bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Affordance and the Musical Habitus
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
In the terminology of design, an “affordance” is what we perceive an object as inviting us to do. Thus a doorknob invites us to turn it, a button on a computer screen invites us to click on it, and so forth. For the students in the old conservatories, specific patterns in basses and melodies invited specific completions in four voices. Using four contestants in the harmony contest of 1877 as a sample, we can judge the perceived strength of the affordances of the given melody by noticing how similar are the contestants’ responses. If three or four of the contestants realized a short passage of the given melody in the same way, it probably means that their educations and experiences had led them to hear that passage in the same way and with a very similar meaning.
The Oval and Cross
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Just as apprentice musicians were taught a repertory of music schemas, so apprentice artists had to learn a repertory of visual schemas. One of the most common of these was the “oval and cross,” used to sketch the human head. The oval gave the outline of the skull while the cross (with religious symbolism) merged a vertical line for the nose with a horizontal line for the eyes. There was often a second horizontal line for the mouth. Apprentice artists had to learn to sketch the oval and cross in relation to any position of the head. Similar schemas were learned for eyes, ears, noses, hair, torsos, hands, feet, clothing, and so forth. Drawing manuals from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries provided examples to be copied.
Learning Old Music in a New Age of Digital Reproduction
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
There are over four hundred genres of popular music known in North America, and many more if one includes the favourite musics of recent immigrants. Which of these should be singled out and taught to children? There is no good answer to that question. Classical European music is a good alternative, one that has a rich history and is known, at least a little, all over the world. But instead of teaching children just to reproduce what is written on a page of music, why don’t we teach them to make classical music—to improvise and compose it. The rediscovery of the lessons from the old conservatories shows us how improvisation and composition can be taught to ordinary children, leading to extraordinary results.
Prehistoric Western Asia
Authors: Akkermans Peter M. M. G. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter deals with prehistoric Western Asia, ca. 9500–4000 bc, when this region was the focus of a series of far-reaching socioeconomic developments that were to change the world. Early in this period a gradual shift occurred from a mobile hunter-gatherer way of life to sustained settlement in villages that were increasingly dependent upon farming. Later on, social ranking, economic intensification, and craft specialization emerged at sites throughout the Middle East (Anatolia, Iran, Mesopotamia, and the Levant), laying the foundations for the earliest urban societies in the region. The chapter argues that these changes, far from being unilateral or monolithic, reflect significant multicultural developments and long-lasting trajectories of regional differentiation, requiring the agency of innumerable individuals and generations over millennia.
Egypt’s Old Kingdom
Authors: Bussmann Richard 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter outlines the diachronic development of and exchanges between central and local milieus in third millennium bc Egypt. The community at court witnessed a gradual rapprochement between kings and high-ranking officials during the Old Kingdom, beginning in the Fifth Dynasty. Increasing explication of kingship in visual discourse hints at conflicting views on the position of the king. Burial arrangements differed widely across provincial Egypt and at court, revealing a high degree of social diversity. Funerary culture revolved around the establishment of social relationships and social memory, whereas ideas about life in the netherworld were rarely expressed. The majority of preserved settlements in the Old Kingdom were planned by the state. Urbanism was weakly developed compared to other early complex states. The spiritual center of provincial towns was community shrines. Their material culture exhibits a mixture of central and local features, typical of “little traditions.” The shrines served as power bases for courtiers, sent out in the late Old Kingdom by the government to establish royal power permanently in the hinterland. The history of shrines and local elites differed across the country. In the long run, local temples emerged as the economic and ideological interface between provincial communities and the crown. Temples and towns coevolved toward the New Kingdom, at which time Egyptian society had a more urban outlook.
The Early Dynastic Near East
Authors: Bartash Vitali 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
The Middle East in the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900–2300 bc) was characterized by the competition of local city states for hegemony. Combined with long-range military and diplomatic relationships, this led to the creation of the first, if short-lived, larger polities in Mesopotamia and Syria, which paved the way for the emergence of the Akkad state. Cuneiform archives of temples and palaces document a gradual concentration of land, power, and wealth in the hands of an elite that included the royal family and the members of the palace and temple administration, resulting in increasing social stratification and deepening inequality in the context of surplus economy, unprecedented urbanization, and endemic war.
Work Hard
Authors: Benson Janel E. , Lee Elizabeth M. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Chapter 4 describes first-generation students in a Work Hard geography. These academically engaged students made not only classes and homework central to their daily lives, but their friendships and social lives also were often rooted in either academic work and/or nonathletic extracurricular interests. Work Hard students report close faculty relationships and strong friendships, often with those from similar demographic backgrounds, but they are also lonely outside those spheres, avoiding the high-status social hubs of campus. Most students in this geography came through Summer Bridge, and much of their campus engagement is in reaction to the racism, classism, and sexism they feel and observe on campus. They have created friendship communities that provide affirmation and support and crafted geographies that link their social, extracurricular, and academic priorities. The overlap of these spaces provides a buffer but does not connect these students to wealthier peers.
Disconnected
Authors: Benson Janel E. , Lee Elizabeth M. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Chapter 6 provides an overview of students in a Disconnected geography. Consistent with previous research, the largest portion of the National Longitudinal Survey of Freshmen sample are Disconnected. These students, while academically motivated and interested in a social life, struggled to make connections or find a niche, whether through classes, clubs, or social circles. One important commonality among Disconnected respondents was a delay in forming friendships: These students could not form early connections and described how difficult it was to make friends after the initial rush of being new together with other first-year students. Most students in Disconnected geographies did not participate in a substantial precollege program, wading into campus life on their own. Many of our Disconnected respondents were unhappy and unable to locate comfortable spaces on campus, in some cases despite long-term efforts to find a sense of belonging.
Ethical and Methodological Considerations for Researching Children Exposed to Political Violence
Authors: Bennouna Cyril , Stark Lindsay 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
Every advance in understanding the effects of exposure to political violence on children relies on the active engagement of girls and boys, whose decision to participate in research can present countless risks. Nevertheless, children’s participation in research is critical for scientific advancement. It can also confer benefits to participants, their families, and the services, programs, and policies designed to safeguard their well-being. This chapter reviews the risks, methodological challenges, and potential benefits of engaging child participants in research on political violence in order to inform ongoing discussion and reflection about best practices in this field. The chapter discusses key principles guiding ethical research with children before exploring several exemplary research processes advanced by colleagues in the field, which highlight the different ways that these principles can be applied and built on. The chapter concludes by reflecting on ongoing challenges and potential new directions for research practice in this field.
Form Follows Function
Authors: Schreiter Katrin 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at immediate postwar economic culture in both East and West Germany. It starts by looking at German modoernism in the postwar period. Historical scholarship on German industrial design has established that aesthetics did not change very much from 1925 to 1965. The chapter looks then at the different developments in culture and aesthetics in the East compared to the West. It considers the rise and crisis of functionalism and how German design reacted to this.
Intra-German Trade and the Aesthetic Dialectic of European Integration
Authors: Schreiter Katrin 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at the clashes when East meets West as they deal with the postwar change of economic policy from reconstruction to trade. This change pitted the two economic systems directly against each other in a competition for economic superiority. At the same time the interconnected economic infrastructure glossed over the Cold War division. This chapter presents an examination of West German attempts at balancing European integration with the German Question to bring into focus aesthetic convergence of East and West German design in the Mittelstand furniture industry.
Conservative Modernity
Authors: Schreiter Katrin 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the role of functionalism on living space in East and West Germany. Implementation of modernization in everyday life happened gradually in the postwar German countries and there were a host of reasons for this. Thee analysis in this chapter suggests that functionalist discourse diffused German society, yet not with the consistency that the disciples of modernism would have liked. It was a conservative modernity that showed widespread awareness of the right materials, the wrong embellishments, and the need for the emotional comfort of traditions and social relations. The population accepted the practicality of functionalism's clear lines and rectangular shapes for small apartments. However, it did not accept the emotional emptiness of the functionalist extreme.
Conclusion
Authors: Schreiter Katrin 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
The Conclusion looks towards the end of the period in this book's discussion, the end of the 1980s. By the late 1980s,the dynamics of German-German economic competition in the realm of living standards had created an unsustainable situation for the GDR. The high costs of the promised socialist consumer society under Honecker's Unity of Economic and Social Policy program had incurred mounting debts, a strategy that relied on short-term borrowing from the West to patch holes in domestic consumer good production. This entanglement with the Federal Republic opened up the possibility of rethinking the German-German relationship.
Namaste All Day
Authors: Jain Andrea R. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the appropriating and commodifying practices of spirituality industries and asks how corporations, entrepreneurs, and consumers relate spiritual practices to ethical values through marketing and consumer activities. The author analyzes popular spiritual discourses, demonstrating how the powerful and subversive expressions appliqued across yogaware and the industry’s “do good” discourses are tied to a commitment to particular “yogic” or “spiritual” values. Yet, for all of the self-actualization it offers through peace love yoga the industry also plays a capitalist game that thrives on nostalgia about lost cultural norms, as well as neoliberal narratives about the capitalist market, self-care, and personal improvement.
Defining Dehumanization
Authors: Smith David Livingstone 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter defines dehumanization. After emphasizing the importance of laying out a clear definition of the term, the chapter goes on to describe dehumanization as a kind of attitude—a way of thinking about others. To dehumanize another person, in short, is to conceive of them as a subhuman animal. People often mistake dehumanization for its effects on human behavior. This chapter argues that such notions make it much more difficult to comprehend how dehumanization works. When people think of others as subhuman, they often treat them in cruel and degrading ways, and they often refer to them using slurs. But the chapter contends that bad treatment and degrading slurs are effects of dehumanization rather than dehumanization itself.
Essence
Authors: Smith David Livingstone 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses the powerful psychological biases that make possible the dehumanizing impulse. The fact that people sometimes believe that other people who appear human are really less than human illustrates something important about how the human mind works. It shows that we do not think that merely looking human is what makes a being human. Instead, we think of humanness as something deeper that is “inside” of them—something more than the portions of the physical body that meet the eye. This tendency to essentialize kinds of living things helps us get along in the world, even though it is scientifically misleading. But, as the chapter shows, it also produces states of mind that are immensely dangerous and toxic. Acknowledging one's own tendency to essentialize, and remaining vigilant about combatting it, is a crucial step toward resisting dehumanization.
The Politics of the Human
Authors: Smith David Livingstone 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the view that, far from being an objective biological category, the category of the human is an ideological construction that is basic to ways that human societies exercise power. In short, the category of the human is a social construction. The chapter points out that when a group of people essentializes itself—sees itself as fundamentally and ineradicably distinct from all other people—the concept of the human becomes indistinguishable from the concept of “our kind.” In ethnically homogenous societies, this means members of the society are human, and everyone else is not. In heterogenous societies where there is “racial” or ethnic diversity—that is, most modern societies—the situation is more complex. In such societies, the concept of the human is an ideological structure. It is a concept that is used to legitimate and regulate relations of domination. If, as is often the case, the dominant group essentializes itself, that becomes the paradigm of the human and all others are either lesser humans or, at the extreme, subhumans. This view of what it means to be human has some important implications for the struggle against dehumanization.
Illusion
Authors: Smith David Livingstone 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines the nature of illusion and our vulnerability to it. Political leaders—especially those with an authoritarian bent—often use dehumanizing rhetoric as a means of persuasion because of its power to influence human behavior. First, they frighten us by getting us to think of some group of people as demons, monsters, or deadly predators. Then, they court our support by promising to save us from these terrors. The chapter considers those who are skilled in the dark arts of political persuasion as illusionists, who, under the right circumstances, can be difficult to resist. As such, it stresses the importance of understanding the nature of illusion in order to avoid being ensnared by dehumanizing rhetoric.
Introduction
Authors: Uy Michael Sy 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter introduces the book’s sociocultural history of expertise as analyzed in arts and music grantmaking during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, It explains the origins of the Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, and National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) as grantmaking institutions, the individuals involved, and how the missions of the two foundations eventually came to include arts funding. The 1960s and 1970s were a period of “cultural explosion,” as characterized by the popular press. During the early part of the Cold War, both foundations were also subject to congressional investigations which impacted their grantmaking. Finally, the introduction includes a chapter overview of the book, as well as its division into two parts: “Who Were the Experts?” and “Experts in Action.”
The Rockefeller Foundation, the University New Music Center, and “Foundation Music”
Authors: Uy Michael Sy 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the Rockefeller Foundation’s support of university new music centers and contemporary chamber ensembles, offering new insights into a commonly understood historiography of U.S. twentieth-century music: the dominance and prestige of experimental music and serialism at universities. Most notably, composers at Columbia, Princeton, the University of Chicago, and Mills College served dually as outside experts and commissioned artists and performers. Milton Babbitt, Otto Luening, and Vladimir Ussachevsky benefited greatly from their involvement at Rockefeller and the Columbia–Princeton Electronic Music Center. The composers and performers justified their work initially through the Soviet threat and rivalries with European studios, and later with innovation and creativity. The new music ensembles solidified a musical circuit that crisscrossed the country, making stops at many Rockefeller-funded centers. The foundation revealed ways it was both an advertent and inadvertent patron of what New Yorker critic Winthrop Sargeant pejoratively referred to as “foundation music.”
Epilogue
Authors: Uy Michael Sy 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
The epilogue discusses recent developments in arts funding and philanthropy. The divergent paths of Rockefeller and Ford—where the former discontinued its arts program and the latter rebranded its cultural work in terms of addressing “inequality”—is a revealing outcome of the increasing social and economic legitimation of arts funding. The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) experienced its first budget cut under President Reagan and then, amidst the culture wars, Congress slashed its budget further. Private contributions have increasingly taken up the slack, but not without their own challenges. New philanthropists are exploring limited liability corporations, donor-advised funds, and metrics and outcomes-based funding. With increasing economic and political inequality and decreasing civic engagement, the government funds foregone because of tax-deductible charitable contributions might be re-evaluated, as well as the ways the federal government may be better suited to provide resources more equitably. An ethics of expertise is now more critical.
How American Institutions Encourage and Sustain High Rates of Imprisonment
Authors: Zimring Franklin E. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores a series of long-standing features of American government that exaggerated the scale of the penal expansion that started in the 1970s. A large list of features of government and social structure in the United States magnified the level of penal expansion, including the federal system, the public wealth of the late twentieth century, and the politics of crime policy.
What Happens Next?
Authors: Zimring Franklin E. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter uses statistics from the first decade after the peak of prison population was reached in the United States in 2007 to project the likely trends in imprisonment that can be expected during the period 2020 to 2050. An estimate that takes into account the contrast between the first decade of the great imprisonment increase and the first 10 years after the all-time high suggests a modest decline over the next generation is the most likely pattern for the American penal future. By mid-century, prison and jail populations are likely to still have between half and two-thirds of the expanded 2007 peak rate behind bars.
Two Categorical Alternatives to Prisons
Authors: Zimring Franklin E. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers what it calls “categorical” shifts in policy to help reduce penal populations. These strategies shift entire categories of government policy that had been traditionally controlled by local criminal justice and state prisons to other parts of government. The first major shift suggested is that drug abuse policy shifts from criminal law to public health, involving police and other first responders but then shifting to institutions of treatment. The second major “categorical” shift takes place within criminal justice, by shifting jurisdiction over aspects of crime custody from prisons to local facilities.
Prosecutorial Power and Adversarial Focus
Authors: Zimring Franklin E. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of prosecutorial power in state imprisonment policy. The analysis contrasts the personal preferences of prosecutors for severe punishment as a state policy (that is why they chose to become prosecutors) with the priority of prosecutors to obtain prison terms as a measure of their adversarial effectiveness, the vice that may distort local criminal justice policy. The major ambition of reform in prosecution is to moderate the power as well as the desire to consider incarceration as a measure of effectiveness in public prosecution.
Strategy and Tactics for Building Institutions
Authors: Zimring Franklin E. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
If prison populations remain at the high end of historical patterns, then informed policy on whether new penal facilities should be built and where becomes an important issue. This chapter suggests that no state in the federal union should build or expand any further remote prisons in the typical twentieth-century pattern but that penal facilities close to the communities where their residents reside should be built and improved.
The Epidemic of Penal Disabilities
Authors: Zimring Franklin E. 
Published: September 2020

Abstract
This chapter profiles what it calls “the epidemic of penal disabilities” that restrict the liberties and economic prospects of many millions of persons after conviction of crime as well as their innocent family members. Just as the prison population increased by a factor of five in the generation after 1970, so too did the population of persons with felony conviction records, but the number of persons with such records is more than twice as high. There are about 46,000 state and federal laws imposing a wide variety of restrictions, often without any policy justification. Nothing less than a national commission on these often obscure and frequently purposeless prohibitions can bring order to this mess.