bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Design Considerations for a Sea Water Conveyance Pipeline in Chilean Mining: A Case Study
Authors: Martínez Héctor , Sanchez Maximiliano , Elorza Fernando 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Chile, rich in mineral deposits, faces an acute water shortage in its arid mining regions. With increasing industrial and local demands, mining companies are aligning with the national mining policy for 2050 by investing in seawater conveyance infrastructure to reduce continental water consumption. The challenge lies in conveying this water from coastal facilities, traversing the challenging topography of the Andes to reach mining sites above 2,000 m.a.s.l, necessitating water conveyance pipeline infrastructure over extensions of 140 km. This paper focuses on the design complexities encountered in conveying seawater to a major copper mining operation in the region of Antofagasta, a hub of mining activity in Chile’s copper mining sector, addressing critical challenges associated with seawater corrosivity, variable flow capacities, energy efficiency, seismic risks, and steep topography.
For the case study presented, the pipeline is in API 5L X70 bare steel, with corrosion allowance, NPS 36″, as the result of life cycle cost analysis. The study details the approach to optimize the hydraulic design, incorporating historical data analysis for internal pipe roughness and corrosion rate determination due to seawater’s corrosive nature. The pump selection process is explored, emphasizing the need for strict tolerance specifications to ensure design capacity and energy efficiency in the face of the pipeline’s dynamic design requirements. Practical insights are shared regarding pump and electric motor, utilizing Variable Speed Drives (VSD) to accommodate multiple duty points throughout the pipeline’s operational life.
Given the seismicity of the project area, arising from the convergence of the Nazca and South American plates, the study underscores the necessity of a comprehensive seismic risk study to determine design parameters. Additionally, the pipeline’s route presents a unique construction challenge, due to steep elevation changes from coastal facilities to above 1,000 m.a.s.l through a coastal cliff range, within the first 30 km of the pipeline. The study addresses this by providing specific considerations for a specialized construction methodology suitable for high steep slopes.
In conclusion, this case study presents key multifaceted design considerations required for a seawater conveyance pipeline in Chilean mining. by tackling the issues of corrosivity, variable flow capacities along with energy efficiency, seismic risks and pipeline construction in steep topography, the paper offers valuable insights for engineers and stakeholders involved in similar projects. The comprehensive approach presented ensures the resilience and robustness of the pipeline infrastructure throughout its operational life, contributing to a sustainable water availability for the mining operation. The information is presented in general terms, as not to disclose private information.
Pipeline External Corrosion Model Validation
Authors: Ayello Francois , Ellinger Matthew , Liu Guanlan , Al-Beladi Shaker , Dakwar Naim , Krissa Len , Nelson Jocelyn 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Establishing trust in corrosion models requires a robust validation process. This is difficult because large amounts of field data covering a wide range of operating conditions are needed. Relying on a few simple tests is insufficient, as a comprehensive validation demands a thorough comparison between corrosion model predictions and real-world observations. The present study by the Pipeline Research Council International presents the validation of a transmission pipeline external corrosion rate model (EC-01-13, Generic External Corrosion Growth Rate Distributions for Buried Pipelines). The validation was carried out by comparing the external corrosion rate model results with field data gathered by three oil and gas pipeline operators and covering over 400 miles of pipelines. Good agreement was found between modelled corrosion rates and ILI run comparison data.
This study has two main benefits to pipeline operators. First, the validation helped identify areas where the corrosion model may need to be adjusted to provide more accurate predictions for specific pipeline locations and operating conditions. Second, a simple set composed of 27 external corrosion rate distributions (as a function of pipeline exposure, mitigation, and time) have been generated by the external corrosion rate model and validated with the ILI data. This publication provides 27 reliable and simple external corrosion rate estimates that can be utilized by pipeline operators without the need for running the external corrosion model or using specialized software. The use of these validated external corrosion rate distributions may provide a more robust basis for decision-making in pipeline integrity management than using the traditional 16 mpy used for worst case scenarios. In addition, this publication provides a simple way to update the external corrosion rate distributions when new field data becomes available.
The Study on Low-Temperature Transportation of Waxy Crude Oil in Chemical Flooding Pipeline
Authors: Liu Wenchen , Huang Qiyu , Zhou Xiaolong , Lyu Yang , Yang Haoran , Zhang Zixin , Tian Jingru 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
At present, chemical flooding has become an important means to enhance oil recovery in Chinese oil fields. With the implementation of the “3060” carbon neutral policy, the low temperature transportation technology of high-water content crude oil has been implemented in major oil fields across China. However, there is a lack of research on low temperature transportation of crude oil in chemical flooding pipeline. In this paper, the rheometer and stirring method were used to study the rheological properties of oil-water mixtures of waxy crude oil in chemical flooding. The effect of hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM), petroleum sulfonate (PS) and HPAM/PS binary systems on the wall sticking of waxy crude oil during low temperature transportation was investigated by surface adhesion apparatus experiments for the first time. Finally, the interfacial tension (IFT) and contact angle (CA) of the chemical flooding oil/water/pipe wall system were measured by using a high-temperature and high-pressure optical contact angle measuring instrument. The interface wetting theory was used to deduce the adhesion mechanism of waxy crude oil during chemical flooding. The results showed that both HPAM and PS could advance the inversion point of the emulsion. Notably, the addition of HPAM after the inversion point increased the viscosity of oil-water mixture, whereas PS exhibited the opposite effect by decreasing it. Furthermore, the addition of HPAM increased the adhesion between oil droplets and pipe wall, consequently resulting in an elevation of the minimum safe transportation temperature (MSTT) in the range of 0 to 3°C. Conversely, the presence of PS correlated with a reduction in MSTT of 0 to 2°C. The simultaneous presence of both substances resulted in a mutual resistance phenomenon. The research results can provide theoretical guidance for low temperature transportation of waxy crude oil in chemical flooding pipeline.
Pipeline Circumferential Cracking in Near-Neutral pH Environment Under the Influence of Residual Stress
Authors: Shirazi Hamed , Chen Weixing , Eadie Reg 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Despite the implementation of protective coatings and cathodic protection in buried pipeline steels, the occurrence of Near-Neutral pH Corrosion Fatigue (NNpH-CF) remains a critical pipeline integrity management challenge. (Note that this mechanism has previously been termed near-neutral pH stress corrosion cracking.) This form of corrosion fatigue can only occur when the pipeline’s protective coating is damaged, exposing the pipe to corrosion conditions. Circumferential near-neutral pH corrosion fatigue (C-NNpH-CF), where residual and axial stresses play a pivotal role in service failures, is less understood than the more common axial form.
C-NNpH-CF failure involves several stages, including crack initiation and early growth (Stage I), sustainable crack growth (Stage II), and rapid crack propagation leading to failure (Stage III). Using the digital image correlation (DIC) method, this research examined the effects of bending residual stress (as a source of axial stress) and cyclic loading (simulating pipeline pressure fluctuations) on these stages. The evaluation included crack re-initiation from simulated dormant cracks, stage II crack growth, and failure mechanisms, considering various parameters such as applied loading, initial notch depth/position, and bending angle/direction.
The study determined the threshold conditions for crack reinitiation, highlighting the intricate factors influencing this phase. Additionally, crack growth rates during Stage II were compared with those from earlier works on longitudinally oriented NNpH-CF, providing a comprehensive understanding of the circumferential near-neutral pH corrosion fatigue process. Under the influence of maximum bending angle and axial cyclic loading, the highest crack growth rate was obtained at the bent centerline in the inward direction, where maximum tensile stress is concentrated on the external surface. Stage III was primarily governed by a high stress intensity factor, contrasting with Stage II, which was influenced by a medium stress intensity factor and hydrogen-enhanced fatigue. The stress gradient in the depth direction of a bent pipeline emerged as a significant factor affecting crack growth rates at different stages. This research has enhanced circumferential cracking modelling accuracy, aiding operators in mitigating risks, reducing costs, and minimizing environmental consequences associated with these failures.
Development of the Dynamic Model of Mass Movements Threat for the Corridor of the Central Oil Pipeline S.A., “OCENSA” in the Framework of the Management of the Climate and External Forces Threat
Authors: Correa-Calle Oscar , Botía-Díaz Manuel , García-Orozco Francisco , Quintero-Londoño Joan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A landslide threat analysis model is presented for the Central Oil Pipeline of Colombia, operated by OCENSA. It is part of an early warning system under development for making timely decisions to guarantee the integrity and operability of the infrastructure. The model combines susceptibility and accumulated rainfall thresholds triggering landslides with a probabilistic approach. The susceptibility analysis was performed using the weights of evidence method, considering geological, morphological, morphometric, and anthropic variables. It uses 1104 terrain instability events in a corridor of 836 × 50 kilometers. The input and output variables have a resolution of 30 × 30 meters. The validation of the model was done using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve ROC, reaching a performance of 87.9%. The thresholds for accumulated rainfall triggering landslides are obtained using probabilistic models. Satellite monitoring of daily rainfall is conducted at 41 virtual stations using data from NASA’s Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission. The stations are spaced every twenty kilometers along the pipeline axis in a 50-kilometer-wide corridor. The daily rainfall reports in the virtual stations are accumulated for different previous periods. Comparison of accumulated rainfall with thresholds allows calculating the temporal probability of landslides for different accumulation periods. The maximum temporal probabilities of instability in each sector are selected. By combining the susceptibility or spatial probability and the maximum temporal probability, the sectorized daily threat is obtained. The daily threat or space-time probability of landslides is analyzed for about 42.9 million pixels. This is represented on base cartography in five levels included in a probability range between 70% and 99.995%. The threat level at each pixel about the location of the pipeline enables prevention, preparedness, surveillance, and emergency decisions to be made to ensure the integrity and operational continuity of the system.
Fracture Toughness Evaluation of JCOE Pipe Under High Pressure H2 Gaseous
Authors: Nakashima Kota , Ishikawa Nobuyuki , Imayama Hikaru 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Hydrogen embrittlement is one of the major phenomena that deteriorates fracture toughness of pipeline steels. The stress intensity factor which is used for expressing resistance to fracture was investigated under high pressure hydrogen gaseous 21MPa according to ASTM 1820-21, using longitudinal submerged arc welded JCOE pipe of X65 grade with outer diameter (OD) 24″ and wall thickness (WT) 23.8mm rolled from a TMCP plate with Nb micro-alloying, which can create fine microstructure of base metal and HAZ. X65 UOE pipe with fine microstructure by using Nb microalloyed-TMCP plate but coarser grain size than the JCOE pipe was also tested for comparison. In this test, the loading rate was set low enough to represent high effectiveness in hydrogen embrittlement. The elastic-plastic fracture toughness JQ was derived from J-Δa curve. The stress intensity factor values converted from JQ for base metal, weld metal and HAZ of X65 JCOE pipe were all greater than 100 (MPa·√m), which met the criteria of ASME B31.12. The fracture initiation toughness of the X65 JCOE base metal in hydrogen was higher than that of the UOE pipe with coarser grain size. Weld metal of the JCOE pipe exhibited very fine acicular ferrite microstructure and showed highest toughness. While the limited experimental data was presented in this paper and further investigation should be necessary, it can be stated that finer microstructure consisting of acicular ferrite and polygonal ferrite exhibits higher fracture initiation toughness in high pressure hydrogen gaseous.
New Aspects on Modeling Ductile Fracture Arrest Performance of Large-Diameter Pipes in Dense-Phase Carbon Dioxide
Authors: Mondry Andreas , Bosch Christoph 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
When designing pipelines for the transport of compressible media, the required minimum toughness is usually determined by using the Battelle Two-Curve model and expressed as Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact energy. For modern, high-toughness line pipe steels, in particular in the context of carbon dioxide (CO2) as liquid or dense phase, this concept becomes questionable since the CVN impact test loses significance for high-strength steels exhibiting high CVN toughness levels. However, due to the small number of full-scale test results in CO2 available to date that additionally encompass only a narrow envelope of geometries and material properties, it is difficult to derive both validated toughness concept improvements as well as requirements for pipeline design.
This paper examines a numerical modeling approach to ascertain the fracture arrest behavior of pipe transporting dense-phase CO2. The model was tuned to published data on full-scale CO2 burst tests. Multiple pipe diameters and wall thickness/diameter ratios were evaluated. The new model was developed with the intent of better characterizing modern line pipe steels as well as the unique operating aspects of dense-phase CO2.
The results follow the predictions of a DNV RP F104 assessment and show the expected conservatism of the given recommendations.
Pragmatic Study of Dent Restraint Conditions for ILI-Reported Dents Based on API RP 1183
Authors: Wang Rick , Hu Tao , Zhang Shenwei 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The restraint condition of a dent significantly influences the fatigue life of pipelines subjected to mechanical damage. Two primary methods are commonly used to determine this condition: the clock position-based method based on dent orientation and the restraint parameter-based (RP-based) method using the restraint parameter (RP) developed by PRCI MD4-9 project. In the clock-based method, a dent is classified as restrained if it lies between 4 o’clock and 8 o’clock, and as unrestrained otherwise. The RP-based method calculates RP from the dent shape obtained via in-line inspection (ILI) caliper tools. Specifically, a dent is considered restrained if RP &gt; 20, and unrestrained otherwise. Both methods are included in API RP 1183-2020.
To evaluate effectiveness of the RP-based method, we established a comprehensive database of over 9000 dents. Each dent has a three-dimensional (3D) profile obtained from a caliper tool. These dents were collected from 20 pipelines with outer diameters ranging from NPS 6 to NPS 48, involving four ILI vendors. About 60 dents were excavated, and their actual restraint conditions analyzed and compared to RP-based method calculated from dent shape using caliper ILI.
Different Vintage Pipeline Coating Failure Mechanisms and External Corrosion Conditions Between Liquids and Gas Transmission Pipelines
Authors: Kazmi Hermain , Liang Jiajun (Jeff) , Bai Amanda , Rehman Hena , Tsaprailis Haralampos (Harry) 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Within North America, vintage pipeline coatings, such as Polyethylene (PE) tape and Coal Tar Enamel (CTE) were widely used in transmission pipelines that transported both liquid and gas commodities during the 1950s–1980s. At the time, these coatings were believed to be the most reliable method of preventing damage to a pipeline from external corrosion. After more than half a century of operations, it is observed that some of these pipeline coatings have more failures and defects than others, which leads to more severe corrosion conditions. This paper outlines the vintage pipeline coating failure mechanism (i.e., PE tape, CTE) and root causes of variable corrosion conditions, on liquids and gas transmission pipelines of similar age. These potential root causes include operation temperatures, pressure cycling, and pipe diameter size. A detailed analysis of corrosion feature population and density from In-line Inspections (ILI) is conducted to provide evidence of potential root causes. The review of field verification reports was also completed to confirm the coating failure mechanism. The data is gathered from the operator’s active liquids and gas transmission pipelines with similar conditions so that the coating correlation can be understood. Any data skew will also be highlighted to prevent biases in this assessment. The corrosion growth rates (CGR) shall also be considered to compare the effect of coating and justify the increase in the frequency of inspection on certain vintage assets. The outcome of this study is to recommend the “best operating practices” to prevent or reduce failures of vintage coating systems. The suggestions of recoat types on different pipeline systems will also be discussed based on pipe size, original coating types, and products being transported.
Approach to Assess the Effectiveness of Isolation Valves as Part of Pipeline Risk Assessment
Authors: Fontenault Jeremy , Franey Tara , Khushoo Nitish , Borjas Leal Armando 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Valves are installed on pipelines to help reduce the amount of product that can be released in the event of a pipeline loss of containment. Valves can be closed both up- and downstream of the release location to limit the amount of product that can drain out of the pipeline under gravity. Often operators perform assessments to understand the optimal locations to place valves or to assess the optimal valve type to use. This is done for pipelines currently operating and new pipelines being planned. This paper discusses an approach using similar tools, which have been adapted to assess the effectiveness of existing valves. It includes details on how this information can be analyzed and applied to improve pipeline risk assessments and integrity management programs. This approach was recently applied to a large North American pipeline, which has been used as case study for this paper.
The pipeline covers over 1,000 kilometers and has over 100 valves across several distinct pump sections. The valves are a mixture of manually operated, remotely operated, and check valves. The effectiveness of each valve at reducing potential release volumes was assessed by excluding each valve individually and comparing release volumes with and without that valve. Release volumes were modeled as hypothetical full-bore rupture releases at a maximum of 30-meter intervals along the full length of the pipeline segment. This paper covers the details of this approach as well as provides a summary of some of the key findings.
This analysis results in a large amount of data that can be difficult to assimilate into the decision-making process. An interactive data insights dashboard can be a useful tool to quickly filter, summarize, and analyze each valve. This tool can be used to filter by pump section or individual valve, see how the release volumes change along that pipeline segment based on each valve, and see summary statistics for each scenario. Lastly, this tool can be useful to understand what portion of the pipeline segment is affected by each valve.
Lastly, this paper will review how these data insights can be used to improve pipeline risk assessments and pipeline integrity management. The result of this analysis specifically feeds into the optimization of an equipment failure risk model which helps to reduce risk by focusing on valves with higher probabilities of failure or those with significant consequences in case of failure. Valve effectiveness analysis for each pipeline pump section also enables the operator to develop effective emergency response plans and mitigation strategies.
Defining an Environment Where Internal SCC Occurs
Authors: Futch David , Tanner Brandon 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper discusses and defines an environment where internal stress corrosion cracking (SCC) can form. Over the past few years, ADV performed several forensic analyses where internal SCC on gathering pipelines was identified. The identification of broad colonies of longitudinal cracks along the internal pipe surface, a quasi-cleavage fracture surface examined using a scanning electron microscope, and branched tight transgranular cracking were identified supporting the assertion of internal SCC.
All SCC requires three conditions to be simultaneously present: stress, material, and environment. The stress to generate longitudinal cracking is largely a result of the operating pressure generating hoop stress. Carbon steel utilized during the pipeline construction is susceptible to SCC in specific environments. The environment to form internal SCC is dependent on the product/fluid within the pipe, which is drastically different than traditional external SCC. All incidents contained the same general product and added chemicals (inhibitor and biocide). Therefore, characterizing and mitigating the subject environment is critical to managing the internal SCC threat.
In order to characterize susceptible conditions, a series of slow strain rate tests (SSRTs) utilizing varying environments, varying materials, and varying test durations were conducted to gain a better understanding of the internal SCC mechanism present. Based on these tests, the following was concluded: The SSRT cracking produced within a mixture of the chemicals resulted in the same mechanism identified within the forensic analyses. The individual fluids did not result in cracks. Therefore, the mixture of the inhibitor and biocide results in an environment that produces cracks; this crack producing environment appears to be exacerbated by the presence of 3% brine solution. Comparison of the results to a filmed SSRT indicated these cracks form in a submerged environment, such as that encountered in a low spot, rather than one where the chemicals are filmed on the steel surface. Tests performed on three materials and vintages indicated that all low carbon line pipe steels are susceptible to the cracking mechanism discussed in this paper.