bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evaluation of Fracture Toughness of Welded Line Pipe Steels for Hydrogen Gas Transportation Based on ASME B31.12 and Alternative Test Method Development
Authors: Seo Eun Jung , Bag Amrita , Gaudet Michael J. , Chen Shaojie , Lehnhoff Greg , Rashid Muhammad , Arafin Muhammad 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A high-strength line pipe steel grade, namely API X65, has been developed and qualified for its use under pressurized hydrogen gas following the ASME B31.12 code. The bolt-load compact specimens taken from the base metal, heat-affected zone, and weld seam of the electric resistance welded (ERW) pipes were tested using a constant displacement method in 100% hydrogen at pressure up to 13.8 MPa (2000 psi) for 1000 hours. All fracture toughness testing was conducted at RINA Consulting – Centro Sviluppo Materiali SpA and EWI Hydrogen Environment Testing Lab, using approximately 50 specimens from different heats produced at Evraz North America (ENA). At the fracture surface of the tested specimens, no significant crack extension was observed; the crack extension beyond the fatigue pre-crack was smaller than 0.25 mm after preloading and hydrogen exposure. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) fractographs revealed a dimpled fracture surface in front of the fatigue pre-crack, i.e. no hydrogen-associated brittle fracture feature was noted. Based on these results, the minimum value of the threshold stress intensity factor, KIH, was calculated to be 70–80 MPa√m for all the specimens, i.e., fulfilling the qualification criteria (KIH &gt; 55 MPa√m) described in the code ASME B31.12 Option B. The lessons learned during the qualification testing, ongoing efforts to develop alternative testing methods, including elastic-plastic fracture testing (i.e., ASTM E1820) and implications for the future will be discussed.
Development of a Laser Tracking System Based AI for Automatic Root Pass Welding in Pipes
Authors: Galeazzi Daniel , Henrique Gonçalves e Silva Régis 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Today, the demands for sustainability, safety, productivity, and quality are pressing production systems, and the industry is sparing no effort to meet them. This paradigm shift towards digitalization, automation, and interconnectivity is crucial for developing smarter, more efficient manufacturing processes, in the scope of trend scenarios of Advanced Manufacturing or Industry 4.0. In this context, robotics and AI offer great solutions, that can benefit pipeline construction projects. The very viability of the new pipelines projects is affected by productivity and costs. Also, there is a strong correlation between pipeline construction and environmental issues, as well as with worker (welder) safety issues. This paper focuses on developing an AI-based laser tracking system for root pass welding in pipes, utilizing a controlled short-circuiting GMAW technology. The study employed a dedicated 7-axis anthropomorphic robot integrated with a laser sensor. The primary goal was to develop a robust integration between the robot and the laser sensor, enabling the creation of a weld seam tracking algorithm to locate and adjust the torch path along the welding of the joint. This algorithm utilized tracking points, which describe the inflection points of a previously set groove geometry. Additionally, the laser sensor system provides joint dimension data, such as bottom and top width, height, and area, which are input into an AI system to adjust welding parameters in real-time (Adaptive Welding). The AI algorithm was trained with welding parameters from experiments varying root openings and welding positions. For each condition, parameters like the controlled short-circuit current waveform, wire feed speed, travel speed, and waving parameters were optimized. Final tests were conducted on pipe sections with a V-joint to evaluate the performance and system’s robustness for both algorithms path and weld parameters correction. The results demonstrated satisfactory performance: the path correction algorithm was robust, the system was capable to overcome significant geometrical variations of the root opening (1 to 4.5 mm) and pipe mismatch, and the AI algorithm performed well even in out-of-position welding, providing robustness and adequate quality to the root pass.
Material Performance of Line Pipe Steels for the Hydrogen Infrastructure
Authors: Höhler Susanne , Wanzenberg Elke , Jacob Nikolai , Bosch Christoph , Brauer Holger , Mirkovic Djordje , Muthmann Elke 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Since the upcoming hydrogen infrastructure will set high demands on efficient pipelines and thus on the line pipe material as well, test series are presented to investigate in detail the material behavior of typical line pipe steels.
Various steels from pipes from different production routes with a range of steel grades from X52 to X70 were selected and tested under gaseous hydrogen. Hydrogen impact on the mechanical behavior of these standard steels is estimated by different test series on base material and weld material. Slow strain rate tests under quasi-static loading are used to evaluate the hydrogen effects on the stress-strain behavior with focus on yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, uniform elongation, and the ductility ratios derived by the comparison of tests performed in hydrogen and inert gas (nitrogen). The materials tested reach high ductility ratios for all steels considered, irrespective of steel grade, production route or microstructure. Further on, the threshold stress intensity factor KIH required in the current ASME B31.12 code is experimentally determined under severe test conditions (high pressure 180 bar). Test procedure, results and validity are evaluated and discussed.
A Short Formula for Hydrogen
Authors: Cosham Andrew 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The Short Formula was developed by the Battelle Columbus Laboratories for the then Pipeline Research Committee of the American Gas Association in the mid 1970s. It is a simple approximation to the Two Curve Model.
The Short Formula is only applicable to a lean gas. It is conservative when applied to hydrogen.
A short formula for hydrogen has been developed. Firstly, the derivation of the Short Formula has been (approximately) duplicated. Secondly, the implications of using a decompression curve for methane, rather than the decompression curve for an ideal gas, with a constant initial speed of sound, as used in the derivation of the Short Formula, have been investigated. Thirdly, and finally, a short formula for hydrogen has been developed using a decompression curve for hydrogen.
Diameters from 323.9 to 1422.0 mm, grades from Grade L245 to L550, and hoop stresses up to 80% SMYS, inclusive, have been considered.
The accuracy of the short formula for hydrogen is similar to that of the Short Formula.
Application of a Newly Standardized Risk-Based Pressure Design Approach – Implications From Pilot Studies
Authors: McAllister Lowell , Svitich Aiden , Adianto Riski , Wiechnik Cory , Ezeiruaku Emeka , Lu Dongliang 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A risk-based pressure design approach has been developed as an alternative to the class location approach currently used in the Canadian Standards Association’s (CSA’s) Standard Z662. This new approach was adopted in the non-mandatory Annex C of the 2023 edition of CSA Z662.
The risk-based design approach uses a set of hoop stress factors to calculate the minimum wall thickness from the pipe’s pressure, diameter, and specified minimum yield strength. The hoop stress factors are calibrated to meet reliability targets based on undamaged pipe burst and third-party mechanical damage failure limit states. These reliability targets are defined for a set of consequence-based safety classes to achieve a consistent, broadly acceptable, level of risk for all pipelines.
Since the approach was adopted in CSA Z662 in 2023, several pilot studies, as described in this paper, have applied it to segments of high-pressure transmission pipelines in Canada. While this approach can also apply to new designs, the pilot studies described in this paper consider scenarios in which existing designs must be re-evaluated, including for class location changes due to population encroachment and the construction of road crossings.
This paper describes the results of these pilot studies and demonstrates the safety and financial implications of adopting the new risk-based pressure design approach at such sites that need re-evaluating. This is done by comparing the design requirements under the new risk-based approach, such as pressure and wall thickness, with the requirements of the existing class location approach. In some cases, the pilot studies demonstrate that the new risk-based approach can reduce over-conservatism with less-restrictive design requirements, resulting in a positive financial benefit while maintaining broadly acceptable levels of safety. The benefit of using alternative mitigation options, such as mechanical damage prevention measures, is also explored in some of the pilot studies.
Assessing Hit Rate Reduction Benefits of Mechanical Damage Prevention for Application in Risk-Based Pressure Design
Authors: McAllister Lowell , Svitich Aiden , Adianto Riski , Ezeiruaku Emeka , Lu Dongliang 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A risk-based pressure design approach has been developed as an alternative to the class location approach currently used in the Canadian Standards Association’s (CSA’s) Standard Z662. This new approach was adopted in Annex C of the 2023 edition of CSA Z662 as an optional alternative to the pressure design approach in the main body of the standard.
The risk-based design approach uses a set of hoop stress factors to calculate the minimum wall thickness from the pipe’s pressure, diameter, and specified minimum yield strength. The hoop stress factors are calibrated to meet reliability targets based on undamaged pipe burst and third-party mechanical damage failure limit states. These reliability targets are defined for a set of consequence-based safety classes to achieve a consistent, broadly acceptable, level of risk for all pipelines. Since expected failure rates due to third-party mechanical damage were directly used in developing this approach, the benefits of enhanced mechanical damage prevention measures, such as deeper cover depth, additional signage, and installation of mechanical protection, can be reflected in the pressure design.
The benefits of enhanced mechanical damage prevention are accounted for via a “hit rate factor,” which can increase the total hoop stress factor, allowing for the use of smaller wall thicknesses. The value of the hit rate factor is dependent on the “hit rate reduction factor,” which is a ratio quantifying the reduction in expected hit rate from third-party activities on the pipeline alignment given the design’s mechanical damage prevention measures, as compared to the minimum requirements.
In the 2023 edition, Annex C of CSA Z662 provides little prescriptive guidance on how to estimate the hit rate reduction factor. However, the hit rate fault tree approach is identified as an appropriate option. This paper describes estimates of the hit rate reduction benefits of various mechanical damage prevention measures in terms of a hit rate reduction factor using a fault tree model. The predictions of multiple industry-leading fault tree models are compared, and the pressure design implications are quantified for representative scenarios in terms of the resulting risk-based hoop stress factors.
Correlation of IMU Bending Strain Features to Geohazard Locations: An Update
Authors: McKenzie-Johnson Alexander , Theriault Bailey , Dotson Rhett , Hart James , Varela Patricia 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper presents an update to the results of Theriault et al. (2020) on the correlation of single-run IMU bending strain features to geohazard locations. Theriault et al. reviewed over 4,600 IMU-identified bending strain features from a single pipeline operator located in a variety of geographic settings and concluded that while the overall correlation between ILI vendor bending strain features and geohazards is low, higher maximum magnitude and in particular, higher horizontal magnitude, as reported by the ILI vendors, are strongly correlative to geohazard occurrence.
Based on the review of over 17,000 bending strain features for this paper, similar results were observed to Theriault et al., but with lower correlation percentages at higher magnitudes. While the overall conclusions support the prior work by Theriault et al., the results of this analysis suggest that the conclusions of Theriault et al. may have been skewed by a relatively small sample size, particularly at higher magnitudes, and that while the overall correlation between high maximum magnitude and horizontal magnitude and geohazards is strong, geohazards are not the only sources of such conditions. As more data are collected and analyzed, a better representation of the correlation between ILI vendor-reported IMU bending strain features, geohazard occurrence, and other causes can be established.
The paper provides further discussion and analysis of the correlation with individual geohazard types, the relative prevalence of reported IMU bending strain features by magnitude, and where multiple IMU runs have been performed, the correlation between reported strain change features and geohazards.
Development of an Advanced 3D Profile Matching Approach for Pipeline Dent FEA Assessment
Authors: Xu Luyao , Brust Alexander , Kemp David , Wu Shanshan , Finneran Shane , Bratton Joseph P. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Mechanical damage, particularly in the form of dents, is identified as a major threat to the structural integrity of pipelines. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) modeling has gained prominence for its reliability in evaluating the fitness-for-service (FFS) compared to the more conservative Level 2 assessments. During the dent FEA modeling process, acceptable dent geometry profile agreement between the FEA model and In-Line Inspection (ILI) data is critical to capture the appropriate stresses and strains associated with the dent formation in the FEA model.
Conventional FEA modeling approaches commonly utilize rigid ring, ball, idealized rigid shell shape indenters, or a combination of multiple rigid shells as the indenters. The resulting dent profiles from the FEA model are then compared with ILI caliper data through two-dimensional (2D) profile matching. This approach is adequate for most of simple shape or symmetrical shaped dents. However, for dents with complex morphologies, the 2D profile matching method can lead to significant variations between the FEA modeled and ILI measured dent shape, leading to inaccurate stress and strain distributions in the dented region. Additionally, the conventional dent FEA modeling approach is inefficient as it requires extensive iterative adjustments to indenter shape and indentation depth.
This paper presents an advanced approach to customize indenter shape for dent FEA modeling by integrating machine learning techniques, advanced indenter shape adjustment algorithms, and 3D visualization techniques. This approach ensures a satisfactory 3D dent profile matching between the FEA and ILI profiles whilst significantly reducing the time and effort required for modeling adjustments.
A Direct Assessment ‘Style’ Methodology for Evaluating Type B Sleeves
Authors: Morris Greg , McMahan Tara Podnar , Bubenik Thomas , Bartal Nick 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pressure containing (Type B) full encirclement steel repair sleeves are a widely used and versatile repair method for defects in oil and gas pipelines. With proper design, materials, installation, and maintenance, these repairs can operate safely and reliably over the life of the pipeline. However, like any other repair technique, if installed improperly, problems can arise over time. The objective of this paper is to describe a direct assessment ‘style’ process that could be used to evaluate previously installed Type B repair sleeves within a pipeline system for quality and long-term reliability. This process includes a potential prioritization method, as well as techniques for in-situ examination of sleeves excavated through targeted or opportunistic digs, and destructive examination of sleeves removed from service.
Historical Perspective on Wind-Induced Vibration of Above-Ground Pipeline Configurations on the Alaskan North Slope
Authors: Hart James D. , Zulfiqar Nasir 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Steady arctic winds blowing across the flat topography of Alaska’s North Slope oil fields often induce vertical oscillations in above-ground pipelines, as a result of cyclic lift forces associated with the vortex shedding phenomenon. Extensive studies have been undertaken to better understand and control this complicated aerodynamic phenomenon. This paper provides a 30 plus year historical perspective on wind-induced vibration (WIV) of above-ground, cross-county pipeline configurations on the North Slope of Alaska. The paper includes an overview of the dynamic characteristics (e.g., mode shapes and frequencies) of typical “generic” multi-span cross-county pipeline configurations, the WIV phenomenon and the results of field instrumentation programs including free-vibration testing and long-term WIV monitoring. The paper illustrates a relatively simple framework for screening pipelines for WIV exposure as a function of azimuth orientation that utilizes publicly available, historical North Slope wind speed and direction observations. The paper also describes how systems of auxiliary mass damper (AMD) devices tuned to the WIV susceptible pipeline vibration frequencies are used to provide highly effective WIV mitigation over a broad frequency range. Relative motion across the dissipative elements of the tuned AMD devices which are attached to the pipeline at anti-node locations results in hysteretic energy dissipation which can dramatically increase the effective modal damping ratios of the lightly damped pipeline system and proportionately decrease the corresponding modal WIV response amplitudes. The effectiveness of AMDs is supported by data from laboratory tests over a wide range of temperatures and frequencies, field free-vibration tests and WIV monitoring programs. The paper concludes with a summary of how pipeline WIV has been successfully and widely mitigated across a large inventory of WIV-susceptible North Slope pipeline configurations using a triple-tuned and spatially distributed family of AMD devices spanning a broad-band of vibration frequencies for mitigation of primary (and if necessary, secondary) mode WIV.
Evaluation of Geohazards Using a Novel In-Line Inspection Technology
Authors: Koppens Bart , Claassen Rob , Droesen Jan , Cornu Sylvain , Vos Willem 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The RRP pipeline company operates a network of crude oil and oil product pipelines in The Netherlands and Germany and refined product storage facilities. The oil is transported to refineries in Germany, while other lines transfer refined products sourced from refineries in the Europoort area.
One of the pipelines was known to be subjected to movement due to mining activities which caused land subsidence. Although the mining activities started after pipeline construction, these were foreseen, and considerations were made during the design phase of the pipelines. The conscious decision was made to align the right of way with the mining area, and a system of strain gauges was installed at specific monitoring points. Strain gauges were installed to monitor the influence of the mine on the pipeline and assumed to provide absolute levels of axial strain in more than one hundred locations. Strain gauge data is collected regularly and compared to a model of the pipeline to monitor the influences of ground movement on the axial loading of the line. Pipeline strain relief operations are performed as needed, where the line is excavated, and partially renewed for relaxation.
Although the system continues to work about 60 years after installation, it does not cover the entire length of the pipeline. During regular technical exchanges with NDT Global, the idea was discussed to consider a newly developed technology to measure axial strain by means of ILI tool in pipelines.
Eddy current testing is widely used as an NDE inspection technique for ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Eddy current sensors are commonly used for ID/OD discrimination on MFL tools, and widely known to be most sensitive for diagnosis of surface-breaking defects. The technology is highly mature when deployed in various applications, for instance for pipelines in-ditch inspections during validation activities.
RRP and NDT Global agreed to use the Eddy Current inline inspection strain measurement to capture data for the full length of the line and compare this data to the measurements from the strain gauges installed on the pipelines.
This paper will summarize this validation activity and present the latest effort in developing eddy current for in-line strain measurement in pipelines. The fundamental physical principles will be reviewed, and key parameters considered during the design. Internal validation steps and results will be highlighted. A particular focus applies to the analysis of a known and well-characterized geohazard event.
The authors will evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the various technologies and discuss how new technologies can be used to improve the integrity of pipelines facing geohazards.
In-Situ Determination of Pipe Body Fracture Toughness Using Planing-Induced Microfracture Method
Authors: Huang Xuejun , Feigel Bryan , Ryan Aidan , Rizwan I Haque Intisar , Willey Brendon , Bellemare Simon C. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipe toughness determination as part of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) has been sought for decades. Material toughness is needed when analyzing the critical crack size that would fail at MAOP and when performing a fitness-for-service evaluation with cracks discovered during an inspection. When toughness data is not available, operators may use conservative values, perform cut-outs for lab testing, or use other industry-accepted data, such as collected by nondestructive testing. This paper presents a new in-situ, minimally invasive technique to provide pipe body toughness data using the method of planing-induced microfracture. This method involves using a specialized blade featuring a central opening where the material is stretched and fractured instead of being cut, leading to standing residual ligaments on the fractured surfaces of the sample. Characteristics of these ligaments, such as their height, are shown to correlate with the material’s fracture toughness. Preliminary proof-of-concept testing from 30 samples showed that the method could predict KIc to within ±20% of the values derived from destructive lab testing [1]. In the work presented in this paper, a portable prototype instrument has been developed which can create “islands” on a pipe surface and perform the planing-induced microfracture test. This paper will give an overview of the planing-induced microfracture method, the prototype field instrument, and recent test results using the tool.