bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Legitimacy
Authors: Mitchell George E. , Schmitz Hans Peter , Bruno-van Vijfeijken Tosca 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 5 explores how the foundations for TNGO legitimacy have changed over time, creating imperatives for TNGOs to invest in new capabilities and adopt new practices. In the past, TNGOs derived legitimacy from their espoused principles, representational claims, elite expertise, demonstrated financial stewardship, commitment to charity, and patterns of conformity. More recently, TNGOs themselves have helped to bring about a shift toward new bases for legitimacy that focus on effectiveness, strategy, leadership, governance, transparency, and responsiveness. However, transitioning to the legitimacy practices of the future is complicated by the persistence of an antiquated architecture that still demands that TNGO conform to legacy expectations. Nevertheless, new approaches to enhancing legitimacy provide a wide range of opportunities that invite organizations to proactively align their aspirations with emerging stakeholder expectations.
Digital
Authors: Mitchell George E. , Schmitz Hans Peter , Bruno-van Vijfeijken Tosca 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 6 examines an array of strategic options provided by digital tools, including broadcasting, analytics, convening, and distributed organizing. Such digital strategies can be deployed to broaden participation as a means of generating more inclusive activism and to deepen participation to intensify supporter engagement. Leveraging digital tools and shifting from staff-led to supporter-led activism can help TNGOs become more authentic, representative, and legitimate. But despite these opportunities, features of the legacy architecture make it difficult for TNGOs to invest in new technologies or accord them a major role in shaping programmatic strategies and organizational structures. Moreover, “going digital” carries its own inherent risks. For example TNGOs must be careful to avoid overemphasizing superficial metrics or underappreciating the need to complement digital strategies with other resources and capabilities.
Measurement
Authors: Mitchell George E. , Schmitz Hans Peter , Bruno-van Vijfeijken Tosca 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 7 describes innovations in TNGO measurement and evaluation practices and considers the many internal and external challenges that organizations confront as they attempt to bring their measurement capabilities into better alignment with their rhetoric about achieving impact. An enhanced focus on assessing effectiveness and impact at the program and organizational levels requires not only strategic investments that are hard to make, but also broader cultural changes in how TNGOs and their staff think about organizational learning and their roles in bringing about social change. Despite being an area where many organizations still struggle, TNGOs will need to improve their measurement and evaluation capabilities to demonstrate their value and relevance and satisfy changing legitimacy expectations that increasingly emphasize data and results.
Jewish Mysticism and National Theology
Authors: Huss Boaz 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 2 examines the formation of the concept of Jewish mysticism, the identification of Kabbalah and Hasidism as Jewish forms of mysticism, and the construction of an academic research field dedicated to what was defined as “Jewish mysticism.” It describes the application of the adjective mystical to Kabbalah by Christian scholars since the seventeenth century, the appearance of the term “Jewish mysticism” in the writings of German Romantic theologians in the early nineteenth century, and the adoption of the term by Jewish scholars in Europe and the United States in the second half of the nineteenth century. It further examines the “revelation” of Jewish mysticism by Martin Buber and the establishment of the research field dedicated to Jewish mysticism by Gershom Scholem and his pupils. The chapter discusses the ideological and theological contexts in which the category of mysticism was shaped in the nineteenth century and the processes that led to the establishment of Jewish mysticism—as a category and as an academic research field—in the framework of modern theological-national discourse and as part of the Zionist nation-building endeavor.
Our Free-Market Scientists
Authors: Blakely Jason 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The 2008 economic recession is a primary example of popular social scientific authority helping manufacture a crisis. In the run-up to the recession a dominant, a vulgarized form of economic “science” taught millions of Americans that free-market policy was simply the objective, rational, and neutral way to build an economy. This chapter traces the rise of this popular form of economic authority and the way it pervaded political discourse through figures such as Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, and Steven Levitt. One of the key metaphors of this scientistic approach to economy was that markets functioned like spontaneous equilibrium machines. This chapter critically scrutinizes the school choice or voucher movement as a case study for the overextension of free-market economic authority in the restructuring of democratic life. The result has been increased inequality.
Sciences of Zero Tolerance
Authors: Blakely Jason 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The Black Lives Matter movement has been partly inspired by the ability of citizens to capture on video shocking abuses of police authority against black men and disseminate them on the Internet. What few people realize is that the policing tactics of “zero tolerance” captured in these viral videos were inaugurated by popular claims to a social science of crime. This chapter delves into the scientism surrounding the zero-tolerance and law-and-order movement. Readers are introduced to the work of James Q. Wilson, Richard Herrnstein, and others. Tactics such as broken windows policing and racial profiling are shown to be part of a wider culture of scientism. Perceiving social and political reality in racial terms is also linked to pseudoscience.
Empire of Light
Authors: Blakely Jason 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
False claims to scientific authority were used to advance the American and British war on terror. In popular rhetoric, President George W. Bush borrowed (and distorted) one of the most influential theses of political science, the claim that democracies do not fight with one another. Bush also named prominent political scientists, including Francis Fukuyama—who claimed history had reached its culmination in liberal democracies—to prominent advisory positions in government. In addition, other prominent social scientists, such as Samuel Huntington, provided alternative social scientific justifications for the war on terror and later nationalistic public policy that relied on creating permanent outsider identities for Muslims and Latinos. Scientism helped American and British citizens imagine that their use of military violence was fully rational and objectively justified as the war on terror turned into the rise of ultranationalism.
Introduction
Authors: McHughen Alan 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This introduction provides an overview of some common questions and misconceptions about DNA, while discussing its physical structure, how it works, and its impact on daily life. Also covered are chromosomes, genes, genomics, and what makes DNA so unique. DNA has generated quite a bit of interest due to major news stories of the last few decades. DNA is nature’s rock star. And, like many human celebrities, DNA can be mysterious, charming, enigmatic, complex, powerful, skilled, and at times unpredictable, but always awesome. This book pulls back the curtain to expose the machinery operating the molecule of life, showing that DNA, far from being ethereal and mystical, is actually logical, rational, usually parsimonious, and occasionally unpredictable. But still marvelously awesome!
DNA 101
Authors: McHughen Alan 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter covers the basics of DNA in simple, but not simplistic, language, explaining the nuts and bolts—physically, chemically, and biologically—with a focus on how DNA works to store genetic information and pass it on to future generations. Much here is a review of high school biology, looking at cells, chromosomes, genes, DNA, RNA, and proteins. Also covered are the processes of mitosis and meiosis; chimeras, mosaics, and hybrids; and enzymes. We delve a bit deeper into DNA, revealing how it changes though mutations, explaining its connection to selection and evolution, and introducing gene and genome editing and new techniques.
Foundations
Authors: McHughen Alan 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 2 reviews the historical foundations of DNA research and introduces the Human Genome Project, now a quarter century old. Why it was (and continues to be) so important to the genetic understanding of the origins, nature, and future of human beings is explored in this chapter. In addition to helping to address scientific and philosophical questions, the project and its diverse spinoff technologies have revolutionized many practical components of modern life. They have affected the development of personalized medicine, influenced criminal forensics, and brought the near-total elimination of paternity disputes. Also covered is the historical background of human inquiry into genetics, which provides the knowledge base underpinning the HGP.
DNA Tests for Genetic Genealogy
Authors: McHughen Alan 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter covers the different types of direct to consumer DNA tests for genealogy. They are technically similar but a bit different from those used for medical and health conditions, as genealogy tests focus on identifying “matches,” or relatives who’ve also tested based on shared SNPs or other similarities. Consumers can choose from autosomal DNA, Y-chromosome, and mtDNA tests, depending on their interests and research goals. Unlike the other tests, genealogy DNA tests compare your results with those of others and predict a relationship based on the amount of DNA you share. This adds an extra layer of complexity but is no less rewarding, and the findings can be no less surprising. Understanding how these tests work and what they show enables consumers to choose the specific ones that will be most helpful in compiling their genetic genealogy.
Genetic Engineering, GMOs, and Genome Editing
Authors: McHughen Alan 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
DNA is the very core of human existence. The thought of humans manipulating the DNA base sequence of a living thing can be unsettling, disturbing, and sometimes intensely controversial. What are some of the techniques and what are some of the purposes? And what are the concerns? Chapter 10 considers the most controversial use of DNA technology: genetic engineering. It also explores twenty-first century technologies recently developed beyond the “old-fashioned” genetic engineering methods of the 1970s and ’80s. These newer technologies, with curious names, will soon be responsible for putting new products on the market. Synthetic DNA and gene drive are recent additions raising both exciting new possibilities and, simultaneously, old fears. New genome editing technologies, with cool names such as CRISP-Cas9, RNAi, Zinc Finger, and Talens, alter the native DNA in the genome—hence genome editing—and thus forego the need to add DNA from other species or to synthesize entirely. This strategy, say proponents, should quiet the concerns raised from those worried about introducing “foreign” genes from different species. Are you ready?
Fighting Mother Nature?
Authors: McHughen Alan 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores how the human ability to understand and control life at the fundamental level of DNA might influence the Earth and its inhabitants. Humans are the first (and likely final) species capable of fighting Mother Nature and changing the face of the planet physically, chemically, and biologically. Early humans defaced the Earth when they gave up their Mother Nature’s assigned natural role as hunter-gatherer and settled into farming communities, tilling the earth and displacing the local flora and fauna with species chosen by humans for their sole benefit. Modern humans continue the practice of of betraying Mother Nature through activities that drive global climate changes and pollute the air, waters, and land. The questions of how or whether to use tools developed from the knowledge of DNA must be grounded in science but involve political processes to benefit the public good.
Handling De Re and A Posteriori Modal Claims
Authors: Thomasson Amie L. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter aims to show how the modal normativist approach may accommodate the Kripkean idea that there are certain de re necessities (apparently attributing modal properties to individuals) and necessary truths that can only be known a posteriori. It begins by arguing, contrary to Putnam and others who defend purely causal theories of reference, that we do have reason to think that names and natural kind terms are governed by certain semantic rules, even if these rules are conditionalized and revisable. It goes on to show how the rules we need to accept in any case enable us to see even de re and a posteriori necessities as object-language reflections of semantic rules and their consequences. Modal normativists can thus account for de re and a posteriori necessities as long as they allow that the semantic rules may be conditionalized, schematic, and world-deferential.
Philosophy and Physics
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Philosophy is the escape from the darkness of superstition and ignorance, and the ascent into the world of light and knowledge. It is “the vision of truth,” or what the Greeks called “the gift of wonder.” Adding to such a gift is science, the systematic study of nature and the organization of acquired knowledge into timeless, universal, causal, testable laws that are derived from observation and rational consideration. A good scientific theory makes experimentally verifiable and falsifiable predictions, which must be tested by experiment. Science is evidence-based knowledge; it is not knowledge based on opinion or dogma. In the quest for truth about nature, science without (the wisdom of) philosophy is rational but (arguably) dull, and philosophy without (the empirical facts of) science is wise but (experimentally) unverified. The road to the truth is paved by science and philosophy, but certainly by other fields, too. The view is otherwise crude and muddled.
Cosmic Justice
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Anaximander thought water is a bad idea for a primary substance of the universe because it’s not neutral—it has an opposite, fire. And opposites destroy; they don’t generate one another. If everything in the universe were initially water, it would be impossible to have its opposite, fire, ever created because water destroys fire. Thus, quarks and leptons can’t be primary, for they have opposites, their antimatter versions, and as opposites, matter and antimatter annihilate, not generate, each other. Anaximander taught everything is generated from the apeiron: a timeless, neutral substance, encompassing the universe and constantly transforming into competing transient opposites, but with measure to preserve the cosmic justice—without absolute dominance by either opposite. In physics, it’s ubiquitous energy that’s constantly transforming into competing opposites—matter and antimatter—with measure. Curiously, however, matter (“water”) is more plentiful than antimatter (“fire”). Why? Nobody knows. Where’s the cosmic justice?
Numbers and Shapes
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Pythagoras initiated the mathematical analysis of nature, a cornerstone practice in modern physics. “Things are numbers” is the most significant Pythagorean doctrine. It signifies that the phenomena of nature are describable by equations and numbers. Therefore, nature is quantifiable and potentially knowable through the scientific method. The Pythagoreans quantified pleasing sounds of music, right-angled triangles, even the motion of the heavenly bodies. The “Copernican revolution” (heliocentricity) is traced back to Pythagorean cosmology. But, finally, Einstein’s relativity clarifies a popular misconception related to it: that “the earth revolves around the sun (heliocentricity) is correct,” and that “the sun revolves around the earth (geocentricism) is incorrect.” Plato was inspired by Pythagorean mathematics, but he replaced “things are numbers” with things are shapes, forms, Forms, a noetic description of nature known as the theory of “Forms.” The quantum-mechanical wave-functions—mathematical forms that describe microscopic particles—are the Platonic Forms of quarks and leptons.
The Changing Universe
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Everything is constantly changing, and nothing is ever the same, Heraclitus proposed, and in accordance with Logos, the intelligible eternal law of nature. Thus, everything is in a state of becoming (in the process of forming into something) instead of being (reaching or already being in an established final state beyond which no more change will take place). This means that things, permanent things, no longer exist—for they contradict his theory of constant change—only events and processes exist. His doctrine has found strong confirmation in modern physics, for, according to it, absolute restfulness and inactivity are impossibilities. Points in Einstein’s four-dimensional space-time continuum are events, and so are the quarks and leptons—for, unlike in deterministic Newtonian physics, matter in probabilistic quantum physics lost its permanence and identity because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Moreover, all happenings, evidence suggests, are consistent with a single universal law.
The Unchanging Universe
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Heraclitus declares the being (that which exists, nature) but identifies it with becoming, but Parmenides declares just the Being; only what is, is, what is not, is not. All “follows” from that: change, he argues, is logically impossible and so what is, is one and unchangeable! This dazzling absolute monism is in daring disagreement with sense perception, but curiously it has found a well-known genius as a supporter. Emboldened by his theory of relativity, Einstein considers the universe as a four-dimensional “block” (a space-time continuum like a loaf of bread) which, remarkably, contains all moments of time (of past, present, and future) always, and where change is an illusion. He said, “For we convinced physicists, the distinction between past, present, and future is only an illusion, however persistent.” In the block universe, the past is not gone, it is present; and the future, like the present, is, well, present, too.
Paradoxes of Nature
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Parmenides’s insinuation of an unchanging universe is assertively supported by Zeno with various logical paradoxes that question the very nature of plurality, space, time, and the reality of apparent motion. The dichotomy is his most famous paradox. To begin a trip, say, from here to the door, a traveler must travel the first half of it, but before she does that she must travel half of the first half, and in fact half of that, ad infinitum. Since there will always exist a smaller first half to be traveled first, Zeno questions whether a traveler can ever even start a trip. Zeno’s analysis is logical; on the other hand, things everywhere appear to be moving. Hence, either Zeno’s reasoning is wrong or appearances are deceptive. Empowered by the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, it will be argued that, at best, the phenomenon of motion is experimentally unverifiable!
Atoms of Matter and Energy
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Perhaps the greatest scientific achievement of antiquity, possibly of all time, was the realization of the atomic nature of matter. “There are but atoms and the void,” Democritus proposed. And he understood the great diversity of material objects as complex aggregations of uncuttable atoms, the building blocks of matter, moving in the void, the empty space between them. Leucippus invented the atomic theory, and Democritus, a true polymath and a prolific philosopher, developed it extensively. Uncuttable (the actual meaning of atom in Greek) are also the modern elementary particles of matter, the quarks and leptons, and although void is a controversial concept still, a kind of void is required to explain nature. Leucippus’s and Democritus’s notion of indivisible (atomic), discrete particles without substructure has endured and, according to modern physics, is still one of the most remarkable properties of nature. Could space and time have an atomic nature, too?
Atomic Connections
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Epicureanism has served as an intellectual bridge between ancient and modern science. Lucretius, a devoted Epicurean, composed a didactic poem about Epicurean philosophy that has “taken over the whole of Italy.” Epicureanism “was a significant trend in Hellenistic times.” “The echoes of this battle [between the atomists and their critics, e.g., the Aristotelians] were heard [sporadically] in medieval Europe, and it flared up again with great intensity in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.” Then, Epicureanism was revived when a copy of Lucretius’s poem resurfaced, inspiring various Renaissance philosophers, who had inspired the Enlightenment philosophers. Galileo cited Lucretius’s work to compare the Epicurean physics of falling bodies with Aristotle’s and his own. His book inspired Newton, an atomist himself, who in turn inspired Einstein, who had proven atomism theoretically, and who inspired everyone after him. Rightly then, “If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.”
Epilogue
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Our quest for knowledge began with our evolution as a species 200,000 years ago. We hunted and gathered, painted on caves, told stories, domesticated animals and plants, wondered about nature, gave birth to civilization and religion, picked up writing, philosophized, and engaged in science. In fact, we keep on doing all these wonderful things and continue to learn more and more, but, why should we? A student of Euclid once asked, What would I earn if I learned geometry? If you should earn from what you learn, here is a coin, Euclid responded sardonically. But, really, why should we learn? Because we can, might be the best answer, but also because the journey of knowledge is infinitely interesting. Nonetheless, in front of the wisdom of the universe, we should remain always humble, for as many learned people have come to know (Democritus, Socrates, Russell), we might be wrong on just about everything.
Small Populations
Authors: Skarbek David 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 5 examines the history of California’s women’s prisons. Women’s prisons have never been home to prison gangs like those found in some men’s prisons; norms are used instead to govern social and economic interactions. Some women also form fictive kinships, taking on roles as the mom, dad, and child. This chapter shows that decentralized social order operates because women’s prisons have always held relatively few prisoners. In such small populations, gossip, ostracism, and shaming work effectively, and at low cost, to punish bad behavior, and female prisoners have never had to invest in the costly, centralized institutions that men often turn to.