bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Oral medicine and oral surgery in children
Authors: Crighton A , Meechan J G 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Children experience a variety of oral medicine and oral surgical problems, of which some last into adulthood and some resolve with or without intervention by the dentist or doctor. Even where the same pathology is found in both adults and children the approach to management and the issues of delivering dental care may be very different in each group. This Chapter reviews conditions of the orofacial region, oral soft tissues, and bone that are frequently found in children or require a particular approach to their management in a paediatric population. The examination of the child starts as soon as the dentist and the child meet. Observations about a child’s weight, height, and development for his/her age, the attachment to the parent or siblings, and even the clothing worn by the child can be important. Apart from being a good starter to a conversation, the child’s new clothes or shoes can suggest a period of growth. Facial and perioral observation is best completed when seeing the child initially, as first impressions of swelling or asymmetry can be investigated later during the standard clinical examination. Although the history will elicit the findings needed to diagnose dental as well as non-dental conditions, the information needed for non-dental conditions and the impact that these conditions have on the child need particular exploration. When at all possible the child should be the source of the information—usually supported by the views of a parent—but it is important to have the child as the focus for initial information gathering. Be careful not to interpret the language used too literally—not every ‘ulcer’ turns out to be such, and always ask ‘What do you mean by …’ if the child or parent uses a word with a particular meaning to the dentist. Many ulcers subsequently turn out to be ‘sore bits’ with questioning—let the child use language with which they are comfortable. Always ask the child for permission before starting an extra- or intraoral examination of the soft tissues and explain what is going to happen.
Childhood impairment and disability
Authors: Nunn J H , Wright G 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
An impairment becomes a disability for a child only if he/she is unable to carry out the normal activities of his/her peer group. For example, a child who has broken an arm is temporarily ‘disabled’ by not being able to eat and write in the normal way. However, impairment is a permanent feature in the lives of some children, although it may become a disability only if they are unable to take part in everyday activities, such as communicating with others, climbing stairs, and toothbrushing. A more contemporary view is one that moves away from the medicalization of impairment to a consideration of ability and functioning, enshrined in the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Impairment (ICF). In this definition, a number of domains are classified from body, individual, and societal perspectives. This approach is less stigmatizing and more enabling of children with impairments. There are a number of reasons why children with impairments merit special consideration for dental care. 1. The oral health of some children with disabilities is different from that of their healthy peers—for example, the greater prevalence of periodontal disease in people with Down syndrome and of tooth-wear in those with cerebral palsy. 2. The prevention of dental disease in disabled children needs to be a higher priority than for so-called normal peers because dental disease, its sequelae, or its treatment may be life-threatening—for example, the risk of infective endocarditis from oral organisms in children with significant congenital heart defects. 3. Treatment planning and the provision of dental care may need to be modified in view of the patient’s capabilities, likely future cooperation, and home care—for example, the feasibility of providing a resin-bonded bridge for a teenager with cerebral palsy, poorly controlled epilepsy, and inadequate home oral care. In the light of these considerations, do such children need special dental care? Most of the studies that have been undertaken on disabled children have indicated that the majority can in fact be treated in a dental surgery in the normal way, together with the rest of their family.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Gary 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The Democratic Party’s 2008 presidential nomination was supposed to be the inevitable coronation of Hillary Clinton. She was the most well-known candidate; had the most support from the party establishment, and had, by far, the most financial resources. Two big names (Al Gore and John Kerry) considered running, but decided they had no hope of defeating the Clinton machine. That left an unlikely assortment of lesser-knowns: a U.S. Representative from Ohio (Dennis Kucinich), the Governor of New Mexico (Bill Richardson), and several U.S. Senators: Joe Biden (Delaware), John Edwards (North Carolina), Chris Dodd (Connecticut), Mike Gravel (Alaska), and Barack Obama (Illinois). The nomination went off script. Obama was a first-term senator, a black man with an unhelpful name, but he excited voters. He raised enough money to be competitive in the Iowa caucuses and he persuaded Oprah Winfrey to campaign for him. Obama defeated Clinton by eight percentage points in Iowa and the race was on. Obama won the Democratic nomination and, then, the presidential election against Republican John McCain because the Obama campaign had a lot more going for it than Obama’s eloquence and charisma: Big Data. The Obama campaign tried to put every potential voter into its data base, along with hundreds of tidbits of personal information: age, gender, marital status, race, religion, address, occupation, income, car registrations, home value, donation history, magazine subscriptions, leisure activities, Facebook friends, and anything else they could find that seemed relevant. Some data were collected from public data bases, some from e-mail exchanges or campaign workers knocking on front doors. Some data were purchased from private data vendors. Layered on top were weekly telephone surveys of thousands of potential voters which not only gathered personal data, but also attempted to gauge each person’s likelihood of voting—and voting for Obama. These voter likelihoods were correlated statistically with personal characteristics and extrapolated to other potential voters based on their personal characteristics. The campaign’s computer software predicted how likely each person its data base was to vote and the probability that the vote would be for Obama. This data-driven model allowed the campaign to microtarget individuals through e-mails, snail mail, personal visits, and television ads asking for donations and votes.
Patterns in Randomness
Authors: Smith Gary 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
I do an extra-sensory perception (ESP) experiment on the first day of my statistics classes. I show the students an ordinary coin— sometimes borrowed from a student—and flip the coin ten times. After each flip, I think about the outcome intently while the students try to read my mind. They write their guesses down, and I record the actual flips by circling H or T on a piece of paper that has been designed so that the students cannot tell from the location of my pencil which letter I am circling. Anyone who guesses all ten flips correctly wins a one-pound box of chocolates from a local gourmet chocolate store. If you want to try this at home, guess my ten coin flips in the stats class I taught in the spring of 2017. My brain waves may still be out there somewhere. Write your guesses down, and we’ll see how well you do. After ten flips, I ask the students to raise their hands and I begin revealing my flips. If a student misses, the hand goes down, Anyone with a hand up at the end wins the chocolates. I had a winner once, which is to be expected since more than a thousand students have played this game. I don’t believe in ESP, so the box of chocolates is not the point of this experiment. I offer the chocolates in order to persuade students to take the test seriously. My real intent is to demonstrate that most people, even bright college students, have a misperception about what coin flips and other random events look like. This misperception fuels our mistaken belief that data patterns uncovered by computers must be meaningful. Back in the 1930s, the Zenith Radio Corporation broadcast a series of weekly ESP experiments. A “sender” in the radio studio randomly chose a circle or square, analogous to flipping a fair coin, and visualized the shape, hoping that the image would reach listeners hundreds of miles away. After five random draws, listeners were encouraged to mail in their guesses. These experiments did not support the idea of ESP, but they did provide compelling evidence that people underestimate how frequently patterns appear in random data.
Old Wine in New Bottles
Authors: Smith Gary 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The fashion industry is subject to recurring cycles of popularity that are regular enough to be dubbed the “20-year rule.” Activewear clothing that is suitable for the gym and the street was fashionable in the 1990s and, 20 years later, in the 2010s. Intellectually, the British economist Dennis Robertson once wrote, “Now, as I have often pointed out to my students, some of whom have been brought up in sporting circles, high-brow opinion is like a hunted hare; if you stand in the same place, or nearly the same place, it can be relied upon to come round to you in a circle.” In the same way, today’s data miners have rediscovered several statistical tools that were once fashionable. These tools have been given new life because they are mathematically complex, indeed beautifully complex, and many data miners are easily seduced by mathematical beauty. Too few think about whether the underlying assumptions make sense and if the conclusions are reasonable. Consider data mining with multiple regression models. Rummaging through a large data base looking for the combination of explanatory variables that gives the best fit can be daunting. With 100 variables to choose from, there are more than 17 trillion possible combinations of 10 explanatory variables. With 1,000 possible explanatory variables, there are nearly a trillion trillion possible combinations of 10 explanatory variables. With 1 million possible explanatory variables, the number of 10-variable combinations grows to nearly a million trillion trillion trillion trillion (if we were to write it out, there would be 54 zeros). Stepwise regression was born back when computers were much slower than today, but it has become a popular data-mining tool because it is less computationally demanding than a full search over all possible combinations of explanatory variables but, it is hoped, will still give a reasonable approximation to the results of a full search. The stepwise label comes from the fact that the calculations go through a number of steps, considering potential explanatory variables one by one. There are three main stepwise procedures. A forward-selection rule starts with the one explanatory variable that has the highest correlation with the variable being predicted. Then the procedure adds a second variable, the variable that improves the fit the most.
Oral medicine and oral pathology
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The mouth has often been looked at as a window into the body, and this is no truer than in oral medicine. The oral mucosa is a highly adapted and robust tissue, which, at the same time, can be very susceptible to changes in homeostasis. Dysregulation of the immune system, alter­ations in cellular signalling pathways, or insult from exogenous stimuli can lead to an array of weird and wonderful oral lesions. Clinicians today are likely to see changes to the oral mucosa on a regular basis— from common ulcers, bony lumps, or white patches to more exotic pigmented lesions or unusual lumps. It is therefore vital to have good basic knowledge of common conditions and be able to iden­tify lesions that need urgent referral and treatment. It is important to take a thorough medical history, as many oral symptoms can be associ­ated with systemic conditions or changes in medication. A temporal link can be a good indicator of causation from medication changes. Having a strategic method of constructing a list of differential diag­noses, such as the surgical sieve, can be a great aide- memoire to ensure all the pertinent questions and investigations have been completed. However, it must be noted that many conditions cannot be accurately diagnosed without histological examination, and therefore, referral for specialist input is commonplace. Oral medicine can be a tricky discipline, fraught with challenging pa­tients to manage, particularly those with chronic conditions. Conversely, the diagnostic challenges make for a thoroughly rewarding and stimu­lating discipline. The questions in this chapter will test your knowledge of disease symptoms, links to medical conditions, and patient management. Key topics include: ● Patient assessment and diagnosis ● Investigations ● Basic histology ● Infections (bacterial, viral, and fungal) ● Ulcers ● Soft tissue swelling ● Bony lumps ● Systemic conditions ● White, red, pigmented, and mixed patches ● Oral cancer ● Pharmacology.
Analgesia, anaesthesia, and sedation
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The ability to practise dentistry and provide invasive treatments to pa­tients is based on the ability to make such procedures comfortable and acceptable for patients to tolerate, as well as manage post- operative pain. A good working knowledge of the different treatment modalities available, and analgesic agents that can be prescribed, is key to effective management of patients. This must include the indications and limita­tions of each modality. The pharmacology of most drugs used in modern- day dentistry has changed very little since their introduction, some as far back as 100 years ago. However, it is important to understand the processes regarding their method of action, their effect on the human body, and their indica­tions and contraindications. All of these factors must be considered to maximize the clinical benefit to the patient. Several guidelines regarding the use of conscious sedation in dentistry have recently been introduced, and it is important that those wishing to provide conscious sedation and refer patients appropriately familiarize themselves with these guidelines. Key topics include: ● Principles of analgesia, anaesthesia, and conscious sedation ● Pharmacology and pharmacodynamics of commonly used pharmaco­logical agents ● Indications and contraindications of commonly used pharmacological agents ● Conscious sedation with nitrous oxide ● Conscious sedation with midazolam ● General anaesthesia ● Treatment planning for conscious sedation and general anaesthesia ● Managing complications and adverse reactions
Radiology and radiography
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
When you consider that, with direct vision alone, you can only see the coronal few millimetres of teeth and none of the surrounding alveolus, it becomes clear that, without additional visual aids, we can only assess and treat a relatively small proportion of our patient’s oral health needs. In 1895, only months after the very first medical radiograph, Dr Otto Walkhoff recorded the very first dental radiograph. This exposure was of his own dentition and lasted a lengthy 25 minutes. Since then, radiography has become a staple tool of the profession and refinement of the technology has allowed us to reduce exposure times down to milliseconds, with radiation doses smaller than those ex­perienced by people taking short- haul flights. Further advances in dose reduction and reformatting protocols have allowed for computed tom­ography to become increasingly popular for diagnostics and treatment planning in endodontic, oral surgery, and orthodontic cases. The benefits of dental radiography make them an indispensable resource, but since all types of radiation pose some degree of risk to human health, the clinician must consider how useful the information from the proposed exposure will be. There are no shortages of tragic stories of employees working with radiation who suffered ill health years after stopping work. Today dental radiography can be performed routinely and safely as a result of the valuable lesson learnt from the debilitating consequences suffered by past medical professionals, nuclear workers, and even the ‘radium girls’ who painted luminous material onto watch faces. Key topics include: ● Limitations of radiographs ● Image selection criteria ● Radiation physics, protection, and legislation ● Radiographic interpretation ● Types of dental radiographic imagery.
The Roman West and the Roman East
Authors: Burnett Andrew 
Published: November 2020

AbstractMany Aspects of Different Cultures can help to throw light on their differing identities—language, architecture, religion, and many other things, such as the ‘range of landscapes, ways of thought, racial groups, roof-tops and cheeses’. In fact, almost anything. A particular category is provided by the institutions people observe, a category which might embrace an enormous range of different things, from burial practices to legal systems, or from different calendars to different systems of weights and measures. The link between coins, weights, and measures was clear to the Greeks and Romans, and that coins could be regarded as an expression of some at least of the values characteristic of a particular society is evident from an anecdote reported by Pliny as taking place in the reign of Claudius. He relates how a Roman was forced by a storm to Sri Lanka (ancient Taprobane), and how he told the local king about Rome: A freedman of Annius Plocamus, who had brought the tax collection for the Red Sea from the Treasury, was sailing round Arabia. He was carried along by winds from the north past Carmania and, on the fifteenth day, made harbour at Hippuros in the island; and in consequence of the kind hospitality of the king he learned the local language thoroughly over a period of six months, and afterwards in reply to his questions described the Romans and Caesar. In what he heard the king got a remarkably good idea of their honesty, because among the captured money there were denarii which were of equal weight, even though their various types indicated that they were issued by several persons. I want to apply this approach to the Roman world, and use coins in a way that may throw light on some of the ways that Romans regarded themselves, having a special look at the differences between the western and eastern parts of the empire. I want to suggest that we can use this sort of approach to help explain the fundamental change that took place in the currency of the Iberian peninsula, Gaul, Italy, Sicily, and Africa in the first century ad—how people there stopped using locally made coins and started to use coins imported from Rome, coins which might otherwise have been regarded in some sense as almost ‘foreign’.
Synthesis of modified peptides
Authors: Mellor Sarah L , Wellings Donald A 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Several important hormones such as oxytocin, secretin, and LHRH are known to be peptidyl amides. In addition to these, other peptidyl amides such as indolicidin and the protegrins have been shown to exhibit potent antimicrobial activity. The in vivo production of such compounds is via endogenous enzymatic cleavage of propeptides, making their synthesis by genetic engineering notoriously difficult. Furthermore, to facilitate the survival of synthetic peptidyl amides in vivo, an obvious defence against the action of carboxypeptidases is the N-alkylation of the carboxylic amide terminus. Such secondary amides would be expected to exhibit vastly different solubility and transport properties to primary amides, thus their chemical synthesis is of immense importance. The solid phase synthesis of peptidyl amides and peptidyl N-alkyl amides is centred around two main strategies: 1. Ammonolysis/aminolysis of resin-bound esters. 2. Use of resin-bound primary amines, which may in turn be chemically modified to generate novel secondary amine functionalized linkers for the synthesis of peptidyl N-alkyl amides. Early examples of the use of resin-bound amines for the solid synthesis of peptidyl amides involve the use of linkers such as benzhydrylamine or benzylamine. Following peptide assembly, these linkers require highly acidic (e.g. HF) mediated cleavage, and hence simultaneous removal of acid-labile sidechain protection groups occurs and may cause problems. Systematic modifications of these linker-resins by substitution with electron-donating substituents have resulted in the generation of numerous linker-resins with increased acid sensitivity. Notably, the 4-(2',4'-dimethoxyphenylaminomethyl) phenoxy derivatized (Rink) resin 1, which is cleavable by 95% v/v TFA, and the 5-(2-fluorenylmethoxycarbonylaminornethyl-3,5-dimethoxy)- phenoxyvaleric acid (PAL) linker 2 acidolysed by 75% v/v TFA. Greater acid lability has been achieved using the xanthenyl derivatized resin, 9-(fluorenylmethoxycarbonylamino)xanthen-3-yloxymethyl polystyrene (Sieber amide) resin 3, which besides being cleavable by 1% v/v TFA, holds the added advantage of readily undergoing reductive N-alkylation to afford resin-bound secondary amines for the synthesis of peptidyl N-alkyl amides. In addition to the method detailed below, a number of alternative approaches have recently been reported.