bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Racial/Ethnic Disparities Across Indicators of Cigarette Smoking in the Era of Increased Tobacco Control, 1992–2019
Authors: Sakuma Kari-Lyn K , Pierce John P , Fagan Pebbles , Nguyen-Grozavu France T , Leas Eric C , Messer Karen , White Martha M , Tieu Amanda S , Trinidad Dennis R 
Published: November 2020

Abstract

Introduction
This study compared tobacco use and cessation for African Americans (AA), Asians/Pacific Islanders (API), Hispanics/Latinos (H/L), American Indian/Alaskan Natives (AI/AN), and non-Hispanic Whites (NHW) in the United States to California (CA), the state with the longest continually funded tobacco control program. The purpose of this study was to identify tobacco use disparities across racial/ethnic groups across time.

Methods
Cigarette use prevalence (uptake and current use), consumption (mean number of cigarettes smoked per day [CPD]), and quit ratios were calculated across survey years, and trends were examined within each race/ethnic group and comparing between CA and the United States, utilizing the 1992–2019 Tobacco Use Supplements to the Current Population Survey.

Results
Prevalence decreased for all race/ethnic groups. Current use among CA NHW showed significant decline compared with US counterparts, whereas US H/L showed greater decline than CA counterparts. CPD decreased by approximately 30% across race/ethnic groups, with CA groups having lower numbers. The greatest decrease occurred among AA in CA (average 10.3 CPD [95% confidence interval (CI): 10.3, 12.6] in 1992/1993 to 3 CPD [95% CI: 2.4, 3.7] in 2018/2019). Quit ratios increased from 1992/1993 to 2018/2019 for CA H/L 52.4% (95% CI: 49.8, 53.0) to 59.3 (95% CI: 55.8, 62.5) and CA NHWs 61.5% (95% CI: 60.7, 61.9) to 63.8% (95% CI: 63.9, 66.9).

Conclusions
Although overall prevalence decreased over time for each racial/ethnic group, declines in CA outpaced the United States only for NHWs. Reductions in CPD were encouraging but the quit ratio points to the need to increase tobacco control efforts toward cessation.

Implications
The successes in reduced cigarette use uptake and prevalence across time for both California and the rest of the United States were observed largely among non-Hispanic White populations. Although reductions in the number of cigarettes smoked per day are a notable success, particularly among the Californian African Americans, efforts to support quitting across racial/ethnic groups, especially marginalized groups, need to be prioritized.
Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals (1938)
Authors: Turing Alan 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
On 23 September 1936 Turing left England on a vessel bound for New York. His destination was Princeton University, where the Mathematics Department and the Institute for Advanced Study combined to make Princeton a leading centre for mathematics. Turing had applied unsuccessfully for a Visiting Fellowship to Princeton in the spring of 1935. When a year later he learned of Church’s work at Princeton on the Entscheidungsproblem, which paralleled his own (see ‘Computable Numbers: A Guide’), Turing ‘decided quite definitely’ to go there. He planned to stay for a year. In mid-1937 the offer of a Visiting Fellowship for the next academic year persuaded him to prolong his visit, and he embarked on a Ph.D. thesis. Already advanced in his academic career, Turing was an unusual graduate student (in the autumn of 1937, he himself was appointed by Cambridge University to examine a Ph.D. thesis). By October 1937 Turing was looking forward to his thesis being ‘done by about Christmas’. It took just a little longer: ‘Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals’ was accepted on 7 May 1938 and the degree was awarded a few weeks later. The following year the thesis was published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. ‘Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals’ was written under Church’s supervision. His relationship to Turing—whose formalization of the concept of an effective procedure and work on the Entscheidungsproblem was ‘possibly more convincing’ than Church’s own—was hardly the usual one of doctoral supervisor to graduate student. In an interview given in 1984, Church remarked that Turing ‘had the reputation of being a loner’ and said: ‘I forgot about him when I was speaking about my own graduate students—truth is, he was not really mine.’ Nevertheless Turing and Church had ‘a lot of contact’ and Church ‘discussed his dissertation with him rather carefully’. Church’s influence was not all for the good, however. In May 1938 Turing wrote: My Ph.D. thesis has been delayed a good deal more than I had expected. Church made a number of suggestions which resulted in the thesis being expanded to an appalling length. I hope the length of it won’t make it difficult to get it published.
Memorandum to OP-20-G on Naval Enigma (c.1941)
Authors: Turing Alan 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The document that forms this chapter was written by Alan Turing and sent to the US Navy codebreaking unit, OP-20-G, in Washington, DC, probably to the celebrated cryptanalyst Mrs Agnes Driscoll. It is undated, but was probably dispatched in the autumn of 1941. Turing solved the indicating system of the principal Naval Enigma cipher, Heimisch (codenamed ‘Dolphin’ by the Government Code and Cypher School (GC & CS)), at Bletchley Park by the end of 1939. Typically, he thought Dolphin ‘could be broken because it would be so interesting to break it’ (see ‘Enigma’, p. 257).Hut 8 at Bletchley Park solved some wartime Naval Enigma signals in May and June 1940. Internal evidence shows that Turing wrote his outstanding Treatise on the Enigma around autumn 1940.GC&CS read Dolphin traffic currently, using captured keys, in June and July 1941. The resulting data provided enough cribs and other information to break Dolphin signals cryptanalytically from August onwards, within 24 to 36 hours of their transmission. Mrs Driscoll was assigned to attack Naval Enigma, with two assistants, around October 1940. However, the US Navy was then intercepting only a small proportion of the Naval Enigma signals being transmitted, and was unable to make any progress against Dolphin, especially since it could not reconstruct the wiring of Enigma’s wheels. It did not even fully understand the wheels’ noncyclometric motion, which considerably complicated any solution of Naval Enigma, in particular, since each of the special Kriegsmarine wheels VI to VIII had two notches. Notching made the wheel motion irregular, especially when a doubly notched wheel was in the middle or right-hand position. Using two doubly notched wheels could reduce Enigma’s period from its normal 16,900 (26´25´26) to 4,056 (24´13´13). In February 1941, following lengthy negotiations between the US Army and Navy, a four-man team led by Abraham Sinkov visited GC & CS. (Sinkov was accompanied by Leo Rosen, also from the US Army’s Signal Intelligence Service, and Lt. Robert Weeks and Lt. Prescott Currier, both from OP-20-G.)
Diagnosis and prevention of dental caries
Authors: Deery C , Toumba K J 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Almost all research on the process of dental caries supports the chemoparasitic theory proposed by W.D. Miller in 1890. This is now more commonly known as the acidogenic theory of caries aetiology. The main features of the caries process are as follows. 1. Fermentation of carbohydrate to organic acids by micro-organisms in plaque on the tooth surface. 2. Acid production, which lowers the pH at the enamel surface below the level (the critical pH) at which enamel will dissolve. 3. When carbohydrate is no longer available to the plaque microorganisms, the pH within plaque will rise because of the outward diffusion of acids and their metabolism and neutralization in plaque, so that remineralization of enamel can occur; 4. Dental caries progresses only when the balance between demineralization and remineralization favours the former. The realization that demineralization and remineralization are in equilibrium is key to understanding the dynamics of the carious lesion and its prevention. One of the interesting features of an initial carious lesion of the enamel is that the lesion is subsurface, i.e. most of the mineral loss occurs beneath a relatively intact enamel surface. This contrasts strongly with the histological appearance of enamel after a clean tooth surface has been exposed to acid, where the surface is etched and there is no subsurface lesion. This dissolution of the surface of enamel, or etching, is a feature of enamel erosion caused, among other things, by dietary acids. Therefore the carious process and erosion differ completely, as erosion is a surface phenomenon. The explanation for the intact surface layer in enamel caries seems to lie in diffusion dynamics: the layer of dental plaque on the tooth surface acts as a partial barrier to diffusion. Further erosion occurs at much lower pH values (pH &lt;4) than caries. Dental plaque forms on uncleaned tooth surfaces and is readily apparent if toothbrushing is stopped for 2–3 days. Contrary to popular opinion, plaque does not consist of food debris, but is a biofilm; 70% is comprised of micro-organisms—about 100 million organisms per milligram of plaque. When plaque is young cocci predominate, but as plaque ages the proportions of filamentous organisms and veillonellae increase.
Trauma and orthopaedics
Authors: Whymark Caroline , Junkin Ross , Ramsey Judith 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
To pass the written part of the FRCA, candidates must achieve the pass mark for the SAQs and the MCQ/ SBA papers combined. Therefore, doing particularly well in one paper, or one area, can compensate for another in which you have scored poorly. The 30 SBA questions is an area that candidates commonly find difficult. There is a feeling these questions are unjust and that it is impossible to second guess the examiners and choose the correct option. They feel further punished that four marks are awarded for each correct answer or lost for an incorrect choice. While this reflects the fact that four answers have been eliminated in the course of choosing the best answer, candidates often state it is an unfair ‘all or nothing’ way to mark these questions. They can commonly narrow the choice down to a final two options but report finding it difficult to then choose between them. They receive no credit having successfully eliminated three of the options and cite the SBA element as being the reason they failed the examination. These comments however are not supported by examination success data published by the RCoA. The pass rate for this paper was consistent at around 70% before and after the introduction of the SBA component in September 2011. We believe the concepts behind the SBAs are misunderstood by many. When asked to write a SBA question, candidates inevitably produce a five- part A to E multiple choice question but with only one correct answer. The finer points of SBA questions are lost among quickly written revision aids containing what the authors believe to be examination standard questions, when often they are not. Further, because SBAs are a relatively new element to the FRCA there is a limited bank of questions, and a highly restricted number in the public domain. Both these factors make practice of these questions difficult. Part of exam success is practice of the technique and question type in advance. We believe the practice of SBAs is an area to which candidates do not give enough attention.
Vascular and general
Authors: Whymark Caroline , Junkin Ross , Ramsey Judith 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
To pass the written part of the FRCA, candidates must achieve the pass mark for the SAQs and the MCQ/ SBA papers combined. Therefore, doing particularly well in one paper, or one area, can compensate for another in which you have scored poorly. The 30 SBA questions is an area that candidates commonly find difficult. There is a feeling these questions are unjust and that it is impossible to second guess the examiners and choose the correct option. They feel further punished that four marks are awarded for each correct answer or lost for an incorrect choice. While this reflects the fact that four answers have been eliminated in the course of choosing the best answer, candidates often state it is an unfair ‘all or nothing’ way to mark these questions. They can commonly narrow the choice down to a final two options but report finding it difficult to then choose between them. They receive no credit having successfully eliminated three of the options and cite the SBA element as being the reason they failed the examination. These comments however are not supported by examination success data published by the RCoA. The pass rate for this paper was consistent at around 70% before and after the introduction of the SBA component in September 2011. We believe the concepts behind the SBAs are misunderstood by many. When asked to write a SBA question, candidates inevitably produce a five- part A to E multiple choice question but with only one correct answer. The finer points of SBA questions are lost among quickly written revision aids containing what the authors believe to be examination standard questions, when often they are not. Further, because SBAs are a relatively new element to the FRCA there is a limited bank of questions, and a highly restricted number in the public domain. Both these factors make practice of these questions difficult. Part of exam success is practice of the technique and question type in advance. We believe the practice of SBAs is an area to which candidates do not give enough attention.
Convergent peptide synthesis
Authors: Barlos Kleomenis , Gatos Dimitrios 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Besides the classical step-by-step synthesis, the convergent solid phase peptide synthesis (CSPPS) was developed for the preparation of complex and difficult peptides and small proteins. According to this method, suitably protected peptide fragments spanning the entire peptide sequence and prepared on the solid phase are condensed, either on a solid support or in solution, to the target peptide. Convergent synthesis is reviewed in recent publications. In this chapter, full experimental details are given for the preparation of complex peptides by applying convergent techniques, using 2-chlorotrityl chloride resin (CLTR) and Fmoc-amino acids. In the step-by-step peptide chain elongation the resin-bound C-terminal amino acid is reacted sequentially with suitably protected and activated amino acids. The peptide is thus elongated steadily towards the N-terminal direction. This is advantageous over the opposite direction where the elongation is performed from the N- to the C-terminus, because in the second case the growing peptide is activated at the C-terminal amino acid, which leads to its extensive racemization. This limits considerably the synthetic possibilities of the method. In convergent synthesis, no directional restrictions exist and the chain elongation can be performed with equal possibility to be successful to any direction. Figure 1 describes schematically the C- to N-terminal synthesis which is the most studied to date. The strategies where the synthesis begins from a central fragment and the peptide chain is extended to both C- and N-terminal directions and from the N-terminal towards the C-terminal can be considered, at the present time, to be in its infancy. In general, protected peptide fragments of any length can be used in the condensation reaction, if they are of satisfactory purity and solubility. Usually, fragments of up to 15 amino acids in length are used, because of their simpler purification by RP-HPLC compared with the longer peptides. The solubility of protected peptide acids is independent of their length. The selection of the correct fragments is very important for the success of convergent synthesis. It is helpful to analyse all available structural information, determined or calculated, for the target peptide. Peptide regions where β-turns are known to occur are readily identified as ‘difficult’ sequences during their synthesis.
Overview of the OSCE Station
Authors: Creed Fiona 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Student health care practitioners are often apprehensive about simulated examinations as they have never undertaken an examination like this before and often do not know what to expect. The purpose of the chapter is to explore the OSCE process and help you to understand and plan for your own OSCE. OSCE examinations may be organized very differently depending upon the subject of the examination and your own university’s preference. Most simulated examinations are held in clinical skills rooms or simulation suites at the student’s university campus. Very occasionally they may be held off site at another location, e.g. a hospital teaching room. The examination structure may vary dramatically (Bloomfield et al. 2010) and may be: ● Multiple short stations, ● Complex single stations, ● Unmanned station. These are also known as ‘short case’ OSCE stations. A typical short station OSCE will involve the student health care practitioner ‘rotating’ around a number of different stations. It is likely that within each examination room several skills will be assessed at any one time and part of the assessment will involve moving from station to station to ensure that students complete all skills/knowledge assessments that are required. This format allows examiners to assess a range of skills during one simulated examination period (Ahuja 2009). The number of stations will depend upon the university’s examination structure but it may be that there are up to five stations to attend. Some universities ask students to rotate around more than this (in some occasions up to 20). This type of OSCE is very common in pre-registration nursing OSCEs (Bloomfield et al. 2010). Simulated examinations may be held in one room or students may be required to move from room to room to ensure all skills are assessed. This type of OSCE is usually used to examine the more complex skills and may be used in the final year to test more complicated skills such as assessment of the sick patient. You should be aware that you may also be asked to undertake OSCE in your post-registration nurse education.
Reactions
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Illustrated with remarkable new full-color images--indeed, one or more on every page--and written by one of the world's leading authorities on the subject, Reactions offers a compact, pain-free tour of the inner workings of chemistry. Reactions begins with the chemical formula almost everyone knows--the formula for water, H2O--a molecule with an "almost laughably simple chemical composition." But Atkins shows that water is also rather miraculous--it is the only substance whose solid form is less dense than its liquid (hence ice floats in water)--and incredibly central to many chemical reactions, as it is an excellent solvent, being able to dissolve gases and many solids. Moreover, Atkins tells us that water is actually chemically aggressive, and can react with and destroy the compounds dissolved in it, and he shows us what happens at the molecular level when water turns to ice--and when it melts. Moving beyond water, Atkins slowly builds up a toolkit of basic chemical processes, including precipitation (perhaps the simplest of all chemical reactions), combustion, reduction, corrosion, electrolysis, and catalysis. He then shows how these fundamental tools can be brought together in more complex processes such as photosynthesis, radical polymerization, vision, enzyme control, and synthesis. Peter Atkins is the world-renowned author of numerous best-selling chemistry textbooks for students. In this crystal-clear, attractively illustrated, and insightful volume, he provides a fantastic introductory tour--in just a few hundred colorful and lively pages - for anyone with a passing or serious interest in chemistry.
Matter Falling Out: Precipitation
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
I shall now introduce you to one of the simplest kinds of chemical reaction: precipitation, the falling out from solution of newly formed solid, powdery matter when two solutions are mixed together. The process is really very simple and, I have to admit, not very interesting. However, I am treating it as your first encounter with creating a different form of matter from two starting materials, so please be patient as there are much more interesting processes to come. I would like you to regard it as a warming-up exercise for thinking about and visualizing chemical reactions at a molecular level. Not much is going on, so the steps of the reaction are reasonably easy to follow. There isn’t much to do to bring about a precipitation reaction. Two soluble substances are dissolved in water, one solution is poured into the other, and—providing the starting materials are well chosen—an insoluble powdery solid immediately forms and makes the solution cloudy. For instance, a white precipitate of insoluble silver chloride, looking a bit like curdled milk, is formed when a solution of sodium chloride (common salt) is poured into a solution of silver nitrate. Now, as we shall do many times in this book, let’s imagine shrinking to the size of a molecule and watch what happens when the sodium chloride solution is poured into the silver nitrate solution. As you saw in my Preliminary remark, when solid sodium chloride dissolves in water, Na+ ions and Cl– ions are seduced by water molecules into leaving the crystals of the original solid and spreading through the solution. Silver nitrate is AgNO3; Ag denotes a silver atom, which is present as the positive ion Ag+; NO3– is a negatively charged ‘nitrate ion’, 1. Silver nitrate is soluble because the negative charge of the nitrate ion is spread over its four atoms rather than concentrated on one, 2, as it is for the chloride ion, and as a result it has rather weak interactions with the neighbouring Ag+ ions in the solid.
Back to Basics: Reduction
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
In its original meaning, reduction was what was done to a metal ore to obtain the metal itself: the stony ore hacked from the land was reduced to the malleable, ductile, lustrous, useful metal. Ores are commonly oxides or sulfides, so the process of reduction typically involves the removal of oxygen or sulfur. In that sense, reduction is the opposite of oxidation, which I touched on in Reaction 3. In this chapter I shall stick with the metallurgical context and examine that hugely important industrial process, the reduction of iron ore to iron at what can be regarded as the head of the steel chain. However, like oxidation, the concept of reduction has acquired a much broader meaning, as I shall touch on fleetingly in this section and reveal fully in Reaction 5. A typical iron ore is haematite, an iron oxide of composition Fe2O3 and consisting of a stack of Fe3+ and O2– ions (Figure 4.1, over the page; Fe is the symbol for iron, from the Latin ferrum). In the industrial process for the production of iron, the ‘reducing agent’, the substance that brings about reduction, is essentially carbon in the form of coke. Early furnaces used charcoal, but coke is much harder and allows for much taller columns of ore, carbon, and limestone (the last to collect impurities as slag; see Reaction 9). Reduction on this huge scale is carried out in the great blast furnaces that epitomize heavy industry and the industrial revolution, but those furnaces are little more than sophistications of the fires that first led mankind from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age about 3000 years ago. The eponymous blast of a blast furnace is a blast of air. It may seem odd to use oxygen-rich air in a process designed to remove oxygen from an ore, but it is used to oxidize the carbon to carbon monoxide and also to help ensure that the contents of the furnace do not settle to the bottom.