bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
For
Authors: Meisels Tamar 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter opens the debate with Meisels’ defense of targeted killing as a legitimate and desirable defensive anti-terrorism strategy, in keeping with both just war theory and international law. Meisels’ unequivocal starting point regarding counter-terrorism is that a state of continuous armed struggle exists between states and various terrorist organizations and their affiliates. Meisels unreservedly defends the named killing of irregular combatants, most notably terrorists, in the course of armed conflict, distinguishing sharply between this wartime practice and the related illicit practice of political assassination. Later in this chapter, the author offers a possible moral justification for rare instances of assassination outside that framework, specifically with reference to recent cases of nuclear scientists developing weapons of mass destruction for the Iranian and Syrian governments.
Reply to Professor Meisels
Authors: Waldron Jeremy 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Waldron’s reply focuses on several difficulties in the account given by Meisels, mostly concerning arguments raised against targeted killing to which a proper response has not been given. The first such argument is the element of manhunting that targeted killing involves—an element that distinguishes it sharply from ordinary combat. One must also consider the role of intelligence operatives, in these killings, as opposed to soldiers. Secondly, Waldron insists again on the importance of the problem of possible abuse of this practice, particularly given the tendency to use the word “terrorist” to describe any insurgent or opponent. Thirdly, Waldron considers problems of effectiveness. And fourthly, he addresses some of the specific issues about the assassination of nuclear scientists raised in the account given by Professor Meisels.
Astrobiology and Society
Authors: Dick Steven J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter traces the history of the search for life in the universe, from the ancient Greek atomists to the emergence of modern astrobiology. The idea of inhabited worlds dates back at least to the ancient Greeks and was rationally discussed as a part of natural philosophy, mainly in the context of cosmological worldviews. If cosmological worldviews gave birth to the idea of extraterrestrial life, then philosophy and literature, in their traditional role of examining the human condition, explored the ramifications of the idea borne of that cosmological context. Interest in astrobiology and society in its broadest sense dates back at least a quarter century to the days when NASA was planning its Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) program. Today, astrobiology is a thriving enterprise around the world and the societal aspects are becoming an integral part of it.
Dimensions of Life Definitions
Authors: Parke Emily C. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that the concept of “life” is used in several rather distinct ways: sometimes as an all-or-nothing phenomenon and other times as a matter of degree; sometimes referring to individual organisms and other times to communities; sometimes based on specific chemistries and other times on functions. In contrast to biologists in general, astrobiologists cannot take the status of their subject matter as living or nonliving for granted. There are at least two reasons to think astrobiologists need an understanding of what counts as life. The first is to set search criteria for finding “life as we don’t know it” in the universe. The second is to set success conditions conducive to agreement about when life has been found and when it has not. In addition to particular cases like the recent Mars finding by NASA, the meaning of “life” figures into a broader agenda in astrobiology: looking for biosignatures.
Rethinking Conceptual Intelligence and the Astrobiology Debate
Authors: Howard Jason J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter addresses the implications of people’s understanding of conceptual intelligence on extraterrestrial debates in astrobiology. In presupposing life, and by extension conceptual intelligence, is so fine-tuned as to be unique to this planet creates an equivocation that opens up scientific claims to ineradicable skepticism. It is one thing to be doubtful about whether life exists elsewhere, if that life is intelligent, or even if humans will ever find it. This is to be expected and healthy. However, it is quite another to assume that all expressions of intelligence on this planet are the direct product of natural processes unique to Earth. If all forms of intelligence are ultimately rooted in local expressions of biological utility, then the necessity and universality that anchors scientific explanations can be no more than complicated ways of registering people’s own interspecies agreement on things and thus of no help in critically investigating the larger structure of the natural universe with some measure of objectivity.
Myth-Free Space Advocacy Part IV
Authors: Schwartz James S.J. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter addresses a sociological question that has largely been ignored: How much does the public care about life in space? It argues that there is no clear evidence of widespread support in the United States for the scientific search for extraterrestrial life. First, a comparison with U.S. views on evolution suggests that many religious individuals would be opposed to the search. Second, a comparison with U.S. views on space exploration suggests that a large majority of the public would be unwilling to support increased funding for the search. Finally, a review of existing surveys on the public's views about astrobiology suggests that little is known about how the public frames the search for extraterrestrial life. This makes it difficult to draw any decisive conclusions about the purported universal appeal of astrobiology.
#NoFilter
Authors: Richardson Allissa V. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 8 highlights the horror associated with peering into the forbidden spaces of state-sponsored violence against black bodies. Many activists in the movement have experienced mysterious, untimely deaths, and suicides. Even distant African American witnesses have reported a reluctance to view smartphone videos of fatal police encounters anymore, citing severe trauma. This chapter complicates our discussion of black witnessing, therefore, to wrestle with the question of whether these videos have become like lynching postcards.
Trolls and Other Patent Inventions
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The “patent controversy” of the twenty-first century reflects claims that patent institutions are in crisis, and new developments in technology markets require departures from traditional approaches to property rights. The historical record sheds light on the nature and validity of these assertions. Patterns over the course of two centuries regarding patent grants, litigation rates, and intermediaries or “nonpracticing entities” suggest that these features of the market for ideas are hardly anomalous. Indeed, they have always been characteristic of the disruptive technologies that propelled the United States toward global industrial leadership.
Inventing Prizes
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Academics and policymakers alike tend to motivate their claims about innovation prizes with a cluster of popular, but previously unexamined, historical anecdotes. As a result, canonical case studies like the award for gauging longitude at sea, the success of efforts to induce new methods of food preservation in France, and “Daguerrotype patent buyouts” have had a disproportionate effect on our understanding of institutions and incentives for inventive activity. Closer attention to the specific details derived from the primary records reveals key misapprehensions and inaccuracies, implying that the oft-recited conclusions about technological prizes are largely misleading.
Prestige and Profit
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The Royal Society of Arts offered honorary and cash awards for creativity. The society initially was averse to patents and prohibited the award of prizes for patented inventions. Inventors of items that were valuable in the marketplace typically chose to obtain patents and to bypass the prize system. Owing to such adverse selection, prizes were negatively related to subsequent areas of important technological discovery. The society acknowledged that its efforts had been “futile” because of its hostility to patents and switched from offering inducement prizes toward lobbying for reforms to strengthen the patent system. The findings suggest some skepticism is warranted about claims that elites and non-market-oriented institutions generated technological innovation and long-term economic development.
Administered Invention in France
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
France presents the closest model of a soi-disant “entrepreneurial state,” including both centralized and decentralized administered innovation institutions. Scholars have argued that these approaches were superior to market transactions. However, their unrepresentative case studies have underestimated or ignored the costs of politically biased economic strategies, including greater uncertainty, incorrect relative prices and the misallocation of resources, and lower incentives for investments in inventive activity. A society based on special privileges for the few provided disproportionate benefits for elites and those with personal connections, disadvantaged creativity that threatened existing interests, and encouraged rent-seeking rather than returns from meeting market demand.
Going for Gold
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Innovation prizes were regularly sponsored by the Franklin Institute and other mechanics’ institutes throughout the United States. The analysis shows that administered innovation systems in the United States demonstrated the same endemic characteristics as their European counterparts. Unlike the more democratic nature of patent markets, the judges, participants, and winners belonged to wealthier and more privileged classes. Prize systems failed to induce the desired outcomes, and the allocation of awards was typically idiosyncratic and unrelated to characteristics of the invention. Their administration was rife with poor governance, and the administrative costs often exceeded the amounts being disbursed to inventors. Rather than providing effective inducements for novel inventive activity, prizes primarily served as marketing and publicity mechanisms for firms that wished to commercialize already existing innovations.
“Creative Destruction”
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The strongest case for administered innovation systems relies on government sponsorship of research and development and technological discoveries during World War II and the modern postwar era. The American Civil War provides a useful counterpoint that demonstrates the effectiveness of markets in ideas even during the severe disruptions of a devastating battle on domestic soil. The Civil War was characterized by a high degree of technological creativity for military-related inventions and innovations, to a far greater extent than during the twentieth century. Both the sourcing of new technologies and military procurement were decentralized and subject to market forces. The market incentives for private inventors to engage in trial-and-error experimentation created an impressive portfolio of radical new technologies from which military leaders chose the most appropriate to support their strategies.
Innovations in Law
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Administered systems involve regulation, while efficient markets in ideas require secure property rights and appropriate adjacent institutions. Disruptive technologies typically lead to institutional bottlenecks, which then require accommodations in legal rules and their enforcement. U.S. policy toward innovation and enterprise has always been distinguished by the central role of law and the judiciary. The evolution of legal rules and standards in the United States reveals a remarkable degree of flexibility and responsiveness to innovations. In the short run, the common law economized on legal adjustment costs through “adjudication by analogy,” whereas, in the long run, socioeconomic changes wrought by major inventions ultimately produced more fundamental adjustments in adjacent institutions. This institutional elasticity can be contrasted with the lack of transparency and rigidity that characterized most administered innovation institutions.
The Spiritual Evolution of Margarito Bautista
Authors: Pulido Elisa Eastwood 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
A spiritual biography, this book chronicles the journey of Margarito Bautista (1878–1961) from Mormonism to the Third Convention, a Latter-day Saint (Mormon) splinter group he fomented in 1935–1936, to Colonia Industrial/Nueva Jerusalén, a polygamist utopia Bautista founded in 1947. It argues that Bautista embraced Mormon belief in indigenous exceptionalism in 1901 and rapidly rose through the ranks of Mormon priesthood until convinced that the Mormon hierarchy was not invested in the development of native American peoples, as promoted in the Church’s canon. This realization resulted in tensions over indigenous self-governance within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon Church) and Bautista’s 1937 excommunication. The book contextualizes Bautista’s thought with a chapter on the spiritual conquest of Mexico in 1513 and another on the arrival of Mormons in Mexico. In addition to accounts of Bautista’s congregation-building on both sides of the U.S. border, this volume includes an examination of Bautista’s magnum opus, a 564-page tome hybridizing Aztec history and Book of Mormon narratives, and his prophetic plan for the recovery of indigenous authority in the Americas. Bautista’s excommunication catapulted him into his final spiritual career, that of a utopian founder. In the establishment of his colony, Bautista found a religious home, free from Euro-American oversight, where he implemented his prophetic plan for Mexico’s redemption. His plan included obedience to early Mormonism’s most stringent practices, polygamy and communalism. Bautista nonetheless hoped his community would provide a model for Mexicans willing to prepare the world for Christ’s millennial reign.
Bautista Embraces Mormonism, 1901–1910
Authors: Pulido Elisa Eastwood 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines Margarito Bautista’s 1901 conversion to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Central Mexico and his subsequent residency in the polygamous Mormon Colonies in northern Mexico from 1903 to 1910. It argues that in the first decade after his conversion, Bautista’s mirroring of Euro-American Mormon missionaries transformed him into a potent, if unpaid evangelizer and impressed upon him the idea that the development of Mexico and Mexicans was a religious duty that required self-sacrifice, community building, and the strict observance of difficult practices, i.e. polygamy. After his conversion, Bautista quickly rose through the ranks of the Mormon priesthood and began evangelizing other Mexicans, first on Mexico’s Central Plateau and later in the state of Chihuahua, where he witnessed first-hand the Mormon practice of gathering into homogenous communities, the practice of polygamy, and the ability of Mormon colonists to tame the wilderness.
Resist or Yield?
Authors: Nanay Bence 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
An important recent distinction in the empirical literature about self-control is between resisting and avoiding temptations. While there is evidence that avoiding temptations is the more efficient method of the two, philosophers have focused almost exclusively on resisting temptations. The aim of this chapter is to examine what the ability to avoid temptations depends on and to argue that it depends primarily on how fragmented one’s mind is: on the inconsistencies in one’s mental setup. The fragmentation of mind requires a significant amount of mental effort to conceal from oneself and this leads to a weakened ability to resist temptations.
Self-Control and Deliberate Ignorance
Authors: Basu Sammy , Friedrich James 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the relationship of individual “self-control” to epistemic behavior and ethical responsibility. The authors distinguish deliberate ignorance into two forms: partiality-preserving and impartiality-enhancing, associating the former with “epistemic diligence/negligence” and the latter with “epistemic restraint/recklessness.” As such, they argue that ethical responsibility entails three prescriptive orders of self-control. First, in the moment, the individual should reactively self-control epistemic relevance. However, research on cognitive irregularities such as the introspection illusion highlights difficulties in doing so. Second, the individual should proactively regulate information available to self and others. Here, the authors’ own studies test whether individuals will consistently guard against information contamination. They find that a personal “bias blind-spot” compromises such epistemic discretion. Given epistemic responsibility but unreliable introspection, then, the individual needs a third order of self-control. That is, in certain decision-making situations the individual is obliged to utilize institutions of epistemic justice that mandate to decision-makers information availability/restraint.
Gay Rights vs. Religious Liberty?
Authors: Koppelman Andrew 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Should religious people who conscientiously object to facilitating same-sex weddings, and who therefore decline to provide cakes, photography, or other services, be exempted from antidiscrimination laws? This issue has taken on an importance far beyond the tiny number who have made such claims. Gay rights advocates fear that exempting even a few religious dissenters would unleash a devastating wave of discrimination. Conservative Christians fear that the law will treat them like racists and drive them to the margins of American society. Both sides are mistaken. This is not a matter of abstract principle, and none of the constitutional claims work. This is an appropriate occasion for legislative negotiation. This book is the only systematic accounting of the interests that must be balanced in any decent compromise, in terms that both sides can recognize and appreciate. Koppelman explains the basis of antidiscrimination law, including the complex idea of dignitary harm. He shows why even those who do not regard religion as important or valid nonetheless have good reasons to support religious liberty, and why those who regard religion as a value of overriding importance should nonetheless reject the extravagant power over nonbelievers that the Supreme Court has recently embraced. Koppelman also proposes a specific solution to the problem: that religious exemptions be granted only to the few businesses that are willing to announce their compunctions and bear the costs of doing so. His approach makes room for America’s enormous variety of deeply held beliefs and ways of life. It can help reduce the toxic polarization of American politics.
Discrimination law can tolerate exceptions
Authors: Koppelman Andrew 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Religious accommodations have been granted only when this can be done without defeating the purposes of the law. This chapter examines the purposes of antidiscrimination law. That body of law is an exception to the normal rule of contract at will. Generally, one may refuse to deal for any reason at all. Legislation is only necessary when discrimination is ubiquitous. The law can thus achieve its ends while excusing idiosyncratic dissenters. The harms that have been attributed to discrimination, such as damage to full citizenship status and dignitary harm, are carefully unpacked.
A right to be weird is a good reason to give religion special treatment
Authors: Koppelman Andrew 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Proponents of special treatment for religion are increasingly drawn to the implausible claim that (what someone takes to be) divine commands should always supersede human ones. A better account would acknowledge that religion is only one among many profound human concerns. The recognition that there is an enormous variety of deep and valuable commitments undergirds the claims of both gay rights and religious freedom. These can only be protected one at a time, and that is a sufficient reason for singling out religion for special treatment.
Contextualization
Authors: Stadler Nurit 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter contextualizes the different levels of the work. The author use in order to study the sacred places and rituals in the Holy Land, the nation state and Middle Eastern context. The author start this chapter with the explanation of the relations between state and religion, and go on to explaining the sacred archetypes of holiness by interpreting relations between texts and lands. The author go on to discuss the eschatological and pragmatic forces in the Holy Land and the idea of the Holy Land in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. She goes on to contextualize the veneration of female saints by means of prototypical illustrations at different levels of resolution—Holy Land, Middle Eastern, and the idea of the state and its construction. The author concludes this chapter with the discussion of religion and the variety of ritualistic performance in Israel/Palestine.
Philosophical Aesthetics and the Ethical Criticism of Art
Authors: Nannicelli Ted 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter critically reviews an approach to the ethical criticism of art that has dominated attention in philosophical aesthetics. The author calls it the “interpretation-oriented approach” and “perspectivism.” On this approach, art is ethically evaluated in terms of its meanings—in particular, in terms of the attitudes or perspectives the work embodies, endorses, expresses, or prescribes. The author raises two central objections to perspectivism: it does not carry much force in the real world (i.e., it tends not to result in criminal or civil liability, fines, censorship, and so forth), and it depends upon the contentious task of interpreting the work.
Photography
Authors: Nannicelli Ted 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter uses photography to advance the argument that the medium of an art form partly determines the sorts of features that are relevant to an ethical evaluation of an artwork within it. The chapter outlines current debates about medium-specificity and endorses a moderate view regarding the nature of medium-specific features and the plausibility of medium-specific claims. Building upon this discussion, this chapter proceeds to show that perspectivism accounts for some but not all of the ethically relevant features of photographs. In some cases, the most ethically pressing questions about photographs can only be addressed by the production-oriented approach to the ethical criticism of art.
Stand-up Comedy
Authors: Nannicelli Ted 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the ethics of stand-up comedy with a particular focus on the warrant of ethical criticism of this art form. The chapter argues for the need to understand stand-up comedy as a performance and offers an account of the additional ethical leeway one tends to grant to stand-up comedians. The chapter zeroes in on the relevance of the comedian’s persona and moral character as ethically relevant features of the context of creation. It discusses two notable cases including the censure of Louis C.K. in the wake of his admission of sexual misconduct and the sustained criticism of Dave Chappelle for making jokes about transgender people.