bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘The Plan of his Whole Work’
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Pascal has drawn up the blueprint for a hypothetical true religion. This would apparently require him to examine actually existing religions to see which one best matches up to it. But the Pensées discusses only one other religion in any detail: Islam (it conflates Judaism and Christianity). This apparent lacuna is discussed in the light of two accounts of a talk he gave to his friends at Port-Royal in which he set out his apologetic strategy; this is compared with the strategy he seems to be pursuing in the Pensées. In the light of this, two alternative views are set out: (i) he intended to provide a survey of world religions; (ii) he decided that this was superfluous, given the prima facie claims of Christianity.
The Need to Seek for God
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Given the foregoing reasons for taking the Christian option seriously, Pascal argues that the non-believer should, as a matter of sheer self-interest, seek for God; that is, in the first instance, investigate the truth-claims of Christianity. Atheists’ dismissal of these claims, he argues, rests on a misunderstanding of the claims themselves. Christianity preaches that God is hidden (as a result of the Fall, before which he made himself clearly known to human beings). This notion is discussed in the light of the argument by J. L. Schellenberg that the hiddenness of God, that is, the absence of evidence of God, constitutes grounds for affirming his non-existence. Pascal emphasizes the difference between Christianity and deism, a purely philosophical belief in a supreme being. Although God is hidden, it is in our interest to seek for him, as Pascal explains on the basis of his theory of probability. Different theories as to the placing of this appeal to self-interest (at the very beginning of the Apology, or halfway through) are evaluated.
The Order of Charity
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The apparent disorderliness of Scripture is merely superficial; it possesses a non-logical order which appeals to the heart. The affective aspects of this notion (hitherto subordinated to the cognitive) are discussed, in ways that illuminate Pascal’s conception of faith. The fundamental message of Scripture is the necessity of charity (the love of God). The notion of the three orders (the flesh, the mind, and the will) is explained. The greatness of Christ is as much above intellectual greatness as intellectual values transcend purely material magnitude. The love of God enables liberation from toxic self-love: the Christian ethic consists in learning to see ourselves not as isolated entities but as ‘thinking members’, parts of a spiritual body, the community of the faithful.
The Wager
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Pascal argues, on the basis of the logic of probability, that it is more advantageous to believe in God than not, since the gains of belief, if he exists, are far greater than any loss we would incur by believing if he does not exist. In the light of this, he argues that anyone who cannot believe should condition himself or herself to do so by the bodily discipline of practising Christian rituals. These arguments are clarified in detail, and the objections addressed to both are evaluated, especially the argument that the Wager would validate belief in any God. The conclusion is that our assessment of the Wager’s efficacy must depend on our views as to its relation to the anthropological, scriptural, and historical arguments discussed in earlier chapters.
Old Ways and New Roads
Authors: Leask Nigel 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The chapter explores the little-known Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland to His Friend in London, written in the late 1720s and ’30s, almost certainly by Edmund Burt, a Government employee during the uneasy period of peace between the two Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745. It is proposed as an important, but often unacknowledged, precursor to many of the texts studied in the chapters that follow. The book’s urbane, Spectator-style spotlight on Highland manners, and pioneering descriptions of Highland travel and topography, mark a major departure from earlier accounts by John Macky and Daniel Defoe. Key sections explore Burt’s critical account of two Highland excursions travelling on the ‘old ways’ (i.e. traditional drove roads), and the final letter’s description of Wade’s road-building programme in the 1720s and ’30s, offering Burt a solution to the problem of Highland ‘backwardness’.
‘The Faery Ground for Romance and Poetry’
Authors: Leask Nigel 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter proposes that Scott’s romances appropriated elements of the Pennantian travel account, the exhaustion of which he had himself proclaimed in a devastating review of Sir John Carr’s Caledonian Sketches in 1809. At the same moment, he was busy inventing the textual conditions for the next wave of Highland tourism, based on the massive success of The Lady of the Lake and The Lord of the Isles, and his Highland novels Waverley and Rob Roy. The chapter explores the relations between Scott’s travel writing on the Highlands (especially his 1814 Pharos cruise) and the development of these verse romances and novels: his romantic ‘Highlandism’ cast a long shadow over the nineteenth century, especially his successful stage-managing of King George IV’s visit to Edinburgh in 1822. This coincided with public controversy about sheep clearances on the Sutherland estates and elsewhere, and Scott’s own cautious refusal to be drawn into the political fray.
Enemies in the Empire
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
During the First World War, Britain was the epicentre of global mass internment and deportation operations. Germans, Austro-Hungarians, Turks, and Bulgarians who had settled in Britain and its overseas territories were deemed to be a potential danger to the realm through their ties with the Central Powers and classified as ‘enemy aliens’. A complex set of wartime legislation imposed limitations on their freedom of movement, expression, and property possession. Approximately 50,000 men and some women experienced the most drastic step of enemy alien control, namely internment behind barbed wire, in many cases for the whole duration of the war and thousands of miles away from the place of arrest. This volume is the first to analyse British internment operations against civilian ‘enemies in the Empire’ during the First World War from an imperial perspective. The narrative takes a three-pronged approach. In addition to the global, it demonstrates how internment operated on a (proto-)national scale within the three selected case studies of the metropole (Britain), a white dominion (South Africa), and a colony under direct rule (India). It then moves to the local level by concentrating on the three camps Knockaloe (Britain), Fort Napier (South Africa), and Ahmednagar (India), allowing for detailed analyses of personal experiences. Although conditions were generally humane, suffering occurred. The study argues that the British Empire played a key role in developing civilian internment as a central element of warfare and national security on a global scale.
Introduction
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This introductory chapter highlights the importance of the book and sets out its historiographical, theoretical, and methodological framework. From the nineteenth century the policy of locking away civilian or military population groups has become a truly global phenomenon. Historical scholarship is necessary to understand its importance and complexity. Existing scholarship on First World War internment is locked in (proto-)national levels of analysis. The study’s global perspective, in contrast, allows for a better understanding of the mechanics and impact of internment. It triangulates archive sources from Britain, German, South Africa, and India to come to balanced arguments. Although conditions were generally humane, suffering occurred. The global impact on civilian populations supports the notion of war totalization. The experience of internment is framed within the theoretical parameters of violence, race, class, gender, and emotions such as honour and shame.
Historical and Global Perspectives
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter places the incarceration of Germans in the British Empire during the First World War into global and historical context. It looks back to the birth of the practice of internment in imperial wars involving Britain, the USA, and Germany in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. It traces the path to the use of British incarceration during the First World War and demonstrates how this conflict acted as a key turning point in the history of civilian confinement, making it normal wartime practice. Civilian incarceration continued in the post-war period, especially in the fall-out from the Second World War and the collapsing colonial empires, while by the twenty-first century camps have become a weapon against refugees. The chapter demonstrates how the British Empire globalized and normalized civilian incarceration during the Great War and therefore argues that it played a key role in the normalization of this process.
The Extent and Nature of the Camp System
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter gives a broad overview of British imperial internment, stressing its globality. It first looks at internee numbers both within Britain and in the Empire as a whole. It then develops a camp typology which includes specially built environments such as Knockaloe, military establishments and forts, old factories, and prison islands. Some of these structures were permanent, others only temporary. The chapter then tackles cultural life within camps, as well as conditions and the notorious barbed-wire disease. The chapter moves on to a detailed examination of two areas of the British Empire which have attracted limited attention from scholars of internment during the Great War in the form of Canada, where attention has tended to focus upon Ukrainians rather than Germans, and the West Indies and Bermuda.
Great Britain
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at the centre of the imperial internment system in the form of Great Britain. It begins by focusing upon those Germans already resident in the country who formed the bulk of those experiencing incarceration and the formation of policy towards them, which remained haphazard until the sinking of the Lusitania, which led to the decision to incarcerate all males of military age for the rest of the war. The chapter also examines those brought to Britain from the high seas, whether fishermen, those on ship journeys, or those captured in British ports. The chapter then moves on to outline the key camps which emerged in the British mainland during the war. It concludes by stressing the centrality of Britain in the whole imperial interment process both because it led internment policy and because it held more internees than the rest of the Empire put together.
India
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The chapter begins with a brief outline of the operation of the Indian civil service, the Government of India, and its relationship to Whitehall through the India Office, as well as pointing to the role of India during the Great War. The narrative then tackles the issue of the development of a hostile Anglo-Indian opinion towards the Germans which meant that the white race split apart. As in other parts of the Empire, the Government of India introduced measures which controlled the movement of the German minority and also confiscated all German property. Those interned consisted mostly of Germans resident in India when the war broke out, including missionaries, although others arrived there from Bahrain, East Africa, and Siam. Apart from the head camp at Ahmednagar, a series of other establishments also evolved, including Belgaum which held families and Sholapur which incarcerated women transported from Siam.
Mobilizing on Germany’s Frontier
Authors: Mezger Caroline 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapter 4 investigates the World War II mobilization of the Western Banat’s ethnic German children and youth into National Socialist organizations. It explores the evolution of the region’s (now mandatory) Deutsche Jugend, showing how—through the coordinated efforts of the German minority school system, the local youth leadership, and the military—almost all children and youth deemed to be “German” officially joined the organization. Not all individuals forced into the Deutsche Jugend, however, saw its activities as an onerous burden. Rather, even decades later, some of its former members appreciated their engagement with the Deutsche Jugend as a key “nationalizing” experience and as an avenue of great personal accomplishment. Within the organization, being “German” once again officially entailed defending the Third Reich, a calculation which would bring thousands of youth voluntarily and coercively into the arms of the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS.
Forging Germans under Hungary
Authors: Mezger Caroline 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapter 5 explores the fraught (re-) incorporation of the Batschka/Bácska/Bačka into the Hungarian state during World War II, highlighting the experiences of the region’s ethnic Germans. Interweaving archival, press, and oral history sources, it elucidates the violent conflicts that erupted even among children and youth as the region’s Donauschwaben suddenly became Hungarian citizens. Arenas such as the school and the Church became highly contested spaces of nationalization, as the Third Reich’s imperialist ambitions, local Donauschwaben activism, and Hungary’s nation-building project collided over differing notions of “Germanness.” Unlike in the Western Banat, the Catholic Church in the Batschka maintained its programs and advocated a religious, pro-“host state,” anti-Nazi “Germanness.” This violently bifurcated the Batschka’s Donauschwaben communities, including youth, into pro-Church, pro-Hungarian “blacks” and pro-Nazi “browns,” inspiring conflicts and diverse notions of national belonging that reverberate to the current day.
Introduction
Authors: Webster Erin 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter introduces the study by providing an overview of the epistemological, ethical, social, and political issues surrounding the subject of technologically mediated vision in early modern England. It lays out the key optical developments of the period, including the invention of the telescope and the microscope, and provides a brief synopsis of Johannes Kepler’s theory of the retinal image, which over the course of the seventeenth century gradually came to replace older, species-based models of vision. This context having been established, the introduction describes the general contours of the debate surrounding the efficacy and ethics of optical technology in the seventeenth century and identifies and introduces the major works to be discussed in subsequent chapters. It closes with an explanation of the study’s methodological approach, which is to read the texts it includes not only as being about optical devices but also as acting as optical devices—literary lenses that can be used to reveal the hidden motivations, assumptions, and desires present within their words.
Poetry as Optical Technology
Authors: Webster Erin 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the impact of Johannes Kepler’s mechanical model of vision on early modern poetic theory. It begins with an overview of classical visual and optical theory as they relate to Plato’s and Aristotle’s descriptions of poetry as an image-making technology. At the same time, it explains how their poetic theories are in turn connected to a philosophical tradition that associates heightened visual capacity with spiritual insight and intellectual and moral authority. The chapter then moves into an exploration of how early modern poetic theorists both inherited and adapted this existing intellectual tradition in response to the optical and visual theory of the period. By comparing Philip Sidney’s Defence of Poetry (1595) and George Puttenham’s The Arte of English Poesie (1589)—two works that pre-date Kepler’s theory—to later, seventeenth-century works by William Davenant, Thomas Hobbes, and John Dryden, this chapter shows that the changing status of the image in seventeenth-century European culture resulted in a complementary alteration within theories of poetic representation.
Domesticating Atrocity Law
Authors: Berlin Mark S. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter traces the history of efforts to domesticate international atrocity law, which provides initial plausibility for the book’s central argument. The chapter locates the origins of atrocity laws in the decades prior to World War II with a community of influential European criminal law scholars, most of whom were leaders of the International Association of Penal Law (AIDP). Following the war, some of these experts helped draft the first international atrocity law treaties, and the enforcement regimes they designed relied on national enforcement through domestic legislation. Four phases of atrocity law adoption then followed. In the first phase (1945–1957), the adoption of atrocity laws was driven mostly by principled norm entrepreneurs who were actively committed to the advancement of an international criminal law regime. In the second phase (1957–1985), professionalization and emulation became central drivers of domestic atrocity criminalization. As national governments all over the world drafted new criminal codes, transnational professional influences conditioned technocratic drafters to see atrocity criminalization as important for a modern criminal code. In the third phase (1985–1998), a new wave of domestic and international attempts to prosecute government officials for past atrocities, coupled with a resurgence of foreign technical legal assistance, helped foster the conditions that made atrocity criminalization salient beyond a specialized community of professional criminal law experts. Finally, in the current phase (1998–present), international civil society groups, inspired by the creation of the International Criminal Court, have undertaken concerted public advocacy efforts to promote the domestication of atrocity law.
Vulnerable Persons
Authors: Katajala-Peltomaa Sari 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
In late medieval miracle narrations, women formed the majority of victims of demonic possession, even if not an exclusive category. General ideas and theories about both women’s physiology and morality facilitated their labelling as demoniacs. Women’s bodies were deemed to be more open and many normal functions of the female body were considered impure. This chapter’s structure follows the female life course, focusing on corporeality’s links with demonic presence. Menarche, (the loss of) virginity, marriage, pregnancy, and giving birth were closely linked with religiously imbued changes in social position which caused anxiety. The paucity of cases connected to signposts of physical growth and social maturing implies, however, that the link between female corporeality and sexuality and the demonic was not inevitably made in the minds of laity testifying in canonization processes. Instead, demons’ role was to give voice to fears and uncertainties when something went wrong during these precarious situations.
Liability
Authors: Quong Jonathan 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapter 2 develops and defends an original account of liability to defensive harm: the moral status account. On this view, a person renders himself liable to defensive harm when the evidence-relative permissibility of his act depends on the assumption that others lack certain moral rights that they in fact possess, and his act threatens, or reasonably appears to threaten, those rights. The chapter also provides criticisms of competing accounts of liability, in particular, the moral responsibility account influentially developed by Jeff McMahan, among others. The chapter concludes by addressing a number of objections that might be pressed against the moral status account.
Necessity
Authors: Quong Jonathan 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapter 5 develops and defends an original account of the necessity constraint on the use of defensive force. The chapter argues that the necessity condition is grounded in the right to be rescued from harm when this rescue can be provided at reasonable cost. The chapter argues that even wrongful attackers have the right to be rescued from serious harm when others can do so at reasonable cost, and this right explains why there is a necessity condition on the permissible use of defensive force. The chapter also offers criticisms of competing conceptions of the necessity condition, as well as offering a particular view regarding the relationship between necessity and liability.
Certification and Business Risk
Authors: Trifković Neda 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter investigates the scope for international private standards to play a role in reducing business risk among the small and medium enterprises in Vietnam. Business risk is measured as variability in revenue, variability in customer base, practice of making informal payments, and temporary firm closure. The results show lower levels of business risk among certified firms, especially for firms in the middle deciles of the risk distribution. This finding is robust to the use of different business risk measures. Certification also correlates negatively with risk for technologically advanced firms, as well as firms located in rural areas and northern provinces of Vietnam. The results suggest that firms could find protection from business downsides by investing in internationally recognized quality management tools.
Newton and the Laws of Motion
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
In his Principia (1687), Sir Isaac Newton laid out his discovery of the laws of motions and the law of universal gravitation. His historic journey involved a critical moment when, aided by discussions with Robert Hooke, he conquered the challenge of circular motion, e.g. one body circling another, by introducing the concept of force. The Principia was a tour-de-force demonstration of the intelligibility of the universe and ultimately broke physics away from philosophy. This work led directly to the concept of energy.
Lavoisier and the birth of modern chemistry
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Building on the discoveries of such scientists as Priestley and Cavendish, Lavoisier invalidated the concept of phlogiston, discovered respiration to be a form of combustion, and ultimately laid the foundation for modern chemistry. Unfotunately, he also endorsed the caloric theory of heat, which was later proven to be incorrect.
Caloric theory: beginning of its end
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The early 1800s provided new evidence challenging the caloric theory when Rumford bored a cannon and boiled water, Davy melted ice by using friction, and Young made the connection between light and radiant heat. Mayer and Joule then succeeded in killing caloric by simply ignoring it and instead embracing work–heat equivalence.