bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reformed Theology in North America
Authors: Lim Paul Chang-Ha , Martin Drew 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The development of Reformed theology in North America is inextricably linked with the story of European immigration and settlement of the New World. Just as diverse geographic and political circumstances crucially shaped a variegated network of Reformed churches in Europe, the immigration of key groups and figures from this network brought a similar diversity of Reformed Christian thought and practice to the New World. These interrelated traditions then developed in the context of colonial settlements and ultimately hand and hand with the formation and development of national identities. In America, the experience and consequences of the Civil War and its aftermath fundamentally formed the institutional entities and cultural realities in which the Reformed tradition developed in the nineteenth century, and also set the trajectory for its shaping influences in the twentieth century, and in contemporary life as well. This background provides a key hermeneutical lens through which to see the theological conflicts between Reformed Christians who identified closely with the classical Protestant past and those who desired to drive the tradition in a direction more consistent with what they took to be its inevitable modern future. Reformed theology in North America today is thus the product of the planting of various Reformed roots in colonial soil in the midst of the transition to modernity.
The Westminster Standards
Authors: Van Dixhoorn Chad 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The Westminster Standards were penned at the end of England’s second Reformation, and symbolized the high-water mark of Protestant scholasticism. The cluster of 1640s texts both codified prior developments in Reformed doctrine and standardized theological vocabulary, with the result that they have played an enduring role in the history of theology. This chapter addresses the unique contributions of the Larger and Shorter Catechisms and the flow and coherence of the Westminster Confession of Faith. Doctrinal topics, and the manner in which the Westminster assembly linked these loci, are discussed, and themes which find their place throughout the Standards are given particular emphasis. Since soteriological concerns dominate the Standards, they are given special attention in this précis. Select revisions of the Standards are also discussed.
Creation and Providence
Authors: van der Kooi Cornelis 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Reformed thought on creation is throughout its history deeply influenced by the knowledge that this world comes from the triune God, who we know as Father, Son, and Spirit. The world is approached with the expectation that it somehow bears the traces of the Father, Christ, and the Spirit. God remains actively involved in the continuation of his creation. Already in Calvin’s work this aspect is very clear in his rejection of the Epicurean idea of distant divinity who does not interact with the world. The continued reality of God’s rule as sovereign over all that exists is one of the basic elements of the Reformed theological tradition. At the same time it has been and still is one of the most contested doctrines.
Covenant
Authors: Horton Michael S. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
As the Reformed tradition faced different contexts, both in time and place, there could be a spectrum of emphases. Covenant has been a crucial theme for helping to hold together those emphases and maintain a sense of biblical and theological breadth and proportion. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, federal or covenant theology employed the covenant concept as one organizing theme for viewing all redemptive history and observing connections across various Christian doctrines. At its best, the Reformed tradition has been able to emphasize mutual obligation without surrendering to neonomianism as well as the absolute, unconditional, and unilateral basis of the covenant without succumbing to antinomianism. And if that is possible, then the tension that exists in federal theology may be a sign that we are dealing with a relationship in history between God and human beings that is as complex and real as it is presented in the Bible.
Redemption Applied
Authors: Billings J. Todd 
Published: October 2020

AbstractUnion with Christ is a crucial theme for Reformed soteriology with far-reaching implications in numerous areas, including the theology of the covenant, the sacraments, eschatology, and the outworking of the doctrine of grace as justification and sanctification in Christ. Through engagement with scriptural exegesis and the refining of various catholic and characteristically Reformed elements, a Reformed doctrine of union with Christ has much to offer to the broader theological and ecclesial discussion. Rather than reducing salvation to simply a forensic act or a gradual transformation, the Reformed tradition holds together God’s forensic declaration with the Spirit’s indwelling, transformative work. Rather than approaching the various acts of God in salvation as temporal stages for human ascent to God, God’s electing action unfolding in justification, adoption, sanctification, glorification are ‘manifestations’ of union with Christ. Rather than reducing salvation to a purely vertical or purely horizontal affair, the Reformed hold together communion with God in Christ with covenantal, reconciled communion with others who are adopted into his household. This cluster of topics continues to generate considerable debate and development in contemporary biblical and theological circles, and promises to be an area for lively discussion for years to come.
Holy Scripture
Authors: Treier Daniel J. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractSince key concepts in the Reformed doctrine of scripture resonate with John’s Gospel, this exposition begins with an account of the Word (John 1:1–18) in relation to God’s Spirit, the living water for which we are thirsty (John 4:10–13, 19–26; 7:37–9). Then the exposition turns to the font of the Reformed tradition on scripture, notably John Calvin; the early flow of the Reformed tradition on scripture, namely the boundaries set in historic confessions and scholastic interpretations; and the major tributaries that flowed from there. These tributaries emerged as modern contexts led Reformed Christians to extend key concepts into new territory: from Westminster, scripture’s communication of revealed truth; from Amsterdam, scripture’s comprehensive harmony with created reality; from Basel, scripture’s personal revelation of God in Jesus Christ; and from the margins, scripture’s liberating truth. Finally, a possible new tributary places scripture within a drama of saving wisdom.
Politics, Society, and Law
Authors: Fergusson David 
Published: October 2020

AbstractFrom the sixteenth century, the Reformed movement was committed to a programme of social reform in which church and civil authorities worked together in partnership not only in the cause of ecclesiastical reform but with a view to establishing a ‘godly society’ in accordance with the Word of God. Sanctification thus extended to the entire social order, often through appeal to Old Testament ideals and the concept of ‘covenant’. This chapter explores that programme with reference to its democratic impulses, political criticism and concerns for a just legal and economic order. Within the later context of modernity, the Reformed reception of human rights, nationalism, and religious toleration is examined. Finally, the twentieth-century contributions of Abraham Kuyper and Karl Barth are assessed with respect to their relevance for contemporary Reformed social thought.
Reformed Theology in the Context of the Reformation(s)
Authors: Trueman Carl R. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractReformed theology developed in the Reformation as both a positive appropriation of, and reaction to, Lutheranism. In its soteriology it was close to that of Martin Luther, but in its understanding of the Lord’s Supper it rejected the objective presence of Christ in the elements. As the sixteenth century wore on, Reformed theologians addressed issues of worship, where the development of the Regulative Principle was central. Also, Reformed theologians of the Bucer–Calvin trajectory went further than the Lutherans in pressing for a clearer demarcation between church and state on ecclesiastical matters, even though they were not able to achieve their ideal. As the century drew to a close, the rise of movements within the Reformed camp, particularly that of the Arminians, set the scene for increasingly rarefied and divisive debates over the basic elements of the Reformed understanding of grace.
Reformed Theology in Modern Europe (Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries)
Authors: Eglinton James 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThe history of nineteenth- and twentieth-century Europe is one of upheaval. How did modern European Reformed theologians and theologies fare as the social, political, cultural, and intellectual ground upon which they stood was shifting? This chapter explores developments in Reformed theology in Scotland, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, France, and Hungary. It argues that the nineteenth century saw Reformed theology coming to terms with the Enlightenment—conforming to it, in the case of classical liberal theology, and challenging it, in the case of the Réveil. In the twentieth century, the two most historically important attempts to reimagine the Reformed faith in a culturally modern Europe were neo-Calvinism (Bavinck and Kuyper) and neo-Orthodoxy (Barth). The story of twentieth-century European Reformed theology, for the most part, was the story of Reformed theologians reorienting themselves in relation to Basel and Amsterdam, as the ground moved beneath their feet.
Prizes
Authors: Hahn Daniel 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Literary prizes are among the most powerful ways by which authorship is made visible to the wider world. The vast majority of people do not pay close attention to the literary scene and may be wholly ignorant as to which authors currently count as notable or significant. But a prize announcement can disrupt this status quo, and briefly move a previously obscure name into the spotlight. At least this is true for the handful of literary prizes (among them the Nobel and the Man Booker) that count as truly influential. Yet, Daniel Hahn argues that prizes, aside from reflecting what James F. English has called ‘the economy of prestige’, can actively be used to challenge cultural biases, by making bold statements about what is, and what should be, valuable to a culture.
James on the Perception of Space
Authors: Hatfield Gary 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The perception of space was a central topic in the philosophy, psychology, and sensory physiology of the nineteenth century. William James engaged all three of these approaches to spatial perception. On the prominent issue of nativism versus empirism, he supported nativism, holding that space is innately given in sensory perception. This chapter focuses on James’s discussions of the physiology and psychology of spatial perception in his Principles of Psychology. It first examines the historical context for James’s work, guided by (and commenting on) his own account of that history. Included here are his arguments for nativism. It then examines central aspects of his theory of spatial sensation, perception, and conception. Finally, it touches on the reception of his nativism, his phenomenological holism, his characterization of perception as involving active processes of discernment and construction, and his conception of perceiving organisms as environmentally embedded.
James and Medicine
Authors: Croce Paul J. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Throughout his career in psychology and philosophy, William James consistently based his insights on natural facts. He began his career as a scientist, earning a medical degree from Harvard Medical School in 1869 on his path toward learning physiology for psychological understanding. In his youth and for the rest of his life, he also engaged in alternative medical practices. He found value in both scientific and “sectarian” medicine, with each attending to different parts of natural experience and each empirical, with experimental and experiential access to natural facts. From scientific medicine, he learned methods of rigorous specialized inquiry and the importance supporting speculation with factual material evidence, and from sectarian medicine, he learned about the range of lived natural experiences and their interactions. Most significantly, immersion in the medical marketplace of his time encouraged his non-dualist way of understanding the natural world with interaction of material facts and non-material mind and emotions. His immersion in medical practices prepared him for both his contributions to professional psychology and philosophy, and his explorations of alternative consciousness in religious beliefs and depth psychology. Throughout, he maintained fidelity to the facts of experience.
James and the Metaphysics of Intentionality
Authors: Dunham Jeremy 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that from the 1880s to the very end of James’s life, some of the central developments in his metaphysics were driven by the aim of providing an adequate response to the problem of intentionality highlighted by Josiah Royce’s argument from error. The chapter shows that James made several attempts to show how his philosophy could provide a solution to the problem, but, on two occasions, his eventual dissatisfaction with these solutions led him to major revisions of his metaphysics. The chapter argues that it was by means of his conversion to Bergsonism—in response to the Miller-Bode objections—that he was able to find a solution with which he could remain happy.
Medievalism as an Instrument of Political Renewal in Nineteenth-Century Germany
Authors: Gentry Francis G. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThe medieval period provided for nineteenth-century German-speaking lands the ostensible model to fulfil the general yearning for a unified Germany, namely as a country with a Kaiser (emperor) at its head. This striving took the better part of the nineteenth century and involved all levels of society and all types of activity. For much of the century, for example, the completion of Cologne cathedral was the most important symbol of the hoped-for national and confessional unity. In the end, however, it was the political/diplomatic manoeuvres of Bismarck that enabled Wilhelm I in 1871 to assume the title of ‘Kaiser des deutschen Reiches’. With that, Germany was, to be sure, unified in terms of language, but the high ideals of earlier in the century remained unfulfilled.
Pre-Raphaelite Poetry
Authors: Helsinger Elizabeth 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Morris in the early stages of their careers sought to turn modern poetry in new directions by reinterpreting both the body and the spirit of the arts practised in Europe and Britain before Raphael. Four things marked their encounter with the past. First, both went directly to primary sources. Second, they began by making their own translations, verbal or visual; the act of translating brought to consciousness the particularities of both past and present. Third, both moved from translation to pastiche and invention, finding new ways to use the past to create in the present the shock of the new. And finally, these activities were shared projects, fired by the exchange of work and ideas among a circle of family, friends, and fellow artists and poets.
Building Utopia
Authors: Waithe Marcus 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
William Morris’s News from Nowhere (1890) contains many detailed descriptions of buildings. As products of the utopian society described, most of these buildings are new. Yet their form is evidently ‘medieval’, or ‘medievalist’ (and therefore at odds, in some sense, with our preconceptions of the ‘new’). This chapter asks what such terms mean, or might mean, in the context of a built environment that stands outside the margin of known history. In the process, it describes the structural features to which Morris draws attention, with more historical and conceptual precision than has yet been attempted. At the heart of this discussion is a concern to classify a future architecture that resembles medieval architecture without any conscious effort of stylistic homage on the part of its builders. The problematic implication is that ‘medieval’ architecture will always be the natural, or ‘structural’, style of a happy and liberated people.
Observant Reform in the Late Middle Ages
Authors: Beebe Kathryne 
Published: October 2020

AbstractObservant reform is central to the religious, social, cultural, economic, and political changes fundamental to late medieval Europe. However, modern scholars have traditionally devoted scant attention to it, focusing instead on pre-1300 religious movements or the changes of the Reformation. Yet in the past two decades, more work focusing on the ‘Observance Movement’ has begun to remedy that neglect. This chapter highlights the essential questions and issues that drive recent studies, such as property, the involvement of women and the laity, and resistance to reform. It evaluates the current challenges presented by the conceptualization of an emerging field and argues that while greater collaboration between scholars and the production of basic overviews are needed, we should also strive to understand those who professed or embodied Observant ideals not just from the viewpoint of our own labels and concepts, but also to understand them in their own terms.
Monasticism in the Oriental Orthodox Churches
Authors: Rubenson Samuel 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThe Christian monastic tradition has its origins in the Middle East. It has been and remains a constitutive institution in the Oriental Orthodox Churches, which are the Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopian, and Syrian Orthodox Churches. In Armenia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Syriac-speaking Christian traditions, the monasteries have been the most important educational institutions in which language and literature have been transmitted. A strong emphasis on charismatic authority in Oriental monasticism, as well as a lack of political support for the hierarchy in the Coptic and Syrian traditions, has strengthened the role of the monasteries. The monasteries had a major importance for the spread of Christianity in central Asia, south India, and the Horn of Africa in the medieval period. A remarkable revival of Coptic monasticism beginning in the mid-twentieth century is of importance for all the churches.
Religious Women
Authors: Hirbodian Sigrid 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThis chapter explores how the identities of religious women in the late Middle Ages were projected and perceived. Beyond the life led by regular nuns, the Middle Ages saw the emergence of many different opportunities for women who wished to lead religious or ‘pious’ lives. The focus is on women who, in terms of Church law, belonged somewhere between the secular and the religious, but who thought of themselves as leading religious lives—in particular, secular canonesses and beguines. The example of Strasbourg is used to demonstrate the varieties of women’s religious communities existing at a given time (here the second half of the fifteenth century) in a single place. It argues that regional circumstances, along with the support of influential religious and secular personalities, shaped the various monastic landscapes and largely defined the religious identity of women’s communities.
Monasticism in Africa South of the Sahara
Authors: Higgs Catherine 
Published: October 2020

AbstractThis chapter explores the intersections between European missionary outreach, political and commercial concerns, and the African reception and adaptation of Christianity south of the Sahara, beginning in the late fifteenth century ce and extending through the early twenty-first century. For the most part, missionaries, not monastics, spread the faith. The message from the outset was intertwined with political and commercial considerations—initially a trade in slaves, foodstuffs, and other commodities, and eventually, in the late nineteenth century, colonialism. Neither conquest nor evangelization proved formulaic or easy. In 1910, perhaps nine per cent of Africans were Christians, including those in the ancient north-eastern centres of Egypt and Ethiopia. By 2010, an estimated fifty per cent of Africans were Christians, most living south of the Sahara. Christianity has been redefined as an African faith, across a continuum that includes independent and indigenous interpretations, and, re-emerging in the twentieth century, a few Catholic monastics.
The ‘New Monasticism’
Authors: Christie Douglas E. , Flanagan Bernadette 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The chapter provides a description and analysis of the contemporary phenomenon known as ‘new monasticism’. It examines key figures whose work influenced the rise and development of the movement (Dietrich Bonhoeffer, George MacLeod, Teilhard de Chardin, and Thomas Merton). It offers a typology of new monasticism (conceptual, classical, and contextual) based on the sources on which it draws. It describes the various experiments of monastic living that characterize the different approaches: conceptual (e.g. Rutba House, the Simple Way); classical (e.g. Monasteries of the Heart, Céli Dé); and contextual (e.g. Taizé, Focolare, mayBe, Kumla). And it examines how new monasticism can be situated—socially, culturally, and spiritually—in relation to other contemporary movements in spirituality and ‘lived religion’.
The Molecular Basis of Age-Modulated Plant De Novo Root Regeneration Decline in Arabidopsis thaliana
Authors: Sun Lili , Zhu Ziqiang 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Plants possess a regeneration capacity that enables them to survive after wounding. For example, detached Arabidopsis thaliana leaves are able to form adventitious roots from their cutting sites even in the absence of exogenous hormone supplements, as process termed de novo root regeneration (DNRR). Wounding rapidly induces auxin biosynthesis at the cutting sites and then elicits a signaling cascade to promote cell fate transitions and finally generate the adventitious roots. However, rooting rates in older plants are much lower than in younger leaf explants. In this review, we highlight the recent breakthroughs in the understanding of DNRR decay in older plants from at least two independent signaling routes: (i) via the accumulation of EIN3 protein in older plants, which directly suppresses expression of WUSCHEL RELATED HOMEOBOX (WOX) genes to inhibit rooting; (ii) the miR156-SPLs-AP2/ERFs pathway, which modulates root regeneration by reducing auxin biosynthesis.