bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Safety Culture: An Approach to Maturing Management Systems Through the Thoughtful Application of Human Factors
Authors: Hallihan Greg , Bentkowski Kaitlin , Shapiro Dan , Shironishi Mari , Sahney Reena 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
As the Southern California Gas Company (SoCalGas) matures its risk management practices, there is a desire to identify practical approaches to integrate human factors (HF) to strengthen the organization’s safety culture.
The Integrity Management department at SoCalGas has previously sought to mature its HF practice within the organization. However, these initiatives have been limited by the relative difficulty associated with measuring their direct impact, the complexity of adapting the breadth and depth of the relevant knowledge base to specific projects, the potential resource burden of implementation, and general ambiguity in what constitutes industry best practice. It was recognized that to effectively leverage HF for tangible improvements (e.g., improvement of operating procedures and processes to improve safety), future initiatives must be thoughtfully integrated with existing systems and processes, balancing best practice within organizational constraints. Considering this, SoCalGas and Jiva Consulting (Jiva) developed a novel approach with the following characteristics:
1. A significant scoping and planning stage prior to commencing the development of specific solutions, which included a detailed assessment of current gaps as a basis for developing a practical roadmap.
2. A detailed literature review to identify and leverage transferable practices from other industries and sectors.
3. A highly structured, multi-year approach that allowed for careful identification of key stakeholders to ensure the development of practical and sustainable processes through the implementation of multiple pilots.
4. The iterative development of a Human Factors ‘Toolkit’ (HFTK) comprised of:
• A Standardized Assessment Procedure to structure process implementation,
• A Body of Knowledge and Quick Reference Guide to effectively translate key knowledge,
• Assessment Forms to structure consistent data collection and analysis,
• Stakeholder engagement approaches to support issue validation and prioritization, and
• Presentation Materials for both staff training and organizational awareness.
This has allowed SoCalGas to effectively develop a unique approach to HF that is theoretically sound and systematic while remaining practical and allowing for continuous improvement. The approach has been through multiple pilots and has created conditions to mature overall subject matter literacy within the organization regardless of roles or baseline knowledge level — ranging from field-based personnel to office-based technical staff, including senior management.
The presentation of findings will outline how this approach addresses the complexities of implementing HF practices at SoCalGas via integration with the existing management system as well as early learnings from conducting its initial pilots.
Optimization of Fusion Bond Epoxy- Abrasion Resistant Overcoat Thicknesses for Trenchless Installations
Authors: Tsaprailis Haralampos , Granke Mike , Anthony Joseph 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Trenchless installation such as horizontal directional drilling (HDD), direct steerable pipe thrusting, horizontal auger bore, and micro tunnelling have changed how gas and liquid pipeline utilities are installed worldwide. The current HDD technology has moved the limitation of length close to 5 km by creating an intersect method where two rigs drill from two sides towards each other. In 2022, a 4.7 km, 24-inch HDD crossing under Lake Sakakawea (North Dakota) was successfully designed and constructed. As the length increases, there is always a high risk of coating damage when pulling through rocks and gravel. The HDD trenchless construction technique uses a pilot hole (steerable system) along a predetermined alignment and profile to cross under road, rail, and watercourse crossings. When the pilot hole is enlarged by reaming operation, the pipeline is pulled through the bore profile. The subsurface investigation plays a vital role in HDD crossings. The project team should be aware of soil conditions to minimize potential damage to pipe coating during the installation.
In North American, fusion bond epoxy (FBE) with an abrasion resistant overcoat (ARO) is the primary pipeline coating system selected for horizontal directional drilling. Industry best practices specify the application methodology for these coating systems along with a minimum anti-corrosion barrier (FBE), but often neglect to specify a minimum, nominal, or maximum ARO thickness (i.e., the sacrificial overcoat).
Within this paper, the thickness requirements for FBE-ARO from various pipeline operators will be compared to establish an industry best range. This range of FBE-ARO thicknesses will be compared to the recommended thicknesses from the coating manufacturers. More importantly, a minimum, nominal, and maximum FBE and ARO thickness will be recommended based on laboratory testing from several qualification production tests, field observations, and the manufacturer’s recommendations. The laboratory testing included chemical (e.g., cathodic disbondment) and physical (e.g., impact, gouge) testing that was completed on mill coated pipe. Correlation to field data will also be presented based on various parameters collected from numerous pipeline horizontal directional drilling projects. The data provided will allow for a more informed decision-making process when specifying protective coating for future trenchless installations.
A Theory-Consistent Multi-Modal Fused Neural Network for Predicting Mixed Oil Length Range in Multi-Product Pipeline
Authors: Du Jian , Xu Ning , Zheng Jianqin , Liao Qi , Liang Yongtu 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In the operation of a multi-product pipeline, a precise and effective prediction model for the contamination amount range is crucial to guide the formulation of the cutting plan. Existing methods, however, fail to extract clear feature correlations and overlook the implicit physical knowledge of mixed oil, leading to impractical prediction results. Therefore, this study integrating latent feature representations and scientific theory into the neural network to design a theory-consistent multi-modal fused neural network for predicting the mixed oil length range. The proposed model establishes a comprehensive feature representation of multi-dimensional features of mixed oil to extract ample feature correlations through a multi-modality feature fusion module. Subsequently, a theory-guided customized neural network is designed to incorporate the scientific theory into the forward and backward propagation. Additionally, a physics-consistent loss function is established by incorporating range difference constraints and data mismatch, intending to prevent the model from producing physically unreasonable results. Validation on real-world cases suggests that the proposed model surpasses advanced techniques and recent achievements, reducing Root Mean Squared Relative Errors by 31% and 36% in lower and upper limit prediction, respectively. The sensitivity analysis of model components suggests that both the multi-modality feature fusion and physical principles are crucial for model improvement.
Pipe Spring System: The MFL Identification, Characterization, and Assessment of Both Defects and Sleeve
Authors: Laughlin Shawn 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A full encirclement laminated steel sleeve system has been designed, developed, tested, vetted by the industry, and utilized on North American regulated pipelines for permanent repairs of pipeline integrity threats. Pipeline integrity practitioners requested verification of various aspects of MFL based ILI inspections. This paper briefly reviews the details of the technology regarding the material, the mechanics and mitigation principles, and the field installation of the thin layer laminated steel sleeve system. We then address the MFL based ILI inspection topics. Three major topics have been investigated. These are: Verification that MFL based ILI can readily identify the volumetric metal which comprises the laminated steel sleeves system. Sleeves which were comprised of 2,4 and 8 layers of steel were temporarily installed on a pipeline system prior to a scheduled ILI run. The ILI provider was not informed prior to data collection. The pipeline operator maintains the in-house ability to quickly review vendor ILI data and provided initial assessment and analysis. This data has been collected the results are presented. Determination of the ability of MFL ILI based inspection to assess metal loss defects which have been permanently repaired with this technology. An ILI service provider created a series of various known calibration type defects and collected initial pull test data on unrepaired spool pieces. These defects were then repaired with the thin layer laminated steel sleeve system. The change in magnetic response between unrepaired and repaired runs has been evaluated for the various calibration type defects. The targeted goal of the effort is to build the algorithm or model to assess known defects after repair and installation of this sleeve system. These results are presented and discussed. Determination of the ability of MFL based ILI to inspect or verify that the magnetic response or magnetic signature of the laminated steel sleeve system can be assessed with sufficient consistency to indicate that that the sleeve displays no significant changes during service. This would provide confidence that the sleeve continues to effectively perform its intended mitigation. The results are presented and discussed.
Development of Probabilistic Reliability Models for Pure and Blended Hydrogen Pipelines
Authors: McAllister Lowell , Wright Chance , Bussiere Mathew 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Growing demand for hydrogen and blended hydrogen / natural gas pipelines has introduced challenges that require engineering assessments and controls to ensure safe pipeline design, conversion, and operation. Quantitative risk assessment using probabilistic reliability models is a leading engineering assessment technique that is uniquely suited to addressing these challenges, even where limited historical experience and regulatory guidance exist. This paper presents developments that have been made to adapt the probabilistic reliability models commonly used to estimate the failure rates of conventional natural gas pipelines for application to pure and blended hydrogen pipelines. These developments are based on the latest research on the adverse effects of hydrogen on pipeline material performance (i.e. hydrogen embrittlement).
Hydrogen embrittlement has two primary effects on pipeline steel properties: a reduction in fracture toughness, and an increase in fatigue crack growth rate. Both effects are expected to increase the predicted failure rate of pipelines containing crack-like flaws. The extent to which these effects may significantly compromise the integrity of a pipeline asset is dependent on the extent of the embrittlement (as determined by the susceptibility of the pipeline material and the degree of hydrogen exposure) and the pipeline operating conditions (which influence both nominal and cyclic stress states). In any assessment, significant uncertainty may exist regarding the precise nature of hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms, and the material properties and existing damage conditions of the asset. However, probabilistic reliability models provide a means of systematically accounting for these uncertainties and can provide a quantitative basis to reduce those uncertainties as research advances.
This paper will discuss the use of empirical models to predict the extent of hydrogen-induced fracture toughness reduction and fatigue crack growth rate increase, the results of which have been characterized probabilistically herein. These models have been incorporated in a simulation of bi-directional crack growth (based on a variable amplitude, cyclic loading histogram input) to predict the time to reach a critical crack size. The probabilistic reliability model repeats these crack growth simulations in a Monte Carlo simulation to predict future failure rates for a prescribed evaluation period. A demonstration of the model predictions is also presented in this paper through a comparison of the predicted failure rates for a representative set of pipeline scenarios with varied hydrogen blend ratios and baseline predictions with a pure natural gas product. Finally, a description is given of the remaining gaps to be addressed in future research.
On the Changes in the Properties of an API 5L Steel Through Isothermal Artificial Aging
Authors: Velázquez Julio César , González-Arévalo Noe , Díaz-Cruz Manuel , Cervantes-Tobón Arturo 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Despite the emergence of renewable energies, oil and gas will continue to be critical factors in economic growth, specially in developing countries. An immense amount of these hydrocarbons are moved using steel pipelines. However, these pipelines are becoming older each day and will continue in-service for several more years. Traditional inspections using “smart-pigs “ or UT techniques only help to obtain the size of the corrosion defects, they cannot measure in the field the mechanical properties of the material. In this context, studying the changes in the steel that can happen through years of service is necessary, but this is not a simple issue because the current real characteristics need to be compared with the original ones when the pipeline was built and commissioned. For this reason, an approximation based on an artificial aging method (isothermal method) can be helpful for estimating some mechanical characteristics. Likewise, the impact of these changes is assessed by computing the pipe failure pressure using semi-empirical models. The aforementioned mechanical characteristics are studied statistically with the purpose of determining the pipeline failure probability. Furthermore, the results of evaluating the changes in the corrosion susceptibility using electrochemical techniques are shown. Finally, the results point to the conclusion that the changes in the material properties could be significant, particularly when estimating the failure pressure of the pipe, this could lead to underestimate or overestimate the risk at the time of operation because the mechanical characteristics tend to show a more significant variance. Therefore, it would be recommended that the oil and gas industry propose to develop a methodology to monitor these changes.
Evaluating the Penetration Depth of Rock Falls on Buried Pipelines
Authors: Amini Mehdi , Wilson Paul , Rahman Mujib 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Buried pipelines are usually less susceptible to rock falls compared to exposed utilities because soil cover protects them from direct rock fall impacts. However, in instances where pipelines are situated in mountainous terrains, the risk of rock falls penetrating through the protective cover becomes a concern. In these circumstances, the risk of rock fall to the pipeline should be assessed and managed. This paper, first, outlines a framework for assessing the rock fall risks to buried pipelines based on a general risk matrix. One of the key parameters in the matrix is the likelihood of rock fall penetration depth. To estimate this parameter, the penetration depth of the rock falls should be estimated and compared with the actual pipeline depth of cover. The existing theoretical relations commonly used to estimate rock fall penetration depth are then presented and critically reviewed in the paper. Finally, the penetration depths resulting from two actual rock fall incidents in the buried pipelines are back-calculated using theoretical relations and compared with the real measured penetration depths. The case histories occurred in a pipeline in 2006 and 2023. The comparison between theoretical estimations and the real measurements demonstrate that the existing theoretical relations generally underestimate the rock fall penetration depth. Therefore, relying only on the existing theoretical relations could lead to an underestimation of the rock fall risk. As a result of our study, we propose several recommendations to enhance the accuracy of estimating rock fall penetration depth and its associated likelihood in the risk calculations.
Increasing the Operational Reliability of an Onshore Pipeline Using Positive Displacement Pumps
Authors: Valle Marcus Felipe , Auras André Paegle 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Positive displacement pumps excel in pumping fluids with high viscosities and high pour points efficiently across various flow rates and pressures. This article introduces a theoretical analysis of the results from computational simulations carried out to assess the use of a novel pumping system incorporating screw-type positive displacement pumps within a 120 km pipeline for fuel oil transfer in São Paulo, Brazil. To enhance the operational reliability of the pipeline, we explored a new pumping system configuration featuring positive displacement pumps. We selected the screw-type positive displacement pump following the recommendations of API STD 676 standard, considering the pipeline’s required flow rate and maximum permissible operating pressure. We undertook computational simulations with the Stoner Pipeline Simulator 9.8.0 (by GL Noble Denton), to verify the effectiveness of this innovative pumping system. These simulations demonstrated the feasibility and potential of the proposed system, particularly when integrated with a variable frequency drive, to boost the transportation efficiency and reliability of fuel oils.
Pipeline Defect Detection Using Artificial Intelligence-Based Active Acoustic Sensing
Authors: G. Dhasthagir Yaser A. , Chen Haobin , Bayati Farzaneh , Hugo Ron , Park Simon 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This study presents an innovative AI-enhanced active acoustic sensing approach for continuous pipeline defect detection, overcoming limitations of conventional in-line inspection methods that include sparse inspection frequencies and extensive data analysis requirements. The proposed method introduces acoustic energy to detect circumferential notch-type defects. Numerical simulations are performed using Finite Element Analysis (FEA), and experiments performed using axial piezoelectric transducers and acoustic emission sensors. Due to the rapid attenuation at typical inspection frequencies, we excite the system close to natural resonance frequencies, improving defect detection accuracy. Our approach incorporates power spectral analysis and root mean square error (RMSE) computations against baseline references, with Z-score normalization addressing signal variations. The neural network model at the core of this AI methodology significantly boosts defect detection accuracy, proving its efficacy and reliability for enhancing pipeline structural health monitoring (SHM) and integrity management.
EMAT Reinspection Interval Considering POD and Undetected Cracks
Authors: Yan Jason , Zhang Billy , Zhang Shenwei , Upadhyaya Jay , Myden Kyle 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Crack (or crack-like) anomalies are a major threat to the safety and structural integrity of oil and gas transmission pipelines. Pipeline operators commonly manage the crack threat by hydrostatic test (HT) and in-line inspection (ILI) using electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) or other inspection tools. As part of the ILI-based assessment, the determination of the re-inspection interval is critically important to assure the safe operation of pipelines.
A common method to determine the reinspection interval is to deterministically grow a hypothetical crack anomaly and determine the time to reach critical size, where the initial size of crack is typically assumed based on EMAT vendor specification. The limitation of this method is that the re-inspection interval is highly impacted by the vendor tool detection specification. The potential for any undetected cracks larger than the detection threshold are not properly considered.
The probability of detection (POD) of EMAT tools for cracks is not as high as magnetic flux leakage (MFL) tools for corrosion anomalies. Crack anomalies with size corresponding to 90% POD are usually more severe than corrosion anomalies with 90% POD. Therefore, the risk of missed (undetected) crack anomalies cannot be ignored when determining the re-inspection interval of EMAT runs. This paper describes a probabilistic method that considers the field verified tool POD to determine the EMAT re-inspection interval. The proposed method reflects reality better as it explicitly accounts for uncertainties associated with input parameters as well as the effect of missed cracks due to POD.
To quantify the risk of undetected crack anomalies, this paper systematically reviews the company’s historical EMAT reported and field found cracks, and develops the actual EMAT performance specification, i.e., POD curve, as a function of crack size and the proximity to a weld. Log-Logistic regression is employed to fit the data considering the unbalanced sample size of deep and shallow cracks.
Given the developed POD curve, various metrics are explored to characterize the severity of each ILI assessment path considering the EMAT reported crack population and size. As a result, a probabilistic metric is proposed to quantitatively characterize the risk due to EMAT undetected cracks, which can be used to prioritize the EMAT reinspection between lines more effectively. A safety check is also performed using the EMAT-field crack repair database. The proposed method could be used to determine the reinspection interval properly.
The details of the proposed generic framework are included in the paper, which could be used by feeding updated or other company-specific data. In addition, the line-specific hydrostatic test results before or after EMAT and real-time updated dig findings could also be built into the framework as prior knowledge to better prioritize the EMAT reinspection.