bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Subordination and Coordination
Authors: Egan Thomas 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThis chapter describes the forms and functions of the main types of subordinate clauses, as well as various types of both phrasal and clausal coordination. The two main types of subordination, modification and complementation, are distinguished in relation to both finite and non-finite subordinate clauses. Various means of signalling subordination are described. It is shown how subordinate non-finite clauses, which lack primary tense, are largely dependent on the main clause predicate for their temporal interpretation, and how understood subjects in subordinate clauses may be coreferential with various nominals in the main clause. As for coordination, both bare heads and heads with dependents may be coordinated and, although we normally coordinate like with like, the items being coordinated do not necessarily have to be identical in form, nor indeed in function. Some constructions are discussed that straddle the binary distinction between coordination and subordination.
Dependency and Valency Approaches
Authors: Herbst Thomas 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThis chapter provides a survey of various approaches within the field of dependency grammar. First, the basic concepts of Tesnière’s Éléments de syntaxe structurale (1959) such as actants, circonstants, junction, and translation are outlined. Then the application of the concept of dependency in different approaches such as that taken in Hudson’s Word Grammar and in Mel’čuk’s approach are discussed. Section 7.4 focuses on the development of valency theory and related approaches and their application to English, discussing the complement–adjunct distinction, the idea of optionality of complements and the approach taken to the description of valency in the Valency Dictionary of English. Finally, it will be shown how valency and dependency can be related to more recent constructionist theories.
Constructional Approaches
Authors: Hilpert Martin 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThis chapter discusses what a constructional approach to language can reveal about English grammar. Construction Grammar adopts a perspective that has been characterized as ‘the view from the periphery’, which pays particular attention to structures that are irregular and idiosyncratic with regard to form and meaning. A substantial body of work on such structures indicates that speakers’ knowledge of grammar contains a large number of small-scale generalizations. The constructional view openly questions whether grammar can be conceived of as a well-defined set of morpho-syntactic rules. The wider implication of a constructional view is that a clean separation of grammar on the one hand and the lexicon on the other is not a realistic representation of linguistic knowledge.
Noun Phrases
Authors: Keizer Evelien 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThis chapter provides a brief overview of some widely debated issues in discussions of the English noun phrase, and illustrates how these issues have been dealt with in different theoretical approaches. After a general characterization of the noun phrase from a pre-theoretical point of view, the chapter proceeds to discuss the internal structure of the noun phrase from a generative, functional, and cognitive perspective. Subsequently, the differences between these approaches are illustrated by addressing two basic notions in the analysis of English noun phrases: headedness (in regular noun phrases, as well as in headless and pseudo-partitive noun phrases) and the distinction between relational and non-relational nouns (and, consequently, between complements and modifiers). In both cases the various types of criteria for analysis are discussed, as well as some problems in applying these criteria.
Grammar and Phonology
Authors: Hellmuth Sam , Cushing Ian 
Published: March 2020

AbstractIn the majority of theoretical linguistic frameworks, grammar and phonology are typically kept ‘separate’, which arguably leads to a somewhat reduced understanding of how language works. In this chapter, we explore some of the historical reasons for this separation, framing the discussion around degrees of linguistic modularity and autonomy which different grammatical frameworks assume. After providing an overview of this debate, we then illustrate how phonology interacts with grammar. We discuss how grammar and phonology interact at word and sentence level, present a case study for the role that phonology plays in word class categorization, and finally, examine how two different grammatical paradigms (namely formal-generative and cognitive-functional grammar) incorporate phonology into their descriptions.
Theoretical Approaches to Morphology
Authors: Spencer Andrew 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThe chapter contrasts the still popular traditional approach to morphology, based on the classical morpheme concept, with contemporary approaches which significantly modify that concept (Distributed Morphology, Construction Morphology) or reject it altogether (Paradigm Function Morphology, Network Morphology). I extend the scope of the latter, ‘lexeme-and-paradigm’, models by introducing types of morphology intermediate between inflection and derivation: argument-structure alternations and transpositions (such as deverbal participles), together with other problematic phenomena such as clitics, light verbs, periphrasis. The chapter ends with a discussion of derivational morphology as a subtype of lexemic relatedness, briefly outlining the principal theoretical issues facing approaches to lexemic relatedness and lexical representation: ‘blocking’, semantic primitives, lexical semantics, and derivation.
Cognitive Linguistic Approaches
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: March 2020

AbstractAfter a brief account of the salient characteristics of Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar, this chapter highlights the distinctive perspective which this approach offers on traditional topics in the description of English, including the question of word classes, the nature of syntactic relations, and the status of constructions as an alternative to rule-based accounts of linguistic knowledge. It presents three case studies illustrating the role of background cognition, not only as a factor in semantic interpretation but also for its grammatical effects. These concern (i) the role of grounding in nominal and verbal systems, (ii) some of the manifestations of cognitive reference points in such diverse areas as possessive expressions and constraints on the use of participles, and (iii) processes of subjectification, as exemplified in such areas as modals, fictive motion, and causal relations.
Grammar and Corpus Methodology
Authors: Wallis Sean 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThis chapter explores the potential of natural language corpora for grammatical research. The chapter distinguishes three main types of data (evidence) that a corpus can provide: factual evidence, frequency evidence, and interaction evidence. The chapter makes the research case for parsing a corpus completely, correcting the annotation by human linguists. It uses the cyclic ‘3A’ perspective (Nelson et al. 2002) to relate a series of exploratory algorithms and tools relevant to the grammatical researcher, including concordancing tools, grammatical exploration tools, and bottom-up generalization algorithms. The aim is not merely to describe what is found in a corpus but to perform systematic ‘natural experiments’. The rich grammatical analysis of a parsed corpus gains a new role: in reliably obtaining examples of grammatical units within which research may be conducted. The chapter concludes with a discussion of some simple experiments, and the methodological issues that arise in carrying them out.
Phrase Structure
Authors: Borsley Robert D. 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThe phrase structure of English has been a central concern for most approaches to syntax, including various forms of Transformational Grammar, Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Lexical Functional Grammar, and the earlier Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar framework. They have developed detailed analyses of verb phrases, nominal phases, clauses of various kinds, including unbounded dependency clauses and elliptical clauses, and adjective phrases and prepositional phrases, and coordinate structures. There are similarities and differences between the various approaches in all these areas. They differ in whether or not they are confined to binary branching, whether or not they assume that all phrases are headed, and in the extent to which they assume heads which are phonologically empty. More generally they vary in how complex they take phrase structures to be and in how much variety they see in the local trees that they consist of.
Postcritical
Authors: Felski Rita 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
“Postcritical reading” slices across the dichotomy of sceptical detachment versus naïve absorption. Rather than interrogating what a text represents or fails to represent, it invites other questions: what does a text do? what does it set in motion? what ties a text to its readers? Such questions can do justice to the work of literature—the work that literature does, in the classroom and the world—while also leaving room for contingency and surprise. And here the language of attachment offers an alternative to the usual accounts (whether aesthetic or sociological) of why literature matters. Attachment, it should be emphasized, is not just a matter of feeling; it is also normative, involving questions of ethics or politics. In this sense, it allows us to look more closely at the similarities between academic criticism and lay reading, yet without denying their differences.
Touch
Authors: Silverman Gillian 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the importance of touch to the practice of reading. While all reading begins with touch (we hold books and turn pages), accounts of literacy tend to downplay this contact with the text, conceiving of reading as a purely cognitive activity. We speak not of touching books but of finding them touching. But thinking about reading in relation to touch is important because it can upset the logic of linearity and rationalism associated with an optic approach to literacy. Through its reciprocity, touch destabilizes agency, exposing the complex dependencies of subjects and objects. This chapter examines a variety of texts that invite a haptic response, including artist’s books, book performances, and digital apps that highlight cutaneous contact. It argues that post-Enlightenment ideals of distanced cognition must be tempered by the textured trace of the physical book and its affective role in our lives.
Deafness
Authors: Sanchez Rebecca 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
This chapter describes deaf experiences of reading, particularly those that occur in signed languages. It explores both visual and tactile methods of signed language reading and analyzes the ways these practices enable alternative theorizations of reading and its potentials as well as the reasons that referring to the processes of decoding signed language utterances as reading is appropriate. Specifically, it focuses on the implications of encountering the human body as text and the relationships between human subjects and language that become possible in such contexts through readings of several ASSL poems including Bernard Bragg’s “Flowers and Moonlight on Spring Water” and “The Pilot and the Eagle,” Ian Sanborn’s “Caterpillar,” and Ayisha Knight-Shaw’s “Until.”
Accessibility
Authors: Lazar Jonathan 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
Accessibility means flexibility. In terms of format, some people prefer to read a print book or a newspaper, and other people prefer to read their texts digitally and on different types of devices and screens. All books are now “born-digital,” ready to be transformed into multiple formats, but are often turned into inaccessible formats (such as improperly formatted PDFs). Even when people with disabilities have the legal right to access reading material in the format that they need and can process, often they must enforce that right when book publishers, content providers, educational systems, and administrators do not provide reading content in appropriate formats. This chapter discusses both the legal foundations and the technical foundations of accessible reading. The chapter closes with ten suggestions for how to encourage publishers and others to make reading material more accessible.
Mental Representation
Authors: Elfenbein Andrew 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
Book history, media studies, and digital humanities have foregrounded the physical medium of texts and have shown special interest in the rise of digital media. This essay acknowledges the value of these disciplines but also points to their limitations as sites for analyzing reading. Scholars should not draw conclusions about reception based on a work’s medium of presentation. The comprehension process, as described in cognitive psychology, provides a powerful alternative for understanding reading; psychologists have argued for the existence of general comprehension skills that operate across media. Whatever the origin of a text, comprehension occurs in the same medium, the mind of the reader. The study of reading in the humanities needs to separate itself from the disciplines with which it is usually associated (book history and media studies) because these mask critical aspects of the reading process.
Pleasure
Authors: Starr G. Gabrielle , Belfi Amy M. 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of ways of understanding the pleasures of reading, blending literary criticism with behavioral psychology. Pleasure has at least two basic functions with works of art, the first is to help identify salient elements of form, and second to release attention for exploration. While pleasure might be imagined to be the final result of engaging with a whole object, we show through an experiment the disjunction between pleasure and complete aesthetic form.
Dyslexia: Through the Eyes of da Vinci
Authors: Wolf Maryanne 
Published: March 2020

AbstractThis chapter examines the formation of a reading brain circuit and how it represents the gradual, ever-more-elaborated connections among visual and auditory perception, multiple language and cognitive functions, and affective processes. Based on this multi-component view of reading, we then approach why this circuit can be quite different in various writing systems and in different mediums like print and digital media. Finally, we examine why the circuit fails to develop in conventional ways in persons with dyslexia and, quite possibly, in one of the greatest and most unconventional artists and inventors of the last millennium, Leonardo da Vinci.
Tracked
Authors: Trettien Whitney 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
How do technologies track our reading? Digital devices today can monitor not only what you read electronically, but when, where, and for how long. From an artist’s book by Heather Weston and eighteenth-century commonplacing techniques to Kindle Highlights and social reading sites like GoodReads, this chapter takes a wide-ranging, playful look at the ways both humans and machines have used various platforms to track their reading over time. By critically examining the deep history of social reading practices, this chapter aims to bring into relief what is new or different about emerging digital technologies and the forms of reading they foster.
Translated
Authors: Walkowitz Rebecca L. 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that new approaches to the global history of books and the circulation of literatures across national and linguistic boundaries have changed the way we think about reading in translation. We now understand that reading in translation should involve more than an encounter with a stand-alone object and should be regarded as an intellectual and ethical imperative for any genuine student of literature, rather than a secondary or compensatory practice. Writers, translators, and publishers have been raising questions about what we need to read and why, what constitutes native and foreign literatures, the distinction between authors and translators, and the complexity of establishing an original or first version of a work. This chapter examines three recent works in translation that dramatize these changes in striking ways.
Machine
Authors: Ramsay Stephen 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that data mining and machine learning technologies “read” in the strong sense of the word, and that this represents an epochal shift in the history of reading as such. It considers various categories of responses to the idea of “non-human reading” that the world that has emerged from this shift is better than ever, that it is obviously inferior to the one now ending, and that it merely repeats attributes of technological modernity easily identified in ages past. But following the strong view of machine reading, this chapter suggests that the present technological moment is actually unprecedented. This makes concrete predictions difficult. What we can be sure of, however, is that like other truly unprecedented technological shifts, the move to a world in which machines truly read will give rise to ethical frameworks as yet unconceived.
Not
Authors: Gitelman Lisa 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
A lot of the way people talk about reading today is in reference to not reading. The absence or negation of reading comes up in many different contexts, frequently as a cause for concern. Digital media are often to blame. Information overload is epidemic. When conversations turn to not reading, what is it about reading itself that is being implied? How are conversations about not reading working to consolidate particular notions about readers, readership, and the function of reading? Is reading really in peril?
Actual
Authors: Stewart Garrett 
Published: March 2020

Abstract
As opposed to other things one does or can do with text, its “actual reading” is defined here as the actualization of scriptive (hence phonetic) signals in the construction of its aesthetic as well as semantic force. The silent sounding of literary letters is the base-line of textual generation, thrown into relief by contrast with a parodic story by American novelist Bennett Sims about a film scholar’s willful and absurd lip reading of silent background players in Alfred Hitchcock’s film Vertigo. This satirized overreading of phonic shapes is then entered into the famous terms of debate between Paul de Man and Michael Riffaterre on what “really reading” means, to which, after their fraught example from Victor Hugo, further literary examples from Charles Dickens through Virginia Woolf to Adrienne Rich are recruited to help arbitrate.
Sleep and intrusive memories immediately after a traumatic event in emergency department patients
Authors: Porcheret Kate , Iyadurai Lalitha , Bonsall Michael B , Goodwin Guy M , Beer Sally A , Darwent Melanie , Holmes Emily A 
Published: March 2020

Abstract

Study objectives
Intrusive memories of psychological trauma are a core clinical feature of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and in the early period post-trauma may be a potential target for early intervention. Disrupted sleep in the weeks post-trauma is associated with later PTSD. The impact of sleep and intrusive memories immediately post-trauma, and their relation to later PTSD, is unknown. This study assessed the relationship between sleep duration on the first night following a real-life traumatic event and intrusive memories in the subsequent week, and how these might relate to PTSD symptoms at 2 months.

Methods
Patients (n = 87) recruited in the emergency department completed a sleep and intrusive memory diary from the day of their trauma and for the subsequent week, with optional actigraphy. PTSD, anxiety, and depression symptoms were assessed at 1 week and 2 months.

Results
A U-shaped relationship was observed between sleep duration on the first night and intrusive memories over the subsequent week: sleeping “too little” or “too much” was associated with more intrusive memories. Individuals who met Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) criteria for PTSD at 2 months had three times more intrusive memories in the first week immediately post-trauma than those who did not (M = 28.20 vs 9.96). Post hoc analysis showed that the absence of intrusive memories in the first week post-trauma was only observed in those who did not meet CAPS criteria for PTSD at 2 months.

Conclusions
Monitoring intrusive memories and sleep in the first week post-trauma, using a simple diary, may help identify individuals more vulnerable to later psychopathology.
Professionalism: The Wrong Tool to Solve the Right Problem?
Authors: Frye Victoria , Camacho-Rivera Marlene , Salas-Ramirez Kaliris , Albritton Tashuna , Deen Darwin , Sohler Nancy , Barrick Samantha , Nunes Joäo 
Published: March 2020

Medical schools and other higher education institutions across the United States are grappling with how to respond to racism on and off campus. Institutions and their faculty, administrators, and staff have examined their policies and practices, missions, curricula, and the representation of racial and ethnic minority groups among faculty, staff, and students. In addition, student-led groups, such as White Coats for Black Lives, have emerged to critically evaluate medical school curricula and advocate for change. Another approach to addressing racism has been a focus on the role of professionalism, which has been variably defined as values, traits, behaviors, morality, humanism, a role, an identity, and even a social contract.
In this article, the authors consider the potential role that professionalism might play in responding to racism in medical education and at medical schools. They identify 3 concerns central to this idea. The first concern is differing definitions of what the problem being addressed really is. Is it isolated racist acts or institutional racism that is a reflection of white supremacy? The second concern is the notion that professionalism may be used as a tool of social control to maintain the interests of the social groups that dominate medicine. The third concern is that an overly simplistic application of professionalism, regardless of how the problem of racism is defined, may result in trainees practicing professionalism that is performative rather than internally motivated. The authors conclude that professionalism may complement a more systematic and holistic approach to addressing racism and white supremacy in medical education, but it is an insufficient stand-alone tool to address this core problem.