bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A primer on constructed languages
Authors: Sanders Nathan 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter outlines the history of language construction, beginning with the earliest recorded examples of linguistic creativity and continuing with the first true constructed languages from the Middle Ages up through the Renaissance and Enlightenment, when language construction was guided largely by religious and philosophical concerns. The chapter continues by exploring more recent history, when language construction was guided more by practical goals to unite humanity. At the same time, language construction as an art form was also being developed, most notably by J. R. R. Tolkien, who set the stage for the modern era of artistic language construction requiring specialized knowledge, talent, and hard work. The chapter also discusses the emerging role of language construction as a tool for language revitalization and concludes with a summary of terms and concepts that are important to the study of constructed languages.
The interdisciplinarity of conlangs
Authors: Sanders Nathan , Schreyer Christine 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses the pedagogical and cognitive benefits that interdisciplinarity has for both students and instructors when paired with intentional pedagogy, in the context of courses that use language construction to teach linguistics. The chapter presents four case studies from such courses, addressing how a language is shaped by the anatomy of its users, the physical environment it is transmitted through, and the surrounding culture of its users. As these case studies demonstrate, language construction provides opportunities to explore the links that language has with other fields of study, such as biology, physics, and culture, highlighting the inherent interdisciplinarity of linguistics and anthropology.
Learning about language through language invention
Authors: Anderson Skye J. , Bischoff Shannon T. , Punske Jeffrey , Fountain Amy V. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the implementation of Invented Language Projects in different institutional and pedagogical contexts, focusing on introductory level linguistics. The data the chapter draws on come from students at three public universities, in a variety of class sizes, across undergraduate cohorts, and using a variety of integrations of language invention in course materials, over the last five years. The chapter identifies patterns of effectiveness in the use of language invention in the classroom by analyzing data collected inside and outside of these courses, assessing students’ mastery of core concepts in linguistics, their beliefs and attitudes about language, and their perception of the utility of language invention for their own learning. Though there is variation in the effectiveness of these strategies as they are instantiated in different contexts, the chapter shows that language invention is a promising way to engage with and effectively teach introductory students about the workings of natural human language.
The evolution of endemic plants
Authors: Thompson John D. 
Published: October 2020

AbstractIn this chapter the phasing of the geological and climatic history of the Mediterranean basin is used to provide a structure for the presentation of the processes of plant diversification and in particular the evolution of endemism. In many groups of plants, evolution has occurred repeatedly during the different major phases of the region’s history. This chapter illustrates these processes and describes the major patterns of east to west diversification across the region that evolved at different times and produced the patterns described in the previous chapter. The divergence of endemic species in the different parts of the Mediterranean is the central theme. The evolution of endemism is treated at different biological levels: disjunct endemic species, geographic subspecies, and isolated populations.
Reluctant European
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
In 2016, the voters of the United Kingdom decided to leave the European Union. The majority for ‘Leave’ was small. Yet, in more than forty years of EU membership, the British had never been wholeheartedly content. In the 1950s, governments preferred the Commonwealth to the Common Market. In the 1960s, successive Conservative and Labour administrations applied to join the European Community because it was a surprising success, whilst the UK’s post-war policies had failed. But the British were turned down by the French. When the UK did join, twelve years after first asking, it joined a club whose rules had been made by others and which it did not much like. At one time or another, Labour and Conservative were at war with each other and internally. In 1975, the Labour government held a referendum on whether the UK should stay in. Two thirds of the voters decided to do so. But the wounds did not heal. Europe remained ‘them’, not ‘us’. The UK was on the front foot in proposing reform and modernization and on the back foot as other EU members wanted to advance to ‘ever closer union’. This book tells the story of a relationship rooted in a thousand years of British history, and of our sense of national identity in conflict with our political and economic need for partnership with continental Europe.
Second Thoughts, 1961–1969
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Future Prime Minister Edward Heath headed the British team that negotiated for British accession to the EEC. Reconciling UK Commonwealth interests with the established EEC rules, especially on agriculture, was problematic. Successive meetings between Prime Minister Macmillan and President de Gaulle made little headway in overcoming de Gaulle’s resistance to UK membership. In January 1963, de Gaulle vetoed the UK application. When the Conservatives lost office in the 1964 General Election, Prime Minister Wilson gradually came to the same view as Macmillan. The Labour government renewed the British application but, once again, in 1967, de Gaulle vetoed it. Only with de Gaulle’s resignation in 1969 was the prospect of membership reopened.
The Years of the Tiger, 1975–1984
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Labour Party divisions over Europe soon reappeared. The first British EEC Presidency in 1976 was marked by the sudden death of Foreign Secretary, Tony Crosland (succeeded by the rising star of Labour, David Owen) and the resignation of Wilson. The Labour National Executive Committee (NEC) had to be reined in by Prime Minister Callaghan when they came close to recommending that the UK should leave the EU. Labour’s defeat in the 1979 General Election did not lead to an improvement. Prime Minister Thatcher embarked on a battle with her EEC partners to secure a large and lasting cut in Britain’s contribution to the EEC budget. Tensions ran high and relations between the UK and her partners were at an all-time low. A deal was done in 1984 under the French Presidency of Mitterrand.
No, No, No
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Thatcher got less money back from her EEC partners than she had argued for but secured a lasting deal to replace endless yearly battles for refunds. Arguments over reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) continued. Thatcher championed economic liberalization in Europe, but was opposed to the Treaty changes needed to bring it about. She compromised and got most of what she wanted, at the price of accepting that economic and monetary union (a single currency) would be pursued. Her attempt at a closer relationship with Kohl and Mitterrand was rebuffed. The Bruges speech created shockwaves around Europe. Thatcher and Howe (Foreign Secretary until 1989) were at odds over Europe. He helped force her to agree to join the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). Her stridency provoked his resignation from government and her downfall. Her policies and legacy tend to be caricatured.
New Dawn or More of the Same?
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The Labour Party under Tony Blair was pro-European but its policies, apart from on social issues, were not far from those of the Conservatives. Blair was cautious on joining the single currency, a key test for the UK’s EU partners. Courting the Murdoch Press was a factor as, increasingly, were Gordon Brown’s ambitions to displace Blair. The internal politics of New Labour and the marginalization of Robin Cook impinged on the author’s work in Brussels and Downing Street. Blair seemed determined to join the single currency in Labour’s second term but was defeated by Brown. Blair’s Iraq policy divided the EU and alienated France and Germany. A post-Iraq attempt at trilateralism failed. When Brown succeeded Blair as Prime Minister he pursued his well-trodden path of courting popularity by being seen to stand up to ‘Brussels’.
Brave New World?
Authors: Wall Stephen 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter analyses the implications of Brexit for the UK and the issues facing the EU without the UK. It assesses the costs to the UK in terms of economics and loss of influence on decisions affecting key UK interests. It concludes that the UK is bound to be diminished, but that the EU will also feel the loss of UK influence on economic liberalization, in overseas aid and in foreign policy. The Eurozone will survive but its difficulty in making progress towards a fiscal union will also make it harder for a core grouping to emerge. In seeking to set a common vision for the EU, President Macron of France is so far a lonely voice. For the author, the EU offers a means of managing the relations between potentially querulous neighbours and of entrenching and sharing democratic values. There will be tangible, and less immediately obvious, losses to the UK.
Dieter Grimm
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Dieter Grimm is one of Germany’s foremost scholars of constitutional law and theory with a high international reputation and an exceptional career. He teaches constitutional law at Humboldt University Berlin and did so simultaneously at the Yale Law School until 2017. He was one of the most influential justices of the German Constitutional Court where he served from 1987 to 1999 and left his marks on the jurisprudence of the Court, especially in the field of fundamental rights. He directed one of the finest academic institutions worldwide, the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin (Institute for Advanced Study). He is also well known as a public intellectual who speaks up in questions of German politics and European integration. This book contains a conversation that three scholars of constitutional law led with Dieter Grimm on his background, his childhood under the Nazi regime and in destroyed post-war Germany, his education in Germany, France, and the United States, his academic achievement, the main subjects of his research, his experience as a member of a leading constitutional court, especially in the time of seminal changes in the world after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and his views on actual challenges for law and society. The book is an invaluable source of information on an outstanding career and the functioning of constitutional adjudication, which one would not find in legal textbooks or treatises. Oxford University Press previously published his books on Constitutionalism. Past, Present, and Future (2016) and The Constitution of European Democracy (2017).
Bielefeld
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The chapter is devoted to the first professorship at the University of Bielefeld, the specific orientation of that university, the colleagues, the interdisciplinary contacts, in particular with colleagues from history (Kosellek, Wehler, Kocka), political science (Offe) and sociology (Luhmann), his directorship at the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research (ZiF) of Bielefeld University, his project on “Functions of the State” at the ZiF and the other subjects of his research in these years (1979–1987)
Uproar about the Constitutional Court’s Jurisprudence
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The chapter deals with the two most contested judgements of the Court in which Dieter Grimm was involved (“Soldiers are Murderers” and “Crucifix in Classrooms in Bavaria”), the protests that the judgments entailed, his personal attitude vis-à-vis the protest, murder threats against him, relationship between national and constitutional law.
International Constitutionalist: Renewed Ties with the US
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter deals with Dieter Grimm’s international engagement after his time on the Court, especially with his teaching in the US, next to his chair at the Law Faculty of Humboldt University Berlin where he has been teaching since 2000. The American universities where he taught mostly comparative constitutional law were NYU, Harvard, and mostly Yale. The merits of a comparative approach in constitutional law, the necessity of contextualization if one wants to understand foreign legal systems. The chapter treats moreover Yale’s famous Global Constitutionalism Seminar and its prominent participants as well as the difference between the conditions for teaching and research at German and American universities.
Human perfection in Orthodox theological anthropology
Authors: Torrance Alexis 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter deals first with the question of methodology in Orthodox theology, offering an explanation and defence of the increasingly controversial neo-patristic synthesis model proposed by Georges Florovsky. This is followed by a discussion of Orthodox theological anthropology, beginning with a plea for a Christocentric approach. An outline of modern Orthodox theological anthropology is then offered, with an emphasis on theological personalism (represented by John Zizioulas, Christos Yannaras, and others) and its place within larger personalist movements. Debates regarding the meaning of the term ‘hypostasis’ or person in the patristic and Byzantine sources form part of this discussion. Finally, the importance of deification and the impact of the concept of ‘Godmanhood’ (or ‘Divine-Humanity’) from Soloviev and Bulgakov is also briefly examined. The chapter ends with another call to focus primarily on the doctrine of Christ in order for Orthodox theological anthropology to develop in creative continuity with its heritage.
Perpetual progress or eternal rest?
Authors: Torrance Alexis 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The idea of perpetual progress or epektasis has become a popular way to characterize the Byzantine and Orthodox approach to eschatology, whereby the human being forever stretches out in an unending ascent into God. Gregory of Nyssa is taken as the chief architect of this approach, but Maximus the Confessor is also frequently marshalled to the same cause. This chapter questions the applicability of epektasis to the theology of Maximus, and further challenges the hegemony of this idea as a general shorthand for the Byzantine and Orthodox view of eschatology. Without denying its presence as a component of Byzantine eschatological discourse, the far more prevalent interest in rest/stasis is brought out through an examination of Maximus’s eschatology. This is connected with the view that what is true of Christ’s humanity becomes true of the humanity of the saints by grace, and Christ’s enthroned humanity is no longer subject to growth or progress.
Perfection before our eyes
Authors: Torrance Alexis 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The connection between the humanity of Christ and the pursuit of human perfection lies at the heart of this chapter on the theology of Theodore the Studite. The case is made that while Theodore is often overlooked as a theological thinker, this is regrettable, and that in particular on the issue of Christ’s humanity he has much to offer. Bringing together Theodore’s detailed dogmatic defence of icons (specifically icons of Christ) and his ascetic or pastoral thought, it is argued that both form a cohesive whole held together by a strong devotion to the continuing particularity and specificity of Christ’s humanity. It is only through recognition of, and devotion to, the concrete humanity of Christ that human perfection can be accessed for Theodore. He considers it a perfection to be appropriated above all not through the flight of the hermit, but through the workaday life of the monastic coenobium.
I am called by two names, human and divine
Authors: Torrance Alexis 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Symeon the New Theologian is known for his mysticism of divine light and his constant preoccupation with the theme of perfection. This chapter first examines this preoccupation, specifically his opposition to what is dubbed ‘the heresy of mediocrity’. In order to live up to the name, every Christian, for Symeon, must be oriented towards the fullness of perfection. This chapter highlights the unmistakably Christocentric form this perfection takes in Symeon, emphasizing in particular his tendency to transpose the language of Byzantine Christological dogma (Christ as one person in two natures, energies, and wills) into the arena of human perfection. The strong correlation between Symeon’s understanding of the incarnate Christ and his understanding of the human ideal towards which all must strive is the chief focus of this chapter.
Pictures, Communication, and Meaning
Authors: Kulvicki John 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the project. Pictures are used for communication, and the way they do this sheds light on their syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pictures can have attributive and singular contents in many different ways. All of these pictorial meanings are built on a foundation of pictorial character and pictorial content. Unpacking these various meanings constitutes the meaning thread of the book, which is most prominent in Chapters 2, 4, 5, and 6. In addition, it is impossible to understand the communicative uses to which pictures are put without understanding how pictures have meaningful parts, the focus of Chapters 3, 7, and 8. This chapter sketches both the meaning thread and the parts thread as a way of helping keep the whole project in view, while each subsequent chapter winds up being focused on a specific aspect of it.
Iconography
Authors: Kulvicki John 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Wherever one finds rich picture-making practices, one tends to find iconography. The painting of a well-dressed young woman standing next to a bladed wheel, for example, represents St Catherine of Alexandria. Iconographic interpretation is reading pictures as having singular contents, like St Catherine, but the operation that yields those contents is not dthat as described in Chapter 4. Instead, it is another operation defined over character and content. The pictorial content is searched for attributes, which deliver the individual associated with them as a new iconographic content. The structure of the operation is like dthat, in that a pictorial content becomes a character which determines a new content, but the means by which a new content is determined are different. This process allows pictures to represent not just people, but all manner of things, like abstracta, which have no visual appearances at all.
Metaphor
Authors: Kulvicki John 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Pictures can be used metaphorically. Many non-standard uses of pictures have been inaccurately classified as metaphorical. In addition, many seemingly metaphorical uses of pictures might not be that because they are used along with language. So, the first part of the chapter isolates strictly pictorial metaphors as a phenomenon. The chapter then shows that a semantic account of metaphor due to Josef Stern (2000) tidily accounts for these uses. This semantic operation is related to Kaplan’s dthat, but it does not yield a new singular content. Instead, it yields a new attributive content. In this way, pictures can be used to represent all manner of qualities that cannot figure in ordinary pictorial contents.
Excellent Population Health, Low Economic Growth
Authors: Brunner Eric , Cable Noriko , Iso Hiroyasu 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
At the time of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, Japan was young. There were six children and teenagers for each person 65 and over. Now (2020), there are ten older people for every six children and teenagers. The fertility rate of 1.4 is far below replacement level and Japan’s population is shrinking. It is well known that the health of Japanese people improved rapidly during the 1960–1990 period of rapid economic growth. After 1990, Japan experienced 30 years of low growth; however health continued to improve and inequality in wellbeing stayed low. Age-adjusted stroke and cancer mortality rates continued their downward trajectory, and life expectancy continues to be the highest of any major nation. The health of Japanese people reflects its history and culture. Social inequality has tended to increase in recent years. Collective identity remains strong.
Women, Men, and the ‘Missing’ Babies
Authors: Baba Sachiko , Iso Hiroyasu 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Japan experienced a baby boom in the late 1940s and a second smaller one during the 1970s. This small second baby boom in the 1970s generated far fewer women of reproductive age in the 2000s, resulting in a missing third baby boom. Legalization of induced abortion in 1949 may have contributed to shortening the baby booms and suppressing the fertility rate. Less frequent sexual intercourse, delayed marriage, remaining single, and childless marriages play increasingly prominent roles in the recent low fertility rates in Japan. In the 1980s and 1990s, fertility rates in South Korea and China declined to similarly low levels. Fertility rates remain low in the three countries. Despite different histories and cultures, e.g. abortion rights and access to contraception, East Asian countries seem to share factors, such as trends in marriage and remaining unmarried, leading to low fertility rates. Further research and education across all age groups is needed. Policies that prioritize reproductive-aged adults, children, and childcare could play a key role in raising fertility rates.
Japan’s Miracle Decades
Authors: Tsutsumi Akizumi 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Since the end of World War II, the Japanese economy has experienced two types of ‘dual structure’ issues among occupational groups. The period before the war until 1950 consisted of large-scale companies stemming from zaibatsu (financial cliques) and indigenous domestic industries. The health disparities across occupational groups, often observed in the West, increased between the pre-war period and the 1950s but declined in the subsequent high economic growth period. The decline in health disparities was aided by economic democratization policies, active labour union functions, and post-war economic growth. Near-total employment was achieved, at least among male workers, in the late 1960s to early 1970s. Later, recession in the wake of the bursting bubble economy after 1991, and the subsequent economy-first policy, brought another dual structure: regular employees versus lower-paid ‘precarious’ employees. The latter group includes many women. Stressful working conditions including long working hours among specific occupational groups may cause unique patterns of health disparity among Japanese workers.