bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
If You Torture the Data Long Enough
Authors: Smith Gary 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
I recently received an e-mail that offered me a way to automate my research: Dear Professor Smith, We would like to introduce you to [our] brand new research tool . . . , ready to automate your empirical research basing on official statistical time series databases. [Our software] has been designed to explore and discover new exciting economic correlations directly from your desktop. No extra software required, no need to crawl thousands of databases manually. You’ll be up and running in no time your first big data project. The e-mail went on to boast that their software will calculate “correlation coefficients with millions of statistical time series,” “identify unexpected interdependences,” and “find new insights.” The creative grammar was one thing. More disheartening was their assumption that I wanted to sift through literally trillions of correlations looking for unexpected patterns. An unexpected pattern has no logical basis—and I am skeptical of patterns that defy logic. Statistical tests assume that researchers have well-defined theories in mind and gather appropriate data to test their theories. This company assumed that I was eager and willing to pay a substantial amount of money to work the other way around. Look at every possible correlation—not caring whether they made sense or not—and report the correlations that turn out to be the most statistically persuasive. It is a sign of the times, but not an inspiring sign. Many important scientific theories started out as efforts to explain observed patterns. For example, during the 1800s,most biologists believed that parental characteristics were averaged together to determine the characteristics of their offspring. For example, a child’s height is an average of the father’s and mother’s heights, modified by environmental influences. However, Gregor Mendel discovered something quite different in his experiments with pea plants. Mendel was born in Austria in 1822 and grew up on his family’s farm. His parents expected him to take over the farm, but Mendel was an excellent student and became an Augustinian monk at a monastery known for its scientific library and research. Perhaps because of his farming roots, Mendel conducted meticulous studies of tens of thousands of pea plants grown in the monastery’s gardens over an eight-year period.
Preventative and paediatric dentistry
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The child patient can be a challenging and daunting proposition for the junior dentist and dental student. Whilst children can be anxious, unco­operative, and unpredictable, they also present an extremely rewarding opportunity, which, if managed correctly, may go on to influence their healthcare experiences for the rest of their lives. Excellent behavioural management of the child patient (and their parents!) is fundamental to a successful clinical and patient- reported outcome. Aside from possible behavioural issues, paediatric patients may pre­sent with a series of unique clinical presentations that require additional skills and knowledge above and beyond those required for adult pa­tients. Differences in the micro- and macro- structures of primary and permanent teeth, coupled with variations in eruption dates, lead to an evolving mixed dentition that can lead to some difficult diagnostic and treatment planning scenarios. Furthermore, dental anxiety and the pre­ponderance for dento- alveolar trauma in children and young adults may exacerbate the patient management of an already complex situation. Prevention is central to paediatric dentistry. However, whilst signifi­cant progression has occurred in some areas, poor dietary habits and suboptimal oral hygiene regimes remain significant concerns for the pro­fession, with large numbers of dental extractions still performed under general anaesthesia each year. Key topics include: ● Tooth anatomy and eruption patterns ● Abnormalities of structure and form ● Prevention and management of dental caries, including pulp therapy ● Dental trauma ● Dental extractions and space management ● Behavioural management ● Safeguarding ● Pharmacological management.
Head and neck syndromes
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
A comparatively small chapter, syndromes of the head and neck are gen­erally rare. It is unlikely that the majority of clinicians will diagnose or treat patients affected by many of the syndromes discussed. However, it is highly likely that clinical findings or presenting features may find their way into undergraduate academic examinations. Most syndromes are presented in the literature as a specific list of associated clinical findings, and many are still referred to eponymously. Some of the syndromes with oral manifestations can also be associated with more sinister conditions and, as such, a broad knowledge of the common syndromes with orofacial manifestations is important. It is highly advised to read the chapter on syndromes of the head and neck in the Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry. Key topics include: ● Syndromes associated with hypodontia ● Syndromes affecting orofacial development ● Syndromes linked with gastrointestinal conditions ● Syndromes subsequent to infections.
Coinage and Identity: The Jewish Evidence
Authors: Goodman Martin 
Published: November 2020

AbstractWhen Pompey Conquered Jerusalem in 63 bc, the Jews of Judaea were just one among many peoples in the Levant to fall under Roman sway, but by ad 135, two centuries later, after two great revolts in ad 66–70 and ad 132–5, the Jews had been singled out for exceptional hostility: not only were they forbidden to live in their sacred city and its environs but even the name of Judaea was expunged by Rome from the political map of the region. The question on which I hope to shed some new light in this study is whether this disastrous history was the product only of Roman attitudes and the vicissitudes of international politics, or, at least in part, the product of the political and cultural self-representation of the Jews. The question is not as often posed in this fashion as might be expected, since many ancient historians simply take for granted the peculiar nature of the Jews and their nationalistic hopes and expectations. Such certainty is not wholly warranted, however, since the apparent oddness of the Jews may be something of a mirage if it is, at least in part, a product of the chance survival of so much more evidence about this provincial society than others. Writings by and about Jews in the early Roman empire were preserved in such great quantities not because Jews were especially important either culturally or politically, but because their history was, and is, of religious significance for two great religious traditions which have survived continuously since antiquity, rabbinic Judaism and Christianity. The apparently special nature of the Jews may thus reflect only our special capacity to say more about their cultural horizons and political aspirations than we can about (for instance) those of Gauls or Dacians, who also rebelled against Rome more than once in the early imperial period. One test of the hypothesis that Jews were not in fact all that strange is to try, as an exercise, to examine what would be known about the Jews if all this religious literature had not survived. We would have a very different picture of Jewish history if the only literary sources to survive from antiquity had been those written by pagan Greeks and Romans.
The Nome Coins of Roman Egypt
Authors: Geissen Angelo 
Published: November 2020

AbstractWhen octavian-augustus gained control of Egypt in 30 bc he inherited the administration which had been installed by his Ptolemaic predecessors, but added the Praefectus Aegypti, a Roman Eques, as the new head of the government of Roman Egypt. Augustus retained the Egyptian closed currency system, and struck only bronze denominations (those early in the reign were a continuation of those from towards the end of the reign of Cleopatra VII). Regnal years appeared from year 28 (L KH = 3/2 bc) to year 42 (L MB = ad 12/13). After a gap of about fifty years new debased silver (billon) tetradrachms were issued by Tiberius in his seventh year (L Z = ad 20/1). The tetradrachm, normally called statér in papyri, survived as a denomination, with a decrease in its weight and silver content, until the reform of Diocletian in Egypt in ad 296/7, when the new Latin nummus replaced the old ‘Greek’ system. The bronze coinage reached its peak in the first half of the second century when it consisted of a range of denominations of the drachma and its fractions, and when the output especially of bronze drachmas became very extensive; some last examples of bronze coins appear under Gallienus and Claudius II. The typology of this coinage includes a great variety of individual reverse designs. We find Greek, Roman, and Egyptian topics. As may be expected, Egyptian religious and cultural life is represented in a wide range of images; Roman ideas and types, like images of members of the imperial family, personifications, events in Rome and elsewhere in the empire, are copied or reflected by the Alexandrian mint; finally, Greek types occur in the form of representations of deities of the traditional Graeco-Roman pantheon, or as pictorial scenes from mythology. There are some remarkable series of bronze coins preserved; among them are the so-called nome coins (or coins of the nomes of Roman Egypt). Since pharaonic times Egypt had been divided into forty-two administrative districts, which the Greeks later called nomoí (singular nomós). Classical authors give different numbers of nomes and so do the coins in question.
Phosphopeptide synthesis
Authors: White Peter D 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Protein phosphorylation mediated by protein kinases is the principal mechanism by which eukaryotic cellular processes are modulated by external physiological stimuli. Phosphopeptides are essential tools for the study of this process, serving as model substrates for phosphatases, as antigens for the production of antibodies against phosphorylated proteins, and as reference compounds for determining their physical parameters. The development of methods for the production of phosphopeptides has consequently attracted considerable interest over the last few years, and these endeavours have yielded reliable procedures which have now made their synthesis routine. There are two strategies used currently for the preparation of phosphopeptides: the building block approach, in which pre-formed protected phosphoamino acids are incorporated during the course of chain assembly, and the global phosphorylation method, which involves post-synthetic phosphorylation of serine, threonine, or tyrosine side-chain hydroxyl groups on the solid support. The building block procedure is certainly the more straightforward of the two approaches and has now become, owing to the availability of suitably protected phosphoamino acids, the standard method for the routine production of phosphopeptides. For the side-chain protection of phosphotyrosine in Fmoc/tBu-based solid phase synthesis, methyl, benzyl, t-butyl, dialkylamino, and silyl groups have been employed. Of these, benzyl is most useful as it is the most convenient to introduce and is rapidly removed during the TFA-mediated acidolysis step. Only the mono-benzyl ester, Fmoc-Tyr(PO(OBzl)-OH)-OH 1, is available commercially; the dibenzyl ester offers no practical benefit as it undergoes mono-debenzylation in the course of the piperidine-mediated Fmoc deprotection reaction. Also available commercially is Fmoc-Tyr(PO3H2)-OH 2. This derivative, despite having no phosphate protection, appears to work well, particularly in the synthesis of small- to medium-sized phosphopeptides; although formation of the pyrophosphate 3 can be a problem in peptides containing adjacent Tyr(PO3H2) residues. Phosphate triesters of serine and threonine are not compatible with Fmoc/tBu chemistry as they undergo β-elimination when treated with piperidine, resulting in the formation of dehydroalanine and dehydoaminobutyric acid, respectively For this reason, it was long believed that the building block approach could not be used for preparation of peptides containing these amino acids.
A Preliminary Remark: Water and Friends
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Water is the most miraculous of fluids. As well as being ubiquitous on Earth and essential for life as we know it, it has remarkable properties which at first sight don’t seem to be consistent with its almost laughably simple chemical composition. Each molecule of water consists of a single oxygen atom (O) and two hydrogen atoms (H); its chemical formula is therefore, as just about everyone already knows, H2O. Here is one odd but hugely important anomalous property. A water molecule is only slightly heavier than a methane molecule (CH4; C denotes a carbon atom) and an ammonia molecule (NH3, N denotes a nitrogen atom). However, whereas methane and ammonia are gases, water is a liquid at room temperature. Water is also nearly unique in so far as its solid form, ice, is less dense than its liquid form, so ice floats on water. Icebergs float in water; methanebergs and ammoniabergs would both sink in their respective liquids in an extraterrestrial alien world, rendering their Titanics but not their Nautiluses safer than ours. Another very important property is that water is an excellent solvent, being able to dissolve gases and many solids. One consequence of this ability is that water is a common medium for chemical reactions. Once substances are dissolved in it, their molecules can move reasonably freely, meet other dissolved substances, and react with them. As a result, water will figure large in this book and this preliminary comment is important for understanding what is to come. You need to get to know the H2O molecule intimately, for from it spring all the properties that make water so miraculous and, more prosaically, so useful. The molecule also figures frequently in the illustrations, usually looking like 1, where the red sphere denotes an O atom and the pale grey spheres represent H atoms. Actual molecules are not coloured and are not made up of discrete spheres; maybe 2 is a better depiction, but it is less informative. I shall use the latter representation only when I want to draw your attention to the way that electrons spread over the atoms and bind them together.
Stringing Along: Radical Polymerization
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Perhaps the most striking observable change brought about by chemistry as applied to the everyday world is in the texture of objects. Until the early twentieth century objects were manufactured from metal, wood, and animal and plant fibres. Today, synthetic polymers, in the vernacular ‘plastics’, are ubiquitous and have changed not only the appearance of the world but also its feel. Polymers (from the Greek words for ‘many parts’) are made by stringing together small molecules, the ‘monomers’, into long chains or extensive networks. Thus, polyethylene (less formally polythene) is a chain of linked ethylene molecules, and polystyrene is a chain of linked styrene molecules. In some instances, two or more different types of monomer molecules are used to form the polymer. Thus, one form of nylon is a chain in which the alternating links are of two different compounds. There are two main ways of linking molecules together, one involving radicals (Reaction 12) and the other not. In this section I shall introduce you to radical polymerization and treat the other kind in Reaction 14. Polyethylene and its cousins are made by the radical method, and I start with them. An ethylene molecule (1, formally, ethene) is written H2C=CH2, the double bar denoting a ‘double bond’. This is the first time I have needed to introduce you to a double bond, but it will turn out to be a crucial feature of all the monomers in this section. A double bond consists of two ordinary bonds linking the same two atoms. Because each bond consists of a shared pair of electrons acting as glue between two atoms, a double bond consists of two such pairs. Although a double bond between two C atoms is stronger than a single bond between C atoms, it is not twice as strong because the two pairs of electrons struggle for the best position and tend to push each other out of the ideal location for bonding. One consequence is that a molecule can acquire lower energy by giving up one of the pairs of electrons in the double bond and forming more single bonds with other atoms.
Fasteners: Acid Catalysis
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
I explained the general basis of catalysis in Reaction 11, where I showed that it accelerated a reaction by opening a new, faster route from reactants to products. One of the ways to achieve catalysis in organic chemistry is to carry out a reaction in an acidic or basic (alkaline) environment, and that is what I explore here. In Reaction 27 you will see the enormous importance of processes like this, not just for keeping organic chemists productive but also for keeping us all alive; I give a first glimpse of that later in this section too. Various kinds of acid and base catalysis, sometimes both simultaneously, are going on throughout the cells of our body and ensuring that all the processes of life are maintained; in fact they are the very processes of life. I deal with acid catalysis in this section and base catalysis in the next. The point to remember throughout this section is that an acid is a proton donor (Reaction 2) and a proton is an aggressive, nutty little centre of positive charge. If a proton gets itself attached to a molecule, it can draw electrons towards itself and so expose the nuclei that they formerly surrounded. That is, a proton can cause the appearance of positive charge elsewhere in the molecule where the nuclei shine through the depleted fog of electrons. Because positive charge is attracted to negative charge, one outcome is that a molecule may be converted into a powerful electron-sniffing electrophile (Reaction 16). Another way of looking at the outcome of adding a proton is to note that a C atom with a positive charge is a target for nucleophilic missile attack (Reaction 15). Therefore, if a proton draws the electron cloud away from a nearby atom, then its presence is like a fifth-column agent preparing a target for later attack. Let’s shrink and watch as some acid is added to a molecule that contains a –CO– group, such as acetic acid. The protons provided by the added acid are riding on water molecules, as H3O+ ions, and arrive in the vicinity of the acetic acid molecule.
Understanding Skin Conditions
Authors: Ersser Steven J 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to provide nurses with the knowledge to be able to assess, manage, and care for people with skin conditions in an evidence-based and person-centred way. The chapter will provide a comprehensive overview of the commonest skin diseases and their causes before exploring best practice to assess and help patients to manage skin conditions. Nursing priorities are highlighted throughout, and the nursing management of the symptoms and common health problems associated with skin conditions can be found in Chapters 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, and 28 on skin care and the maintenance of skin hygiene, skin barrier integrity, the prevention of skin breakdown, and wound management, respectively. Skin care is a fundamental area of nursing responsibility. The skin, or integumentary system, is the largest organ of the body and has significant protective and thermoregulatory functions. Skin disease is common, accounting for approximately 24% of GP visits (Schofield et al., 2009). It may have a major psychosocial impact on a person’s quality of life through its influence on appearance, body image, and self-esteem. This chapter introduces you to the common skin diseases that you are likely to encounter when caring for adult patients and outlines the nursing problems that you will need to manage. The cause or aetiology of common skin conditions lies with the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. For example, a child’s eczema is influenced by his or her genotype and his or her exposure to environmental allergens. Within the UK population, 23舑25% have a skin problem at some time in their lives that can benefit from medical care (Schofield et al., 2009). Skin problems are the commonest reason for consulting a GP, with 6% referred for specialist advice. As such, all registered nurses should have the knowledge and skills to manage the common conditions. The commonest skin conditions in the Western hemisphere are chronic inflammatory skin diseases (CISDs), such as eczema. In developing countries, the common conditions are infections and infestations. The quality-of-life impact of CISDs can exceed that for life-threatening conditions such as cancer (Rapp et al., 1999; Kingman, 2005).
Managing Pain
Authors: Allcock Nick , Day Ruth 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This chapter aims to provide you with the knowledge to be able to take an evidence-based approach to the nursing management of people who are experiencing pain. As a practising nurse, pain will be something that many of your patients will experience; however, one individual’s pain may be very different from another person’s. Pain can vary depending on the circumstances in which it is experienced and the individual characteristics of the person experiencing it. Understanding someone’s pain experience is therefore challenging because you cannot see someone’s pain or easily judge how bad it is, what it feels like, or how it affects him or her. This chapter provides you with knowledge and skills to recognize, assess, and manage the patient’s experience of pain effectively with evidence-based strategies. The variability of the experience of pain makes defining pain difficult. Pain is something that we have all experienced at some point in our lives and therefore, through these experiences, we have developed an understanding of what we consider to be pain. One of the most widely accepted definitions is that of the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP), which defines pain as:…An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. (Merskey and Bogduk,1994)…Although this definition is often quoted, the difficulty in defining pain is illustrated by the fact that the IASP added a note (go to http://www.iasp-pain.org/ and search for ‘pain definitions’) to highlight the individual nature of pain and the fact that pain is a sensory experience with an emotional component. The individual nature of pain is also highlighted by another commonly used definition:…Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is and happens whenever he/she says it does. (McCaffery, 1972)…This definition highlights the fact that pain is an individual experience and that measuring pain objectively is difficult. Therefore asking the person and actively listening to the self-report of the experience is the best way in which to understand another person’s pain. A common criticism of McCaffery’s definition is that some people cannot say what they are experiencing.