bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Elite Art Worlds
Authors: Herrera Eduardo 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Between 1962 and 1971, the Centro Latinoamericano de Altos Estudios Musicales (CLAEM) of the Di Tella Institute in Buenos Aires became the central hub of Latin American avant-garde music. With the support of the Rockefeller Foundation and the wealthy Di Tella family, CLAEM offered two-year fellowships to some of the most recognized young composers of the region to undertake graduate studies in a unique privileged setting under the direction of Alberto Ginastera and with permanent and visiting faculty that included Gerardo Gandini, Francisco Kröpfl, Mario Davidovsky, Iannis Xenakis, Luigi Nono, Aaron Copland, Luigi Dallapiccola, Bruno Maderna, Riccardo Malipiero, Olivier Messiaen, Roger Sessions, and Earle Brown. This book combines oral histories, ethnographic research, and archival sources to reveal CLAEM as a meeting point of US and Argentine philanthropy, local experiences in transnational currents of artistic experimentation and innovation, and regional discourses of musical Latin Americanism. The story of CLAEM shows how musical avant-gardes were articulated, embodied, resignified, and institutionalized in Latin America; how composers during the 1960s engaged with discourses of Latin Americanism as professional strategy, identification marker, and musical style; and sheds light into the role of art in the legitimation and construction of elite status and identity. By looking at CLAEM as both an artistic and a philanthropic project, the book illuminates the relationships among foreign policy, corporate interests, and funding for the arts concerning Latin America and the United States in the mid-twentieth century.
Machines Learning Values
Authors: Petersen Steve 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter suggests that while we would very much like any nascent superintelligence to share our core values, our values might be too complex to program or hardwire explicitly. It argues that our best hope may thus be to design any potential superintelligence to learn values like ours. This “value learning” approach to AI safety faces three philosophical problems. First, it is unclear how any intelligent system could learn its final values, since to judge one supposedly “final” value against another seems to require a further background standard for judging. Second, it is unclear how to determine the content of a system’s values based on its physical or computational structure. Third, there is the distinctly ethical question of which values we should best aim for the system to learn. This chapter outlines a potential answer to these interrelated problems, centering on a miktotelic proposal for blending a complex, learnable final value out of many simpler ones.
Can I Believe?
Authors: Stackhouse John G. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Maybe Christianity is actually true. Maybe it is what believers say it is. But at least two problems make the thoughtful person hesitate. First, there are so many other options. How could one possibly make one’s way through them to anything like a rational and confident conclusion? Second, why do so many people choose to be Christian in the face of so many reasons not to be Christian? Yes, many people grow up in Christian homes and in societies, but many more do not. Yet Christianity has become the most popular religion in the world. Why? This book begins by taking on the initial challenge as it outlines a process: how to think about religion in a responsible way, rather than settling for such soft vagaries as “faith” and “feeling.” It then clears away a number of misunderstandings from the basic story of the Christian religion, misunderstandings that combine to domesticate this startling narrative and thus to repel reasonable people who might otherwise be intrigued. The second half of the book looks at Christian commitment positively and negatively. Why do two billion people find this religion to be persuasive, thus making it the most popular “explanation of everything” in human history? At the same time, how does Christianity respond to the fact that so many people find it utterly implausible, especially because of its narrow insistence on “just one way to God,” and because of the problem of evil that seems to undercut everything it asserts? Grounded in scholarship but never ponderous, Can I Believe? takes on the hard questions as it welcomes the intelligent inquirer to give Christianity at least one good look.
How to Decide
Authors: Stackhouse John G. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter sets out a basic epistemology of religious choice. It presents a set of guidelines for how to think about making a decision about religion in a responsible way. It surveys how faith depends upon knowledge, since no one believes anything on no grounds whatsoever. But it also shows how knowledge depends upon faith: upon trusting a wide range of sources (senses, memories, other people, and more) and the ability to understand and infer reasonable conclusions from all that input. The chapter concludes with commonsense recommendations for dealing with the unavoidable uncertainty that attends all big choices in life.
What Is Christianity?
Authors: Stackhouse John G. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter begins by offering a fourfold scheme for analyzing the essentials of any religion by which the rest of the book’s argument will proceed. What’s real? What’s best? What’s wrong? And what can be done? It then clears away many half-remembered, half-understood, and half-correct conceptualizations that most educated people have about Christianity in our time. Proceeding to the basic teachings of Christianity, it zeroes in on the key plotline of the Bible, setting out a Christian Story that is at once familiar and yet very strange, a Story that seems to defy common sense even as it makes sense on its own terms.
Introduction
Authors: Reilly Thomas H. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
While Protestants made up only a small percentage of China’s overall population, they were heavily represented in the urban elite, mostly due to the contribution of Protestant schools and colleges, and the influence of organizations such as the YMCA and the YWCA. This elite was attracted to the Protestant message of national salvation, an extension of the message of social Christianity; they believed that the religion would help make China strong, prosperous and modern.
Resisting Japan, Fighting Imperialism
Authors: Reilly Thomas H. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
In China’s war with Japan, the Chinese people heroically struggled against Japan, especially in the early years of the war, 1937–1941. The Japanese waged a ruthless attack on soldiers and civilians alike. The Protestant elite sounded the call to resistance. One of the most brutal incidents of the war was the Rape of Nanjing, and the Protestant women’s college, Ginling College, served as the center of a safety zone that protected civilians from the onslaught. Another victim of Japan’s aggression was Liu Zhanen, president of the University of Shanghai, a mission-affiliated school, who was assassinated because of his high-profile defiance of Japan. The YMCA through secretaries such as Liu Liangmo and Jiang Wenhan supported the Nationalist war effort through the association’s services to wounded soldiers and to refugee students. Both men also reached out to their Communist compatriots, allies in the fight against Japanese imperialism.
Shared Mental Models of the Late Soviet Period
Authors: Sharafutdinova Gulnaz 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter advances a conceptualization of collective identity as a set of shared cognitive structures (or mental models) about the collective self. Below I argue that the Soviet Union was successful in instilling a Soviet collective identity and that the two main mental models that constituted this identity were a sense of Soviet exceptionalism and a sense of the Soviet state being surrounded by the enemy. These shared mental models represented important pillars supporting individual-level dignity and self-esteem for many Soviet citizens as well as a source of their perceptions of in-group and out-group members. Empirical findings from Yuri Levada’s “simple Soviet person” project and a variety of secondary data are used to support the central claims of this chapter.
Why Islamist Opposition Groups Change Their Tactical Outlooks
Authors: Matesan Ioana Emy 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter develops a theory of principled and pragmatic adjustment to explain tactical shifts in Islamist organizations. It argues that Islamist groups shift between nonviolent and violent tactics depending on the perceived need for activism, the cost of violent resistance or nonviolent resistance, and the internal and external pressures they face. Groups legitimize violence when their grievances are escalating and violent norms of resistance are prevalent. External pressures from the state or internal pressures arising from competition for authority trigger the shift from violent rhetoric to violent behavior. Once groups engage in violence, their decisions on tactical shifts are no longer about relative grievances, but about organizational imperatives and the cost of violence. Organizational weakness and public opposition to violence raise the cost of aggressive tactics and drive groups to put armed campaigns on hold, or to focus on rebuilding capacity. However, for a group to permanently move away from violence, the organization must be faced with an existential crisis and with public condemnation.
“Conversion” in Late-Medieval Christianity
Authors: Tipson Baird 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses the great indulgence campaigns of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. In the centuries before the Protestant Reformation, being solicited for indulgences had become commonplace for Christian men and women. The practice of granting indulgences—perceived abuses of which generated Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses—was tied closely to the sacrament of penance, so a close look at indulgences can uncover the assumptions behind a religiosity that provided access to God through a sacramental system and an ordained priesthood.
Money/Code/Space
Authors: Parkin Jack 
Published: October 2020

AbstractChapter 2 provides a theoretical discussion of money, code, and space to foreground the emergence of Bitcoin as a radical response to existing economic structures. Using the history of central banking and software production, Bitcoin is compared to traditional modes of centralised governance to outline some of the political context of algorithmic decentralisation. In doing so, the binary of centralised and decentralised is rendered reductive and thus impotent for describing digital networks because of the inescapable complexity inherent within them. Instead, the concept of obligatory passage points is adapted into a framework for understanding (de)centralisation in algorithmic networks. This provides an understanding of money/code/space that encapsulates the cultural and economic messiness of cryptocurrencies and blockchain technology that can be used for bringing places of power to the forefront of related academic scholarship.
Follow the Digital Thing
Authors: Parkin Jack 
Published: October 2020

AbstractAcknowledging how Bitcoin is geographically contingent and diverse, the follow the thing research design outlined allows for tracing the connections between different aspects of its protocol that are practised by a multitude of people in various places. This is done by documenting traditional follow the thing work and explaining how knowledge can be gathered from such a technique before adapting this research process for the task at hand. The breakdown then shifts into sketching a specific yet malleable research method that harnesses the flexibility necessary for researching the complex political economies of Bitcoin and other blockchains. This multi-sited and multi-angled approach creates a partial but far-reaching account of algorithmic decetralisation.
Bases Loaded
Authors: Panagopoulos Costas 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Over the past few decades, a fundamental shift in political campaign strategy has been afoot in U.S. elections: Political campaigns have been gradually shifting their attention away from swing voters toward their respective, partisan bases. Independents and weak partisans have been targeted with less frequency, and the emphasis in contemporary elections has been on strong partisans. This book documents this shift—away from persuasion toward base mobilization—in the context of U.S. presidential elections and explains that this phenomenon is likely linked to several developments, including advances in campaign technology and voter-targeting capabilities as well as insights from behavioral social science focusing on voter mobilization. The analyses show the 2000 presidential election represents a watershed cycle that punctuated this shift. The book also explores the implications of the shift toward base mobilization and links these developments to growing turnout rates for strong partisans and attenuating participation among independents or swing voters over time. The book concludes these patterns have contributed to heightened partisan polarization in the United States.
The Waning of the Federal Common Law of Foreign Relations
Authors: Stephan Paul B. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that concentrating authority in the federal judiciary to make foreign relations law in the absence of congressional enactments both ignores the capacity of the States to promote encounters with foreign actors and the tendency of the federal courts toward entropy, rather than coherence. The new Fourth Restatement confirms that many important legal doctrines that affect the foreign-relations interests of the United States rest on State law, unless and until the federal political branches enact something else. According to the Fourth Restatement, the existence of plenary federal power over foreign relations does not automatically translate into exclusive federal authority. The Fourth Restatement not only captures the temper of the times, but good functional arguments support its position. The growth of international commerce and connectivity since the 1980s has greatly increased pressure on the States to adopt laws that promote foreign contacts and business. Moreover, it has become apparent that a sprawling and diverse federal judiciary cannot pursue nationally uniform law except under stringent conditions that limit, rather than expand, judicial discretion to make law. The U.S. Supreme Court accordingly sees its task as inducing lawmaking by Congress and the executive. It pursues this goal by barring the lower courts from adopting stopgaps. As a result, the federal common law of foreign relations has shrunk and may disappear.
Customary International Law and U.S. Judicial Power
Authors: Lee Thomas H. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter describes specific points of divergence between the Third and Fourth Restatements of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States regarding how U.S. courts should engage with customary international law. The Third Restatement, adopted in 1987, envisioned U.S. courts fluent in and engaged with international law, deploying a U.S. foreign relations jurisprudence in dialogue with international law and lawyers. Customary international law was a central feature of this vision because it was the prime pathway for human rights litigation in federal courts when U.S. treaty-based human-rights initiatives had stalled. Appearing thirty years later, the Fourth Restatement exhibits a fundamentally different orientation toward customary international law. Customary international law is no longer embraced as it was in the Third Restatement as an opportunity to play offense, to advance the international law of human rights. That vision inspired a reaction among some U.S. legal scholars who questioned the U.S. federal law status of customary international law and the legitimacy of U.S. judges advancing the customary international law of human rights. The Fourth Restatement seeks a middle ground by defending against this revision of customary international law’s status role in the United States, concerned that the revisionist view might encourage and provide cover for U.S. courts to dismiss cases and claims with foreign policy ramifications that they should be adjudicating. The approaches of the two Restatements, taken together, have contributed to the disengagement of U.S. judges from customary international law altogether, to the detriment of U.S. conduct of foreign policy and contrary to the original constitutional specification of the judicial power of the United States as reflected in Article III, the Judiciary Act of 1789 that established the federal courts, and early historical practice.
Consider the Source
Authors: Swaine Edward T. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter addresses the Fourth Restatement of Foreign Relations Law’s methodology for reckoning U.S. foreign relations law. The Fourth Restatement is a distinctive project: other recent American Law Institute projects touch on international law, U.S. constitutional law, and federal statutes, but none blends these diverse bodies of law so comprehensively. Continuity between the Third Restatement and Fourth Restatement may indeed diminish the odds of any sea changes, but may also show deeper and more sustained tendencies. Most important, discussion of the Fourth Restatement’s methodology may be valuable precisely because it is a work in progress: sufficiently determinate insofar as substantial work is completed, but sufficiently unresolved that criticism, including self-criticism, is constructive. With that in mind, what is the Fourth Restatement exhibiting about how foreign relations law is established and evidenced? As would be expected, it appears to have a conventional sense of how that law is to be reckoned; that is surely easier to accept than had it pursued something untested and unrecognizable to those in the field. At the same time, its methods tend not only to follow a path on which the law is developing but also to reinforce it, and it is worth exploring where discrete choices are being made and might be made differently.
The Restatements and the Rule of Law
Authors: Daugirdas Kristina 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the promotion of the rule of law. In drafting and publishing Restatements of Foreign Relations Law, both the American Law Institute and the reporters have understood the projects as contributing to the rule of law at the international level, at the domestic level, or both. There are at least three distinct ways that these Restatements might promote the rule of law. First, they might do so by clarifying the content of the law. Second, the Restatements might contribute to the development of new legal rules, specifically to the evolution and consolidation of customary international law. Finally, the Restatements might promote the rule of law by promoting compliance with the law. Ultimately, the Third and Fourth Restatements have taken quite different approaches to promoting the rule of law. To some extent these different approaches are a consequence of changes in the legal landscape over the past three decades. They also reflect different choices that the reporters and the American Law Institute have made about how to carry out the project of restating foreign relations law.
Introduction
Authors: Walther-Hansen Mads 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
The introduction outlines key discourses of sound through an examination of music reviews, recording technology advertisements, and sound engineering literature. Listening is theorized both from the perspective of production (evaluating and imagining music and sound in the process of shaping it) and from the perspective of reception (reviews and user discussions). A quality-oriented mode of listening is outlined, and it is argued that music listening is, for the most part, characterized by a certain aesthetic attitude toward sound, even when music listening is strongly connected to, for instance, social identification and everyday activities.
The Social Construction of Climate Science
Authors: Lejano Raul P. , Nero Shondel J. , Chua Michael 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
Chapter 6 shows how in constructing, with some success, a challenge to the narrative of climate change science, the skeptical narrative has increasingly taken on features of ideology. A similar phenomenon may also be happening among the ranks of climate change advocates, with the response to skeptics taking on elements of ideological talk. Reactions to a prominent climate skeptic are examined in the chapter, along with characteristics of climate scientists’ responses to the skeptics. The chapter asks if this a pattern of negative feedback, with ideological discourse on one side eliciting a similarly ideological counter-reaction from the other, and suggests that if this is so, it does not bode well for the idea that constructive engagement of contending publics is still possible. Any way out of this impasse will require an openness on the part of the climate scientific majority to the interests and concerns of a skeptical public. Most fundamentally, the chapter shows, there is something about much climate change discourse that is modernist, exhibiting cultural biases that can alienate the other (e.g., the global South).
Organic thin film transistors
Authors: Forrest Stephen R. 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter lays the foundations of operation of both unipolar and ambipolar organic thin film transistors (OTFTs). Thin film transistors are used in display back planes, digital circuits, memory addressing elements, and photodetection. The discussion describes basic transistor principles and the limitations to their performance. Transistor noise and circuit noise margin, cutoff frequency, transconductance, and gain are discussed. Several different lateral architectures including top and bottom gate, and split gate configurations, as well as vertical transistors are described. High performance OTFT materials and channel morphologies and how they are achieved along with contact patterning are discussed. Phototransistors are introduced, and their characteristics are compared with other photodetectors discussed in Chapter 7. Transistor stability and its implication for circuit performance are detailed. Finally, several circuit applications with particular focus on chemical and medical sensing, and communications are described.
Democratic Angst
Authors: Biess Frank 
Published: October 2020

Abstract
This chapter shifts the focus from economic fears as analyzed in Chapter 4 to political fears regarding the future of postwar democracy. After the Federal Republic had gained sovereignty and accomplished a basic political stabilization, commentators continued to discuss the basic contours of West German democracy. They articulated intense fears of a possible authoritarian transformation (on the Left) or of a weakness of state authority (on the Right). Both political fears dialectically reinforced each other during the 1960s. A renewed presence of the Nazi past as a result of a series of trials of Nazi perpetrators also sensitized the West German public to the lingering effects of the Nazi dictatorship in postwar West Germany. The chapter then analyzes the emergence and functioning of democratic fears with respect to the debate over the planned “emergency laws” in the 1960s.