bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aleppo and Damascus (1117–29)
Authors: Morton Nicholas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 3 Aleppo and Damascus discusses the military high point in the Crusader States’ territorial expansion, a period when they aspired to conquer the major cities of Aleppo and Damascus. On several occasions they came close to achieving this goal but success continually eluded them. This chapter recreates the conflicts fought over these major cities and seeks to provide an explanation for the Franks’ continued failure, particularly given their successes in previous years. Attention is drawn to the sheer scale of the challenge involved in seizing either of these large, fortified metropolises and particular emphasis is placed on the perspective of the local populations towards the enemies who advanced upon their gates.
Saladin and the Battle of Hattin
Authors: Morton Nicholas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 6 Saladin and the Battle of Hattin focuses on the years preceding the collapse of the kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187. It begins by discussing the rising power of the Kurdish ruler Saladin within the Turkish ruled lands of his former master Nur al-Din and in particular the nature of Kurdish/Turkish relations in previous decades. Close attention is then given to the period 1174–87 when the kingdom of Jerusalem frequently came into conflict with Saladin’s armies. Within this discussion, revisions are suggested for several key scholarly orthodoxies. The military abilities of the Frankish commander—later king—Guy of Lusignan are re-evaluated. To date he has often been considered an incompetent fool, but this conviction is reassessed. Likewise, the crucial battle of Hattin—and the decisions taken by Guy in this vital encounter—are reconsidered in the light of new evidence. Thematic discussion is offered here on Frankish and Turkish approaches to fighting major battles; so too is the role of castles in their strategies. There is also a broad discussion on the causes of war in the Near East throughout this period.
Innovation and Cross-cultural Exchange in the Evolution of Near Eastern Warfare
Authors: Morton Nicholas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 7 Innovation and Cross-cultural Exchange in the Evolution of Near Eastern Warfare considers the armies raised by the Near East’s Frankish and Turkish commanders. It examines the troops under their command—their strengths and weaknesses—as well as the tactics employed by both groups. Particular attention is given to some of the most common features of Turkish and Frankish battlefield stratagems, in particular: the Frankish cavalry charge and ‘fighting marches’ as well as the Turks’ use of feigned flight tactics. A key theme considered throughout this chapter is the question of ‘innovation’ and ‘adaptation’—how far were generals in this period willing (or able) to amend their warcraft so as to better combat their foes?
Murder in Mesopotamia
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 6 examines the diffusion of ancient Near Eastern history and its archaeological discovery to popular culture. It focuses on the archaeological murder mysteries of Agatha Christie, one of Britain’s top-selling writers and a popular modernist. An amateur archaeologist, Christie took an active part in excavations in Iraq and Syria for nearly three decades, working with her husband, archaeologist Max Edgar Lucien Mallowan. The chapter considers her domestication of the remote past and role as a mediator between archaeology and Mesopotamian antiquity, and a broad and mainly middle-class readership of her “whodunnits”. It draws on her seven imperial archaeological novels set in the Near East, especially in mandate territories, particularly Murder in Mesopotamia, An Appointment with Death, espionage thriller They Came to Baghdad, and archaeological autobiography Come Tell Me How You Live, as well as on other autobiographical and archival material. The chapter demonstrates Christie’s comparison between archaeology and detective work, the archaeologist and the sleuth, and between deciphering a murder and the interpretation of clues to the past. The chapter considers the impact of archaeological imagery and practices on the classical detective story whose heyday coincided with that of the new culture of antiquity, examining Christie’s adaptation of the overarching image of the Tell, or man-made mound, built of layers of human habitation and destruction, as the unifying image in her writing. At the same time as domesticating antiquity, Christie related it to modern technologies of transport and industrialization.
“Nefertiti Lived Here”
Authors: Melman Billie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 9 anchors the history of the rediscovery of ancient Egypt in the archaeological site of Tell el-Amarna (Tall al-ʿAmarnah), Pharaonic Akhetaten, the city of the 18th Dynasty Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), abandoned after his death, together with his religion and cult of the Sun Disc. Excavated before the First World War by German Egyptologists, Amarna was reclaimed by British Egyptological institutions after it. It had a special hold on the archaeological imagination, on visual culture, as well as on the contemporary political imagination. Amarna and its ruler were associated with modernity in discussions on topics ranging from urban and suburban planning and living, through the modern family, to anti-war politics. Amarna’s ephemeral existence was interpreted as a failure of a utopia and as an imperial crisis at the heyday of Egypt’s 18th Dynasty, analogous to the imperial crisis of the 1930s and to issues of Britain’s imperial defence. The chapter, which focuses on the excavations under the directorship of J. D. L. Pendlebury, follows representations of Amarna in popular and professional publications, as well as the material history of the findings and their circulation which reflected the economics of Egyptology. The chapter traces the exchange of Amarna objects for financial support, by museums in the USA (mainly the Brooklyn Museum) and in Belgium. The materiality and mobility of Amarna objects are connected to their value and uses, and their emotional value for collectors and archaeologists. The chapter also offers a history of the feelings towards ancient Egypt, demonstrated in the writing of archaeological workers like Mary Chubb.
Sidewalk Plants as a Model for Studying Adaptation to Urban Environments
Authors: Cheptou Pierre Olivier , Lambrecht Susan C. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
As a widespread, human-altered habitat, the urban environment represents a potentially interesting model for evolutionary ecologists to study contemporary adaptation to global change. In cities, plants are often relegated to small, isolated patches of soil among a concrete matrix, which establishes a highly fragmented habitat. Small patches around planted trees on pavements (sidewalks) are colonized by wild plants and exemplify a typical, fragmented urban habitat. These patches also represent a geometrical and regular habitat for studying plant adaptation to fragmentation. Based on a 10-year research programme in Mediterranean France (Montpellier), the chapter discusses how an annual weed, Crepis sancta (hawksbeard, Asteraceae), has adapted to urban patches. While the most obvious traits expected to respond to fragmentation are seed dispersal traits, the authors present results showing how urban patches have actually selected for a battery of life-history and ecophysiological traits. The striking result is that adaptation is rapid in urban environments and can be detected in fewer than fifteen generations. The authors’ studies reveal that, beyond the focal sidewalk patchy populations, adaptations to urban environments may be diverse as a result of the variety of habitats within cities. They discuss how adaptation to urban fragmentation can be characterized and how the comparison between rural and urban populations provides a powerful method to study how plants adapt to various facets of global change. Overall, urban environments have proved to be an opportune and relevant ecological model for studying contemporary adaptation.
The Margin of Appreciation
Authors: Zglinski Jan 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the application of the margin of appreciation in free movement cases. It identifies the doctrine’s legal scope and investigates the scenarios in which the European Court of Justice defers to national authorities. A statistical analysis suggests that there is a significant gap between theory and practice, with only a small number of factors influencing the way in which the margin of appreciation is used. The results show how much regulatory autonomy Member States retain in free movement law. They also expose which concerns the Court prioritizes in its jurisprudence and which decisions it feels safe, or forced, to delegate to domestic institutions.
Conclusion
Authors: Zglinski Jan 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the findings of the book and concludes. It explains the implications of deference for free movement law, the internal market, and Member State autonomy as well as for our understanding of judicial behaviour in the EU. The Court of Justice’s growing restraint in parts of its case law will set free capacities for greater activity in others, which may lead to a change of priorities within free movement law but also prompt a shift in attention towards other fields. Although the book identifies long-term developments in free movement adjudication, it, ultimately, remains a snapshot: the internal market is a dynamic process which will continue to evolve.
Brexit and the Challenges of a ‘Post-Sovereign’ Legal Landscape
Authors: Scott Sionaidh Douglas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores issues of law and governance at state level, and at levels above and below the state. It focuses on the European Union as a striking example of supranational law, as well as on the issue of sovereignty in a post-Brexit world. It argues that neither a retreat into a nostalgic Brexiter vision of sovereignty, nor the EU’s ‘new legal order’ can provide conclusive sovereignty and constitutional arrangements, because both systems are ‘unsettled’ (Neil Walker’s term). Neither law, constitutional theory, nor legal theory has settled the issue of sovereignty. EU law overlaps and intermingles with national law. The United Kingdom will lack constitutional stability, whether it remains in the European Union or not.
The Swinging Pendulum of Cultural Heritage Crimes in International Criminal Law
Authors: Carstens Anne-Marie 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Contemporary prosecutions in international criminal tribunals have exposed a long-standing debate over the role of cultural heritage-based crimes in international criminal law. This chapter presents an historical analysis that reveals that the pendulum has swung back and forth with regard to support for including offenses that expressly refer to the destruction or seizure of artistic, historic, and scientific property and of ‘historic monuments’. While cultural heritage destruction was proposed as an offense after the First World War, a pervasive reluctance to include it largely prevailed from the postwar Nuremberg trials until the late 1980s. This chapter attributes this reluctance in part to coinciding developments in cultural property protection that were occurring outside international criminal law, such as the 1954 Hague Convention and the early drafts of the 1948 Genocide Convention. Before the end of the century, though, the pendulum swung back in favor of including the deliberate and unnecessary destruction of certain cultural heritage as a discrete and separate war crime. Both ad hoc international criminal codes and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court reflect lasting recognition of the role that cultural heritage destruction can play in the larger narrative of oppressing, persecuting, and even eradicating targeted collective groups.
The International Court of Justice and Cultural HeritageInternational Cultural Heritage Law Through the Lens of World Court Jurisprudence?
Authors: Gagliani Gabriele 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The International Court of Justice, and its predecessor court, the Permanent Court of International Justice, have dealt with cultural heritage issues in a number of cases extending back over a century. Scholars’ attention to this case law appears fragmentary. This chapter intends to fill this gap and analyze the ICJ jurisprudence involving cultural heritage. Through the analysis of ICJ case law on cultural heritage and cultural heritage-related arguments resorted to by States in ICJ disputes, this chapter wishes to prove the relevance of cultural heritage issues for public international law and the key, often-underestimated role of the ICJ for international law on cultural heritage.
The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and Its Principles Relating to the Recovery and Disposition of Material from Shipwrecks
Authors: Dromgoole Sarah 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is designed to regulate activities directed at heritage assets located in the marine environment. Basic principles and objectives are enunciated in the main text of the treaty and ‘Rules’ setting out internationally accepted archaeological standards are enshrined in the treaty’s Annex. Section I of this chapter summarizes the background to the Convention and its material scope of application before going on to outline its provisions with respect to the recovery and disposition of heritage assets that fall within its scope. Section II draws attention to certain problems that may arise when these provisions are applied to the most prevalent form of underwater cultural heritage: shipwrecks. In the concluding section, some explanation is given for why these issues are not properly catered for by the Convention and some consideration given to their potential impact in the future.
Summary and Conclusion
Authors: Ausloos Jef 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The last chapter of this book summarises the main points of all individual chapters. As such, it tries to frame a more comprehensive answer to the central question throughout the book: i.e. does the right to erasure meaningfully contribute to safeguarding the fundamental right to data protection in the face of online power asymmetries? In traditional lawyer-fashion, the answer is 'yes... but', with the 'but' referring to several potential hurdles that might obstruct an effective exercise of the right to erasure. Importantly, data subject rights can be powerful tools not just to safeguard the fundamental right to data protection, but many other Charter provisions as well. The chapter concludes that the right to data protection not only implies the freedom to proactively control one's personal data, but also safeguards that freedom from being effectively usurped (e.g. by commercial, technological or bureaucratic forces). The GDPR contributes to this aim both by concrete empowerment tools, as well as by turning the processing of personal data into a liability.
Reciprocity and the Warrior Ethos
Authors: Renic Neil C. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter locates the role of reciprocal risk within the warrior ethos. It first outlines that exposure to personal, physical risk has long been regarded as a key element in the ethos-based conception of legitimate violence. It demonstrates this through analysis of ancient warfare, both Greek and Roman, as well as the medieval code of chivalry. As will be further shown, however, the warrior ethos is an evolving framework; one that gives increasing consideration to factors such as restraint and professionalism in determinations of ethical status. This will be confirmed through analysis of premodern, modern, and ‘post-heroic’ warfare. As this chapter will illustrate, the adaptive quality of the warrior ethos is a key explanatory factor in the historical resolution of asymmetry-challenges.
Military Sniping
Authors: Renic Neil C. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the asymmetry-challenge of military sniping. It first provides a historical overview of the practice, beginning with early forms of ranged killing and concluding with the sharpshooting of the First World War. The asymmetric potential of this technology will be detailed, as well as the criticism this advantage attracted. The chapter will then clarify that in contrast to its tension with the warrior ethos, the asymmetry-challenge of sniping did not impact the Just War Tradition to a meaningful degree. The chapter concludes by examining the gradual resolution of the asymmetry-challenge of sniping, focusing on the increasingly significant role of combat responsibility in determinations of ethically legitimate violence.
Borders and Legitimacy
Authors: Eleftheriadis Pavlos 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
How do borders affect political legitimacy? Some ‘globalist’ views believe that borders are morally illegitimate. By contrast, ‘political’ views believe that state borders and political institutions create a morally significant distinction between fellow citizens and others. This chapter argues that shared political agency within self-governing states has moral value, such that ignoring it is an act of ethically unacceptable paternalism. An independent political community that meets basic tests of constitutional justice is a ‘normative people’ with its own moral standing, which creates moral duties of respect. States and their borders play a unique role for political legitimacy: they create stable relations of reciprocity and equal citizenship that can only exist within the framework of a political community organized under the rule of a lawful jurisdiction.
Liberty
Authors: Eleftheriadis Pavlos 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The principle of liberty connects member states directly with ordinary people. It lifts borders for the benefit of European citizens and others. Before the European Union was created, European states assumed that persons were either national citizens or complete strangers. A state was free to discriminate against all non-citizens. ‘European liberty’ eliminates those disabilities by removing all barriers as well as any discrimination for those who move from one member state to another. This has a uniquely liberating effect, since it enables persons to move, reside, study and work throughout the territory of the European Union without administrative obstacles or fear of a change in circumstances. The principle of liberty for all citizens of the member states is one of the most significant novelties of the European Union.
Citizen Support for Democratic and Autocratic Regimes
Authors: Mauk Marlene 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The book takes a political-culture perspective on the struggle between democracy and autocracy by examining how these regimes fare in the eyes of their citizens. Taking a globally comparative approach, it studies both the levels as well as the individual- and system-level sources of political support in democracies and autocracies worldwide. The book develops an explanatory model of regime support which includes both individual- and system-level determinants and specifies not only the general causal mechanisms and pathways through which these determinants affect regime support but also spells out how these effects might vary between the two types of regimes. It empirically tests its propositions using multi-level structural equation modeling and a comprehensive dataset that combines recent public-opinion data from six cross-national survey projects with aggregate data from various sources for more than one hundred democracies and autocracies. It finds that both the levels and individual-level sources of regime support are the same in democracies and autocracies, but that the way in which system-level context factors affect regime support differs between the two types of regimes. The results enhance our understanding of what determines citizen support for fundamentally different regimes, help assessing the present and future stability of democracies and autocracies, and provide clear policy implications to those interested in strengthening support for democracy and/or fostering democratic change in autocracies.
Sources of regime support in democracies and autocracies
Authors: Mauk Marlene 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter develops an explanatory model of regime support applicable to both democracies and autocracies. The explanatory model includes both individual- and system-level determinants and explicates how these interact in shaping regime support. On the individual-level, it integrates culturalist and institutionalist explanations of support to arrive at five central sources of regime support: political value orientations, societal value orientations, incumbent support, democratic performance evaluations, and systemic performance evaluations. On the system level, it draws on social psychological theories of attitude formation and identifies four sources of regime support: macro-cultural context, macro-political context, actual systemic performance, and level of socioeconomic modernization. Recurring to the fundamental differences between democracies and autocracies, the explanatory model expects the individual-level processes forming regime support to be universal across regime types, but effects of system-level sources of regime support to vary between democracies and autocracies, due to indoctrination and propaganda distorting the attitude-formation process in autocracies.
Conclusion
Authors: Mauk Marlene 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This final chapter provides a conclusion to the book. It summarizes the theoretical argument and core empirical findings of the book and points out how these contribute to the literature on regime support and its sources. Reviewing the implications of the study’s findings, it revisits the initial question of how stable the world’s democratic and autocratic regimes are likely to be. It also derives policy recommendations for those interested in fostering democratization and/or democratic consolidation. Finally, it suggests directions for future research wishing to build on the present work to take.
Methodology and the Nature of Law
Authors: Himma Kenneth Einar 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Building on the author’s analysis in Morality and the Nature of Law (OUP 2019), Chapter 2 explicates and defends the philosophical methodology deployed throughout the book. It argues, to begin, that a conceptual theory of a thing can be properly grounded only in an analysis of the canons of ordinary usage governing the associated concept-term together with the assumptions about the metaphysical nature of the thing to which the concept-term refers that help to determine the content of these canons. It goes on to explain how conceptual analysis, thus conceived, can tell us something about the objective world despite being wholly grounded in intersubjective conventions. The chapter ends by describing a two-step methodology for explicating the metaphysical nature of a thing as it is determined by the canons governing the use of the associated concept-term.