bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Burst Pressure Prediction for Axial Cracks in Pipelines With Non-Ideal Depth Profiles
Authors: Dessein Thomas , Anderson Ted L. , Moritz Jason , Sun Xiaoyu 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Crack-like anomalies in pipelines are complex features that typically have an irregular profile. However, due to modelling complexity, the common practice is to approximate such profiles with a semi-elliptical crack whose length is equal to the total flaw length and whose depth corresponds to the maximum depth of the flaw. This approach can result in significant underestimates of burst pressure.
The PRCI MAT-8 pipeline fracture model has become widely used in the industry since it was developed in a PRCI project in 2015 [2]. The original version of the MAT-8 model was derived from over 200 3D elastic-plastic finite simulations of pipe joints with axial cracks. The PRCI study considered three crack types: semi-elliptical surface cracks, constant depth (canoe-shaped) surface cracks, and through-wall cracks. In 2019, the Modified MAT-8 model was introduced to address non-ideal crack depth profiles [3]. An extensive finite element study was undertaken to model numerous non ideal longitudinal crack profiles in pipe joints. The output from these analyses led to a procedure to convert an arbitrary crack profile into an equivalent semi-elliptical crack. The depth of the equivalent crack is equal to the maximum flaw depth, but the length is typically much less than the total flaw length. Accounting for actual depth profiles, as opposed to the semi-elliptical assumption, affects computed burst pressures by as much as a factor of 2.
The procedure described in this study improves upon an earlier phase of work [3] that developed an approach which was accurate for cracks with a single isolated deeper section that dominates the fracture demand. Since then, more real-world profiles have been assessed and several cases identified for which the previous procedure underestimated the fracture demand. The new procedure resolves this while ensuring a slight conservative bias and maintaining an accuracy that is comparable to typical inline inspection tool length sizing accuracy.
The algorithm considers interactions between deeper sections of the crack profile to increase the length of the equivalent semi-elliptical crack. While the algorithm was developed and calibrated using machine learning techniques, it can be implemented without any specialized machine learning tools.
To apply the algorithm in a probabilistic framework, the in-line inspection (ILI) measurement uncertainty must be characterized at all points along the crack profile. ILI vendor specifications on measurement uncertainty however only cover the uncertainty in reported maximum depth and total length. In this study a method to automatically align over 17,500 ILI profiles collected from repeated measurements of over 8,800 crack-like features was developed so that the repeatability of the reported maximum depth and total length could be quantified and the point-to-point error along the profiles characterized.
Data Fusion of Complementary Axial and Circumferential Magnetic Flux Leakage Inline Inspections and Effects on Safe Remaining Life
Authors: Peng Xiang , Siggers Kevin , Wright Mark , Palmer Johannes 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Measurements from magnetic flux leakage (MFL) in-line inspection tools include two types of uncertainty: random uncertainty arising from essential variables such as velocity and magnetization level; and systemic uncertainty from the measurement principle. The accuracy of the measurement principle is subject to the angle between its magnetic field and the metal loss anomaly. To gain a comprehensive assessment of anomalies, pipelines can be inspected with two MFL techniques with perpendicular magnetic fields, i.e., axial MFL (MFL-A) and circumferential MFL (MFL-C). Currently, the inspection data from each MFL tool is analyzed separately, and two inspection reports are generated respectively. Comparing the two inspection reports, the conflicting results due to the change in angle become obvious and expert opinion is relied upon to make the most appropriate assessment. Fusing the original complementary data sets together overcomes the subjectivity, enables one unique outcome, and greatly reduces the uncertainty. To take advantage of the complementary information of two MFL inspections, ROSEN’s novel machine learning-based data fusion model is applied to the aligned MFL data sets to generate a high-resolution 3D metal loss depth map. The validity of the proposed model is verified using the field data from six operational pipelines of varying diameters. The performance regarding depth prediction and burst pressure calculation is assessed using API STD 1163 Level 3 validation methods. The depth comparison of the derived 3D metal loss depth maps versus laser scans shows strong correlation in both morphology and depth. The safe remaining life of metal loss anomalies in the studied pipelines have been calculated to demonstrate differences due to the new levels of measurement certainty. In addition, as 3D depth maps are now generated, the results differ from traditional box profiles for burst pressure calculations such as Remaining Strength (RSTRENG) and Plausible Profiles (Psqr). The consistent performance on all six pipelines proves the generalization of the data fusion model.
Preliminary Considerations of a Risk-Informed Approach for Climate Change Resilient Pipeline Geohazards Management
Authors: Read Rodney , Rizkalla Moness , Di Blasi Martin , Kowis Jared 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Risk-informed management of pipeline geohazards within the bounds of historical climatic records has been adopted widely in the pipeline industry. The emergence of extreme rainfall events, and related indicators of climate change, that fall well outside the historical data pool presents a challenge in terms of reliability of predictions of significant geohazards capable of damaging pipelines. A review is undertaken of several major precipitation events outlying from their respective recorded historical trends that have impacted pipeline assets globally. Several sites are selected to estimate magnitude and frequency of future extreme weather events characterized in the context of different extreme-value statistical distributions. A general approach is evaluated based on the back analysis characterization of this sample of events to assess if and how these events may be prudently treated as part of a risk-informed pipeline geohazard management program. Several aspects of implementing this approach are discussed including its application based on geological provinces and microclimatic zonation, and the integration of rainfall ground-movement models and the associated effect on pipeline strain accumulation. An elaboration of a fuller evaluation and implementation of this approach as part of a machine learning supported pipeline geohazard management workflow to address climate change resiliency of pipelines is discussed. The findings of this paper support focused implementation of an extension of the practice of risk-informed geohazard management accounting for events that may deviate significantly from historical records for select critical high consequence areas of interest. For the purposes of illustration, this paper focuses on landslide hazards.
Industry Material Property Databases and Their Use in Integrity Programs
Authors: Guest Stuart , Slumkoski Zoe , Dinovitzer Aaron , Al-Amin Mohammad 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Integrity programs can be data hungry based on the desire to fill information gaps and increase the accuracy and refine fitness-for-service assessments. The application of risk-based programs further expands the hunger for data based on their need for significant volumes of material property data to properly capture variations unique to the materials. Databases are an attractive method to store and manipulate material data however obtaining a statistically significant volume of data for older line pipe materials can be difficult. The data holdings of individual pipeline operators may have gaps and may not have a sufficient volume of data to meet these needs. PRCI, as a pipeline industry association, has created a material property database that contains strength, toughness, and chemical composition data for line pipes ranging from 1930 and newer. The data has been obtained through material testing, either from the mill test report (MTR) or supplemental testing on removed pipe, and stored in a blinded manner (to maintain anonymity) that maintains traceability to the original data record within the database.
The goal of the database is to pool PRCI Member company data and others to support industry’s material property data demands for current operating scenarios and future product types (e.g., hydrogen). To-date, this database contains over 20,000 datapoints from over 1,000 unique materials, including popular 1950–70’s line pipe. The recent regulatory requirements of traceable, verifiable, and complete material properties will be discussed within the context of a joint industry database and how pooled databases can be used to provide alternate and substantiated material properties for unique pipe attributes such as pipe mill, manufacturing year, diameter, grade, and thickness. Several case studies and examples of the database are provided in the paper, including statistical relationships used and sample distributions of material properties that could be used to bolster integrity management and risk-based programs.
Towards Solid Ground: Integrated Components of Landslide Threat Management
Authors: Bracic Jan , Chung Man Chun , Ndubuaku Onyekachi , Ferguson James , Guthrie Richard 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
As conduits of energy, pipelines convey products from a point of origin to end-users. On the way, each pipeline inevitably traverses natural geographical landforms, including slopes and waterways, which can impart stresses to the pipe. Over time, weather-related and outside forces alter the landscape and pipelines may be subject to interacting effects of ground movement, in terms of imparted high axial/longitudinal stresses that may not have been accounted for in the pipeline design. Evaluation of these effects can identify when the operating safety margin of the pipe is threatened and if intervention is required to maintain structural integrity.
Different than the steady progression of time dependent corrosion and axial cracking, ground movement is episodic with a trend towards accelerating rates leading to slope failure.
Successful management of ground movement therefore requires sufficient lead time to observe early effects and plan intervention. We present herein the integration of three components that form a basis for holistic landslide threat management: a structured tool that estimates probability of failure (POF) for landslides combined with a parameterized tool that evaluates pipe resilience underground movement, and a visual analytics tool for ILI/IMU bending strains, that independently validates the findings of POF and pipe resilience.
The POF Calculator for Landslides is a structured tool to calculate probability of failure (POF) using expert judgment supported by known, instrumented or observable conditions and statistics (where available). This tool is augmented with discretized Pipe Vulnerability relative to magnitude of displacement for more accurate characterization of effects due to ground movement, thereby providing a high-level screening for strain-based design and assessment (SBDA) in advance of full evaluation using FEA. We show how analysis of measured bending strains can be used to corroborate findings from the POF Calculator for Landslides, providing assurance that the model is valid.
The integration of these components is designed to provide a reliable basis for informing decisions and establishing plans to manage the threat of landslides interacting with pipelines.
Making Progress in Implementing Pipeline Safety Management Systems by Gas Distribution Operators
Authors: Tahamtani Massoud , Hulett Michael 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipeline Safety Management Systems (PSMS) is the formal top-down, organization-wide approach to managing risk through systemic procedures, practices, and policies. A PSMS underpinned by a strong safety culture assures the effectiveness of safety controls. This paper will present the background regarding the need for PSMS in order to reach the goal of zero incidents, the status of PSMS implementation by gas distribution operators in the U. S., the feasibility of PSMS implementation by operator size, and finally, ideas that can help promote the implementation of PSMS.
Methodology to Identify Potential Sites for Susceptibility to Low Strength Girth Weld Behaviors
Authors: Guest Stuart , Salve Clifton , Dinovitzer Aaron , Szakaly Erik , Heydarimanesh Homa , Kohandehghan Alireza 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Since 2000, numerous instances of field girth weld failures have led to product releases, attributed primarily to the difference between weld metal strength and unexpectedly high base metal strength or significant softening in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). These causal factors often result in girth welds of lower strength, prone to failure at low global strains, near the actual material’s yield strength. These results indicate that external loads alone are not the primary cause of through-wall failures. The documented failures consistently reveal that the presence of low-strength girth welds substantially contributes to these failures, despite meeting welding code requirements. In response, operators started conducting engineering assessments to evaluate the risk associated with low-strength girth weldments in the existing pipelines. Performing detailed engineering assessments on every pipeline weld is not feasible. Hence, a comprehensive screening engineering assessment has been developed to evaluate the risk each girth weld poses systematically, incorporating metallurgical, girth weld, and structural considerations. Metallurgical analysis involves assessing pipe grade and manufacturing year to gauge HAZ softening and potential weld metal strength undermatching. Girth weld assessment focuses on the weld metal’s strength, influenced by heat input during welding and the use of low-strength electrodes, alongside quality assurance measures such as in-field parameter monitoring, test welds, and historical performance. Structural considerations include potential exacerbating factors like weld misalignment, thickness transitions, and external load sources. This integrated approach has proven effective in identifying vulnerabilities to failures associated with low-strength girth welds, including undermatching and HAZ softening. The paper presents a case study applying this methodology to an operational pipeline, demonstrating its utility in preemptively identifying and mitigating risks associated with girth weld failures.
Next Generation Hit Rate Fault Tree for Third-Party Activities
Authors: Fujinaga Daniel , Yue Howard , Adianto Riski , Stephens Mark 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Fault tree models have been developed and used over the past two decades to estimate the frequency with which buried onshore pipelines are damaged during third-party ground disturbance activities. The estimated hit rate values can be combined with an estimated probability of failure given hit to assess the likelihood of pipeline failure due to third-party mechanical damage in a comprehensive quantitative risk assessment of a pipeline. Public domain and proprietary fault tree models that the authors are aware of have all been developed from pre-2010 research efforts, which highlights the need for an updated model that better reflects the most recent third-party damage statistics and modern damage prevention measures currently being employed or considered by pipeline operators. In response to this need, a next generation model for estimating the hit rate from third-party activities on a pipeline alignment has been developed for buried onshore pipelines as part of a joint industry project (JIP) that commenced in 2020.
The new hit rate model can be considered hierarchical, consisting of an upper aggregation subtree and lower-level fault trees. The upper-level subtree delineates external interference activities based on the types of equipment involved and the season (i.e. summer versus winter) in which they occur. While previously developed models usually only address general excavation involving excavators or backhoes as the sole interference activity type, the new model also considers vertical and horizontal drilling and agricultural tilling. The lower-level fault trees address the effectiveness of the various available damage prevention measures, with due consideration of the various equipment types and season of occurrence combinations defined in the upper-level aggregation subtree.
In developing this new hit rate model, the seasonally dependent frequency of ground disturbance activity on the pipeline alignment by equipment type and the effectiveness of candidate damage prevention measures at reducing the hit frequency were calibrated using the latest available information in the public domain and from JIP participants. In addition, the outputs obtained from the new hit rate fault tree were validated using the most recent historical hit rate data found in the public domain. To illustrate the predictive capabilities of this new third-party damage fault tree model, the relative effectiveness of selected damage prevention measures is examined through a set of comparative scenario analyses.
CFD Analysis of Gas Pipeline Internal Coating Degradation on Flow Efficiency
Authors: Leung Teresa , Botros Kamal K. , Jensen Larry 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Flow efficiency coating (FEC) is a thin-film, solvent-based epoxy coating that is commonly applied to dry natural gas pipelines. There are a number of benefits in using FEC on the pipe internal surface. The primary benefit is the reduction of pressure drop in the pipeline, which enables an increase in the gas flow rate through the pipeline for a given pressure drop between compressor stations. Therefore, for a given flow capacity, the application of FEC reduces the power consumption of compression and the greenhouse gas emissions for the transportation of natural gas. Secondary benefits include corrosion mitigation, easier and faster drying after hydrostatic testing, improved mobility of ILI tools, and the inhibition of black powder formation within the gas pipeline. It has been postulated that the FEC degradation over time has contributed to the observed loss of flow efficiency. Degradation of the coating film can be in the form of patches of varying area sizes peeling off, or scattered blisters like spots forming on the coated surface. Inspecting the coating quality for operating pipelines is very challenging. The objective of this work is to simulate using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) the effects of “peeling” or “blistering” on the pressure drop along a NPS 16 pipe segment. The CFD results show that only 1% of the surface area covered by small-sized blisters (1.5mm in height) could result in a 22% increase in pressure drop per pipe length as compared to that of a perfectly coated pipe. As for the case where 10% of FEC has been peeled off, this could result in over 30% increase in pressure drop, which is comparable to that of an uncoated pipe. While these quantified losses are specific to the simulated geometries, this information can help with the operation team to decide whether such degradation mechanisms are plausible in explaining the observed flow efficiency losses in their system.
A Risk-Based Approach to Managing Exposed Pipelines
Authors: Okoloekwe Chike , Sen Millan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Transmission pipelines are typically buried to meet the regulatory-specified depth of cover requirements to minimize their impact on the environment and the public. However, due to the erosion of the cover or grandfathered design, pipeline exposures are observed. Within North America, thousands of pipeline exposures are currently present (generally focused within swampy locations) as identified through depth of cover surveys.
Exposed pipelines exhibit increased vulnerability to integrity and safety threats. For example: an exposure on a trail would be susceptible to being struck by an all-terrain vehicle. Correspondingly, a holistic approach is required to quantify the risks associated with exposed pipe sections to support site remediation decisions.
Protective measures such as managing the condition of the coating, placing armored articulated mats, or cordoning off the exposed perimeter or relocation can reduce the vulnerability of exposed pipe sections. However, the selection of an appropriate and financially viable decision should be based on a thorough risk assessment that considers safety, environmental impact and cost-effectiveness.
This paper presents an approach to assess the integrity and safety risks associated with exposed pipes. The model is based on the fundamentals of reliability engineering but also requires qualitative operator-specific inputs, which would be based on the knowledge of one’s system. The key inputs to the model include the probability of failure of integrity threats aggregated over the exposed length and the geospatial characteristics of the site. The model is then applied to a set of exposures in a case study, the exposures are risk-ranked, and the results are visually represented on a risk matrix. This type of assessment allows for a systematic approach to mitigation planning, ensuring that remediation efforts are directed toward sites with the highest risks.
Both the threats and consequences of exposed pipe sections are described herein, with the potential that this may serve as a tool (with operator-specific calibrations) for decision-makers when prioritizing risk treatments at pipeline exposures.
Enhancing 1D Liquid Pipeline Temperature Modeling With Online Learning and Optimization
Authors: Vejahati Frank , Tunvir Kazi 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
An innovative approach has been developed in the form of transient thermal modeling, which is finely tuned as an online learning and optimization problem. Extensive testing and validation have demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach in fine-tuning temperature profile across a wide spectrum of pipelines and operations. This method integrates Dakota software from Sandia lab with the Synergi Pipeline Simulator (SPS) from DNV to carry out a derivative-free global optimization. Real-time learning is applied to an external pipe heat source and soil conductivity, using a loss function defined as the difference between the modeled and measured temperatures. The mean loss is continuously employed to adjust the values of soil conductivity and the pipe heat source. The theoretical framework can be seamlessly implemented in other pipeline simulator packages, providing a versatile solution for the industry.