bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Reinvention of Society?
Authors: Morieux Renaud 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
War is not just destruction and coercion: new ‘social spaces’ are invented and reproduce themselves in wartime. In captivity zones and prison camps, pre-existing social categories might not be seen as relevant or did not operate in the same way as other contexts, and different conceptions of the social order could clash. This is not to say, however, that durable social differences did not exist, and that war captivity permitted a free-flowing and constant reinvention of society. There were limits to the redefinition of social categories, which need to be examined more closely. The extreme cases of prisoners on parole on the one hand, and of the black combatants who were enslaved on the other, show that people’s ability to play with labels ascribed by the state was socially differentiated.
Epilogue: Napoleon the Prisoner of Peace
Authors: Morieux Renaud 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This epilogue sheds new light on a famous case. Napoleon was labelled in 1815 as a permanent prisoner of war, an individual at war against the civil society of European nations, even though France was then at peace with the rest of Europe. This status of the prisoner of the international community was a novelty. It also drew on eighteenth-century discussions, and it established a precedent. The status of Napoleon in St Helena was never settled, because the famous captive always refused the label that was assigned to him. Around Napoleon, a miniature and inverted society of prisoners took shape on St Helena, a society that was structured by his presence and that of his small retinue.
Stage-structured models
Authors: Botsford Louis W. , White J. Wilson , Hastings Alan 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter moves to models in which developmental stage is the individual state variable, and abundance at each stage is the population variable. Stage is a period within an individual life history (e.g. juvenile, adult); organisms may survive within a stage or “grow” to other stages. This movement and survival is represented by a projection matrix that describes the transitions between stages over time. The projection matrix is similar to the Leslie matrix for age-structured models (Chapter 3), except it has entries other than just those in the first row and the sub-diagonal. Stage models are conceptually problematic because real population dynamics ultimately depend on the age distribution within each stage category. Stage-based models obscure that age structure, thus stage is not an adequate expression of state (Chapter 1). This chapter demonstrates how this introduces artifacts in model analysis, particularly of transients, and presents some ways to avoid those artifacts.
Age-structured models in a random environment
Authors: Botsford Louis W. , White J. Wilson , Hastings Alan 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Most ecological populations exist in a randomly fluctuating environment, and these fluctuations influence vital rates, thus changing population dynamics. These changes are the focus of this chapter. The primary practical concern about environmental variability is the possibility that it could cause a population to go extinct, so the chapter describes several approaches to estimating the probability of extinction. The first is the small fluctuations approximation (SFA) to describe the growth of a population with a randomly varying Leslie matrix. The results reveal that randomly varying populations grow more slowly on average than the equivalent deterministic population. Further applications of the SFA examine how correlated variation in different vital rates affects the probability of extinction, when variability is too large to use the SFA, and how it has been applied to population time series. Finally, several other approaches to estimating extinction risk—also known as population viability analysis—are compared.
Spatial population dynamics
Authors: Botsford Louis W. , White J. Wilson , Hastings Alan 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter considers populations structured in a different dimension: space. This begins by representing population dynamics with a spatial continuity equation (analogous to the M’Kendrick/von Foerster model for continuity in age or size). If organisms move at random, this motion can be approximated as diffusion. This proves useful for modeling spreading populations, such as the expansion of sea otter populations along the California coast. Adding directional advection represents a population in a flowing stream. Metapopulation models are then introduced using a simple model of the fraction of occupied patches; these are made more realistic by accounting for inter-patch distance using incidence function models. The next level of complexity is models with population dynamics in each patch. These are used to examine how metapopulations can persist as a network even if no patch would persist by itself. Finally, the consequences of synchrony (or lack thereof) among spatially separated populations is described.
The Neural Basis of Autobiographical Memory
Authors: Iriye Heather , Jacques Peggy L. St. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have led to significant progress in our understanding of how the personal past is represented in the brain. A key insight has been the degree to which autobiographical memory (AM) is structured according to self-related processes. This chapter addresses the role of the self in organizing AM in three key areas: (1) processing of self-related information, (2) awareness of the self in time (i.e. autonoetic consciousness), and (3) the centrality of egocentric visual perspective. There are exciting areas for future research that capitalize on the benefits of recent advances in fully immersive virtual reality technologies.
Venice's Secret Service
Authors: Iordanou Ioanna 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
According to conventional wisdom, systematized intelligence and espionage are ‘modern’ phenomena. This book overturns this academic orthodoxy, recounting the arresting story of the world’s earliest centrally organized state intelligence organization, created in Renaissance Venice. Headed by the infamous Council of Ten, Renaissance Venice’s intelligence service resembled a public sector institution that operated with remarkable corporate-like complexity and maturity, serving prominent intelligence functions, which included operations (intelligence and covert action), analysis, cryptography, steganography, cryptanalysis, and even the development of lethal substances such as poison. The book details Renaissance Venice’s systematic attempts to organize and manage a central intelligence service made up of innumerable state servants, official informants, and amateur spies, who, dispatched across Europe, Anatolia, and Northern Africa, conducted Venice’s stealthy intelligence operations. Exploring secrecy as a vehicle of knowledge exchange that fostered identities, alliances, and divisions, the book also reveals Venice’s fabled department of professional cryptology, and recounts some of the extraordinary measures deployed by the Venetian authorities in their ongoing effort to maintain the security of the Venetian state. These included tortures, assassinations, and chemical warfare. Overall, the book not only reveals a plethora of secrets, their keepers, and their seekers but explores the social and managerial processes that enabled their existence and furnished the foundation for an extraordinary intelligence organization. For this reason, Renaissance Venice’s central intelligence apparatus is explored and analysed as an organization rather than as the capricious intelligence enterprise of a group of state dignitaries, as was the case for other Italian and European states.
State Secrecy
Authors: Iordanou Ioanna 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses the culture of secrecy that the Council of Ten distilled within and beyond the walls of the Doge’s Palace. This culture was perpetuated through a slew of formal regulations on the instrumentality of secrecy, especially official state secrecy, for the affairs and, by extension, the security of the Venetian state. The demand for secrecy spread across the dominion and permeated all echelons of Venetian society. Using social theorizations of secrecy, the chapter shows how secrecy, as the ongoing process of intentional concealment, enabled social interactions amongst individuals of diverse social standing who, without the shield of concealment, would not have been able to interact. In this respect, secrecy functioned as a vehicle of knowledge exchange, creating a dynamic and enduring relationship between the government and the governed. Ultimately, official state secrecy became a vital tool of statecraft and political control for the Council of Ten.
Venice’s Department of Cryptology
Authors: Iordanou Ioanna 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
The chapter discusses the fully fledged, state-controlled and regulated department of cryptology that the Council of Ten developed and oversaw. This was housed in the Doge’s Palace and annexed to the ducal chancery. In full operation since 1543, this department comprised several cryptology functions, including the creation of ciphers, deciphering encrypted messages, training chancery staff in the use of cipher keys, breaking enemy ciphers, and even the development of a distinct training and development regime for Venetian state cryptologists. Due to the instrumentality of ciphers for Venice’s intelligence pursuits, this department was ring-fenced with harsh regulations that included the death penalty when ciphers or their keys were mishandled. In an attempt to reconstruct the evolution of Venice’s cryptology department, the chapter advances the argument that, because of Renaissance Venice’s central intelligence organization, cryptology evolved into a distinct, stand-alone profession.
Geographical Texts
Authors: Stock Paul 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 1 explains the characteristics and significance of the book’s principal source material: late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century British geography books. These works have been largely neglected by historians, but their popularity and summative nature means that they can reveal the formative, commonplace ideas circulating in British literate culture. However, due to their opaque authorships, plagiaristic contents, and complex publication histories, geographical texts pose specific methodological challenges. The chapter therefore argues that we need to adopt different conceptual and procedural priorities in order to discern popular mentalities from these works.
The Natural Environment
Authors: Stock Paul 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 4 shows that late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books frequently posit a causal relationship between environmental conditions and social development. Europe’s beneficial natural environment is often presumed to be at the heart of its advanced societal achievements, although a rival theory suggests that Europeans have thrived by overcoming specific environmental adversities. At the root of these debates are questions about determinism and human agency, and uncertainty about whether to define Europe in terms of natural conditions or social accomplishments.
The State
Authors: Stock Paul 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 6 discusses late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books’ sustained focus on the political states of Europe. The books present states both as organic communities with multi-faceted jurisdictions, and as increasingly centralized governmental authorities. They usually specify that monarchy is the definitive form of European government, and that European states share a propensity for ‘liberty’, broadly defined as respect for law and property, and the maintenance of the balance of power in Europe. Some geographical texts talk about ‘nations’, but ideas about European polities remain reliant on established notions of governmental structures.
Centres and Peripheries
Authors: Stock Paul 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 8 examines the questions and complications surrounding apparent ‘centres’ and ‘peripheries’ of Europe. Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geographical texts appear to regard certain states or regions as especially significant to overall conceptions of the continent, thanks either to their reputed importance or their supposed fringe status. The chapter focuses on Russia, France, the Italian states, Greece and the Ottoman Empire, the German states, and Britain. Analysis shows, however, that it is problematic to distinguish too sharply between core and periphery areas of Europe as regions can instead be both central and marginal simultaneously.
Commerce and Empire
Authors: Stock Paul 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 9 shows how theories about commerce and empire affect ideas about Europe. Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century geography books usually argue that Europe excels at trade. In some respects, this promotes a concept of Europe based upon economic rivalry, but is also presents the continent as the centrepiece of an integrated global network. Some texts celebrate Europe’s imperial prowess and in several cases regard conquered areas as part of the continent itself rather than distinct regions. Others are critical of empire, but the majority endorse an idealized imperialism in which commerce demonstrates Europe’s presumed global pre-eminence.
History and Progress
Authors: Stock Paul 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 10 discusses how ideas about historical change influence conceptions of Europe. Late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century geography books typically regard history as a progression through various ‘stages’, an account which often conflates European and world history. But they also often regard the continent as an extant ideal society. This exposes uncertainty about whether to define Europe in terms of unchanging characteristics or mutable historical processes. Some geography books combine these perspectives and interpret historical change in terms of established patterns, a method which allows them to account for Europe’s malleability and its stable qualities.
Phonons
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Phonons are introduced as an example of quasi-particles that can only exist in matter. Debye’s quantum model for heat capacity of solids and comparison with experimentin different temperature ranges is presented. The dispersion relations of lattice vibration (phonons) and quantization for chains of atoms presented, revealing the optical and acoustic modes; anharmonic effects are discussed. Crystal lattice structures and Brillouin zones are introduced. Phonon scattering and the Umklapp process described. The variation of the thermal conductivity of dielectrics with temperature is interpreted. X-ray scattering studies of phonon dispersion relations are described. Coupling between phonons with photons in polaritons is explained: Raman scattering studies of GaN used to exhibit the cross-over of their dispersion relations. The Mössbauer effect, a recoilless process, and its dependence on temperature are explained.
Semiconductors
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Semiconductors are introduced. Hole kinematics are deduced. Effects of doping giving donor and acceptor levels are surveyed: silicon and AlxGa1−xAs are used as exemplars. Diode function is interpreted in terms of carrier densities. Zener diodes. Optical response, diode photon detectors and photovoltaic cells. Limitation of LEDs to direct bandgap materials is explained. The operation of ultrafast Silicon MOSFETs and 100GHz GaAs HEMTs is described. The conditions for quantum effects at the mesoscopic scale examined: the influence of coherence length, Fermi wavelength and mean free path. Cryogenic quantum point contact devices, the quantum of conductance and Landauer’s equation surveyed. Ballistic and diffusive transport contrasted. Coulomb blockade is described. Observation at cryogenic temperatures of quantum interference in disordered conducting material. Universal conductance fluctuations are presented.
Transitions
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
A derivation of Fermi’s golden rule is given: this is the interface into which matrix elements from theory can be slotted to provide a prediction testable by experiment. The example of the prediction of the 2p→1s decay in hydrogen is worked through in detail. Selection rules, spectral line shapes (Breit–Wigner and Gaussian) and broadening processes are explained. The formula for the experimental cross-section in terms of the matrix element is produced. The Born approximation is presented and applied to Rutherford scattering. Then the decay rate for allowed β-decays is calculated in Fermi’s model and fitted to the observed rates. Low energy s-wave scattering is analysed in terms of phase shift and scattering length. The example of cold alkali metal atom scattering (≤10−6eV) is treated in preparation for use later with gaseous Bose–Einstein condensates. Ramsauer–Townsend effect explained.
Quantum measurement
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Heisenberg’s back action and Robertson’s intrinsic uncertainty are presented. von Neumann’s analysis of quantum measurement is recounted. Advanced LIGO is used as an example of quantum measurement: giant Michelson interferometers achieve sensitivity to motion of 1 part in 1021. The discovery at LIGO of gravitational waves is outlined. Then the standard quantum limit is deduced. The use of cavities in the interferometer arms to increase the photon flux is described. The potential for improvement by squeezing the vacuum at the blank input port is discussed. Prospects for speed interferometry are outlined.
Symmetry and topology
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Space-time symmetries, conservation laws and Nöther’s theorem are discussed. The Poincaré group, generators and Casimir invariants are outlined. Local charge conservation and the corresponding U(1) charge symmetry underlying electromagnetism are presented, showing the roles of minimal electromagnetic coupling and gauge transformations. Experimental demonstrations of the Aharonov–Bohm effect are described and the topological interpretation is recounted. How the Aharonov–Casher effect survives in the classical world is mentioned. Berry’s revelation of geometric phase is presented. The Bitter–Dubbers experiment confirming this analysis is presented. Some comments are given on a Hilbert space with a simple topology.
Superfluid 4He
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
The superfluid transition of 4He at 2.17K to He-II and the inference of an underlying condensate are introduced. The fountain effect is interpreted. Andronikashvili’s experiment and the determination of superfluid fraction versus temperature are discussed. Sound and second sound are described. Relationships between the condensate and superfluid fractions, and to off diagonal long-range order (ODLRO) are deduced. The revelation of topological quantization of circulation by Vinen’s experiment is recounted. Spontaneous symmetry breaking by the condensate’s phase coherence is explained. Excitations and their dispersion relations described with Landau’s interpretation, including the explanation of the critical velocity of superflow. Vortices, their interpretation in terms of quantized circulation, and their visualization are described.
Superconductivity
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Superconductivity and the associated Meissner effect are introduced, indicating that superconductors are perfect diamagnetics. Condensation energy is deduced. The London analysis showing how superconductors exclude flux is presented. The BCS microscopic theory is recapitulated: Cooper pairs of electrons are the constituents of the Bose condensate that carries the non-dissipative current. The binding energy of pairs (energy gap below the Fermi sea) is deduced and related to their size and the critical temperature. Dependence of the energy gap on temperature is shown consistent with BCS theory. The Ginzberg–Landau analysis and the spontaneous symmetry breaking in the condensate phase are recounted. Quantization of trapped magnetic flux is shown to be related to superconductor topology. Type-II superconductors are treated. Finally Josephson effects show unambiguously that the condensate is a macroscopic quantum state. Josephson applications are enumerated, including a new voltage standard, SQUIDs and preliminary versions of qubits (transmons) for quantum computing.
Quantum Hall effects
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
It is explained how plateaux are seen in the Hall conductance of two dimensional electron gases, at cryogenic temperatures, when the magnetic field is scanned from zero to ~10T. On a Hall plateau σxy = ne2/h, where n is integral, while the longitudinal conductance vanishes. This is the integral quantum Hall effect. Free electrons in such devices are shown to occupy quantized Landau levels, analogous to classical cyclotron orbits. The stability of the IQHE is shown to be associated with a mobility gap rather than an energy gap. The analysis showing the topological origin of the IQHE is reproduced. Next the fractional QHE is described: Laughlin’s explanation in terms of an IQHE of quasiparticles is presented. In the absence of any magnetic field, the quantum spin Hall effect is observed, and described here. Time reversal invariance and Kramer pairs are seen to be underlying requirements. It’s topological origin is outlined.
Particle physics I
Authors: Kenyon Ian R. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Particle families (quarks and leptons), their properties and their interactions are introduced. The exchange mechanism and the Yukawa potential are discussed. Natural units are explained. The cross-section for e− + e+ → μ− + μ+ is calculated using a first order Feynman diagram. Comparison with data reveals the existence of the Z0-boson and makes a link between electroweak processes. Higher orders diagrams give divergences and their removal by renormalization is described. Neutrino properties are outlined and the determination of the number of light neutrinos related. The weak interaction is discussed: parity and charge parity are seen to be maximally violated in W-boson exchange, but the product is approximately conserved. Handedness is pursued in an appendix using Dirac spinors. The neutrino mass and weak eigenstates differ and this leads to oscillations between weak eigenstates in flight. Measurements of the neutrino flux from the sun revealing this behaviour are described. Weak and strong eigenstates of quarks also differ by a unitary transformation, the CKM matrix. This difference leads to oscillations of certain neutral mesons from particle to antiparticle. This behaviour is explored for neutral K-mesons and for B0d mesons. CP violation is observed, which is required for the survival of matter in the universe.
The Voice on the Page
Authors: Richards Jennifer 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
The history of reading has privileged particular kinds of evidence: the marks that readers left behind in books (annotation), and the layout of a printed page/book (paratext). This chapter explores whether other marks—not just layout but also punctuation and spelling—can be understood as vocal cues for oral readers. It does this by examining the contents and layout of Edmund Coote’s schoolbook used to teach boys and girls to read English (aloud). It argues that the eye and tongue were brought into alignment in the printed books of the sixteenth century, and gives this claim a context: debates on English spelling and punctuation. It makes a case for seeing ‘marks’ as prompts that need to be interpreted creatively rather than strictly followed, exploring Matthew Parker’s advice on reading psalms.