bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Decline in Everyday Functioning in MCI and Dementia
Authors: Mis Rachel , Giovannetti Tania 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Performance of everyday activities requires the coordination of a variety of complex cognitive processes; thus, as cognition changes over time, so too does the ability to perform everyday activities. This chapter will review the extant literature on everyday functioning in healthy aging, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia from a neuropsychological perspective. The chapter first briefly reviews the various terms used to denote everyday functioning and associated difficulties/impairment. It also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the methodological approaches to everyday function assessment. Next, the chapter reviews reports of associations between overall level of cognitive function and the ability to perform everyday tasks. Studies mapping the relations between specific cognitive processes and everyday functioning also are reviewed. The authors include a discussion of neuropsychological models (e.g., resource theory, omission–commission model) that have been proposed to account for the observed relations between cognition and everyday function. Finally, the authors make suggestions for future research on everyday functioning in older adults.
Cassirer’s Reception of Dedekind and the Structuralist Transformation of Mathematics
Authors: Reck Erich H. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Ernst Cassirer was a keen observer of development in the mathematical sciences, especially in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In this essay, the focus is on his reception of Dedekind’s contributions to the foundations of mathematics, and with it, on Dedekind’s mathematical structuralism. Cassirer adopts that structuralism early on, defends it against a number of criticisms, and embeds it into a rich historical account of the structuralist transformation of modern mathematical science. He also adds some original elements to our understanding of structuralism, e.g., by relating it to the Kantian notion of the “construction of concepts” in mathematics, by introducing a basic distinction between “substance concepts” and “function concepts”, and by tracing the “unfolding” of structuralist aspects far back in the history of thought. Overall, Cassirer’s approach is guided by the conviction that the metaphysics of modern mathematics should be approached by way of its distinctive methodology.
Methodological Frames: Paul Bernays, Mathematical Structuralism, and Proof Theory
Authors: Sieg Wilfried 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Mathematical structuralism is deeply connected with Hilbert and Bernays’s proof theory and its programmatic aim to ensure the consistency of all of mathematics. That aim was to be reached on the basis of finitist mathematics. Gödel’s second incompleteness theorem forced a step from absolute finitist to relative constructivist proof-theoretic reductions. This mathematical step was accompanied by philosophical arguments for the special nature of the grounding constructivist frameworks. Against that background, this chapter examines Bernays’s reflections on proof-theoretic reductions of mathematical structures to methodological frames via projections. However, these reflections are focused on narrowly arithmetic features of frames. Drawing on broadened meta-mathematical experience, this chapter proposes a more general characterization of frames that has ontological and epistemological significance. The characterization is given in terms of accessibility: domains of objects are accessible if their elements are inductively generated, and principles for such domains are accessible if they are grounded in our understanding of the generating processes.
Gravitation and Black Holes
Authors: Moffat John W. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Einstein’s theory of general relativity introduced the concept of black holes to physics and astronomy. But, eminent physicists such as Einstein and Eddington did not believe in the existence of black holes. Schwarzschild solved Einstein’s equations and disclosed a possible dark compact object with an event horizon. This is a membrane in spacetime surrounding the object, from which nothing can escape, not even light. The chapter describes the contributions of Chandrasekhar, Kruskal, Wheeler, Oppenheimer, Landau, Kerr, and others to help promote black holes in the physics and astronomy communities. It details ideas about the origins of black holes and the conundrums they still present, such as the singularities (infinitely dense matter) associated with them.
Alternative Gravitational Theories
Authors: Moffat John W. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
There have been many proposed modifications of gravitational theory, beginning with Einstein’s general relativity, modifying Newtonian gravity, and Weyl’s attempt at unifying gravity and electromagnetism. The standard model of cosmology, the Lambda CDM model, requires dark matter and dark energy to fit experimental data. There is a lack of direct evidence for dark matter and dark energy. An alternative theory called modified gravity (MOG) seeks to fit the observational data for the dynamics of galaxies and clusters of galaxies without dark matter. The MOG gravitational theory has a solution for a black hole that modifies the Schwarzschild and Kerr solutions, and can be tested using the data collected on supermassive black holes by the Event Horizon Telescope. There are many modified gravity theories proposed to explain the accelerating expansion of the universe, generally ascribed to dark energy. However, Einstein’s cosmological constant is the simplest explanation for the accelerating expansion.
Being
Authors: Silva José Filipe 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The chapter is divided into three main sections covering Kilwardby’s work on natural philosophy. The chapter starts with the basic issues of composition of corporeal substances and proceeds to consider the question of the nature of composition (versus simplicity) of the human soul. It also attempts to understand Kilwardby’s philosophical commitments underlying his involvement in the Oxford Prohibitions of 1277. Particular attention is paid to the notion of matter and simplicity that offers cues to the identification of the view(s) Kilwardby may be targeting in this event. In this chapter, I also show the nature of the events surrounding the 1277 Oxford Prohibitions in such a way that it makes clear that Kilwardby was not and could not be acting alone or even at his own initiative. Rather, the claim is that he was probably spearheading a philosophical and theological movement of opposition to certain interpretations of Aristotelian ideas, especially in natural philosophy. The final section of the chapter offers Kilwardby’s account of the nature of celestial change and the relation between celestial motion and time.
The Science of Diversity
Authors: Weissmark Mona Sue 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Using a multidisciplinary approach, The Science of Diversity reveals the theories, principles, and paradigms that illuminate people’s understanding of the issues surrounding human diversity, social equality, and justice. Noted psychologist and educator Dr. Mona Weissmark assembles a rich array of research from anthropology, biology, religious studies, and the social sciences to write a scholarly diorama of diversity. This book contextualizes diversity historically, tracing the evolution of ideas about “the other” and about “we” and “them” to various forms of social organization—from the “hunter-gather,” face-to-face, shared resource model to the anomie of megacities. Moreover, it explicates the concept of diversity, analyzing its meaning over time, place, and polity—from ancient Greece to the time of Donald Trump, from biblical parables to United Nations pronouncements. Ultimately, drawing on the author’s groundbreaking research work with the children of Nazis and the children of Holocaust survivors, the book suggests that one potential antidote to ethnic strife lies in the pursuit of Immanuel Kant’s mandate, sapere aude (dare to know), combined with the development of compassion.
Visual Representations of Black Samson
Authors: Junior Nyasha , Schipper Jeremy 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Since the mid-nineteenth century, visual images of Black Samson have developed in editorial cartoons, film, paintings, comic books, graphic novels, and television alongside traditions about him in American literature and music. Similar to his literary representations, some artists from different racial backgrounds have created Black Samson figures that address various social and political controversies in the United States. From his nineteenth-century appearance in Harper’s Weekly to his twenty-first-century appearance on the History Channel, visual representations of Black Samson in popular culture have continued to shape Black Samson into a racially polarizing American icon. In this chapter, we trace the use of Black Samson figures in the visual arts from the mid-nineteenth century to the present.
Government Debt
Authors: Pareti Keith , Kennedy Rob 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the origin and functionality of U.S. government debt (Treasuries). Debt in the U.S. has been increasing for many decades, especially since the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The types of debt securities are discussed along with the auction process to obtain these investment vehicles. All investments involve risks and rating agencies attempt to rank and grade the risk associated with sovereign debt. Default rates, derivative contracts, and risk are important in making investment decisions with government debt. Investors could range from long-term investors, short-term speculators, and others. This chapter concludes with the outlook into the future and the historic high debt-to-gross-domestic product ratio.
Municipal Bonds
Authors: Deng Xiaohu , Goebert Christopher , Morgulis Gershon , Yates Isaac 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses various types of municipal bonds, which represent an important part of the bond market. After providing a brief history of municipal bonds, the chapter then discusses two major types of municipal bonds: general obligation and revenue bonds. The next topics focus on tax exemption, credit considerations, and municipal bond structuring alternatives such as fixed, variable, and serial debt. Next, the chapter discusses the municipal bond value proposition resulting from comparatively low rates of default coupled with relatively high investment returns on a taxable equivalent basis. The chapter also highlights several “hot button” issues facing the municipal bond market such as pension bonds, private-public partnerships, and types of bond sales.
Derivatives Markets
Authors: Kiymaz Halil , Simsek Koray D. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Interest rate derivatives markets have enjoyed substantial growth since the late 1990s. This chapter discusses the development of these markets since 2000 and introduces the most popular interest rate derivative instruments. Although forward rate agreements and interest rate swaps are important examples of over-the-counter (OTC) products, futures on interest rates and bonds are innovations of organized exchanges. Both OTC interest rate options and exchange-traded options on interest rate futures are discussed to illustrate an overlapping area of both types of derivatives markets. Participants in debt markets are also exposed to both interest rate and credit risk. To mitigate the latter risk, the OTC fixed income derivatives markets provide credit default swaps (CDSs). As credit derivatives are also a subset of fixed income derivatives, CDSs are discussed further.
Models of the Yield Curve and Term Structure
Authors: Davis Tom P. , Mossessian Dmitri 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of the modern state of term structure modeling techniques. It provides an analytical framework that is applicable to all short rate models and considers them from the point of view of the classic approach of pricing by replication. The market price of risk and its relation to the drift of a short rate model are important considerations in modeling the term structure. The notable short rate models used in the industry for relative value pricing are introduced with a brief description of the class of affine short rate models employed for forecasting the real-world dynamics of bond prices. The chapter also includes a description of the Heath-Jarrow-Morton derivative pricing framework and an analysis of the LIBOR market model.
Floating Rate Notes
Authors: Abraham Aby , Casares John , Shah Jibran Ali 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of floating rate notes (FRNs). Although FRNs originated in Europe, their first introduction in the United States came in 1974 when Citicorp sold $650 million worth of its 15-year notes. Since that time, FRNs have evolved into a variety of types. FRN types covered in the chapter include the plain, capped, floored, collared, reverse, super, deleveraged, perpetual, and flip-flop. An FRN can have a maturity of up to 30 years and include periodic interest rate adjustments throughout its life. An FRN uses a reference rate, such as London Interbank Offer Rate (LIBOR), Treasury bill (T-bill) rate, prime rate, or domestic certificate of deposit rate plus a spread to determine its coupon rate. The chapter provides a discussion of such risk factors as interest rate risk, credit risk, call/reinvestment risk, liquidity risk, and market risk. Additionally, it covers FRN valuation using spread for life, effective margin, total adjusted margin, discount margin, and option-adjusted spread methods.
Factors Affecting Bond Pricing and Valuation
Authors: Wu Mark , Gao Xiang , Wieczorek Robert (Bob) 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
The bond market is extremely important because it provides necessary financing support for both public and nonpublic sectors. The U.S. bond market is much larger than the equity market, and its sheer size makes understanding the factors that could influence bond pricing and bond valuation important. This chapter discusses the most important economic elements that could influence bond prices, including the Treasury yield curve, credit risk, liquidity risk, equity volatility, corporate governance, accounting quality, product market competition, creditor rights, and financial innovation. The content presented in this chapter has profound implications for today’s bond market and can help investors have a better understanding of bond valuation.
Valuing and Analyzing Bonds with Embedded Options
Authors: Cheng Yiying 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter introduces the analysis and valuation of bonds with embedded options. For callable bonds, it discusses their unique reinvestment risk and negative convexity. For both callable bonds and puttable bonds, the chapter introduces two additional measures to gauge their risk: yield-to-call and yield-to-put, respectively. The chapter reviews the application of the spot rate curve in bond valuation and introduces the Z-spread to measure bond-specific risk more accurately. To model interest rate risk, the chapter builds a binomial interest rate model and calibrates it with on-the-run Treasury issues. The option-adjusted-spread (OAS) is introduced to measure the bond-specific risk excluding the option effect. The difference between Z-spread and OAS represents the option effect. Common measures of convertible bond risk and value are discussed including the possibility of valuating a convertible bond using option-pricing models and its drawbacks.
Bond Auctions
Authors: Wu Mark , Herb Patrick , Paudel Shishir 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Each week, billions of dollars (or local currency) of government debt securities are sold in auctions to market participants. Central governments want to use the auction mechanism that minimizes both borrowing costs and chances of market manipulation. A liquid secondary market is also pivotal to the success of the auctions. This chapter begins by providing the definitions, mechanism design, bidding process, and method ranking of government debt auctions with a focus on U.S. Treasury auctions. The next section discusses some important issues including the common value assumption, role of private information, and winner’s curse. Large and active markets coexist before and after the auctions, creating possibilities of a short squeeze. When comparing prices in the pre- or post-auction markets with auction prices, the literature documents positive bidder profits (underpricing) on average.
Microstructure of Fixed Income Trading
Authors: Jerabeck Matthew John , Perkins Marc , Petruzzellis David 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Some fixed income securities trade infrequently with high transaction costs. Although equity securities trade mostly on centralized exchanges or platforms, many bonds are inaccessible without an intermediary. Broker-dealers help create a channel between these otherwise illiquid and fractured markets, enabling the flow of information and capital between participants. These agents provide a critical service to developing markets, but they are increasingly threatened by modernization. Two forces are shifting the landscape of fixed income trading: (1) regulation is increasing the cost of business and (2) automation is squeezing profit margins. Although these changes may improve market efficiency in the long-term, they may come at the cost of short-term volatility and price shocks. This chapter describes the microstructure of fixed income trading, focusing on the mechanisms through which prices and liquidity are discovered in the Treasury, corporate, and municipal bond markets.
Why and How
Authors: Snodgrass Jennifer 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Administrators and faculty around the country are working together to examine teaching approaches that better meet the needs of the 21st-century music student. These conversations have led to many institutions redesigning their curriculum. However, before any specific curricular decisions are made, the question of “why” changes are needed should be addressed and discussed. Based on several research studies, there are new trends in topics that are taught in both music theory and aural skills, and the ordering of material and the pace vary between institutions. There is no one-size-fits-all curriculum, and it is up to administrators and faculty to better understand the curriculum design that best fits the needs of individual students in their program.
The Buddha
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter provides a background of the Buddha. Buddha is not someone's name. This particular title refers to someone who has solved the problem and successfully changed their orientation to the world on a fundamental level. It literally means someone who is awake. There have been many Buddhas. When one talks about the Buddha, they are referring to the historical Buddha, the one who started Buddhism. His name was Siddhartha Gautama and, being from the Shakya clan, he is often known as Shakyamuni Buddha. It is worth learning about the life of the historical Buddha for a few reasons. It is, of course, an important part of Buddhism and known by Buddhists all over the world. However, it also serves as an example, a vision not only of someone who has solved the problem, but what the process of solving it looks like.
Basic Philosophical Questions
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Buddhist philosophy, which involves thinking hard, often in detailed terms, about what reality is really like. What is there? This is the most basic question one can ask when trying to figure out what reality is really like. Another important task is figuring out which things are fundamental, that is, which things depend on other things? The whole point of examining philosophical questions is to help solve the problem of how to live. However, even though knowledge plays an important role in Buddhism, not all knowledge is equally useful. This is not particular to Buddhism: There are lots of things we might know that will not make a difference to life. The central Buddhist idea is that solving the problem in a sustainable way involves forming and executing a plan in light of how the world really is. For Buddhists, a large part of this project involves finding and removing distorting ways of relating to the world.
Buddhist Psychology
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter studies the importance of examining the nature of mental habits—the normal ways of perceiving, thinking, and feeling. The source of the problem is a mismatch between the usual way of relating to the world and how it really is, so it is important to closely examine mental habits and understand how exactly they obscure reality. Some Buddhists take this even further: It is not that one's mental projections do not match reality, they will say, but it is that there is no reality aside from an individual’s projections. For them, the problem is not a mismatch. The projections themselves are defective, obscuring not an external reality but the nature of the mind itself. The mental habits that distort reality are often called hindrances or poisons. These are things that the mind does that prevent an individual from seeing reality clearly.
Exchanging Self and Other
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter looks at the technique of exchanging the self and other. This technique originates from Shantideva, an important Buddhist thinker from eighth-century India and was later developed in the Tibetan tradition. It involves imagining the self from different points of view and cultivating certain responses from those imagined perspectives. It aims at changing an individual’s fundamental orientation to the self and others to combat feelings of envy, jealousy, and insecurity at their source. More importantly, the central aim of this exercise is a simple one: to make the self more compassionate. Imaginatively, adopting these different points of view forces the individual to stop and take other people's experiences seriously. Rather than simply accepting the personal take on situations, the individual starts to see more clearly that other people see the same situation very differently.
Sending and Receiving
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter assesses the technique of sending and receiving. Sending and receiving, sometimes also translated as giving and taking, is an imaginative visualization technique developed in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. It aims at altering how an individual responds to negativity and helps that individual to see themselves as a transformational force, one that changes hostility into compassion. In it, the individual imaginatively receives the badness out in the world and changes it into goodwill and compassion, which they send back out. When a person mentally visualizes things, it can change a lot about how that individual feels and what they notice. This technique uses this psychological fact as a tool to deliberately bring about certain changes. In particular, this technique will help to change that individual’s relation to others and the negativity they face every day.