , Rana Arnav , John Binoy , Dinovitzer Aaron , Piazza Mark 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Mechanical damage (MD) assessment and management tools have been developed on behalf of Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI), Interstate Natural Gas Association of America (INGAA), Canadian Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA), other research organizations and individual pipeline operators. Many of these tools are included in API Recommended Practice (RP) 1183. The current paper discusses the results of a study undertaken to validate the various dent fatigue life screening and assessment methods that were developed as part of various CEPA and PRCI projects, some of which have been incorporated into the first edition of API RP 1183.
The work presented in this paper involved performing detailed analysis of data provided by pipeline operators for digs where mechanical damage features were identified by in-line inspection (ILI) systems and subsequently excavated and inspected in the ditch using non-destructive examination (NDE) methods. In total, data for 1320 dents were provided for review by pipeline operators based on their dent integrity management programs. More than 10% of these dents were found to have cracks during the in-ditch non-destructive inspection. Detailed dent geometry data, pressure data and in-ditch inspection reports were reviewed and analyzed to perform dent severity analysis. Factors such as pipe geometry, dent shape, dent restraint condition, effect of co-incident features and operational pressure cycle severity were considered to understand the strength of the relationship between various factors and the estimated dent fatigue life. The data was used to evaluate and validate the performance of the dent fatigue life screening and assessment methods developed as part of various CEPA and PRCI projects, some of which have been incorporated into the first edition of API RP 1183.
A Stochastic Approach to Accounting for Slack Line Volume Uncertainties in RTTM Based Leak Detection
Authors: Okungbowa Norense , Nicholas Ed 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In liquid pipelines with significant elevation changes, the presence of slack line flow can be a significant operational problem. Firstly, slack conditions make control downstream of the slack condition difficult. Secondly, and more importantly, when the vapor bubble from slack flow is decreasing in size, the downstream flow rate will be less than upstream flow rate, which will appear as a leak to an online model.
“A Stochastic Approach to Slack Line Flow in Online Models” (Okungbowa, Brown. PSIG 2023), presented an approach based on Monte Carlo analysis to estimate the probability of slack existing considering uncertainties in physical and modeling parameters. However, it did not attempt to quantify the associated uncertainties in the calculation of the vapor and liquid volumes in the pipeline.
From a leak detection perspective, an important factor is the uncertainty in the calculation of the rate of change of pipeline fluid volume resulting from operating near or in slack line flow. In this new paper, we evaluate applying a Monte Carlo analysis in real time to calculate the uncertainty distribution inherent in the slack volume computations and to incorporate those uncertainties into leak detection parameters.
We examine several slack and near slack events from operating pipelines. As a function of time, we calculate the following for each of these events:
• The probability of being in slack as a function of time.
• The probability distribution of the fluid volume uncertainties resulting from operating near or in slack line flow.
• We evaluate the impact of these uncertainties on leak detection reliability and sensitivity.
An Operator’s Experience of Managing the Threat of Axial SCC
Authors: Bag Debartha , Rehman Hena , Vervake Gary , Fredine Gordon 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is one of the three time-dependent integrity threats classified under ASME B31.8S for managing system integrity of Natural Gas (NG) transmission pipelines. The experience of Enbridge Inc. and its affiliates (for purposes of this paper, collectively, “Enbridge”) of managing axial SCC threat through the Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) In-line Inspection (ILI) program is discussed in this paper. Enbridge has run more than 9000 miles of EMAT tool in its US and Canadian transmission pipelines, of which significant mileage is baseline runs and subsequently recent mileage for reinspection. Overall tool performance is discussed for both baseline and reruns from the perspective of initial EMAT callouts and subsequent in-the ditch validation of EMAT features. Both high pH and near neutral pH SCC, confirmed in the ditch, and subsequent metallurgical laboratory assessment, has been discussed for Enbridge’s US and Canadian assets. Tool performance has been discussed leveraging Enbridge’s vast mileage of EMAT data using API 1163 unity plot methodology comparing tool called features and in-the-ditch and laboratory validation data. Finally, Enbridge’s Bellhole inspection and repair protocol has been discussed specific to EMAT related digs for managing the Axial SCC threat.
What Are My Options? Review of Non-Destructive Mechanical Tests for Steel Linepipe Yield Strength
Authors: Switzner Nathaniel , Amend Bill , Martin Peter , Anderson Joel 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Methods for non-destructive estimation of steel linepipe yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) are surveyed, recognizing that YS is important for grade estimation. Operators seek rapid, accurate, precise, reliable, and repeatable non-destructive testing methods to estimate pipe YS as part of the process to determine Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP), burst pressure, and to perform other critical calculations. We provide a description of several methods to estimate steel linepipe YS.
First, several methods of hardness testing are discussed, with the most focus being placed on two portable hardness measurement methods that have been tested extensively: ultrasonic contact impedance (UCI) and portable Rockwell testing. These two instruments work well in the field and complement one another. For example, if operating/vibrating pipe degrades UCI accuracy, portable Rockwell hardness testing can be used instead. Several additional aspects of these and other hardness tests are discussed, such as surface preparation, wall thickness requirements, indentation size, and the necessity of orienting the hardness tester normal to the surface. Note that hardness testing is not often used to estimate YS directly, but rather to establish a lower bound estimate for YS.
Second, several commercial devices have been developed to provide a direct estimate of YS, and three of them are extensively reviewed in this work, including Instrumented Indentation Testing (IIT), Hardness, Strength, and Ductility (HSD), and Profilometry-based Indentation Plastometry (PIP). Some literature data are not comparable due to different sample groups and testing conditions. Therefore, the authors tested these three instruments on a uniform set of pipes and provide a brief “at-a-glance” comparison of IIT, HSD, and PIP. The results indicate that the root mean squared error (RMSE) for the three instruments for YS ranges from 4–5 ksi for YS and 3–6 ksi for UTS. Additionally, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) for the three instruments ranged from 6–7% for YS and 3–5% for UTS. IIT performed the best for YS estimation, and HSD performed the best for UTS estimation, but the differences among all three instrument results were small.
An additional approach for estimating strength based on composition and microstructure alone (PRCI’s Checkmate) is also discussed.
For each method the discussion includes the mechanism (working principle), logistics, dimensional considerations, potential pitfalls, and example models of test instruments. By offering a thorough overview, we aim to assist operators in identifying the most suitable non-destructive test for their specific requirements.