bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evaluating the Effects of Emergency Depressurization on a High-Pressure High-Temperature (HPHT) Gas Injection Onshore Pipeline
Authors: Lakshmipathy Jagan , Herrera Sierralta Carlos , Jain Arun , Fallatah Mohammed , Jurca Thomas 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
An operating strategy is proposed for the emergency depressurization of a NPS30 gas-gathering manifold (GGM) and its associated NPS24 trunk line transporting high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) gas to a storage reservoir subject to various system constraints.
Abrupt pipeline depressurization containing lean gas causes cooling downstream of the blowdown valve (BDV) and at locations within the pipeline due to Joule-Thompson (J-T) expansion. A safe operating envelope for the injection system was developed through rigorous flow assurance, materials and buckling analysis.
Pipeline fracture tests indicated the GGM material transition temperature (MTT) is approximately 20°C (35°C with margin) and recommended to maintain GGM above this temperature. Pressure corresponding to a metal temperature of 35°C during depressurization was calculated as an increase in the inlet gas temperature to mitigate low temperature during depressurization. This was used as an input for stress calculations to determine the propensity of fracture propagation. An increase the inlet gas temperature will mitigate low temperatures during depressurization.
The risk of pipeline failure due to upheaval buckling at elevated pipeline temperatures and pressures was also considered. Upheaval buckling of pipelines can occur when axial force reaches a critical limit. This force is accentuated during episodes of large temperature differences and high internal pressures. An operating strategy presented here incorporates the impact of these limits on upheaval buckling.
Prioritizing the Correct Crack-Like Feature for Remediation Requires Burst and Fatigue Calculations
Authors: Polasik Steven J. , Hanna Ben , Booth Zach , Bubenik Tom 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Prioritization of crack-like features for remediation requires a burst pressure assessment as well as a fatigue life assessment to ensure all features are managed accurately. As the ability of in-line inspection technologies to provide complex feature profiles becomes more commonplace, a process for estimating the criticality of crack-like features with these profiles becomes more imperative. One approach is to apply an effective area method (e.g., similar to RSTRENG) to estimate criticality. This method evaluates all contiguous combinations of feature dimensions that can be defined via the detailed profile. The effective areas from these combinations are converted into semi-ellipses, or other idealized shapes, which can then be analyzed using fracture mechanics models. The lowest predicted burst pressure of these combinations is considered the burst pressure of the feature. As an extension, the fatigue life of each combination can also be estimated such that the effective dimensions resulting in the shortest predicted life define the overall fatigue life of the feature. While the effective area approach is mostly applicable to metal loss rather than crack-like features, this approach has been used in the past and its application can yield illustrative results.
For some profiles, the effective dimensions corresponding to the lowest burst pressure are not the same as those corresponding to the shortest fatigue life. This points to a larger implication that can be applied to any set of features, whether they have simple or complex profiles. Specifically, the most critical feature based on burst pressure may be different from the feature with the shortest fatigue life. Different features could be prioritized for remediation differently depending on the failure condition being evaluated. A full understanding of which features to prioritize for remediation efforts therefore requires both a burst pressure assessment and a fatigue life assessment. This paper seeks to explore this implication in more detail by examining the ranges of assumptions and feature parameters under which this phenomenon occurs as well as the extent of its influence when using the MAT-8, Raju-Newman, and CorLAS™ fracture mechanics models.
Development of Pipeline Standards for the Delivery of Hydrogen and Hydrogen Blends
Authors: Blackwell Chris , Wallace Howard , Khan Mervah , Weinkauf Brett 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper will discuss the near-, mid-, and long-term development of requirements for the design, material selection, construction, testing and operation of pipeline delivery systems intended for use with hydrogen gas and hydrogen gas blends. CSA Z662, Oil and gas pipeline systems, establishes oil and gas pipeline delivery system requirements in Canada, with natural gas (methane) being the dominant gaseous focus.
To provide a mechanism for immediate reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, a significant demand for hydrogen and natural gas blended with hydrogen has emerged. These fuels must be delivered in a safe and effective manner. Addressing hydrogen in standards is currently a focus area around the world with support from many international research organizations, industry, and levels of governments.
As the applications of hydrogen blending in existing natural gas pipelines begins to increase and expand, so must the standards that have traditionally been applied for those projects. Recognizing the speed with which the demand for hydrogen is increasing, the CSA Z662 Technical Committee formed a hydrogen task force to focus on 3 deliverables:
• A primary framework, covering design, construction and operation requirements for existing and new hydrogen and hydrogen blend systems, suitable for publication in the 2023 edition of CSA Z662;
• A detailed set of objective provisions suitable for publication as early as 2027; and
• A mechanism for integration of standard maintenance and updating for hydrogen requirements in future editions.
In June 2023, CSA Group published the new edition of CSA Z662, which includes a new clause to address provisions for hydrogen and hydrogen blended systems and simultaneously establishes a home for future provisions.
The paper will conclude with a summary of the approach and key topics of focus for the next edition of CSA Z662.
Fels Glacier Valley Slope Deformation Analysis and Geohazard Assessment for the Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS)
Authors: Read Rodney , Reger Richard , Preston Geoffrey , Wuttig Frank 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Alyeska Pipeline Service Company (Alyeska) conducts ongoing pipeline integrity monitoring of the Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), including sites prone to slope instability and potential future landslides. Fels Glacier valley, an eastern tributary of the upper Delta River valley in the glaciated, rugged east-central Alaska Range, is a site of active slope movement on the valley’s south-facing slope. Located about three miles east of the Richardson Highway and the TAPS pipeline, Fels Glacier valley is drained by Lower Miller Creek, which is crossed by the TAPS pipeline. Several university researchers have postulated that a long-runout rock avalanche or a sequence of events involving catastrophic failure of the deforming slope, damming of the drainage from Fels Glacier, and subsequent outburst flooding, could severely impact the TAPS oil pipeline. However, this conclusion was reached without a structured geohazard assessment to estimate the probability of occurrence of these scenarios and vulnerability of the TAPS pipeline to their occurrence.
In 2016, Alyeska initiated a geohazard assessment of Fels Glacier valley to assess the potential risk exposure of TAPS. In addition to several field reconnaissance surveys and review of satellite and ground-based radar monitoring conducted by others, desktop analysis of LiDAR data using a novel image analysis technique to estimate 3D displacement vectors was conducted to establish the pattern of ground displacement and develop a geologic model. This paper provides an overview of the geohazard assessment and details of the LiDAR image analysis. The findings illustrate the utility of comparative image analysis using repeat LiDAR surveys and orthophotos to estimate a true 3D displacement field as part of quantitative geohazard assessment of pipelines.
An Overview of the 2021 Edition of the PRCI Pipeline Repair Manual
Authors: Gould Melissa , Bruce William A. , Noecker Fredrick F. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The 2021 edition of the Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI) Pipeline Repair Manual contains added and updated information on repair technologies gleaned from the literature, vendor publications, and industry experience. The most recent update focused on repair methods and practices that are commonplace or have emerged and have become commonplace since the 2006 version of the manual.
Additionally, the updated manual provides guidance to pipeline operators for choosing an appropriate repair method for a specific type of defect or combination of defects in an operating pipeline, developing or improving their pipeline repair procedures and manuals, and training or qualifying engineering and maintenance personnel. It also contains two (2) new appendices. Appendix B includes additional information related to composite repairs, including a summary of completed industry-wide research and the application status of composite repairs for various types of defects. Appendix D is a training slide deck covering the changes in this edition compared to the previous Pipeline Repair Manual.
One example of a major change in this edition is the decision to limit references to “permanent” and “temporary” repairs, as the anticipated life of a repair depends on many circumstances and could include consideration of risk. Therefore, the determination of “permanent” and “temporary” is left to the user. Furthermore, the tabular summary of repair options for various types of defects was significantly updated to align with current industry best practices.
To help disseminate information in the 2021 Edition of the PRCI Pipeline Repair Manual, PRCI is developing an online and in-person training course. The purpose of this paper, and the associated training course, is to increase understanding of the major changes in the 2021 Edition of the PRCI Pipeline Repair Manual, and current industry best practices for pipeline repair methods.
A Review of a Satellite-Based Solution for Pipeline Right-of-Way Monitoring
Authors: Chayangkul Na Aduthaya Tanat , Chonjaroen Thidarat , Sanlung Sasiphan , Wongpanich Amnuay , Van Den Berg Arnaud 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
PTT Public Company Limited (PTT) is a leading entity in Thailand’s energy sector, managing both onshore and offshore gas transmission systems with a total length of over 5,800 kilometers. To ensure safety and integrity, PTT utilizes various patrolling methods, including vehicle surveillance and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) inspection. However, with these methods, challenges emerge in onshore areas due to restrictions or inaccessibility. Therefore, PTT initiated a pilot project in 2022, leveraging satellite technology to overcome these challenges.
Within this pilot, PTT evaluated Orbital Eye’s satellite-based monitoring solution, leveraging Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)-, Multispectral-, and High-Resolution optical satellite data to detect activities within the pipeline right-of-way (ROW).
Within a year, more than 3,000 unique activities were detected through the analysis of satellite data, with an accuracy rate exceeding 90%. The activities were all verified by PTT’s GIS staff and operational field crews, either through the analysis of optical data or through traditional on-site patrolling. Classifications of detected activities showed that almost 50% of the activities were related to construction or ground works. The results of satellite-based monitoring were also compared with results of vehicle- and UAV-based monitoring, which showed that there was a commendable 53% match.
Integrating this advanced technology into pipeline monitoring enhances efficiency and increases the information level of PTT about activities going on in its pipeline corridor, especially in remote, and hard-to-access areas. The pilot also showed many opportunities to improve. This paper presents the results achieved during a year of satellite-based monitoring, along with the lessons learned and the operational impact of adding this advanced technology to PTT’s monitoring methods.
Vibroacoustic Technology for Pig Tracking: Case Studies and Operational Insights for Permanent or Temporary Installations
Authors: Gomes Ana Paula , Marino Marco , Chiappa Fabio , Rota Matteo 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present case studies of pig tracking using Vibroacoustic Technology (VT), encompassing both temporary and permanent deployment on a pipeline. This system offers real-time tracking, even if installed mid-operation, providing accurate location information. Additionally, VT, already extensively deployed worldwide in Oil & Gas pipelines, yields valuable data that can be retrieved using this method.
Originally developed for detecting and localizing leaks and third-party interference in pipelines, VT has demonstrated its capability to reliably identify the location of pigs as they traverse the pipeline and pinpoint the position of a stuck tool. Its movement inside the pipeline generates vibroacoustic waves that propagate for tens of kilometers at the speed of sound.
It is possible to determine the source of the vibroacoustic waves, i.e., the pig, employing the time difference of arrival method. Sensor blocks can be installed at any hydraulic derivations along the pipeline or even in parallel with other instruments. These sensor blocks are equipped with batteries allowing for several days of autonomous operation and SIM cards for data transmission during temporary installations. In this work we show data from tracking campaigns in different pipelines.
The first case study involves a 160 km offshore gas pipeline. Sensor blocks at the ends monitored the pig’s passage. Despite the distance, it was feasible to discern the precise moment welded joints were encountered. If it traverses a slightly deformed pipeline section, its location could be accurately determined.
In the second case study, an onshore pipeline for refined products, though under VT surveillance for leaks, at the beginning of the inspection, the pig was not being monitored. When the control room detected the tool was stuck at an unknown location, VT specialists promptly analyzed available data, pinpointing its location within minutes.
The last case study demonstrates VT’s effectiveness in monitoring two pigs within the pipeline. Introducing the second tool aimed to dislodge the first, highlighting the technology’s adaptability and valuable role in managing operational challenges within pipelines.
Accurate pig tracking enables the pipeline operator to promptly address and effectively manage any challenges that might arise during the inspection. The versatility of VT as a pig tracking technology is showcased through cases involving both temporary and permanent installations. This includes instances where tracking was provided from the beginning of the operation and also situations where the stuck tool location was accurately determined after the operation had started.
Metallurgical Analyses of 26 EMAT Anomalies on a 1949 Vintage Electric Flash Welded Pipeline
Authors: Buckingham Katherine M. , Quickel Gregory T. , Wang Jing 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
There are more than 2.6 million miles of oil and gas pipelines in the United States, all of which can be characterized as either seamless or longitudinally seamed. The majority of longitudinally seamed pipelines constructed between 1940 and 1970 involved submerged arc welded (SAW) or either electric resistance welded (ERW) or electric flash welded (EFW) seams. While SAW line pipe is formed with filler metal, ERW and EFW line pipe are autogenous and require no filler. Both ERW and EFW pipes are formed with pressure and electrical current and are both prone to similar manufacturing flaws including hook cracks and lack-of-fusion (LOF) flaws. Hook cracks and LOF flaws can grow pre-service or in-service but are less likely to fail at pressures below the mill and commissioning hydrostatic burst testing (hydrotest). Thus, these flaws are typically considered stable in gas transmission pipelines. This paper summarizes the findings of metallurgical and hydrotesting performed on multiple manufacturing seam weld flaws from an EFW natural gas pipeline.
Evaluation of the Use of 6Al-4V ELI TSJ (Grade F23) in Gas Export Risers in the SEAP Field
Authors: Magalhães Ferreira Fábio , Gomes de Carvalho Kleberson 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The Sergipe Águas Profundas (SEAP) field, stands out as one of the newest production frontiers in deep waters in Brazil. Located in the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin, 100 km from the coast and at depths reaching 3000 m, it poses several technological challenges for the development of the field. Divided into two modules, the field is planned to have several Steel Lazy Wave Risers (SLWR), including two for Gas Export associated with a trunk line linking two FPSO to shore. Due to the low level of contaminants present in the transported gas, and the possibility of wet park these risers empty in an ultra-deep-water depth, which may be challenging for Flexible Joints, a comprehensive study for the use of TSJ in-stead, as top termination of these Gas Export SLWRs, was carried out.
Although the use of Titanium Stress Joint is widespread throughout the world, especially in the Gulf of Mexico, the application in spread mooring FPSO (as SEAP) is still limited, and costly. On the other hand, the Stress Joint option can be a more reliable alternative than the Flexible Joints, due to the properties of titanium and the absence of structural elastomeric supports, making it resistant to prolonged operation at high temperature and pressure and less susceptible to pressure cycles during their service life.
Several numerical simulations (global analyzes) are performed to verify the technical viability of the Titanium Stress Joint and the riser configuration for the intended use, and the opportunity to use the Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy (grade F23), which has lower cost and greater availability on the market, is investigated.
Advantages of the Stress Joints over the Flexible Joints in the specific scenario of pre-lay of the Gas Export risers for a long period without the need of special tools, and the possibility of reducing diving inspections for integrity management of the riser’s top termination throughout the operational life are also discussed in this article.
Flow-Induced Vibration Assessment and Mitigation for Compressor Station Expansion
Authors: Harper Chris , Bibby Chris , Hartford Nathan , Harris Chase , Popa Cristian 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Compressor station expansion projects present a risk of fatigue failure due to flow-induced vibration. Flow-induced vibration mechanisms relevant to compressor stations include flow-induced turbulence, vortex-induced vibration on barred tees and thermowells, and flow-induced pulsations within deadlegs and strainers. Risk and severity of these vibration mechanisms increase with flow rate. Methodologies for assessing each are presented.
The flow-induced turbulence mechanism is excitation due to turbulent kinetic energy in the flow. Screening assessment approach provided by the Energy Institute demonstrates that gas pipelines typically have low turbulent excitation provided the pipework is well supported.
Barred (also called pigging or scraper) tees are commonly found in gas pipeline stations adjacent to pig barrels. They can be a vibration and failure risk due to flow-induced vibrations. Flow through the bars can create vortex shedding, similar to other bluff bodies in fluid flow, and excitation forces at the wake frequency. These forces can then excite the lateral modes of the bars. Common bar designs have several different bar lengths, each with their own natural frequency of vibration. This range of vibration frequencies increases the chance of resonance where a vortex shedding frequency coincides with a natural frequency of a bar. Other complicating factors are the non-uniform flow profile as the flow goes from the main header into the branch and the non-symmetrical shape of the bars that have a radius on the header side.
Flow-induced pulsations from deadlegs occur when the vortex shedding frequency across a branch opening coincides with an acoustical natural frequency of the deadleg. These pulsations create shaking forces which can lead to high vibration and risk of fatigue failure. Vibration is amplified if the pulsation frequency coincides with a mechanical natural frequency of the pipework. A methodology is presented for identifying deadleg pulsation and assessing the resulting vibratory stress in the piping system.
Inline cone strainers can generate very high-amplitude high-frequency vibration and noise local to the tee. Fatigue failure can occur. Strainer noise and vibration is known to occur when vortices are shed through the strainer holes at a frequency that coincides with acoustical cross modes in the pipe. This is further amplified if the acoustic mode coincides with a mechanical shell mode in the pipe wall.
Both vibration and noise field data will be presented for the above mechanisms with techniques for identifying and evaluating risk during operation. Simple solutions will be given for reducing the risk of fatigue failure.
Impact of High Speed Hydrogen Flow on System Integrity and Noise
Authors: González Díez Néstor , Belfroid Stefan , van Lier Leonard , Meijer Irma 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Existing infrastructure used for transporting natural gas could be used in the future to transport hydrogen. The HyDelta program aims at resolving open questions connected to the transport of hydrogen in The Netherlands. Infrastructure is developed and operated safety by abiding by proven standards and norms for pipeline integrity. An open question is whether the integrity of the transport system is affected when repurposing for hydrogen, provided that the same amount of energy is as it currently is with natural gas.
To ensure the same transport capacity, higher hydrogen flow velocities are necessary, in comparison to natural gas. This in turn results in potentially larger pressure drop, and with it a larger potential for erosion, vibrations and radiated noise. Transport capacity, operating pressures and temperatures, sizing of the hardware and optimized economic return determine what the optimal design flow speed in the system shall be. However, the flow speed is also limited by integrity risks. For natural gas, this limit is commonly placed at 20 m/s (∼60 ft/s). Applying the same limit to hydrogen may represent an overly conservative constraint and bottleneck the capacity of new and re-purposed gas transport systems.
In this paper, a review of integrity risks related to high gas flow velocities in the system is offered: flow-induced risk mechanisms for intrusive equipment, flow-induced turbulence, flow-induced pulsations, acoustics-induced vibration, flow-induced noise and erosion. The method is based on benchmarking hydrogen against (Dutch) natural gas, at equal energy rates. This means that hydrogen should flow about 3 times faster than natural gas. The objective is to assess whether any of the integrity risks analyzed present a barrier to allowing the flow velocity for hydrogen to be larger than that used for natural gas.