bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Long bone cross-sectional geometry
Authors: Ruff Christopher B. , Higgins Ryan W. , Carlson Kristian J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Long bone diaphyseal cross-sectional geometries reflect the mechanical properties of the bones, and can be used to aid in inferences of locomotor behavior in extinct hominins. This chapter considers all available long bone diaphyseal and femoral neck cross-sections of specimens from Sterkfontein Member 4, and presents comparisons of these section properties and other cross-sectional dimensions with those of other early hominins as well as modern samples. The cross-sectional geometry of the Sterkfontein Member 4 long bone specimens suggests some similarities to, but also interesting differences in, mechanical loading of these elements relative to modern humans. The less asymmetric cortical bone distribution in the Sterkfontein femoral necks is consistent with other evidence above indicating an altered gait pattern involving lateral displacement of the body center of mass over the stance limb. The relatively very strong upper limb of StW 431 implies that arboreal behavior formed a significant component of its locomotor repertoire. Bipedal gait may have been less efficient and arboreal climbing more prevalent in the Sterkfontein hominins.
To Tarry or Not to Tarry
Authors: Bremer Francis J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
For a long time, due to a lack of episcopal supervision, puritans such as William Brewster were able to implement practices they favored in their local communities. In Scrooby, Brewster and fellow puritans met in what was called a conventicle, where they prayed together, discussed the meaning of sermons they had heard and of the scripture, and shared their religious experiences. When the church authorities began to crack down on conventicles and ceremonial nonconformity, puritans faced the choice of obeying the authorities and working to reform the church from within, or separating and setting up their own, illegal, churches. Brewster and those gathered around him chose the latter course and bound themselves together by covenant as a new congregation. Joining them were the clergymen Richard Clifton and John Robinson, who had been deprived of their church posts.
Small Beginnings
Authors: Bremer Francis J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The colonists’ relief at surviving the dangerous Atlantic passage was followed by the challenges of surviving in their new world. After they decided to settle along Cape Cod, they spent time exploring the region in search of a suitable harbor. During these expeditions they encountered Native encampments abandoned for the season, and took corn that the inhabitants had put aside for spring planting. Though only one passenger had died in the crossing, cold, food shortages, disease, and the debilitating work of cutting down trees and building shelters took their toll, and half of the settlers died over the winter and early spring. Fears of Native attacks added to anxiety. In March an English-speaking native, Samoset, entered the village as a spokesman for the Wampanoag Massasoit Ousamequin, leading to a mutual defense pact and Native aid in understanding and managing the land.
The Godly Community
Authors: Bremer Francis J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Not all of the members of the Leiden congregation had come to Plymouth in the initial settlement attempt. John Robinson remained with those in the Netherlands for the time, leaving lay elder William Brewster as the spiritual guide for the Plymouth congregation. Sunday services consisted of a morning session of prayer, scripture readings, and a sermon and discussion of those texts, concluding with psalm singing. The afternoon service was similar but with a session of prophesying that allowed the congregants to focus on a particular issue. Sermons frequently urged a social gospel upon the listeners, encouraging them to put the needs of others above their selfish interests. During much of the 1620s there was no provision for baptism or the Lord’s Supper because there was no ordained minister and it was determined that Brewster as elder could not officiate at the sacraments. Following the Dutch model, marriage was a civil rather than a religious ceremony.
Introduction
Authors: Roberts Wendy Raphael 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter states, and briefly explains, the main claims of the book: that early evangelicalism must be understood as a central aesthetic movement of the eighteenth century; and that to understand early evangelicalism as it first took shape requires sustained attention to its prolific poetry. The chapter situates the book, which is the first history of early American non-hymnal poetry, within the current scholarship of early American culture and poetry, early evangelical history and hymnody, and British eighteenth-century enthusiasm. The author defines evangelicalism (as primarily a way of feeling and doing “authentic” Christianity) and then three new terms this study introduces: revival poetry (a constellation of verse forms, which addresses the tendency to associate evangelical poetry soley with hymnody); poet-minister (a revitalized role at the nexus of the affective sermon and aesthetic oriented conversion); and print itinerant (an evangelical conception of print within the new practices of itinerancy). The author concludes with a narrative summary of the book and each of the chapters.
Public Support for Political Compromise
Authors: Wolak Jennifer 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter develops what it means to compromise in politics and how political compromise is distinctive from other ways of resolving political differences. The virtues of compromise are discussed as well as its perils. The reasons why we might see Americans as wary about compromise are outlined. While people’s ideological motivations may discourage the pursuit of compromise, this chapter argues that people think about compromise in both partisan and principled ways. Compromise is a democratic norm, one Americans support not because it benefits their personal stakes, but also because they believe it is a desirable way to resolve political disputes.
The Bounds of Public Support for Compromise
Authors: Wolak Jennifer 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter describes the degree to which people are willing to endorse compromise in specific settings. In reviewing evidence from multiple surveys, people prefer politicians who are willing to compromise to those who stand firm to their convictions. While we might worry that people dislike compromises on issues that they care about, people endorse compromises across a wide range of policy domains. This suggests that citizens want more from politics than just ideological representation. Because citizens are strongly supportive of compromise in politics, it creates electoral incentives for elected officials to seek out legislative compromises.
Do People Want Members of Congress to Compromise?
Authors: Wolak Jennifer 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
What do people want from their elected representatives? Our traditional expectation is that people want their legislators to cast votes aligned with the ideological preferences of the district. But if people demand ideological policy representation above all else, it allows legislators little leeway to consider compromise outcomes in Congress. This chapter argues that people expect more from their representatives than congruent votes, and value legislators who are willing to strike compromises. Experimental evidence demonstrates that people offer higher evaluations of legislators who are willing to strike compromises than those who pledge to stick to their convictions. People do not punish in-party representatives for pledging to compromise, while they reward out-party legislators who are willing to seek compromises.
Conscience in Reproductive Health Care
Authors: McLeod Carolyn 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
There is a growing trend worldwide of health care professionals conscientiously refusing to provide abortions and similar reproductive health services in countries where these services are legal and professionally accepted. Carolyn McLeod responds to this problem by arguing that conscientious objectors in health care should have to prioritize the interests of patients in receiving care over their own interest in acting on their conscience. She defends this “prioritizing approach” to conscientious objection over the more popular “compromise approach” in bioethics. All the while, she is careful not to downplay the importance of health care professionals having a conscience or the moral complexity of their conscientious refusals. McLeod first describes what is at stake for the main parties to the conflicts generated by conscientious refusals in reproductive health care: the objector and the patient. She then defends the prioritizing approach to these refusals. Her central argument is that health care professionals who are charged with gatekeeping access to services like abortions are normatively fiduciaries for both their patients and the public they are licensed to serve. As such, they have a duty of loyalty to these beneficiaries and must give primacy to their interests in gaining access to care. The insights contained in the book extend beyond the ethics of conscientious refusals to other topics in ethics including the value of conscience and the fundamental moral nature of the relationships health care professionals have with current and prospective patients.
Introduction
Authors: Bove Vincenzo , Ruffa Chiara , Ruggeri Andrea 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This introductory chapter starts by presenting the core focus of the book—which is about diversity of mission composition within UN peace operations—and its objectives. The book asks two questions. The first is conceptual and descriptive: what do we mean by mission composition in a peacekeeping mission? The introduction highlights the importance of focusing on diversity of mission composition against the backdrop of recent trends in UN peacekeeping. It presents the analytical framework and the four key dimensions of mission composition: field diversity, top leadership diversity, vertical leadership distance, and horizontal distance. The second question of the book is explanatory: does mission composition in United Nations peacekeeping matter? The Introduction also presents the scope of the explanatory part of the research, where we set to explore how each dimension of mission composition affects peacekeeping effectiveness. The remainder of the Introduction presents the mixed-method design adopted in the book and its strategies of data collection as well as the contributions and limitations of the book. It concludes by outlining the book structure.
Mission Composition and Mechanisms of Peacekeeping
Authors: Bove Vincenzo , Ruffa Chiara , Ruggeri Andrea 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter introduces the analytical and theoretical framework for the entirety of the book. First, it establishes three key concepts for this research: mission composition, diversity, and distance. These concepts are used to explore whether and how differences within peacekeepers, between the peacekeepers and the local populations, and as well as between the leaders of the operation affect the performances of the operation. Second, it reviews the current analytical toolbox of peacekeeping missions and highlights the limitations of only conceptualizing peacekeeping missions as present or absent and in terms of mission size. Third, it presents four new mechanisms through which mission diversity shapes its effectiveness: Informative Trust, Informative Communicability, Resolve Deterrence, and Skilled Persuasion.
Henry Longueville Mansel
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Henry Longueville Mansel is today almost as neglected as William Hamilton as a thinker. He was a great supporter of Hamilton, whose work he both defended and edited, and whose basic law of the conditioned he was happy to endorse. This chapter presents an examination of the central principles of the Mansel’s metaphysics which begins by considering his relation to Kant and then explores his reasons for thinking that God or the infinite is beyond Human conceivability. Against this are set his reasons for believing in the existence of God and his positive attitude towards revelation, which famously drew the hostility of Mill. The chapter concludes with consideration of his views on space and time, substance, mind and matter, causality and freedom.
Alexander Bain and George Croom Robertson
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter highlights the empiricist school whose chief inspiration was John Stuart Mill, focusing on the once important but now neglected figures of Alexander Bain and George Croom Robertson. After examining Bain’s debt to Mill’s empiricism and his physiologically grounded developments of associationist psychology, the chapter explores his views about time and space, external material reality, causation, force, the mind–body relation, and human free will. A final consideration of Bain’s assertions about thing-in-themselves shows his position to be more subtle than might be thought. The consideration of Croom Robertson focuses on his attempts to define philosophy and to distinguish it from psychology, before briefly conserving his own metaphysical positions.
John Grote and James Hutchison Stirling
Authors: Mander W. J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the work of two less well-known idealists, John Grote and James Hutchinson Stirling. The discussion of Grote begins by uncovering his unique and curious methodology—which is the key to understanding his philosophy—before going on to detail his views about the self, about idealism, and about what he terms the ‘scale of sensations’. In order to appreciate his attitude towards the knowability of thing-in-themselves, it is necessary to explore his distinction between knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description, which was both made famous and misunderstood by Bertrand Russell. James Hutchinson Stirling’s role in ushering in the British Idealist movement has often been noted, but his own views themselves have been but rarely discussed. This chapter rectifies that by considering his position respecting the infinite, the external world, materialism, agnosticism, causality, and free will.
Equity, Justice, and Conscience
Authors: Penner JE 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter assesses whether equity employs a distinctive moral criterion when it intervenes in people’s legal rights. It offers a different account about the extent and justification for the way in which English equity maps onto Aristotle’s second sense of equity. Combating the stickler for justice is a legitimate reason for state coercion, but it explains only a small number of equitable doctrines, for example estoppel and mistaken payment. Working within a Kantian framework, the chapter argues that the state is justified in forcing on some claimants an ethical duty to refrain from sticking to their rights in a bad way in order to protect the legal system from the damage this practice may cause. But while equity’s interventions in the parties’ rights in Aristotle’s second sense are legitimate, they are too few and far between to be counted as the intellectual foundation that sets equity apart from the common law.
Equity and the Right to Do Wrong
Authors: Gold Andrew S 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses how the ‘stickler-enjoining’ account of equity has important limits. While many distinctive doctrines of equity can be understood to limit stickler behaviour, equity in fact often turns a blind eye to, and sometimes even enables, stickler behaviour. One can sort cases in which equity restrains sticklers from those in which it is indifferent to stickler behaviour if one attends to the role of the state in private litigation. Sometimes the state’s responsibilities require it to protect plaintiffs against sticklers. Other times, it requires it to protect the stickler, as a means, for example, of keeping as open as possible each person’s sphere of choices. Ultimately, the self-regarding account of equity sheds light on the question of the relationship between equity and justice: from the distinct perspective of the judgment, sometimes equitable justice is better than legal justice and sometimes legal justice is better than equitable justice.
What’s Special about Equity?
Authors: McFarlane Ben , Stevens Robert 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter offers a unique formal account of what equity amounts to. Equitable rights often take the form of rights in relation to other rights. Acknowledgement of this unique structure of Equitable rights sheds light on the way they interact with common law rights, on the normative basis for creating them, and on the way one assesses the common law rights against which they arise. The chapter then exemplifies the advantages of this formal account by referencing two equitable rights in which a right-against-right structure can be identified: the beneficiary’s rights under a trust, and equitable assignment. What both the beneficiary under a trust and the equitable assignee have is a right against a right held by another; and it is the distinctive formal nature of the entitlement thus recognized by equity, rather than a different set of substantive values brought to bear by equity, which explains equity’s intervention.
The Evolving Balance of Power (1130s–1148)
Authors: Morton Nicholas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 4 The Evolving Balance of Power examines the period when the Crusader States’ military expansion was essentially over. It discusses how the Franks adjusted themselves to a new environment in which they were no longer the predominant military force, a reality which became apparent with the rise of the Turkish ruler Zangi and the rapid expansion of his empire, centred on Aleppo and Mosul. The Byzantines also made frequent incursions into Northern Syria and Cilia, compelling the Franks to address their relationship with this powerful northern neighbour. This chapter considers in particular two events of long-term significance for the Crusader States: the fall of Edessa in 1144 and the subsequent arrival of the Second Crusade. It addresses key questions including: why Zangi chose to attack Edessa in December of 1144 and why the Second Crusade’s campaign against Damascus ended in complete failure.
Coda
Authors: Moore Helen 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Taking its cue from the Victorian periodical debates characterizing realism as a crocodile and romance as a monster or ‘catawampus’, this chapter examines the role played by Amadis in early discussions of what the novel was, or should be; how it had developed; and where its future direction lay. For literary historians, Amadis constituted a bridge between the newly constructed ‘medieval’ and the emergent ‘modern’. Philosopher-theorists (Bakhtin) and novelists (Nabokov) alike continued to be fascinated by the relationship of Amadis to Don Quixote and its implications for theories of the novel. Novelists themselves (Bulwer Lytton, Ouida, and Thackeray) enlisted Amadis in their critique of modern masculinity. The final iteration of Amadis in English takes the form of chivalric compilations and abridgements for children; this concluding transformation proves to be emblematic of the many varieties of cultural work into which romance can be enlisted.
Introduction
Authors: Szulkin Marta , Munshi-South Jason , Charmantier Anne 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Urban evolutionary biology is the study of evolutionary change in organisms as a response to human built environments and all that high densities of humans entail. Put succinctly, urban evolution is the study of how features of cities drive allele, genotype, and phenotype frequency changes in populations across generations. This chapter introduces Urban Evolutionary Biology. It also emphasizes that urban evolutionary biology can—and should—have a societal impact, and a role in strengthening the drive towards more sustainable cities. An overview of chapters reporting core evidence of up-to-date urban evolutionary biology research follows. Finally, the chapter presents a brief discussion of challenges faced by the field, and outlines some inspiring future directions awaiting this nascent field of research.
Urbanization and Evolution in Aquatic Environments
Authors: Brian Langerhans R. , Kern Elizabeth M.A. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Human impacts on freshwater and marine ecosystems have long been of special concern due to water’s essential role in ecosystem functioning and human civilization. Urban development causes a large number of changes in all types of aquatic environments, from small ephemeral pools to rivers to great lakes to expansive coastal habitats. These changes can strongly influence evolution of life in the water by altering selection, gene flow, and genetic drift. Yet our understanding of the evolutionary consequences of urbanization on aquatic organisms is still in early stages. This chapter reviews the impacts of urbanization on aquatic taxa, examining the evolutionary consequences (known or likely) of four major types of urban-induced changes to ecosystems: biotic interactions, physical environment, temperature, and pollution. By drawing connections between literature on ecological and evolutionary impacts in aquatic urban environments, the chapter concludes that (1) several anthropogenic factors seem to commonly drive evolutionary and phenotypic change (organic-compound pollution, altered temperature, and hydrologic shifts), (2) predictability of evolutionary changes are often taxa specific, and may commonly depend on the focal ‘scale’ (e.g., whole-organism performance, morphology, or gene), and (3) there are a few key ‘frontier topics’ (altered biotic interactions, artificial light, sound pollution, and fragmentation) where additional research on phenotypic evolution would be particularly informative.
Rethinking Verb Second and Nominative case assignment
Authors: Bidese Ermenegildo , Padovan Andrea , Tomaselli Alessandra 
Published: June 2020

Cimbrian is a German(ic) VO heritage language that does not display the linear V2 restriction: the DP subject can show up before the finite verb together with other constituents, while German-like verb-subject inversion only obtains with clitic pronouns. In recent literature on Cimbrian, pronominal subject inversion has been taken as a traditional argument in favour of mandatory V-to-C movement (assuming a split-C configuration). Building on this assumption, the syntax of the enclitic expletive subject, -da/-ta, (which shows up whenever the DP subject does not raise in the C-domain) makes the Cimbrian data particularly relevant, since it casts light on the correlation between V2 and Nominative case licensing. The stance in this chapter is that Nominative case in Cimbrian is assigned by C—as generally assumed for Germanic V2 languages—but in an idiosyncratic way: (i) it applies within the C domain, i.e. FinP; (ii) expletive -da/-ta absorbs Nominative case and acts as a defective goal with respect to the ‘low’ subject. On the basis of the feature-spreading model in Ouali (2008), the phasal head C in Cimbrian is taken to ‘KEEP’ its relevant ϕ‎- and T-features, to assign Nominative case in [Spec,FinP], and to triggering mandatory V-movement.