bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Thomas Dawes in Aleppo
Authors: Mills Simon 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Chapter 8 discusses the chaplain Thomas Dawes’s letters from Aleppo in the 1760s. It uses Dawes’s career to reflect again on the book’s central themes. The first section describes Dawes’s work on behalf of the English Hebraist Benjamin Kennicott, and his attempt to view the renowned ‘Aleppo Codex’. It then sets out a series of arguments explaining why English manuscript collecting in Aleppo had tailed off since the days of Pococke and Huntington in the 1630s and 1670s. The shift of British commercial and imperial interests to the Indian subcontinent had been mirrored by a reorientation of scholarly concerns. The chapter then describes Dawes’s meeting with the German traveller Carsten Niebuhr, and explains what had happened to the interest in antiquities since Maundrell was in Aleppo at the end of the seventeenth century. The emergence of professional, state-sponsored antiquarian travellers, such as Niebuhr, had displaced the older more ad hoc collaboration between the chaplain and scholars at home. Although individual erudite travellers would continue to pass through Aleppo, the commerce of knowledge had come to an end.
Ordering Empire and Democracy, 1902–1921
Authors: Harper Tobias 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the creation of new orders at the beginning of the twentieth century, which was the culmination of a prolonged period of “unprecedented honorific inventiveness” starting in the late nineteenth century. In Britain the new Order of the British Empire was branded the “Order of Britain’s Democracy” in recognition of the fact that it extended far deeper into non-elite classes in British society than any previous honour. Between 1917 and 1921 more than 20,000 people in Britain and throughout the British Empire were added to this new Order. This was an unprecedented number, orders of magnitude larger than honours lists in previous years. While the new Order was successful in reaching a wider, more middle-class audience than the honours system before the war, which was socially narrow, there was a substantial backlash to what was widely perceived by elites to be an excessive (and diluting) opening-up of the “fount of honour.” This backlash was connected to political controversies about the sale of honours that eventually helped bring about Lloyd George’s downfall. This chapter also contains a brief description of all the components of the British honours system at the beginning of the twentieth century.
New World Orders
Authors: Harper Tobias 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the most immediate and visible change of the post-war era: decolonization and the slow disintegration of the underlying imperial structure of the honours system. In India and Pakistan nationalist movements agreed that the honours system was an undesirable relic of empire, even as British officials tried to make the new states keep it in 1947 in order to maintain connections and power in the subcontinent. The process of decolonization of honours was slower, more partial, and complex in other parts of the world, reflecting complicated balances between loyalty and pragmatism. At the same time, within Britain a wide variety of people—including members of the royal family, Colonial, Dominions, and Commonwealth Office officials, honours recipients, newspaper columnists, and politicians—criticized the growing incongruity of the name of the Order of the British Empire. However, the administrators of the honours system staunchly defended the growing anachronism. In order to make the honours system work for Britain, the state and the public had to forget that the Order of the British Empire was not just of, but for, the empire.
Introduction: Defining Moments in the British-Irish Relationship
Authors: Coakley John , Todd Jennifer 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
This chapter traces the history of the relationship between the two communities in Northern Ireland and the tension between the British and Irish governments within which it was traditionally embedded. It documents the process of incremental—and sometimes radical—societal change that has transformed the nature of the conflict, as the overwhelmingly dominant position of the unionist community has been replaced by a more evenly balanced relationship. Associated with this has been the evolution of institutional machinery designed to facilitate conflict resolution and the emergence of effective channels of communication between British and Irish elites. The chapter describes the manner in which the testimonies of these elites were collected as part of research on the process of negotiation of peace in Northern Ireland. It assesses the value of elite interviews and witness seminars as significant source material for social science research.
The Sunningdale Agreement, 1973
Authors: Coakley John , Todd Jennifer 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
In an early ambitious attempt to resolve the Northern Ireland conflict in 1973–4, there emerged two key proposals that would radically change the form of Northern Ireland political institutions: power-sharing (rather than majority rule), and institutionalized links with the Republic of Ireland (rather than a ‘hard’ border). This chapter, centred on a witness seminar where several of those involved recorded their memories and interpretations, explores the thinking of officials—especially on the Irish side—as it evolved in the early 1970s. It also documents their changing views as they attempted to reach new new modes of accommodation with their British counterparts. It examines the process by which an innovative package was agreed in Sunningdale, England, in December 1973, and follows the challenging process of implementation of this package. This initiative was ultimately unsuccessful, as the new institutions collapsed in the face of determined unionist opposition in May 1974.
The Downing Street Declaration and Framework Documents, 1993–1995
Authors: Coakley John , Todd Jennifer 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The Downing Street Declaration of 1993 and the Framework Documents of 1995 mark a new direction in British–Irish policy. After the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985, the Irish government had gained a formal voice in the internal affairs of Northern Ireland, but the IRA campaign continued. At the end of the 1980s, a new initiative was launched: an effort to persuade Sinn Féin and the IRA to move to a purely political path. Spearheaded by nationalist leader John Hume, this took the form of successive redrafting of a statement drawn up initially by Hume following his discussions with Gerry Adams. In the resulting Downing Street Declaration of 1993, the two governments agreed to facilitate Irish unity should this be the wish of a majority in Northern Ireland. This was followed—after several months—by an IRA and then a loyalist ceasefire, and it was amplified by the Framework Documents of 1995, which outline a constitutional blueprint for a future settlement. In the witness seminar used to provide an insight into this process, British and Irish officials recalled in detail the painful redrafting and consultation processes that led ultimately to agreement between the governments and acceptance by the parties.
The Good Friday Agreement, 1998: Implementation
Authors: Coakley John , Todd Jennifer 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Although the Good Friday Agreement dates from April 1998, its implementation was beset by crises over the formation of an executive, decommissioning of paramilitary arms, and policing reform. It was not until December 1999 that the institutions for which it made provision came into being. Even after that, the Assembly and executive continued to be subject to destabilizing pressures, and ultimately collapsed in 2002. It was only following the St Andrews Agreement of 2006 (which made some minor changes to the provisions agreed in 1998) that the Democratic Unionist Party agreed to restoration of the power-sharing executive and a new and more stable phase of power-sharing government ensued. The witness seminar that is at the core of this chapter discusses the role of civil servants in this process, focussing on the reorganization of government departments, the creation of North–South bodies, and the everyday mechanisms of government in the highly sensitive political context which followed the Good Friday Agreement, where delays in decommissioning and demilitarization and reform of policing were threatening political progress. Two additional interviews describe governmental thinking and strategies to resolve the outstanding issues move to a restoration of the institutions in the run-up to the St Andrews Agreement.
Conclusion
Authors: Ortino Federico 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
This section highlights the present study’s key findings. First, from the very beginning, protections afforded to foreign investments by modern investment treaties have been exceptionally broad, including guarantees vis-à-vis the host State’s (a) breach of investment contracts and regulatory change; (b) substantial deprivation of the value of the foreign investment; and (c) unreasonable conduct. Second, while a growing number of investment tribunals as well as new investment treaties have started to rein in such broad protections, the evolution of key investment treaty provisions has been (and in many ways still is) marred by inconsistency and uncertainty. Lastly, while there appears to be a growing preference in arbitral practice (as well as treaty practice) for reasonableness-based guarantees, there is still no clarity with regard to the specific reasonableness test that should be employed in order to review the lawfulness of the host State conduct under an investment treaty.
Multinational Military Operations and the Geographical Scope of the Laws of Armed Conflict in Non-International Armed Conflict
Authors: Schöberl Katja 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The chapter delivers a detailed analysis of the geographical scope of application of the laws of armed conflict in non-international armed conflict. Particular attention is devoted to the challenges raised by multinational military operations. It addresses both the internal geographical scope (i.e. the applicability of IHL within a country to which multinational military operations may be deployed) and the external geographical scope (i.e. the applicability of IHL outside the territory of a state involved in armed conflict). The chapter thus discusses, for example, whether the laws of armed conflict are also applicable within the territories of (troop) contributing states and of states serving as an operational basis.
The Temporal Scope of the Laws of Armed Conflict in Multinational Military Operations
Authors: Schaller Christian 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The chapter explores the temporal scope of the law of armed conflict in multinational military operations. In particular, it is discussed under which conditions armed conflicts begin and terminate as a matter of international humanitarian law (IHL). Asymmetric conflict structures, fluctuating levels of violence, and the involvement of a multitude of state and non-state actors who enter and leave the battlefield at different stages during the hostilities make it especially difficult to determine the end of an armed conflict. Often, periods of intense fighting alternate with periods of relative calm. It is therefore argued that two requirements should be satisfied before an armed conflict within the meaning of IHL ought to be considered over: the situation must fall below a certain qualitative threshold separating the armed conflict from the post-conflict phase; and the threshold must be crossed with a degree of stability and permanence.
The Legal Interoperability of the Laws of Armed Conflict
Authors: Newton Michael 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The chapter considers some of the pragmatic aspects of engaging in multinational military operations in relation to cooperation among the various participating states. These aspects include differing treaty obligations, diverging interpretations of shared norms, or different command structures. Coalition partners deployed to pursue such larger goals must manage operational friction in order to achieve the necessary cohesion. State practice demonstrates discrepancies between partners over what international law obligations apply to forces in the field, which in turn produces disagreements about the conditions those duties entail. At the same time, the modern law of armed conflict provides a sort of centripetal force providing essential cohesion to modern multinational coalitions. It provides normative regularity constraining the class of persons against whom violence may be lawfully applied.
An Exercise in Defragmentation
Authors: von Arnauld Andreas 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The chapter deals with the Grand Chamber judgment in Hassan v UK. With this judgment, which focused on the multinational forces operating in Iraq under unified command in 2003, the European Court of Human Rights has presented a landmark decision with flaws. While eventually unconvincing in its approach to derogations from Convention obligations under Article 15 ECHR, the Court has boldly freed itself of the constraints of the overly abstract and largely unworkable lex specialis standard and—as far as Europe is concerned—has paved the way to consolidate its role as the main driver of further substantive convergence. The author presents a rigorous analysis of the Hassan case and on this basis shows whether and how the Grand Chamber’s findings will influence the global debate regarding the interplay of IHRL and LOAC in the future.
European Partners in Multinational Military Operations—Extended Legal Restraints
Authors: Altwicker Tilmann 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has developed a rights-based conception of precautions that has implications both for law enforcement and military operations alike. In the military context, the rights-based conception bears some resemblance with the IHL concept of precautions in and against the effects of attacks. The ECtHR’s builds its conception of precautions on a wide interpretation of the right to life contained in Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). In human rights doctrine, precautions in attack can be addressed as positive obligations relating to organization and procedure, precautions against the effects of attack can be classified as positive obligations to protect. In contrast to its IHL counterpart, the rights-based conception of precautions does not only entail operational obligations, but also legislative obligations. A rights-based conception of precautions can be of particular value especially with regard to precautions against the effects of attacks in non-international armed conflict. The ECtHR is, however, well-advised to develop its rights-based conception of precautions in close alignment with its IHL counterpart.
UN Security Council Resolutions as a Legal Framework for Multinational Military Operations
Authors: Hesse Pia 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The chapter examines UN Security Council resolutions as a legal framework for multinational military operations. The author argues that obligations that derive from Security Council mandates may put constraints on how force is used. However, she also underlines that the Security Council sometimes even takes decisions that deviate from IHL rules. Whereas in very few instances concerns were raised that the Security Council authorized military enforcement action that allowed going beyond what is permitted under IHL, most Council resolutions deviating from IHL have a narrowing rather than a broadening effect. Against the background that the national transformation acts that implement Security Council enforcement measures could be challenged before domestic courts, questions arise whether the safeguards included in relation to these concrete provisions are adequate to accommodate potential infringements of rights of individuals affected by the implementation act.
Multinational Military Operations at Sea
Authors: Petrig Anna 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Multinational military operations have extended to the sea. These operations mirror the changing maritime security landscape wherein transnational crime has become one of the most prominent security threats. With this, the traditional war-related role of navies has slowly but steadily been supplanted by a new function: policing the sea. This new role is more often than not carried out by navies working together, either as naval coalitions or as highly integrated naval forces of regional organizations. This chapter describes the ‘legal pluriverse’ in which such multinational military operations at sea take place. It first asserts that such operations are not ‘warfare lite’, but rather determined by peace time law. It then proceeds to take stock of the rules authorizing multinational forces and contributing states to enforce the law at sea. In a last step, the legal bases imposing strictures on the exercise of these enforcement powers are carved out. The chapter concludes that the legal framework governing enforcement jurisdiction at sea is arguably the epitome of a ‘legal pluriverse’, yet the powers are more clearly defined than the strictures attaching to their exercise.
Receiving States, Sending States, and the Impact of Their Domestic Laws
Authors: Sari Aurel 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The chapter explores the exercise of jurisdiction in the context of multinational military operations from the perspective of states that send their forces abroad and states that receive them within their territory. Sending states and receiving states may both claim to be competent under international law to regulate the conduct of military contingents in certain matters, based on the territorial principle and the organic jurisdiction principle, respectively. This overlap of competence may lead sending states and receiving states to exercise their authority in relation to the same subject matter. A number of principles, legal regimes, and instruments are available in international law to resolve the problems that this concurrent exercise of jurisdiction presents. The chapter reviews three of these: the reserved domain of domestic jurisdiction, the law of state and functional immunity, and status of forces agreements.
Legal Challenges in Multinational Military Operations
Authors: Katze Jochen , Kashgar Maral 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
In multinational military operations, diverging domestic law and political issues are often dealt with by national caveats by the troop-contributing nations. The chapter analyses the pertinent NATO doctrine and practice concerning caveats and the legal challenges caused by conflicting legal cultures and constitutional arrangements. The authors explain the legal framework for such caveats, show how important they are for securing compliance with troop-contributing states’ domestic law, analyse recent court practice, explain how such caveats have impeded multinational military operations by limiting the flexibility of the multinational commander in deploying the forces, and argue for more harmonization in regard to the applicable legal regimes of such operations.
Asymmetric Actors in Asymmetric Conflicts
Authors: Frau Robert 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The chapter provides an analysis of the various dimensions and implications of asymmetry in armed conflicts. Multinational military operations are typically—albeit not necessarily—made up of states with significant military capabilities, and they often operate in asymmetric contexts. Against this backdrop, the author differentiates between legal, factual, and methodological asymmetries. On this basis, he identifies areas in which asymmetric conflict structures pose significant problems in the context of multinational military operations. In doing so and in view of actors such as the Islamic State that deliberately disrespect even the most fundamental rules of IHL, the author also explores the limits of such approaches. Nevertheless, he argues that for a multinational military, there is a strong strategic (policy) incentive to adhere to and implement all feasible precautions and human rights law.
Telling Tales with the Body
Authors: Macintosh Fiona , McConnell Justine 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Telling tales with the body was generally despised as a ‘lowbrow’ art form in the ballet world of the twentieth century—and there are still many practitioners and dance scholars who share this view. For most of the twentieth century, storytelling was not deemed to be something to which classical ballet should aspire. From the perspective of the new millennium, however, things look rather different. Stories are no longer eschewed by choreographers; indeed, it may well be possible to detect what one might term a ‘narrative’ turn in the classical ballet repertoire, where the ancient Greek and Roman epics are often providing the subject matter for these works. Chapter 4 explores the reasons behind twentieth-century ballet’s resistance to narrative and seeks to offer some thoughts on this early twenty-first-century narrative re-turn. This narrative eschewal in ballet matters because it has had profound repercussions beyond the world of dance, not least in the world of theatrical performance, where plotless dance is regularly invoked as a model for postdramatic theatre.
Furniture
Authors: Watson Nicola J. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Chapter 4 looks at how objects have been assembled into narratives of the scene of writing, conventionally composed in microcosm of the author’s chair, desk, pen, ink, and paper as witness to the act of writing. It explores what we have invested in the scene of writing, how it bears on the construction of the figure of the author, and how chairs, desks, and desk furniture come to be conceived, valued, represented, and staged as the ‘home’ of writing. It investigates (amongst other important instances) the long-standing celebrity of Shakespeare’s chairs and Jane Austen’s desks as a prehistory to the more recent display of Daphne du Maurier’s desk at Jamaica Inn in Cornwall.
Exit through the gift shop
Authors: Watson Nicola J. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Chapter 9 turns its attention from museum objects and spaces to museum visitors, tracing the history of how readers have behaved at writer’s houses and how they have interacted with objects, spaces, and each other. It thus completes the book’s trajectory from the author’s body to that of the reader. It outlines and details nineteenth-century tourist sentimental practices and experiments at sites associated with Petrarch, Rousseau, and Shakespeare. It looks at what tourists brought with them, what they left behind, and what they took away with them. It concludes by describing the writer’s house museum as not so much the scene of writing as the scene of (disavowed) reading.
The Problem of the Human Sciences
Authors: Gaukroger Stephen 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
In the nineteenth century there arose claims to scientific standing that were highly contested, and provoked a new kind of metascientific enquiry. The accreditation and ranking of disciplines were rationalized in terms of the internal structure of science, but they were predominantly extra-scientific in origin, and were more than anything else an elaborate exercise in legitimation. The issues centred on accounts of human behaviour that had traditionally been the preserve of religious and metaphysical teaching. These included ethics, where efforts were now afoot to put it on a scientific standing, as well as areas that had the character of a loose combination of moral, political, and economic views which could now be claimed to have been put on a scientific footing. The dispute between Whewell and Mill on the scientific standing of the new disciplines became transformed into a philosophical project of understanding the nature of science.