bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Anaemia as a challenge to world health
Authors: Roberts David J. , Weatherall David J. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Anaemia is a very common problem in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs): 27% of the world’s population or 1.93 billion people are affected by anaemia (2013) and more than 90% of people with anaemia live in the developing world. Preschool children and women of reproductive age are particularly affected by anaemia and more 60% of anaemia is caused by iron deficiency.
Causes of anaemia in LMICs—this is often multifactorial, with causes including (1) nutritional deficiencies—iron, folate, vitamin B12; (2) chronic infection—including malaria, tuberculosis, AIDS; (3) blood loss—hookworm, schistosomiasis; (4) protein–energy malnutrition; (5) malabsorption—for example, tropical sprue; (6) hereditary—for example, thalassaemias, haemoglobin variants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.
A series of vicious cycles exist in LMICs—maternal anaemia due to iron or folate deficiency and chronic malaria is associated with the birth of underweight infants who frequently have low iron stores, may also be folate deplete, and are usually anaemic from about 6 months of age. Such infants are prone to infection, particularly gastrointestinal, and may be further depleted of iron or folate by inappropriately prolonged breastfeeding or weaning onto an inadequate diet. They are exposed to hookworm infection as soon as they start to crawl, malaria becomes an important problem after 6 months, and in many populations the increasingly common haemoglobinopathies are a further cause of anaemia after the first few months of life.
Anaemia of inflammation
Authors: Pasricha Sant-Rayn , Drakesmith Hal 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The anaemia of inflammation is one of the commonest causes of anaemia, particularly in the elderly and in those with extensive comorbidities. Dysregulation of the hepcidin axis is central to its pathophysiology, with upregulation of hepcidin both limiting iron absorption from the gut and preventing effective mobilization of iron stores for erythropoiesis. However, hepcidin-independent mechanisms of the anaemia of chronic disease exist and must be considered in assessing the underlying aetiology of otherwise unexplained anaemia. Interactions between the anaemia of chronic disease and other forms of anaemia are common. The management of the anaemia of inflammation rests in large part on the treatment of the underlying disease(s) where possible. In cases where anaemia-specific treatment is required, iron supplementation—particularly intravenous iron—may have a role. There is limited evidence for the use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in certain circumstances.
Cutaneous vasculitis, connective tissue diseases, and urticaria
Authors: Shpadaruk Volha , Harman Karen E. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Vasculitis (angiitis) denotes necrotizing inflammation of the blood vessels; occlusive vasculopathy implies vascular occlusion without significant vascular inflammation. A small-vessel cutaneous vasculitis is the most common vasculitis affecting the skin, and may be the first sign of a systemic vasculitis, but 50% of patients have no systemic disease. Systemic lupus erythematosus is diagnosed if four or more of the American College of Rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of this disease are present, either sequentially or simultaneously. Meanwhile, dermatomyositis is an uncommon multisystem autoimmune disease in which inflammatory skin changes are associated with polymyositis of skeletal muscle. Scleroderma means thickened, fibrotic, bound-down skin. It might develop in association with a systemic connective tissue disease (systemic sclerosis) or present as a localized cutaneous problem. Panniculitis is inflammation of the subcutaneous fat, sometimes associated with vasculitis. It presents with erythematous subcutaneous nodules, most often on the lower leg.
Disorders of pigmentation
Authors: Healy Eugene 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Normal human skin colour results from the reflection of light from haemoglobin in blood, and carotenoids and melanin pigmentation in the skin. Melanin pigmentation is the major component for determining differences in skin colour between races. Increases and decreases in skin pigmentation (hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation, respectively) can be localized or generalized, can result from a wide variety of physiological or pathological processes, including both genetic and acquired factors, and may reflect underlying systemic disease. Irrespective of cause and associations with underlying systemic disease, disorders of pigmentation can cause considerable distress to sufferers due to the visible nature of this condition.
Blood and lymphatic vessel disorders
Authors: Mortimer Peter S. , Hay Roderick J. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Bleeding into the skin may occur for local reasons or as part of a systemic disorder. The distribution of lesions is important: widespread lesions suggest a systemic problem, whereas regional lesions suggest that local factors predominate. Widespread flat purpura without erythema should prompt a search for underlying haematological abnormalities such as platelet disorders. In patients with acute peripheral ischaemia, it is important to exclude embolism. A pressure ulcer (decubitus ulcer, bedsore, pressure sore) is due to localized injury to the skin and/or underlying tissue as a result of pressure alone, or in combination with shear and/or friction. Meanwhile, acute deep venous thrombosis may be silent but usually results in skin erythema and limb oedema. Consequences of post-thrombotic vein damage include further deep venous thrombosis, superficial thrombophlebitis, oedema, skin changes, and eventually ulceration.
Hair and nail disorders
Authors: de Berker David 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Nails grow continuously throughout life, except after exceptional physiological or traumatic events when they are shed. All other less disruptive influences result in changes in the colour, thickness, texture, and growth of nails, and may also affect the periungual tissues. The most common local diseases affecting the nail are psoriasis, fungal nail infections, periungual eczema, and viral warts. Trauma is a common cause of changes in toenails. Disease can affect hair growth by direct action on the follicle or by indirect effects sustained through generalized physiological disturbance. Clinicians might be asked to assess specific diseases of the scalp with implications for hair growth, or specifically to address pathological patterns of hair growth where there may be underlying systemic disease. Common diseases of the scalp include psoriasis, eczema, fungal infection, alopecia areata, and the scarring alopecias.
Skin and systemic diseases
Authors: Archer Clive B. , Archer Charles M.G. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Dermatology is most interesting where it overlaps with general internal medicine. Skin lesions can be part of a systemic disease (e.g. in sarcoidosis or systemic lupus erythematosus), or they may be a manifestation of an underlying disease or process as in the case of acanthosis nigricans, which can be associated with either an underlying adenocarcinoma in older patients, or with insulin resistance and sometimes overt diabetes mellitus in younger obese patients. Sarcoid can affect the skin in numerous ways, as can diabetes mellitus and liver disease. Renal disease may affect the skin by causing pruritus, pigmentary changes, dryness, and calciphylaxis, and use of immunosuppression can lead to an increase in malignancy in some cases. Common associations of pyoderma gangrenosum include inflammatory bowel diseases (ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease), rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatological disease, haematological malignancies, and monoclonal gammopathies.
Investigation of central motor pathways: Magnetic brain stimulation
Authors: Mills K.R. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The ability to stimulate percutaneously the central nervous system of conscious humans without causing pain has opened up new areas for neurophysiological investigation in the early diagnosis of neurological disease, and has furthered the understanding of normal and abnormal motor control. Magnetic stimulators are now available that can excite both upper and lower limb areas of the motor cortex, as well as cranial nerves, motor roots, and deeply sited peripheral nerves. This chapter looks at their application in a clinical scenario, which include: measurement of central motor conduction time; assessment of completeness of spinal cord injury; and possibly evaluation of neurodevelopmental delay in children with neurodegenerative and other related diseases. The technique can be used serially to monitor progress of disease or after neurological injury or to examine the effects of drugs, and it can be used safely in neonates and children.
Hearing loss
Authors: Luxon Linda 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
The World Health Organization has estimated that 360 million people worldwide are affected by disabling hearing loss, making hearing impairment—the hidden handicap frequently overlooked by all clinicians—the most common sensory impairment. Most of those affected are in low- and middle-income countries, but 17% of the adult population in the United Kingdom are affected, with three-quarters being over 60 years of age. Causes may relate to cochlear, neurological, general medical, or iatrogenic pathology, with half of all cases being preventable by primary prevention.
Clinical examination includes visual inspection of the anatomy of the external ear and tympanic membrane, and tuning-fork tests, which may distinguish conductive from sensorineural hearing loss.
Diseases of the peripheral nerves
Authors: Hadden Robert D.M. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
This chapter first describes normal physiology, then principles of pathology, typical clinical symptoms and phenotypic subtypes. Lesions of a single nerve (mononeuropathy) include carpal tunnel syndrome, ulnar neuropathy at the elbow and many less commonly affected nerves. Polyneuropathy (generalised abnormality in proportion to nerve length) characteristically causes predominantly distal sensory loss and weakness, and has a large number of possible causes. These include diabetes mellitus, toxins including alcohol, malnutrition especially vitamin B12 deficiency, autoimmune inflammatory demyelination, vasculitis, and genetic neuropathies (Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease), although many patients remain idiopathic despite investigation. Only some causes are treatable. The disease process usually primarily affects the axon, but less commonly there is primary demyelination, neuronopathy or interstitial infiltration.
Metabolic and endocrine disorders
Authors: Hilton-Jones David , Edwards Richard 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Disturbances of the biochemical or ionic balance of muscle resulting in impaired muscle function can be caused by a disparate group of conditions, including primary inherited disorders affecting enzymes or ion channels, and secondary disorders in which metabolic or endocrine disequilibrium disturbs normal function. This chapter explores the primary metabolic myopathies, mostly autosomal recessive disorders in which lack of activity of a specific enzyme impairs adenosine triphosphate generation. Clinical presentation is with exercised-induced symptoms, but there are fundamental differences in manifestations depending upon whether the enzyme defect affects glycogen/glucose metabolism or fatty acid metabolism, reflecting the very different contributions that these pathways make to energy production depending on the nature of the exercise.
Mitochondrial disease
Authors: Chinnery Patrick F. , Turnbull D.M. 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Mitochondrial encephalomyopathies are caused by primary defects of the respiratory chain that lead to disturbed generation of adenosine triphosphate by aerobic metabolism. This characteristically impairs the function of high-demand tissues such as the brain, eye, cardiac, and skeletal muscle, as well as endocrine organs. The numerous proteins involved are encoded by genes in mitochondrial or nuclear DNA. Mutations in these genes can lead to clinical disorders. Disorders of intermediary metabolism (such as fatty acid β-oxidation or tricarboxylic acid cycle defects) involve mitochondrial enzymes, but the term ‘mitochondrial disease’ usually means a disease which is due to an abnormality of the final common pathway of energy metabolism—the mitochondrial respiratory chain, which is linked to the production of adenosine triphosphate by oxidative phosphorylation. The respiratory chain is essential for aerobic metabolism, and respiratory chain defects characteristically affect tissues and organs that are heavily dependent upon oxidative metabolism.
Confusion
Authors: Sheehan Bart , Jackson Thomas 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Confusion is a very common presentation in medical patients, especially in older people. It may, but does not always, indicate dementia. Delirium describes a typically brief, fluctuating, and transient state of confusion, which requires a vigorous and urgent hunt for the cause or causes. This is often, but not always, an infection or vascular event. The potential role of prescribed drugs in causing confusion should not be forgotten, and other causes of apparent confusion include depression. Making the diagnosis might take time, and in the meantime it is important to ensure that the physical and nursing arrangements for care keep the patient safe from harm.
Self-harm
Authors: Saunders Kate E.A. , Hawton Keith 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Self-harm is one of the commonest reasons people present to hospital emergency departments and the most frequent form of self-harm is overdose. Most patients who self-harm have an emotional disturbance, commonly an adjustment or mood disorder, often in a context of situational or relationship stresses, and personality difficulties. Some have more severe psychiatric disorders. Intoxication with alcohol is common. All patients presenting with self-harm require both a medical and a psychiatric assessment. The latter should include an assessment of problems, needs and suicide risk. Children require particularly careful assessment. In assessing suicide risk, it should be noted that the medical dangerousness of the act does not necessarily reflect the intent, and that repeat self-harm greatly increases the risk of eventual suicide. Psychiatric management depends on the patient's problems and diagnosis. There is some evidence that brief psychological intervention can decrease the risk of repeat self-harm.
Alcohol misuse
Authors: Wood Jonathan 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
Excessive intake of alcohol is common and increases the risk of developing many medical conditions, as well as leading to psychological and social harm. Medical conditions commonly associated with harmful use include upper gastrointestinal and liver disease, hypertension, and accidents. The psychological state of alcohol dependency makes it more difficult to reduce intake and physical dependency may lead to a withdrawal syndrome after admission to hospital. Withdrawal symptoms range from mild to severe and will commonly require treatment to prevent complications of alcohol withdrawal such as seizures. Delirium tremens is a life-threatening consequence of alcohol withdrawal that requires immediate active management. The role of alcohol in the development of Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome means patients will also need prophylaxis or treatment for this in the acute medical setting.
Personality disorders
Authors: Jordan Iain 
Published: February 2020

Abstract
People have characteristic ways of perceiving, thinking about, and responding to the world around them that are relatively stable over time and across situations; this is referred to as their personality. A diagnosis of personality disorder is made when the personality is extreme and maladaptive and causes difficulty or distress to the person themselves or to others. People with personality disorders are often encountered in medical settings, which may be because they have self-harmed, suffered problems from drug or alcohol use, or been injured because of unwise behaviour. Personality disorders also complicate the medical management of medical conditions, for example, by non-adherence to recommended treatment. The effective short-term management of personality disorders in medical settings requires: (a) recognition of the diagnosis; (b) creation of a management plan; and (c) consistent response to the problematic behaviours adhered to by all relevant staff.
The LOFAR Tied-Array all-sky survey: Timing of 21 pulsars including the first binary pulsar discovered with LOFAR
Authors: Tan C M , Bassa C G , Cooper S , Hessels J W T , Kondratiev V I , Michilli D , Sanidas S , Stappers B W , van Leeuwen J , Donner J Y , Grießmeier J-M , Kramer M , Tiburzi C , Weltevrede P , Ciardi B , Hoeft M , Mann G , Miskolczi A , Schwarz D J , Vocks C , Wucknitz O 
Published: February 2020

ABSTRACT
We report on the multifrequency timing observations of 21 pulsars discovered in the LOFAR Tied-Array All-Sky Survey (LOTAAS). The timing data were taken at central frequencies of 149 MHz (LOFAR) as well as 334 and 1532 MHz (Lovell Telescope). The sample of pulsars includes 20 isolated pulsars and the first binary pulsar discovered by the survey, PSR J1658+3630. We modelled the timing properties of the pulsars, which showed that they have, on average, larger characteristic ages. We present the pulse profiles of the pulsars across the three observing bands, where PSR J1643+1338 showed profile evolution that appears not to be well-described by the radius-to-frequency-mapping model. Furthermore, we modelled the spectra of the pulsars across the same observing bands, using a simple power law, and found an average spectral index of −1.9 ± 0.5. Amongst the pulsars studied here, PSR J1657+3304 showed large flux density variations of a factor of 10 over 300 d, as well as mode changing and nulling on time-scales of a few minutes. We modelled the rotational and orbital properties of PSR J1658+3630, which has a spin period of 33 ms in a binary orbit of 3.0 d with a companion of minimum mass of 0.87 M⊙, likely a carbon–oxygen or oxygen–neon–magnesium type white dwarf. PSR J1658+3630 has a dispersion measure of 3.0 pc cm−3, making it possibly one of the closest binary pulsars known.
The effects of population III radiation backgrounds on the cosmological 21-cm signal
Authors: Mebane Richard H , Mirocha Jordan , Furlanetto Steven R 
Published: February 2020

ABSTRACT
We investigate the effects of Population III (Pop III) stars and their remnants on the cosmological 21-cm global signal. By combining a semi-analytic model of Pop III star formation with a global 21-cm simulation code, we investigate how X-ray and radio emission from accreting Pop III black holes may affect both the timing and depth of the 21-cm absorption feature that follows the initial onset of star formation during the Cosmic Dawn. We compare our results to the findings of the EDGES experiment, which has reported the first detection of a cosmic 21-cm signal. In general, we find that our fiducial Pop III models, which have peak star formation rate densities of ∼10−4 M⊙ yr−1 Mpc−3 between z ∼ 10 and z ∼ 15, are able to match the timing of the EDGES signal quite well, in contrast to models that ignore Pop III stars. To match the unexpectedly large depth of the EDGES signal without recourse to exotic physics, we vary the parameters of emission from accreting black holes (formed as Pop III remnants) including the intrinsic strength of X-ray and radio emission as well as the local column density of neutral gas. We find that models with strong radio emission and relatively weak X-ray emission can self-consistently match the EDGES signal, though this solution requires fine-tuning. We are only able to produce signals with sharp features similar to the EDGES signal if the Pop III IMF is peaked narrowly around $140 \, \mathrm{M}_\odot$.
A method for mapping the aliphatic hydrocarbon content of interstellar dust towards the Galactic Centre
Authors: Günay B , Burton M G , Afşar M , Schmidt T W 
Published: February 2020

ABSTRACT
In the interstellar medium, the cosmic elemental carbon abundance includes the total carbon in both gas and solid phases. The aim of the study was to trial a new method for measuring the amount and distribution of aliphatic carbon within interstellar dust over wide fields of view of our Galaxy. This method is based on the measurement of the 3.4-$\mu$m absorption feature from aliphatic carbonaceous matter. This can readily be achieved for single sources using infrared (IR) spectrometers. However, making such measurements over wide fields requires an imaging IR camera, equipped with narrow-band filters that are able to sample the spectrum. While this cannot produce as good a determination of the spectra, the technique can be applied to potentially tens to hundreds of sources simultaneously, over the field of view of the camera. We examined this method for a field in the centre of the Galaxy, and produced a map showing the variation of 3.4-$\mu$m optical depth across it.
Numerical convergence of hydrodynamical simulations of galaxy formation: the abundance and internal structure of galaxies and their cold dark matter haloes
Authors: Ludlow Aaron D , Schaye Joop , Schaller Matthieu , Bower Richard 
Published: February 2020

ABSTRACT
We address the issue of numerical convergence in cosmological smoothed particle hydrodynamics simulations using a suite of runs drawn from the eagle project. Our simulations adopt subgrid models that produce realistic galaxy populations at a fiducial mass and force resolution, but systematically vary the latter in order to study their impact on galaxy properties. We provide several analytic criteria that help guide the selection of gravitational softening for hydrodynamical simulations, and present results from runs that both adhere to and deviate from them. Unlike dark matter-only simulations, hydrodynamical simulations exhibit a strong sensitivity to gravitational softening, and care must be taken when selecting numerical parameters. Our results – which focus mainly on star formation histories, galaxy stellar mass functions and sizes – illuminate three main considerations. First, softening imposes a minimum resolved escape speed, vϵ, due to the binding energy between gas particles. Runs that adopt such small softening lengths that $v_\epsilon \gtrsim 10\, {\rm km\, s^{-1}}$ (the sound speed in ionized ${\sim }10^4\, {\rm K}$ gas) suffer from reduced effects of photoheating. Secondly, feedback from stars or active galactic nuclei may suffer from numerical overcooling if the gravitational softening length is chosen below a critical value, ϵeFB. Thirdly, we note that small softening lengths exacerbate the segregation of stars and dark matter particles in halo centres, often leading to the counterintuitive result that galaxy sizes increase as softening is reduced. The structure of dark matter haloes in hydrodynamical runs respond to softening in a way that reflects the sensitivity of their galaxy populations to numerical parameters.