bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prediction of Gas Field Gathering Pipeline Liquid Accumulation and Analysis of Influencing Factors
Authors: Zhang Xinru , Hou Lei , Liu Jiaquan , Zhu Zuoliang 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Gas field gathering pipeline connects the wellhead and processing station, wet gas gathering process is commonly used in this pipeline. During transportation, the liquid phase is tend to precipitate under low temperature and high pressure conditions, and gradually gather inside the pipeline. Liquid accumulation will reduce pipeline operation efficiency, clog the pipeline, and increase the corrosion rate, which will affect the safe operation of the pipeline. Accurate prediction of the amount and the serious area of liquid accumulation is of great significance for the safety and high efficiency of pipeline. In order to construct a gathering pipeline liquid accumulation prediction model, different saturated water content calculation models are compared to obtain the amount of precipitated liquid, different gas-liquid two-phase flow calculation formulas are compared to obtain the pressure drop and liquid holdup. The accuracy of the model is verified by combining gas field production data and simulation results. The changes of parameters such as pressure and liquid holding rate along the pipeline are analyzed. The influence law of inlet pressure and temperature on fluid accumulation is studied. The results show that the relative error of the calculation results of the liquid accumulation volume of the model is in the range of 1.82%∼5.56%. With the running time, the pressure and the amount of liquid accumulation along the pipeline gradually increase, and the amount of liquid accumulation reaches the maximum value after 243h, and the liquid accumulation is mainly distributed in the rising part of the low-lying pipeline section. The pipeline inlet pressure is directly proportional to the saturated liquid volume and discharge cycle, and inversely proportional to the saturated water precipitation rate. Pipeline inlet temperature is directly proportional to the saturated liquid volume and saturated water precipitation rate, and inversely proportional to the liquid discharge cycle. The prediction model of gas field gathering pipeline fluid accumulation established in this study is reliable and can provide scientific guidance for the prevention and control of pipeline fluid accumulation.
FFS Approach to Assessment of Vibrations Caused by Compressor/Pump Pulsations
Authors: Matta Lawrence M. , Breaux Lyle , Szasz Gyorgy 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Vibrations in pipeline systems often result from the periodic flow from pumps and compressors, known as pulsations. Due to similarities in the prime movers, pulsations are problematic in both liquid and gas systems. While typically not an issue in long, constant diameter runs of pipeline, pulsation induced vibrations can occur in main transportation lines as well as in supporting systems throughout pumping/compression and treatment facilities.
Standards like API 618 and API 674 are used to provide guidance for predictive analysis to reduce the likelihood of pulsation induced vibrations from occurring. Predictive vibration modeling is very useful for planning purposes, but occasionally surprises occur. The analysis can be sensitive to factors that are not fully known in the design stage. Once in service, facilities may change, equipment may be added, flow rates may be increased, or fluid compositions and temperatures may vary. As a result, pulsation driven vibrations may occur despite predictive analysis.
For operating systems where vibration and pulsation amplitudes can be measured, it is more appropriate to use a FFS (Fitness for Service) approach to determine if mitigations are required and the success of any applied mitigations. While this approach is more involved, it may remove excess conservatism, leading to reduced overall costs.
A Novel Integrated Framework for Evaluating Laminations and Mid-Wall Imperfections in Vintage Pipelines
Authors: Hartl Katherine , Jäger Christoph , Urrea Santiago 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The presence of mid-wall imperfections, particularly laminations, in pipelines, has been a longstanding concern addressed by pipeline operators for several years. Existing standards and written practices delineate the criteria that render these imperfections actionable, encompassing the intricacies associated with their morphology, while offering guidelines for assessing and ranking their severity. Despite these guidelines, the detection and characterization of complex, non-parallel laminations during in-line inspections (ILI) and in-field non-destructive examinations (NDE) frequently leads to misunderstandings. As a result, mitigation measures often lean towards being overly conservative, resulting in misjudgments that are translated into unnecessary repairs, while potentially leaving truly actionable features unrepaired in service.
By leveraging a database containing data on over one million detected, identified, and sized laminations and applying more than fifteen years of global knowledge accumulation, this paper aims to conduct a thorough gap analysis of existing written practices, with a focus on identifying key areas where misinterpretations commonly occur. The paper will then provide a novel and detailed, step-by-step approach on how to categorize laminations, clearly parametrizing attributes to pinpoint those requiring further assessment, including the proper extraction of their equivalent dimension as a quasi-three-dimensional feature. This process aims to assess whether verification/repair is required under current operational conditions while adopting a holistic approach, where additional factors such as pipeline movement and coincidental anomalies are also incorporated. In addition to these aspects, challenging topics such as assessing the interaction with pipe discontinuities, for example, determining and quantifying the area of weld contact, whether related to a long-seam, girth weld, or spiral weld, will be addressed, providing guidance to better inform and execute Integrity Management Programs.
In conclusion, this paper not only identifies and addresses common pitfalls in current practices but also introduces an innovative methodology for lamination assessments, contributing to a more comprehensive framework for evaluating pipeline integrity.
Soil Springs for Sloped Ground Movement in Saturated Soil
Authors: Eichhorn Geoff N. , Haigh Stuart K. , Baumgard Alex 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipelines buried in sloping ground have not previously incorporated adequately defined soil-springs to represent the reality of forces applied on sloping ground. The soil-spring representation, with its three mutually orthogonal spring pairs, has been developed and defined first by ASCE (1984), and subsequently built on by others. These guidelines were based on physical modelling experiments conducted in the 1970’s and 80’s, and were composed of straight sections of rigid pipe. Those experiments saw the pipe translated relative to the soil in single directions under monotonic movement. The soils studied were largely laboratory (clean sand) and manufactured clays. These experiments define the soil springs for horizontal ground only, and do not necessarily represent the interaction occurring on sloping ground. Physical modelling in a geotechnical centrifuge has been undertaken to study the direct soil-pipe interaction in landslides. Centrifuge modelling recreates scale models in an accelerated gravity field such that the forces, stresses, and physical dimensions are multiplied representing the full-scale equivalent environment. A model pipe representing an NPS 18, ∼X52 line pipe has been designed to allow axial and bending response equivalent to the real-world pipe. Landslides were initiated by elevated pore water pressure, representing above mean seasonal rainfall in upland areas. Pipe strain was monitored using fiber optics and subsurface imaging was used to capture the strain demand (soil displacement) provided by the landslide. Pipe strain was decomposed into bending moment, as well as axial and orthogonal structural forces representing the soil loading on the pipe. Results of the pipe-soil experiments give new insight into the strain transfer between the sloping ground and the pipe. Results show that the peak bending moments shift downslope as the landslide movement progresses. A comparison of American Petroleum Institute (API), DNV, and other industry guidance for springs is made to the pipe-slide interaction results from the physical experiments.
Using Eliminative Argumentation to Enhance Trust in ILI Results
Authors: Casey Adam , Millet Laure , Joyce Jeff , Nachiappan Vijay , Keane Sean 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipeline operators have traditionally relied on unity plots from integrity digs and their confidence in the in-line inspection (ILI) tool vendor as a basis for trust in the results of ILI. However, past digs provide a narrow view of ILI success, and operators have limited visibility into the vendor’s equipment and processes.
In this paper, we describe an analytical approach for the pipeline operator and the tool vendor to collaboratively enhance trust in ILI results. Borrowing methods from safety assurance decision-making in the automotive, rail and nuclear power industries, we present a live and reuseable assurance case framework in eliminative argumentation (EA) produced following this approach. This approach covers all factors impacting inspection results, from identifying required inspection performance to equipment and processes used by the vendor. Safety performance indicators derived from the assurance case can be used as warning signs that adverse events might have occurred during the inspection and that an ILI run might require further examination to confirm the trustworthiness of the results.
We also describe our experience applying this methodology to create an assurance case for an actual ILI program. Our experience demonstrated the benefits of involving the vendor directly in constructing the assurance case. The structure of the assurance case clearly defines the causal connection or “golden thread” between the evidence (including indicators) and trust in the inspection. This traceability allows the operator to differentiate between minor deviations from the norm that do not impact the trustworthiness of the ILI results, and anomalies that are of greater concern. Overall, this approach yields a comprehensive, robust, and examinable basis for trust in ILI results while reducing reliance on integrity digs.
An Innovative Simulation-Free Approach for Probabilistic Assessment of Buried Pipeline Integrity Under Landslide-Induced Ground Movement
Authors: Taraghi Pouya , Li Yong , Yoosef-Ghodsi Nader , Kainat Muntaseer , Adeeb Samer 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Buried pipelines serve as reliable conduits for transporting energy products such as oil, gas, and chemical fluids. Their pivotal role in facilitating the transportation of these resources underscores their substantial impact on businesses, economies, and the overall quality of life for people. Landslide-induced ground movement poses a risk to buried pipelines, potentially causing buckling damage or tensile rupture, threatening their structural integrity and operational safety. Hence, it is crucial to investigate the response of buried pipelines to mitigate the potential impacts of landslide-induced ground movement. However, due to the uncertainties in material, geometry, soil properties, and ground movement, it is imperative to conduct reliability-based analyses rather than deterministic analyses. Reliability methods like Monte Carlo, known for their simplicity and effectiveness, are widely used in reliability analyses. However, their significant drawback lies in the need for extensive simulations to generate responses, a challenge that proves impractical for studying pipelines buried through areas prone to ground movement. As such, this study introduces an innovative simulation-free approach based on the Physics-Informed Neural Network (PINN) to predict the response of inelastic pipelines under landslide-induced ground movement. Using the simulation-free approach for response predictions, the Monte Carlo simulation is then employed to determine the probability of failure. PINN offers a comprehensive solution to the underlying physics of the problem by incorporating stochastic variables like ground movement and eliminating the need for an extensive number of simulations to obtain the response. PINN utilizes a deep learning approach that operates without the need for training data by leveraging the underlying physics expressed through differential equations. The applicability of the employed method to pipelines subjected to permanent ground movement is demonstrated through a case study. The strain-based limit state function relies on established equations from the literature for determining strain capacity, while the strain demand is predicted using the PINN-based approach.
Constraint-Independent Constant CTOA Determination for Ductile Stable Crack Growth
Authors: Zhu Xian-Kui 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Crack tip opening angle (CTOA) has been used as a reliable fracture toughness parameter for decades to characterize stable ductile crack growth for thin-walled aerospace structures in the low-constraint conditions. Recently, the CTOA parameter was also applied to the pipeline industry, and a CTOA test standard ASTM E3039 was thus developed for testing a critical constant CTOA. Research showed that the constant CTOA can reasonably describe fracture toughness required to arrest a dynamic crack propagation for a modern gas pipeline. However, the CTOA fracture criterion requires constraint-independent CTOA toughness against stable ductile crack growth.
ASTM E3039 recommends a drop weight tearing test (DWTT) specimen for CTOA testing. Since a shallow crack is used, DWTT measured CTOA may depend on constraint level at the crack tip. To understand if it is the case, this paper evaluates the critical CTOA for a set of fracture toughness tests on single edge notched bend (SENB) specimens with shallow and deep cracks based on four CTOA estimation models. In which, the Ln(P)-LLD linear fit model is similar to that used by ASTM E3039 in the CTOA calculation. Fracture test data for X80 pipeline steel and HY80 structural steel are considered in the CTOA evaluation. The results show that the four CTOA models can determine a crack size-independent constant CTOA over stable ductile crack growth for the SENB specimens. As a result, CTOA determined by ASTM E3039 is constraint-independent and transferable to use for an actual crack propagating in a gas pipeline.
Extra-High-Resolution UTCD Solution for Small-Diameter Pipelines – Introducing Extended Depth Sizing
Authors: Atto Abdullahi , Klinge Lukas , Bauer Stefan , Beuker Thomas 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Depth sizing beyond 4 mm for crack-like anomalies has been made available recently for large-diameter ILI tools. For small-diameter pipelines (OD ≤ 12 inches), additional challenges to the measurement performance had to be considered and addressed by the inspection tool design before an extended depth sizing could be provided in a robust and reliable manner.
The sharp circumferential curvature of small-diameter pipes has a focusing effect on the ultrasonic beam, thus altering the characteristics of the sound pressure distribution and signal strength. For small-diameter pipelines, the ultrasound propagation angle in the pipe wall can significantly differ for internal and external axial anomalies because of the difference between the curvature radius of the outer and inner pipe surface (OD vs. ID).
Small-diameter pipelines generally have a limited tolerance for variations of the incidence angle. Therefore, UT-C inspections of small-diameter pipes are generally more sensitive to the operating conditions and to sound velocity variations of the coupling medium (due to temperature variations during the run).
This article discusses the above limitations in detail and presents technical solutions for realizing high-performance UT-C tools for small-diameter pipelines. Furthermore, the paper presents the performance qualification procedure and results of new generation of extra-high-resolution UTCD tools for 6″, 8″ and 10″ pipeline diameters.
The UTCD performance qualification is based on so-called “extended depth sizing” method, resulting in discrete depth sizing even for anomalies deeper than 4 mm. This method incorporates both direct and indirect corner echo amplitudes into the depth sizing.
Understanding Security Program Risk Assessments Through a Secure Asset Framework
Authors: Zhao Lisa , Nairn Jamie , Jean Mark 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The energy industry is responsible for critical infrastructure that keeps individuals, public services, and private industry functional and safe. Industry threats are constantly evolving and require robust security controls to protect people, assets, the environment, and operations. As organizations automate processes to increase operational efficiency, assets are becoming more interconnected, and security programs are increasingly tasked with protecting more interconnected assets than ever before. These programs need to be flexible enough to manage evolving security risks, vulnerabilities, and threats to the company, while meeting regulatory compliance requirements. By establishing a secure asset framework (SecureAF), a company can be prepared to anticipate future security challenges in the current threat landscape. This proactive stance enables safe and sustainable business growth in an interdependent and technologically connected world. Security programs protect assets from threats such as terrorism, violence, sabotage, and theft by proactively assessing and managing physical, cyber, and cyber-physical risks. Security risks are particularly unique and challenging to manage because they are constantly changing and evolving in scope and consequence. As a result, organizations are becoming increasingly vulnerable to attacks. Identification of critical security risks safeguards personnel, operations, and critical assets, and enables achievement of business objectives. In turn, integrated planning ensures a fortified, comprehensive security program.
SecureAF provides the structure for cyber and physical security programs to meet their objectives and protect people, assets, and the environment. This paper will focus on the security risk assessment component of the framework, and how security risks can be effectively managed and aligned to corporate risk management.
Methodologies for Conservation and Maintenance of Anchored Retaining Walls
Authors: Dada Thais Lucouvicz , Neves Douglas de Andrade , Guimarães Neto João Duarte , Russo Junior Wanderley Camargo , Leite Roberta Amorim , Santos Thiago da Costa , Spagnolo Rodrigo Alves 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Brazil has a wide mesh of pipelines, of which more than 8,500 kilometers are operated by TRANSPETRO. Pipeline right-of-ways cross a variety of soil relief, including the Serra do Mar, a formation of scarps, in order to transport petroleum products from the coast to the largest cities in the country. Anchored retaining walls are commonly necessary for soil stabilization. An efficient risk management is required for these structures, to avoid social, economic and environmental damages in case of poor performance.
A case study of 77 anchored walls was presented. It was shown that is possible to manage a large number of structures, with a large variability in age, including structures until approximately 60 years old.
All standards recommend geotechnical instrumentation. Parametric numerical analysis where performed for guiding instrument location. A distance of 0.25H from the wall, where H is the wall high, was suggested to install the inclinometer, in order to monitor soil displacements behind the wall. However, when there is another purpose, such as to monitor the entire slope or highways near the ROWs, geotechnical instrumentation can be installed according to these necessities.
Based on a bibliographic review, a case study and on numerical analysis results, a summary of a long-term maintenance program for anchored walls was presented. The program aims to implement risk management for large numbers of structures. With that, it is possible to guarantee operational conditions to all and increase the service life for older structures.
Effect of Longwall Mining on Exposed Pipelines: FEA Vs Measured Stresses
Authors: Zand Benjamin , Dugan Brett 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
With coal and natural gas extraction often occurring in similar regions, pipeline operators are often forced to navigate the complexities of mine subsidence beneath their pipelines. Longwall mining operation has the potential to compromise the integrity of buried pipelines by creating high soil strains. Mitigation measures often include pipeline excavation and a strategic pipeline strain monitoring program to ensure that stresses on pipelines do not exceed allowable limits. In this research a comparison is made between the finite element analysis results versus measured strains in an exposed pipeline subjected to longwall mining subsidence in the Midwest. Strain gauges were attached to the exposed pipeline before subsidence was experienced to monitor changes in the strain throughout the duration of the subsidence event. Simultaneously, ground displacements were monitored by performing regular ground surveys. A soil-pipe interaction finite element model was developed to calculate pipeline strains based on calculated ground displacements using the Influence Function model.
This paper compares the calculated strains from the finite element analysis to the actual strains measured by the strain monitoring system. Data from the case study are presented and compared.
An Automated Real-Time Data Analysis Tool for Interpreting Strain Gauge Data
Authors: Mosaiebian Arash , Martogi Debora , Ebrahimi Ali , Ahmadipur Amir 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Strain gauges are among the common instruments used to monitor pipelines threatened by geohazards. Strain gauges, for the purpose of geohazard monitoring, are installed at three or four locations around the circumference of the pipe to measure strain changes due to ground movement. Data from these gauges are typically collected in near real-time if a telemetry station is installed, offering continuous monitoring.
This paper presents an automated data analysis tool for pipeline strain monitoring, which processes and analyzes the strain gauge data in real-time. In just a few minutes, this tool produces pertinent information from data collected by the strain gauges, including changes in the maximum tensile and compressive strains, changes in bending directions, accumulation of bending strain (or divergence) on the pipe, and axial strains at strain gauge locations along the pipeline’s circumference.
This paper also provides two case studies that highlight the practical application of automated processing of strain gauge data to monitor pipelines affected by geohazards, as well as the process of differentiating geohazard impacts and environmental factors (such as temperature or internal pressure changes). This automated real-time tool expedites the availability of processed data by reducing data processing time and resources significantly while assisting geohazard practitioners in understanding the impact of geohazards on pipelines.