bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Three Ethical Traditions
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , van Kooten Niekerk Kees , Lykke Cobos Kristian-Alberto , Fink Hans , Rabjerg Bjørn , Stern Robert 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The book begins by setting up what Løgstrup calls the main traditions of Western ethics: teleology and deontology. The teleological tradition is the oldest, originating in Plato and Aristotle, but it also includes Utilitarianism along with early twentieth-century thinkers such as Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartmann. The central proponent of the deontological tradition is Kant, but it also includes Kierkegaard. Also, Løgstrup very briefly introduces a third, ontological, tradition with reference to Luther’s idea of natural law, and which is based on the fundamental conditions of our human existence. This tradition is further described in the subsequent chapters of the book.
The Ethical Demand and the Norms
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , van Kooten Niekerk Kees , Lykke Cobos Kristian-Alberto , Fink Hans , Rabjerg Bjørn , Stern Robert 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
In ‘The Ethical Demand and the Norms’, Løgstrup addresses the problem concerning relativity in ethics. He makes the claim that ethics involves both an unchanging and a relative and changeable element; the moral rules vary from time to time and in different cultures, whereas the fundamental element that one should be concerned for the well-being of the other is absolute and unchangeable. This leads Løgstrup to discuss the problem as to whether the Ten Commandments still hold good today, as they can reasonably be seen as part of the historical and thus relative moral rules of ethics rather than its unchangeable basis.
Chronicle A and the Early Tenth Century
Authors: Stafford Pauline 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the chronicles and annals produced in the first decades of the tenth century connected to the courts of King Alfred’s children, Edward the Elder in Wessex and Æthelflæd in Mercia, and probably also to Æthelstan’s court. It provides a detailed consideration of Chronicle A and its manuscript. It identifies three chronicles, two produced close to Edward and his court—one of which is the surviving Chronicle A in at least some of its stages—and one produced close to Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, and Æthelstan, a chronicle known as the ‘Mercian Register’ or ‘Annals of Æthelflæd’. It argues that these chronicling developments are not independent, but respond one to another and illuminate the issues and debates among the court elites of the early tenth century. Apparent resolution of those issues in the accession of King Æthelstan ended the first burst of vernacular chronicle writing and production.
The Lost Worcester Chronicle
Authors: Stafford Pauline 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter attempts to identify a lost chronicle, most likely a Worcester chronicle, which existed by c. ad 1000. Comparison of the twelfth-century annals in John of Worcester’s chronicle with those which seem to lie behind Byhrtferth of Ramsey’s Vita Oswaldi (Life of Oswald) suggests a lost vernacular chronicle text, whose identifiable interests connect it to Worcester and its bishops, including Bishop Oswald. This chronicle would have provided a more positive view of the early years of the reign of King Æthelred II and a different assessment of King Edgar.
Political Theology of International Order
Authors: Bain William 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThis book investigates presuppositions of international order that originate in medieval theology. Part I examines rival conceptions of order that emerged out of a medieval dispute about the nature of God and the extent of his power. The theory of immanent order refers to an interconnected whole that imparts a rationally intelligible pattern of right order. The theory of imposed order refers to a contingent arrangement, established by will and artifice or the operation of an impersonal mechanism, which accommodates numerous patterns that can be made and unmade. Part II investigates the assimilation of medieval theological ideas in the thought of three emblematic thinkers: Martin Luther, Hugo Grotius, and Thomas Hobbes. This challenges the narrative of progressive secularization characterizing most international thought. Particular emphasis is placed on the transition from medieval to modern. The claim here is that continuity describes this transition as persuasively as the more familiar discourse of change. Part III uncovers a theological inheritance that shapes modern theories of international order. The language of system and society, as well as anarchy, balance of power, and contractual international law, reflects the intellectual commitments of nominalist theology. The conclusion explores the tension that arises from this theological inheritance in a world where God is only one of several postulates that can be called upon to fix the contingency of a constructed international order. The danger is that grounding international order in nothing more than human decision leaves what is made fundamentally indeterminate and precariously exposed to the whims of capricious power.
Renaissance, Reformation, and the Road to Westphalia
Authors: Bain William 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThe purpose of this chapter is to challenge the ubiquitous narrative that portrays the transition from medieval to modern as the start of the progressive secularization of international relations. Setting the emergence of the modern states system against the backdrop of medieval institutions and practices privileges evidence of change, while concealing evidence of continuity. The discourse of Westphalia provides the dominant interpretive frame of this narrative. This chapter recovers threads of continuity, without denying the significance of change, by explaining the transition from medieval to modern in the context of change within inherited continuity. It examines the role of the Renaissance and Reformation, events regularly portrayed as harbingers of revolutionary change, in carrying ideas associated with the theory of imposed order into the modern world. The main contention is that the boundary that separates medieval and modern is less fixed and more porous than most theorists of international relations seem to realize. Neither the Renaissance nor the Reformation inaugurate a turn away from religion. Both emphasize the primacy of the will, consistent with the theory of imposed order, which is given to imagining political order as a construction born of word and deed. Recovering the threads of continuity that connect medieval and modern is a crucial step in advancing the larger argument of this book, namely that modern theories of international order reflect a medieval inheritance that can be traced to nominalist theology.
International Order Beneath an Empty Sky
Authors: Bain William 
Published: July 2020

AbstractThis chapter lays out a tension that arises in a world that is dominated by the theory of imposed order, yet makes room for the theory of immanent order as a rhetoric that is set against what it done in the name of will and artifice. Theorizing international order in contemporary international relations can be interpreted as an attempt to negotiate these rival positions. However, the chapter makes the critical point that these theories of order represent incommensurable positions. The one cannot be assimilated to the other to form a coherent composite theory of order. The chapter discusses the implications of a world that is torn between these incommensurable positions. The theory of immanent order provides a sense of transcendent truth that conditions what human beings make and do, but in a constructed world, consistent with the theory of imposed order, this transcendent truth is an artefact of the same freedom it seeks to regulate. This is a consequence of substituting human decision in place of God to secure the regularity of international order. Secular alternatives to God are sustained in the same way that nominalist theologians repose confidence in God: through faith or belief. The chapter concludes by arguing that this theological inheritance begins to unravel at a certain point because, unlike God, human beings are conditionally, rather than absolutely, good. The danger is that abiding uncertainty exposes the regularity of international order to the arbitrary whims of power.
Ethics, Security, and The War-Machine
Authors: Dobos Ned 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
If pacifists are correct in thinking that war is always unjust, then presumably we ought to eliminate the possibility and temptation of ever engaging in it: We should not build war-making capacity, and if we already have, then demilitarisation—or military abolition—would seem to be the appropriate course to take. On the other hand, if war is sometimes justified, as most of us believe, then presumably it must be permissible to prepare for it by creating and maintaining a military establishment. On this view, in order for war-building to be justified, it is both necessary and sufficient that war-making be justifiable. But this view is mistaken. Even if war can be morally permissible on occasion, it does not follow that it is acceptable for any state to build and maintain an institution devoted to it. That is because militaries are exceedingly costly, not to mention dangerous, and there are going to be cases where these costs and risks are prohibitive. Obviously, there are large amounts of money at stake, but the true cost of a military cannot be captured in economic terms alone. This book explores the moral and social costs of militarisation, and shines a light on the ways in which a civilian population compromises its own security by having a war-machine attached to it.
Cognitive Bias and the Misuse of Military Power
Authors: Dobos Ned 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Wherever there is a military establishment, there is a danger that its use will not be confined to the prosecution of ‘just wars’ and interventions. In other words, there is a risk of the armed forces being overused or misused by the state. In this chapter I argue that some unjust wars are bound to be perceived as just by our political decision makers, not because of the unique pressures they face, or because they are morally deranged, or because they are ignorant of the facts, but simply because they carry the same unconscious biases as the rest of us. This means the prospect of military misuse is not limited to societies whose political elites are hawkish warmongers or sociopathic careerists. We can fully expect that even ‘decent’ governments, genuinely committed to never waging unjust wars, will wage them sometimes.
Introduction
Authors: Hirschmann Gisela 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This introductory chapter highlights why pluralist accountability is an important empirical phenomenon in global governance that needs to be studied systematically. It demonstrates the limits of the existing literature on international organization (IO) accountability, which has focused on traditional, vertical accountability, whereby the implementing actors are held accountable directly by the mandating authority. The chapter introduces the concept of pluralist accountability as standard setting, monitoring, and sanctioning by independent third parties. It presents the argument that a competitive environment that stimulates third parties to act as accountability holders and the vulnerability of implementing actors regarding human rights demands shape the evolution of pluralist accountability. The chapter then outlines the implications of the book’s analysis for current International Relations and international law scholarship on IOs, in particular with regard to complex delegation, the role of nonstate actors and the study of IO legitimacy. It also contains an overview of the subsequent chapters.
Case Study
Authors: Leigland James 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter presents a case study of the Maputo Corridor toll road concession, linking South Africa with neighboring Mozambique. As the first cross-border transport PPP in SSA, this project is the first PPP in the region with a claim to the kind of “transformational” qualities that the G20 and the African Union have been hoping will dramatically improve infrastructure across the continent. The continent includes many landlocked countries as well as countries that are too small and poor to be able to finance adequate power and transport infrastructure without the collaboration of neighbors. However, this project is still the only cross-border toll road concession ever completed in SSA. Why have no similar projects ever been completed in Africa? What makes the Maputo toll road a unique project? What lessons can we learn from the Maputo project about the likely success of cross-border transformational PPPs in SSA?
The ICTY is Dead! Long Live the ICTY!
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The chapter sets the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) legacies into a broader context of international criminal justice. It presents different approaches towards the many legacies of the ICTY. The chapter engages with the several phases that the Tribunal has passed, discussing their positive and negative points. It then examines the normative legacy of the ICTY, arguing that, although some gaps exist, the overall record of the ICTY is marked with several normative innovations. The chapter then visits the procedural legacy of the ICTY, in the sense of how the Tribunal made justice heard and seen. Lastly, the chapter discusses the institutional culture of the ICTY and its legacy to other international criminal tribunals. With this analysis, the chapter claims that the ICTY legacies are living beings, which will continue to be transformed throughout the history of international criminal justice.
A Partial View of History
Authors: Prosperi Luigi , Borda Aldo Zammit 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
In practice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has contributed significantly to the historical narratives of the conflicts in the Balkans. However, history writing as an objective of international criminal proceedings remains a contested issue and ICTY chambers have approached this objective differently. The role of history at the ICTY has fluctuated significantly and has been directly influenced by developments in other areas of the Tribunal’s work. While the histories written by the ICTY have helped promote better understanding of the conflicts, in other cases such histories, particularly those referring to third parties, have had problematic implications for the right to a fair trial. This chapter claims that the relationship between judging and history at the ICTY has been dynamic, contingent, and complex. International criminal tribunals are only able to write ‘judicial truths’; to expect them to write authoritative historical accounts is possibly to overburden them.
Defence Investigative Ethics
Authors: Karnavas Michael G. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The investigation of war crimes has proved to be a challenging task for the Defence at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). At the Court’s infancy, civil trained defence counsel with no experience in adversarial party-driven procedures were unfamiliar with aspects of case preparation and trial advocacy, such as gathering evidence by conducting their own investigation, or cross-examination through leading questions based on a coherent theory of the case. These adversarial modalities also came with specific ethical duties. This chapter offers some practical advice and best practices relevant to Defence Counsel practising in national jurisdictions of the former Yugoslavia region and elsewhere, where adversarial modalities similar to those found in the ICTY procedure have been adopted in reforming their criminal procedures—transitioning them from civil law to a more hybrid system.
Was it Worth it?
Authors: Finci Petar 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia’s (ICTY) Outreach Programme was a new effort in the field of international criminal justice, with little existing experience to build upon. Relying on fundraising for financing and operating in sometimes openly hostile political circumstances in the former Yugoslavia, the Outreach Programme nevertheless managed to engage its target groups over nearly two decades. This chapter starts with an analysis of the early activities of the Outreach Programme, with particular focus on evaluation (or the lack thereof) of the impact. It then offers a more detailed discussion of outreach projects implemented from 2010 onwards and some differences in evaluation of their short- and long-term impact. It concludes with some recommendations on possible ways to use the experiences beyond the closure of the ICTY.
Narratives of Justice and War in Croatia
Authors: Sokolić Ivor 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the relationship between war and justice narratives in Croatia, based on focus groups, dyads, and interviews conducted in 2014 and 2015. The war narrative is based on a pervasive conception of self-defence against a larger Serbian aggressor. It contrasts with a justice narrative that is focused on the norms of transitional justice and the expressivist effects of trials. The two narratives exist in the same space and interact with each other. This chapter outlines these narratives and analyses their reproduction. It argues that the emotional war narrative’s strength makes it difficult for the justice narrative to take hold and, consequently, for the trickle-down expressivist effects of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and human rights norms to occur. This tolerance for deviance was based on notions of legality that were defined differently in relation to Croats and Serbs.
The Legacy of the ICTY
Authors: Trahan Jennifer , Vukušić Iva 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has made significant contributions to justice, peace, and security, and creating an historical record about the violence that victimized hundreds of thousands of people during the 1990s. Yet, it has also given us a robust model for adjudicating large-scale atrocity crimes through its three-tiered approach to justice. This chapter focuses on Bosnia and Herzegovina where the ICTY’s impact on local proceedings was most significant and analyses the ways in which the Tribunal provided a roadmap for similar contexts in the future. By examining benchmarks for success, Trahan and Vukušić outline how success can be understood, measured, and increased in these complex contexts where there is a great need for justice but limited resources. They also examine how positive outcomes can be supported through case prioritization, clear communication, the setting of realistic expectations, and cooperation with other jurisdictions.
Socrates
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Socrates raises some of the basic questions of ethical theory through his question ‘How ought we to live?’, which he takes to mean ‘How ought we to live in order to be happy?’ His answer is that we ought to acquire and practise the virtues. His inquiries reveal that people lack a clear conception of the nature of the virtues. To correct our views, we should recognize that the virtues are inseparable, that knowledge is sufficient for virtue, and that virtue is sufficient for happiness. Socrates defends these convictions, in the Protagoras and the Gorgias. Socrates’ one-sided successors, the Cyrenaics and Cynics, develop his arguments in opposed directions.
Plato
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Plato rejects Socrates’ belief that knowledge of the good is sufficient for being virtuous; he argues that human souls have a non-rational part (emotions, impulses), and that the virtues require not only knowledge, but also the correct training of the non-rational part. He rejects Socrates’ belief that virtue is sufficient for happiness. Instead he argues that the virtuous person is always happier than anyone else. He defends this view in the most difficult case, the other-regarding virtue of justice. Plato recognizes that one may plausibly argue that my justice is good for other people, but harmful to me. None the less he rejects this argument. The appropriate relation between the rational and the non-rational parts of the soul promotes both the agent’s good and the good of others; that is why the just person is happier than anyone else. Those who suppose that the just person may be worse off by being just do not understand the character of the human good.
Scepticism
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Sceptics maintain that they cannot find any rational resolution of the apparent conflicts among different people’s views on ethics (among other things), and that their inability causes them to suspend judgment. In the face of variation among ethical beliefs between different people and different societies they recognize no rational grounds for forming any ethical beliefs. In drawing this conclusion from ethical variation the Sceptics disagree with Aristotle’s argument to show that variation does not undermine ethical beliefs. They claim to live without ethical beliefs, and indeed claim to achieve happiness this way, identifying happiness with the tranquillity that results from freedom from the anxiety that disturbs anyone who tries to form rational beliefs. Opponents of the Sceptics argue that life without beliefs leaves the Sceptics incapable of the sort of action that constitutes a tolerable human life.
Kant and Some Critics
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Kant argues that an understanding of the relation between morality and rational agency reveals the nature of moral rightness. Moral principles give us reasons for acting apart from our feeling or preferences. They give us reasons that apply to all rational agents alike. Principles that embody such reasons conform to a categorical imperative that states a universal law for all rational agents. Against critics who contend that this universal law is too general to tell us anything useful about right and wrong, Kant argues that it requires us to treat rational agents as ends in themselves, not to be sacrificed simply for the sake of other people’s goals. This attitude of mutual respect among rational agents is the basis for a moral and social order that realizes human freedom.
Hegel
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Hegel believes that we can grasp the character of morality by reflexion on different aspects of the rational will. In willing we will a particular goal, but we also will it as our own goal, as the goal of a rational agent who has other ends. As rational agents we apply critical standards to the goals that we will. Kant is right to argue that morality includes these critical standards, but (as Schopenhauer argues) he is wrong to suppose that the critical standards alone give us the true content of morality. We find the correct morality in so far as we find the goals that meet the right critical standards; these are the goals that fully realize the nature of the rational agent. If we find these goals, we overcome (contrary to Schopenhauer) any opposition between self-interest and morality.