bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Speed of Sound in Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The speed of sound in three phases of matter is determined by focusing a pulsed laser into a gas, liquid, or solid to produce a sharp sound pulse. The time for this sound to travel a known distance through these materials is then measured to determine the sound velocity. These measurements use electronic detection of sound with microphones and detection of light with photodiode or photomultiplier tubes, and employ time-resolved data collection with digital oscilloscopes. These measurements are then used along with well-developed theories to determine heat capacity ratios for gases and compressibilities for liquids and solids. Sound velocities for multi-component gases are also considered. Measurements of the speed of sound in human breath provides a direct determination of the mole fraction of carbon dioxide. This result is used to determine the human contribution to the CO2 greenhouse effect, with a surprising result.
Multiphoton Ionization Mass Spectrometry of Metal Carbonyls
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Metal carbonyls are volatile inorganic complexes with applications in homogeneous catalysis and photolithography. The strong photochemical activity of these systems for ultraviolet light absorption is well known. In this chapter, pulsed UV laser excitation of these complexes is carried out within the ion source of a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The resulting multiphoton processes produce dissociation and ionization. The experiment demonstrates the application of multiphoton ionization and the rich variety of fragmentation/ionization processes that can be induced. Isotopically resolved mass spectra provide clear illustrations of the natural abundances of metal isotopes. The energetics of ionization and dissociation are discussed in light of the photon energies in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
Quantum Chemistry Calculations
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Lasers are employed in this book to obtain many molecular properties, from IR and Raman vibrational frequencies, to molecular energy levels, to optical rotary dispersion values. This chapter introduces the student to the calculation of these quantities using readily available quantum chemistry programs. An elementary treatment of the methods of quantum chemistry, including different levels of theory and basis sets, is followed by example calculations. References to free online programs such as GAMESS, Avogadro, and other commercial programs are included. Examples using the Gaussian program are designed to walk the student through from start to finish in completing specific calculations. The advantages and disadvantages of wavefunction methods versus density functional theory are discussed, as well as the importance of electron correlation and how it is handled by different methods.
Multiphoton Ionization and Third Harmonic Generation in Alkali Atoms
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Experiments involving resonantly enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) of alkali atoms contained in a heat pipe are discussed with reference to the quantum defect theory modification of the hydrogen atom energy levels. Quantum defects for the ns and nd levels are extracted from the data. This experiment is an excellent introduction to atomic spectroscopy and the selection rules involved. Ionization potentials are extracted from the Rydberg spectra. In the second part of this chapter a Raman shifter is employed to produce IR photons for multiphoton excitation of the low-lying p states of cesium. Three-photon excitation also produces third harmonic generation. The use of heat pipes for the production of alkali metal atom vapor is discussed as well as the use of a simple pick-up wire for ion detection.
Electronic Absorption Spectroscopy of Molecular Iodine
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Electronic absorption spectroscopy of molecular iodine is performed in essentially every physical chemistry laboratory in the world using a conventional UV-vis spectrometer. In this experiment a tunable dye laser is employed to record a spectrum for the X1Σg+ → B3Π0u+ transition in iodine vapor contained in a long glass cell. The absorption data is presented in a Birge–Sponer plot to extract the molecular constants ωe and ωexe. The dye laser is also capable of resolving rotational levels as well as going to higher vibrational levels in the 3Π0u+ state. The effects of anharmonicity and potential energy curves deviating from Morse function behavior are discussed.
Raman Spectroscopy Under Liquid Nitrogen
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Laser Raman spectroscopy has been a powerful tool for the characterization of molecules for many years. This chapter describes a novel technique for the recording of Raman spectra under liquid nitrogen (RUN) which reduces sample burning and increases resolution. An introduction to the theory of Raman spectroscopy is followed by a description of how to perform RUN spectroscopy with examples using CCl4, CS2, and uranocene. Computations using the Gaussian program are also described to model the spectra for the molecules studied. The calculation of isotopic distributions is also treated and applied to the interpretation of the spectra. The RUN method provides improved resolution which is demonstrated to provide improved information from Raman spectra.
Optogalvanic Spectroscopy
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Electrical discharges represent a delicate balance of excitation and relaxation processes that determine the charge density present and the current which flows through the gas. Optical excitation can disrupt this delicate balance, increasing or decreasing the charge which flows. Optogalvanic spectroscopy measures the charge through a discharge and how it changes with optical excitation from a tunable laser. In this chapter, an experimental configuration is described for the study of neon atomic spectroscopy using this effect. The apparatus described is generally applicable for the study of optogalvanic spectroscopy of many atomic, molecular, or ionic species.
Semiconductor Quantum Dots
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Semiconductor quantum dots provide new materials with many practical applications deriving from their unusual optical properties. This experiment explores the absorption, emission, and fluorescence lifetimes of CdTe quantum dots, relating their spectroscopy to theoretical ideas from the theory of quantum confinement. The spectral properties are studied as a function of particle size, illustrating how absorption and emission can be manipulated for different applications. Emission spectra and fluorescence lifetimes are demonstrated to vary significantly with particle size.
Raman Spectroscopy Applied to Molecular Conformational Analysis
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Conformational isomers represent one form of stereoisomer in which the two structures can be interconverted by simple rotations about a single bond. Such conformational isomers are called rotamers and play a role in many areas of Chemistry. In this experiment the 1,2-dichloroethane rotomer molecule is studied using Raman spectroscopy at temperatures ranging from room temperature to that of liquid nitrogen. The anti and gauche forms are clearly differentiated in the Raman spectra. The enthalpy difference, ΔHf, between the anti and gauche forms is then determined from a van ‘t Hoff plot. Calculations of the Raman spectra and the ΔHf are carried out using the Gaussian program and excellent agreement between experiment and theory is seen.
Diffraction of Light from Blood Cells
Authors: Compton Robert N. , Duncan Michael A. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The picture on the front of this book shows the diffraction pattern from a laser beam passing through a pinhole. The experiment in this chapter uses Babinet’s principle to analyze the diffraction of laser light from human blood cells. Babinet’s principle states that diffraction of light from an opaque body is the same as that from a hole of the same size. Diffraction from a collection of objects (a hole, a disk, a slit, and a wire) is treated theoretically and demonstrated experimentally. Using this theory, the mean diameter of blood cells (erythrocytes) is determined from the diffraction of light from a blood smear on a microscope slide. Finally, the diffraction of light from red blood cells in the eye (floaters) is discussed at length.
Conclusion
Authors: Cigno Alessandro , Rosati Furio C. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The positive analysis carried out in the theoretical part of the present book clearly shows that high child labour, high fertility, low education and high infant mortality are the joint outcome of a complex set of interactions within and between families. The policy recipes offered by the theory are correspondingly complex, typically including several measures at the same time. The empirical analyses reviewed in the applied part of the book are broadly consistent with the theoretical predictions, but they also show that the policies carried out in practice with the specific purpose or curbing child labour or encouraging education have often disappointing results, generally due to imperfect understanding of the underlying mechanisms or inadequate implementation.
Human behavioural ecology
Authors: Brown Gillian R. , Lala Kevin N. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter describes the sub-field of Human Behavioural Ecology. After briefly setting out the history of the sub-field, the chapter describes three key concepts of this approach, namely the flexibility of behaviour, formal models and hypothesis testing, and adaptive trade-offs. It then describes examples of Human Behavioural Ecology research through four case studies on the topics of foraging strategies and optimal group size, marriage practices and subsistence patterns, trade-offs between the quantity and quality of offspring, and cooperative childcare. A critical evaluation then examines the distinction between adaptive behaviour and adaptations, before covering three discussion topics: the importance of behaviour versus psychological mechanisms, the possibility of suboptimal behaviour, and Human Behavioural Ecology’s piecemeal approach. The chapter describes the strengths of the Human Behavioural Ecology perspective and clear advances in our understanding of human behaviour that have been gained through this research approach, as well as examining its potential limitations.
Evolutionary psychology
Authors: Brown Gillian R. , Lala Kevin N. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter describes the sub-field of Evolutionary Psychology. After briefly setting out the history of the sub-field, the chapter describes three key concepts of this approach, namely evolved psychological mechanisms, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness, and domain specificity. It then describes examples of Evolutionary Psychology research through four case studies on the topics of psychological mechanisms for detecting cheaters, sex differences in mate preferences, violence and risk-taking behaviour, and disgust. A critical evaluation section then covers three discussion topics: evaluating the concept of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness, advances in evolutionary biology, and domain-general psychological traits. The chapter describes the contributions that have been made by Evolutionary Psychology research, as well as examining its potential limitations, particularly in relation to the issue of inferring past selection that might have acted on ancestral human populations and the potential overemphasis on domain-specific mental processing, plus accusations of evolutionary storytelling.
Cultural evolution
Authors: Brown Gillian R. , Lala Kevin N. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter describes the sub-field of Cultural Evolution. After briefly setting out the history of the sub-field, the chapter describes three key concepts of this approach, namely the definition of culture, parallels between biological and cultural evolution, and types of cultural learning. It then describes examples of Cultural Evolution research through three case studies on the topics of experimental investigations of social learning and cumulative culture, language evolution, and the evolution of complex societies. A critical evaluation section then covers three contemporary discussion topics: the question of whether minds select culture, the debates surrounding replication versus attraction, and the similarities and differences between biological and cultural evolution. The chapter describes the strengths of the Cultural Evolution perspective, which include a strong foundation in mathematical modelling and a burgeoning amount of empirical research, as well as examining areas where questions about cultural evolutionary processes are perhaps yet to be answered.
Colonial and Nationalist Construction of Language
Authors: Dechamma CC Sowmya 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores how the languages of minority were and are constructed firstly by the colonizers as administrators, missionaries, and linguists and secondly by the nationalist elite. Going against the grain of dominant narratives around languages and minorities, this chapter argues that there cannot be a neat understanding of how languages and people are represented by these categories. While there are very enabling representations by the colonizers, there are equally disempowering narratives by the nationalist elites. The chapter largely uses texts written by colonizers and nationalists during mid to late nineteenth Century to early twentieth Century and analyses how these narratives frame people who speak minoritized languages in terms of caste, race, and purity is what this chapter explores.
Three Writers, Three Languages, and the Contradictions of a Kodava Identity
Authors: Dechamma CC Sowmya 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter emphasizes the notion of translation as representation. This inevitably brings the language question into the picture and allows us to see how languages and peoples who speak them are part of these strategies that represent them. It also allows us to see the strategies of translation that are used by those represented to engage, negotiate, resist in a manner that ruptures the narrative, complicates the identities of not only the represented but that of the representer as well. The chapter seeks to do this by using three texts written by Kodava men in the early twentieth century in three different languages.
The Political Logic of Cultural Revival
Authors: Robinson Amanda Lea 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Since 2008, prominent members of the Lhomwe ethnic group — a large but politically marginalized community in Malawi — have waged an aggressive campaign to revive their lost cultural heritage, including their language, names, foods, and dances. Existing research has linked such processes of “inventing tradition” to the strategic actions of political elites who benefit from mobilizing members of marginalized ethnic communities for political ends. Yet, because existing research has focused primarily on elite incentives, we know less about how such elite-led efforts translate into lasting cultural change and active political support among regular people. The Political Logic of Cultural Revival, through an in-depth study of the Lhomwe revival, argues that political elites invest in such revivals when doing so will bear political returns via increased ethnic visibility. Ethnopolitical leaders benefit from having the identity of their group members easily visible to others, because such visibility ties those individuals' fate to that of the larger group. Elite-led cultural revivals serve as a powerful tool for reifying distinctive group characteristics and incentivizing the adoption of related ethnic markers by (1) engendering demand for cultural distinctiveness by stoking group-based pride and (2) supplying the means to achieve it through explicit cultural instruction. Using a plethora of original data sources, The Political Logic of Cultural Revival provides a deep description of the (re)invention of a lost culture, as well as a general theory about how ethnic visibility is related to the practice of ethnic politics.
The Lhomwe in Context: Ethnicity and Politics in Malawi
Authors: Robinson Amanda Lea 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the changing role of ethnicity in Malawian politics and society over time, with a particular focus on the historical reasons for the Lhomwe ethnic group’s loss of cultural distinctiveness and lack of political mobilization. The chapter is organized around four different eras: precolonial migration and conquest, British colonialism and missionary interventions, cultural suppression under authoritarianism, and electoral competition under multiparty democracy. The chapter then chronicles the radical rise of the Lhomwe ethnic group’s political relevance in the wake of the cultural revival, and situates this change within the broader context of ethnic politics in Malawi.
Group-Based Pride and the Adoption of Ethnic Markers
Authors: Robinson Amanda Lea 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the success of the elite-led cultural revival at increasing the ethnic visibility of members of the Lhomwe group. It shows that the revival has increased pride in Lhomwe identity among the majority of group members. Using survey data, it then shows that such pride has induced increased ethnic visibility via ethnic signals, with group members participating in ethnic activities, wearing ethnic clothing, and learning the group’s lost language. An original longitudinal dataset of children’s names shows that the revival has had a more modest effect on an important ethnic signal: the inter-generational investment in ethnic visibility via the provision of ethnically distinct names. In particular, there has been only a slight increase in the use of ethnic names since the revival, and it has been concentrated mostly among urban residents. The chapter concludes that while more modest and flexible markers of ethnic identity, such as patterns of dress, modes of association, or other contextual signals of identity, can be induced from above, many people are still hesitant to permanently mark themselves or their children in ways that tether them to ethnopolitical elites.
Beyond Visibility
Authors: Robinson Amanda Lea 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers other potential political returns to ethnic revivals – beyond visibility – and evaluates them within the Lhomwe revival. First, the chapter focuses on whether the revival-induced ethnic pride has had a direct effect on ethnic party support. While there is evidence of such “pride as patronage,” this mechanism is likely to be more ephemeral than support generated by ethnic visibility. Second, it considers the goal of increasing the visibility of the ethnic group itself rather than just its members, arguing that this has secured Lhowmes a seat at the proverbial table of Malawian politics. Third, the chapter shows how the cultural revival has redefined who is considered a member of the group, thereby expanding the group’s size. Fourth, the chapter documents the the revival’s success in creating a Lhomwe chieftaincy and situates such efforts within the literature on political intermediaries.
Corporate Purpose, Corporate Social Responsibility, and ESG
Authors: Binder Jens-Hinrich , Hopt Klaus J. , Kuntz Thilo 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The introduction starts by providing the background for the present volume. It explains that over the last twenty years or so, the prevailing view of corporations as serving shareholders’ interest has met with increasing criticism. Policy-makers and various scholarly movements, ranging from corporate purpose over corporate social responsibility through environmental, social, and corporate governance, have been questioning the overarching social and economic functions especially of the large public corporation and ensuing normative implications for their business activity. Whereas the debate is international in character, however, there is no uniformity in ideas and approaches on both sides of the Atlantic. The comparative perspective offered in this volume brings to light fundamental differences of how these concepts are operationalized in the United States’ corporate laws and scholarship on the one hand and within the European Union on the other.
Corporate Purpose: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations/Confusions
Authors: Spamann Holger , Fisher Jacob 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Does it matter if corporate leaders pursue a broader, social corporate purpose rather than a narrow, shareholder-centric one, and can legal and governance levers influence their choice? Theoretically—and limited by substitution, regulation, and legitimacy—socially-minded corporate decision-making can benefit society ex post, while commitment to either purpose may be required to motivate various constituencies’ contributions ex ante. Empirically, however, even structural measures like employee co-determination have barely detectable effects, let alone mere exhortations such as those in (unenforceable) nuances of (misunderstood) fiduciary duties. Many arguments for or against (particular) corporate purpose(s) are fallacies, red herrings, or, for empirics, cherry-picking.
ESG Regulation, CSR, and Corporate Purpose
Authors: Esser Irene-marié , MacNeil Iain 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Corporate purpose has emerged in recent years as a key issue in the transition towards sustainability. In this chapter, we focus on corporate purpose as a legal principle and how it might promote sustainability in corporate governance. We start by reviewing what corporate purpose means and then move on to address some key questions, namely whose interests should be encompassed by corporate purpose, who should decide about corporate purpose, and what legal technique should be used to implement corporate purpose? We focus primarily on the UK, which provides a good test of the capacity of private ordering to set, implement, and adjust corporate purpose.
ESG and the Ethical Dimension
Authors: Osterloh-Konrad Christine 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In ESG and the Ethical Dimension, Christine Osterloh-Konrad explores some philosophical implications of the current debates on ESG and corporate purpose by linking them to the fields of individual and social ethics. She firmly rejects the personhood theory of the corporation which treats legal entities as moral persons in their own right; instead, she focuses on the morality of individuals and stresses the importance of leaving enough leeway for virtuous behaviour by managers. Her view on mandatory ESG reporting is rather sceptical because this regulatory tool relies on pressure through moral condemnation by the public, thus obscuring the boundary between law and morality.
Corporate Purpose in the United States 1800–2000
Authors: Wells Harwell 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This chapter documents how over the last two centuries Americans have debated the purposes for which corporations can be created and the ends they should pursue. It shows that ‘corporate purpose’ has always been a questioned and contested concept in the United States, and that even in eras when one understanding of the business corporation’s purpose has been dominant, there have been dissenting voices pushing to rework the institution. It also shows that accounts of corporate purpose have rarely been neutral. In these debates disputants had normative as well as positive goals, and their accounts of corporate purpose rested as much on idealized or hoped-for visions of the corporation as on currently existing ones.