bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dissociative AnestheticsAngel: Dust to Special K to Ketamine Clinics
Authors: Winter Jerrold 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
We will consider just two drugs in this chapter. They are phencyclidine and ketamine. Both are widely used as anesthetic agents, ketamine in humans and phencyclidine in animals. The acronym for phencyclidine that we will use, PCP, comes from its chemical name 1-(1-PhenylCyclohexyl)-Piperidine. In addition to their medical use, both ketamine and PCP have gained roles as recreational drugs or, as others would put it, drugs of abuse. While sharing some of the properties of the depressant drugs we met in the preceding chapter, PCP and ketamine are pharmacologically and therapeutically unique. On March 26, 1956, V. Harold Maddox, a chemist working at the research laboratories of Parke, Davis & Company in Detroit, synthesized a novel compound later to be called phencyclidine. PCP was submitted in the autumn of that year for testing in animals. Pigeons, mice, rats, Guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, cats, and monkeys all had their turn. Depending on the dose employed and the species in which it was tested, the effects ranged from excitement and stimulation to taming and quieting. Analgesia, that is, absence of pain without loss of consciousness, and anesthesia were common but, unlike the depressant drugs we met in the previous chapter, the anesthesia was not accompanied by depression of breathing. Studies in human subjects began in May 1957 at the Department of Anesthesiology of the Detroit Receiving Hospital. By this time, PCP had been given the trade name Sernyl. The drug initially was administered to seven volunteers. As had previously been noted in animals, there was no suppression of breathing or disturbance of cardiac rhythm, highly desirable qualities in an anesthetic agent. The investigators then moved on to 64 patients ranging in age from 18 to 78, 47 of whom were women, who were to undergo various surgical procedures, including breast biopsy, dilation and curettage, skin grafts, hysterectomy, and hernia repair. Immediately after the intravenous administration of PCP, there was what the anesthesiologists called “a profound state of analgesia” permitting surgical incision and, in many cases, completion of the operation without the use of other drugs.
Shepherdson Revisited
Authors: Smullyan Raymond M 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Theorems A and B of the last chapter were proved using previous results about generativity, Kleene pairs, complete effective inseparability, and double generativity. Yet the two theorems made no mention of these notions; they referred only to the notions of universality, double universality and semi-double universality. [These three notions, by the way, unlike the four notions mentioned above, were denned without reference to any indexing; they are what we would call index-free.] Is it not possible to give more direct proofs of Theorems A and B that do not require all the antecedent machinery of Chapters 4 and 5? We are about to show that it is possible; we will simply transfer Shepherdson’s arguments about first-order systems to recursion theory itself. We shall prove some “recursive function-theoretic” analogues of Shepherdson’s theorems which will provide new proofs of Theorems A and B (in fact, a strengthening of Theorem A will result).
Symmetric and Double Recursion Theorems
Authors: Smullyan Raymond M 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
We have proved that every completely E.I. pair of r.e. sets is D.U. In the next chapter we will show the stronger result that every E.I. pair of r.e. sets is D.U. The proof of this is based on the double recursion theorem of this chapter. Our original formulation of the double recursion theorem (T.F.S.) required the recursive pairing function J(x,y), not only for its proof, but for its very statement. In this chapter, we give an improved version whose statement and proof are independent of J, K and L. In Part III of this chapter, we compare our new version with the original J, K and L version and show that they are easily interderivable. §1. The Weak Double Recursion Theorem. Consider two r.e. relations, M1(x,y, z) and M2(x, y, z). For any number b, the relation M1(x,y,b) is an r.e. relation between x and y, and so by the weak recursion theorem (Theorem 1, Chapter 8), there is a number a such that ωa = x : M1(x, a, b). Likewise, for any number a, the relation M2(x,a,y) is an r.e. relation between x and y, and so there is a number b such that ωb, = x : M2(x,a,b). Our next theorem tells us that we can choose a and b so that both these conditions hold simultaneously.
Rheology of Miscible Polymer Blends
Authors: Han Chang Dae 
Published: November 2020

AbstractBroadly classified, there are three types of polymer blends, namely, (1) miscible polymer blends, (2) immiscible polymer blends, and (3) partially miscible polymer blends. There are many different experimental methods that can be used to investigate the miscibility of polymer blends, such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), dielectric measurement, cloud point measurement, microscopy, light scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering, small-angle neutron scattering, fluorescence technique, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Each of these experimental methods can only probe the homogeneity (or heterogeneity) in a polymer blend at a certain scale range. Thus, the determination of the miscibility in polymer blends depends on the resolution limit of the experimental method(s) employed. For instance, DSC and DMTA have frequently been used to determine the miscibility in polymer blends by determining glass transition temperature Tg. When a single Tg value is observed in a polymer blend, the blend can be considered miscible. However, there is a general consensus among researchers that such an experimental criterion, while very useful, cannot guarantee that a polymer blend is miscible on a segmental level. Therefore, a serious question may be raised as to whether a polymer pair can be regarded as being miscible on the segmental level (say, less than approximately 5 nm). It has been reported that DMTA can resolve the size of domains (or separated phases) on the order of 5–10 nm (Molnar and Eisenberg 1992) and DSC is not as sensitive as DMTA for determining the Tg of a polymer blend (Stoelting et al. 1970). In the use of DSC to investigate the miscibility of polymer blends, one often encounters the situation where a very broad (say, 40–60 ◦C) single glass transition appears for certain blend compositions, such as polystyrene/poly(α-methyl styrene) (PS/PαMS) blends (Kim et al. 1998; Lin and Roe 1988; Saeki 1983) and polystyrene/poly(vinyl methyl ether) (PS/PVME) blends (Kim et al. 1998; Schneider and Wirbser 1990; Schneider et al. 1990). Under such circumstances, it is not clear how an unambiguous, single value of Tg can be read off from a DSC thermogram.
Bombe and Spider (1940)
Authors: Turing Alan 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This material forms chapter 6 of Turing’s Treatise on the Enigma (known at Bletchley Park as ‘Prof ’s Book’). The text has been prepared by Ralph Erskine, Philip Marks and Frode weierud from the two known surviving copies of Turing’s original typescript. The pagination of Turing’s typescript indicates that the chapter may possibly have continued for a further four pages; however, these pages are not to be found in either of the archived copies. When one has asteckered Enigma to deal with one’s problems naturally divide themselves into what is to be done to find the Stecker, and what is to be done afterwards. Unless the indicating system is very well designed there will be no problem at all when the Stecker have been found, and evenwith a good indicating system we shall be able to apply the methods of the last two chapters [of Turing’s Treatise] to the individual messages. The obvious example of a good indicating system is the German Naval Enigma cipher, which is dealt with in Chapter VII [of the Treatise]. This chapter is devoted to methods of finding the Stecker. Naturally enough we never find the Stecker without at the same time finding much other information. The most obvious kind of data for finding the keys is a ‘crib’, i.e. a message of which a part of the decode is known. fie shall mostly assume that our data is a crib, although actually it may be a number of constatations arising from another source, e.g. a number of CILLIs or a Naval Banburismus. It is sometimes possible to find the keys by pencil and paper methods when the number of Stecker is not very great, e.g. 5 to 7. One would have to hope that several of the constatations of the crib were ‘unsteckered’. The best chance would be if the same pair of letters occurred twice in the crib (a ‘half-bombe’). In this case, assuming 6 or 7 Stecker there would be a 25% chance of both constatations being unsteckered. The positions at which these constatations occurred could be found by means of the Turing sheets (if there were three wheels) or the Jeffreys sheets.
Local anaesthesia for children
Authors: Meechan J G , Jackson G 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
A child’s future perceptions and expectations are likely to be conditioned by early experiences of dental treatment. Just under half of all children report low to moderate general dental anxiety, and 10–20% report high levels of dental anxiety. Montiero et al. (2014) indicate that the prevalence of needle phobia may be as high as 19% in 4- to 6-year-olds. Davidovich et al. (2015) reflected that, for general practitioners and specialists alike, Local anaesthetic (LA) injection for an anxious child was the most stressful procedure regardless of the operator’s age, gender, or years of professional experience. Despite impressive reductions in caries in children in recent years, there still exists a social gradient with inequalities in experience of dental disease, and there remains a significant cohort of children for whom extractions and restoration of teeth are necessary. Aside from emerging restorative strategies that do not require LA (e.g. atraumatic restorative technique or placement of preformed metal crowns using the Hall technique), effective and acceptable delivery of LA remains an important tool to enable successful operative dental treatment to be carried out comfortably for child patients. Effective surface anaesthesia prior to injection is very important as a child’s initial experience of LA techniques may influence their future perceptions and help in establishing trust. Cooling tissues prior to injection has been described but is rarely used, and surface anaesthesia is generally achieved with intra-oral topical agents. Although the main use of topical agents is as a pre-injection treatment, they have been used as the sole means of anaesthesia for some procedures including the extraction of mobile primary teeth. It is possible to achieve a depth of 2–3mm of anaesthesia if topical agents are used correctly: • the area of application should be dried • topical anaesthetic agent should be applied over a limited area • the anaesthetic agent should be applied for sufficient time. In the UK 5% lidocaine (lignocaine) and 18–20% (17.9%) benzocaine gels are the most commonly used agents. Benzocaine topical anaesthetic gel is not recommended for use on children under 2 years old because of an increased risk of methaemoglobinaemia.
Mock exam
Authors: Whymark Caroline , Junkin Ross , Ramsey Judith 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
To pass the written part of the FRCA, candidates must achieve the pass mark for the SAQs and the MCQ/ SBA papers combined. Therefore, doing particularly well in one paper, or one area, can compensate for another in which you have scored poorly. The 30 SBA questions is an area that candidates commonly find difficult. There is a feeling these questions are unjust and that it is impossible to second guess the examiners and choose the correct option. They feel further punished that four marks are awarded for each correct answer or lost for an incorrect choice. While this reflects the fact that four answers have been eliminated in the course of choosing the best answer, candidates often state it is an unfair ‘all or nothing’ way to mark these questions. They can commonly narrow the choice down to a final two options but report finding it difficult to then choose between them. They receive no credit having successfully eliminated three of the options and cite the SBA element as being the reason they failed the examination. These comments however are not supported by examination success data published by the RCoA. The pass rate for this paper was consistent at around 70% before and after the introduction of the SBA component in September 2011. We believe the concepts behind the SBAs are misunderstood by many. When asked to write a SBA question, candidates inevitably produce a five- part A to E multiple choice question but with only one correct answer. The finer points of SBA questions are lost among quickly written revision aids containing what the authors believe to be examination standard questions, when often they are not. Further, because SBAs are a relatively new element to the FRCA there is a limited bank of questions, and a highly restricted number in the public domain. Both these factors make practice of these questions difficult. Part of exam success is practice of the technique and question type in advance. We believe the practice of SBAs is an area to which candidates do not give enough attention.
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Gary 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
We live in an incredible period in history. The Computer Revolution may be even more life-changing than the Industrial Revolution. We can do things with computers that could never be done before, and computers can do things for us that never could be done before. I am addicted to computers and you may be, too. But we shouldn’t let our love of computers cloud our recognition of their limitations. Yes, computers know more facts than we do. Yes, computers have better memories than we do. Yes, computers can make calculations faster than we can. Yes, computers do not get tired like we do. Robots far surpass humans at repetitive, monotonous tasks like tightening bolts, planting seeds, searching legal documents, and accepting bank deposits and dispensing cash. Computers can recognize objects, draw pictures, drive cars. You can surely think of a dozen other impressive— even superhuman—computer feats. It is tempting to think that because computers can do some things extremely well, they must be highly intelligent. However, being useful for specific tasks is very different from having a general intelligence that applies the lessons learned and skills required for one task to more complex tasks or to completely different tasks. With true intelligence, skills are portable. Computers are great and getting better, but computer algorithms are still designed to have the very narrow capabilities needed to perform well-defined chores, not the general intelligence needed to deal with unfamiliar situations by assessing what is happening, why it is happening, and what the consequences are of taking action. Humans can apply general knowledge to specific situations and use specific situations to improve their general knowledge. Computers today cannot. Artificial intelligence is not at all like the real intelligence that comes from human brains. Computers do not know what words mean because computers do not experience the world the way we do. They do not even know what the real world is. Computers do not have the common sense or wisdom that humans accumulate by living life. Computers cannot formulate persuasive theories. Computers cannot do inductive reasoning or make long-run plans.
Anatomy of the head and neck
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Both are routine questions encountered by students during their time in dental school, and both require sound knowledge of the anatomy of the head and neck. From wrestling with basic anatomical concepts and planes to tracing the branches of the external carotid artery, anatomy will underpin the rest of your practising career and is a fundamental building block on which all other knowledge can be laid down. Basic ana­tomical knowledge begins with the osseous structures of the head and neck, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves. Interpretation of this know­ledge is required for functional and clinical applications, which is a daily occurrence for practising dentists and dental care professionals. Such a large subject is difficult to assess in a small number of questions, but this chapter touches on aspects of developmental embryology and tooth formation, along with functional anatomical questions designed to test the theory behind some common dental procedures and clinical presen­tations. Undoubtedly, excellent knowledge of the innervation and blood supply to the teeth and surrounding structures will be most beneficial for dentists and dental care professionals during their practising careers. Key topics include: ● Anatomical planes and terminology ● Craniofacial development ● The musculoskeletal system, including ossification and bony remodelling ● Innervation and vascular supply to the head and oral cavity, including the cranial nerves ● Structure of the eye, ear, nasal cavity, and oral cavity ● Odontogenesis ● Histology of the oral cavity.
An Introduction to OSCE Assessments
Authors: Creed Fiona 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
It is likely that at some stage throughout your nursing programme you may be asked to attend a simulated examination. This often causes many students to panic a little as they are often unfamiliar with this type of examination and often unsure what this form of assessment involves and what they should expect. Simulated assessments are occurring with increasing frequency in many health care courses. They usually involve undertaking formal clinical examinations related to clinical skills outside of the clinical practice area. These examinations are referred to in a number of ways including OSCEs, university clinical assessments and clinical assessments. The key element common to all these assessments is that they use simulation in a non-clinical environment. That is to say the assessment occurs outside of a clinical environment—usually in a clinical skills room at your university. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to help you to understand: ● What is a simulated examination, ● The background to simulated examinations, ● Why simulated examinations have been developed, ● The difference between formative and summative simulated examinations, ● Standardization of simulated examination, ● Aspects of skills assessed using simulation, ● The validity and reliability of simulated examinations. Within health care, several terms are used when discussing examinations using simulation and this may appear confusing. Therefore, to ensure consistency and to simplify discussion the term OSCE will be used throughout the book. A simulated examination or simulated assessment is one that is examined using a simulated patient and/or a simulated situation. Assessors are provided with objective marking criteria and these criteria are used to judge the student’s performance (Jones et al. 2010). Students are normally allocated a set amount of time to complete the assessment and they are provided with feedback in relation to their assessment. This is referred to as an OSCE (Objective Structured Clinical Examination) in several universities, although other terms may be used. Whilst there are considerable variations, in the use of simulated examinations in health care it is important to acknowledge that common features exist.
Soames' & Southam's Oral Pathology
Authors: Robinson Max , Hunter Keith , Pemberton Michael , Sloan Philip 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
A sound understanding of clinical oral pathology is essential if a dental clinician is to navigate successfully through clinical guidelines, make timely referrals to specialists, and provide good care for patients. This new edition of Soames' & Southam's Oral Pathology provides a clear and friendly guide for students, practitioners, and the whole dental team. Thoroughly updated for today's clinical practice, this textbook covers 'must-know' oral pathology and integrates key aspects of oral medicine. It begins by explaining the principles of clinical assessment, the synthesis of a differential diagnosis, and the selection of further investigations including laboratory tests. Ten chapters bring this theory to life by looking at the clinical and pathological features of a wide range of common oral diseases including oral cancer, salivary gland disorders, and diseases of the jaws. Two new chapters address skin diseases affecting the oro-facial region and neck lumps. A final chapter highlights the importance of clinical oral pathology in the context of systemic human disease. New radiology content includes examples of cross-sectional imaging. Photomicrographs have been replaced with carefully selected images to illustrate key pathological features. Each chapter includes key points boxes and tables to aid learning. Written by experts in both oral pathology and oral medicine, this new edition is a must-have for dentistry students, and those working in the field, providing current and trustworthy information.
A Sociology of Knowledge on Humanitarianism and Displacement
Authors: Carpi Estella , Fiddian-Qasmiyeh Elena 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
In this chapter, the authors endeavor to build a sociology of knowledge of studies conducted on humanitarianism and war-induced displacement in the Middle East region, considering the cases of Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, and Turkey in particular. A comparative analysis suggests that similarities and differences across the literature are not always motivated by specific forms of state governmentality. In this framework, postcolonial history seems to provide partial explanations. As a result, the displacement and humanitarianism literature need to transcend the state paradigm and focus on a larger variety of social and political factors. While most scholars have examined the work of the United Nations and of international institutions in the region, the authors highlight the need to learn from multilingual literature, especially that produced in the Global South, and from a deeper investigation of the principles and modalities of crisis management developed by actors from the Global South.
India and Peaceful Change
Authors: Pardesi Manjeet S. 
Published: November 2020

AbstractIn spite of India’s self-conception as a uniquely peaceful state and civilization, it has been involved in a number of wars and militarized crises. Nevertheless, the Indian leadership has genuinely aspired to the pursuit of peaceful change in international politics. This chapter explains why India has pursued various peaceful strategies at different points in its modern history. More specifically, five strategies of peaceful change pursued by India are analyzed here: India’s decolonization and independence, the pursuit of the policy of Panchsheel or the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence with China, the advocacy of nuclear disarmament, India’s “Look/Act East” strategy, and region transformation through the idea of the “Indo-Pacific.” Two limited generalizations can be drawn from the Indian experience. First, peaceful change needs to be understood as a process as opposed to an event, as both India and the targets of such peaceful strategies mutually respond to the other side’s endeavors (while also pursuing other goals in world politics). Second, the process of peaceful change requires that the momentum of peaceful strategies be maintained over time as peaceful change emerges out of an interaction of fortuitous structural factors and conscious agential strategies. The chapter concludes by noting that rising Hindu nationalism will create challenges for any Indian attempt at peaceful change due to the links between domestic politics and foreign policy.