bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘The Pragmatist’s Solution to Poverty’
Authors: Sloman Peter 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
The ‘rediscovery of poverty’ prompted a wide-ranging debate over how the British government could best support low-income families. One radical response came from Edward Heath’s Conservative government, which published plans to replace the whole system of personal tax allowances with refundable tax credits—the closest any British government has come to introducing a Universal Basic Income. This chapter examines the origins of the Tax Credit Scheme in 1971–2, which was devised by special adviser Arthur Cockfield in response to the rising cost of tax administration and the difficulty of establishing a selective Negative Income Tax in Britain. As the plans took shape, however, the cost of introducing the reforms on a no-losers basis became a source of growing concern within government. Indeed, Treasury officials were relieved when Labour’s victory in the February 1974 election made it possible to jettison the scheme and focus on simplifying and computerizing the PAYE system.
A Crisis of the Transfer State?
Authors: Sloman Peter 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
One of the consequences of the financial crisis was that redistributive market liberalism came under challenge from a number of directions. At a practical level, the rising budget deficit limited the scope for further increases in cash transfers; at a discursive level, Conservative politicians successfully challenged New Labour’s focus on income poverty and recast tax credits as a form of ‘welfare’. The coalition government cut working-age benefits and focused on boosting take-home pay by raising the tax threshold, whilst Labour leader Ed Miliband took up the ‘predistribution’ agenda championed by the Harvard political scientist Jacob Hacker. However, the development of Universal Credit and mounting interest in Universal Basic Income suggests that talk of a ‘crisis of the transfer state’ would be premature. Indeed, the growing difficulties which the Conservatives have faced in cutting social security spending shows that in some respects the transfer state has proved to be highly resilient.
The Return of Universal Basic Income
Authors: Sloman Peter 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
Basic income has risen rapidly up the UK political agenda over the last five years with support from the Green Party, think-tanks such as the Royal Society of Arts, and some trade unionists. The Labour Party has set up a working group to explore the idea, and four Scottish councils are developing plans for a pilot scheme. This chapter explores the history of basic income campaigning in Britain since the 1980s and examines why the idea has regained traction since 2013–14. It pays particular attention to the institutional role played by the Basic Income Research Group (now the Citizen’s Basic Income Trust) and the Basic Income Earth Network, developments in the global south, and changing attitudes to work within the labour movement. It also examines how British campaigners have sought to reframe the case for basic income in dynamic terms, as a foundation for economic security across the life cycle.
Sampling Theory
Authors: Hankin David , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Kenneth B. 
Published: December 2019

AbstractWe present a rigorous but understandable introduction to the field of sampling theory for ecologists and natural resource scientists. Sampling theory concerns itself with development of procedures for random selection of a subset of units, a sample, from a larger finite population, and with how to best use sample data to make scientifically and statistically sound inferences about the population as a whole. The inferences fall into two broad categories: (a) estimation of simple descriptive population parameters, such as means, totals, or proportions, for variables of interest, and (b) estimation of uncertainty associated with estimated parameter values. Although the targets of estimation are few and simple, estimates of means, totals, or proportions see important and often controversial uses in management of natural resources and in fundamental ecological research, but few ecologists or natural resource scientists have formal training in sampling theory. We emphasize the classical design-based approach to sampling in which variable values associated with units are regarded as fixed and uncertainty of estimation arises via various randomization strategies that may be used to select samples. In addition to covering standard topics such as simple random, systematic, cluster, unequal probability (stressing the generality of Horvitz–Thompson estimation), multi-stage, and multi-phase sampling, we also consider adaptive sampling, spatially balanced sampling, and sampling through time, three areas of special importance for ecologists and natural resource scientists. The text is directed to undergraduate seniors, graduate students, and practicing professionals. Problems emphasize application of the theory and R programming in ecological and natural resource settings.
Basic concepts
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B. 
Published: December 2019

AbstractThis chapter provides a conceptual, visual and non-quantitative presentation of the basic principles of sampling theory which are developed in formal quantitative fashion in subsequent chapters. Included are summaries of (a) basic terminology used throughout the text (population, sample, estimator, estimate), (b) components of a sampling strategy (sampling frame, sampling design, estimator), (c) properties of estimators (bias, sampling variance, mean square error), and (d) sampling distribution of an estimator. Simple or familiar settings are used to illustrate the differences between simple frames (listings of population units from which a sample of units is selected) and complex frames (sampling units consist of groupings of population units), and to illustrate the different components of a sampling strategy. A bullseye target with associated dart throws is used to distinguish the important estimator properties of bias, sampling variance, and mean square error. The performances of randomized sampling procedures and purposive or judgment selection of “representative samples” are contrasted using two examples: (1) an historical contrast of estimated abundance of Oregon coastal coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) based on purposive representative reach surveys and on stratified random surveys, and (2) a repeatable classroom exercise pitting judgment sampling against simple random sampling for estimation of mean weight in a population of agates collected from northern California beaches.
Equal probability sampling
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B. 
Published: December 2019

AbstractThis chapter presents a formal quantitative treatment of material covered conceptually in Chapter 2, all with respect to equal probability with replacement (SWR) and without replacement selection simple random sampling, (SRS) of samples of size n from a finite population of size N. Small sample space examples are used to illustrate unbiasedness of mean-per-unit estimators of the mean, total and proportion of the target variable, y, for SWR and SRS. Explicit formulas for sampling variance indicate how estimator uncertainty depends on finite population variance, sample size and sampling fraction. Measures of the relative performance of alternative sampling strategies (relative precision, relative efficiency, net relative efficiency) are introduced and applied to mean-per-unit estimators used for the SWR and SRS selection methods. Normality of the sampling distribution of the SRS mean-per-unit estimator depends on sample size but also on the shape of the distribution of the target variable, y, values over the finite population units. Normality of the sampling distribution is required to justify construction of valid 95% confidence intervals that may be constructed around sample estimates based on unbiased estimates of sampling variance. Methods to calculate sample size to achieve accuracy objectives are presented. Additional topics include Bernoulli sampling (a without replacement selection scheme for which sample size is a random variable), the Rao–Blackwell theorem (which allows improvement of estimators that are based on selection methods which may result in repeated selection of the same units), oversampling and nonresponse.
Single-stage cluster sampling: Clusters of equal size
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B. 
Published: December 2019

AbstractSimilar to strata, population units may instead be grouped into clusters. Usually, units within clusters are geographically or genetically close to one another—all households on a city block, individuals within a single family. In (single-stage) equal size cluster sampling, the total population consists of N clusters, with equal numbers of population units within each cluster. A sample of n clusters is selected by SRS, y values of all population units within clusters are measured, and an unbiased estimator of the population mean is the simple average of cluster means in the sample. An ANOVA sum of squares partition can be used to show that this strategy will outperform SRS with mean-per-unit estimation whenever the mean square between clusters is less than the finite population variance. This means that it is desirable for clusters to have similar means but a great deal of variability within clusters, a contrast with the desirable characteristics of strata (little variability within strata, substantial difference between stratum means). Many methods of collection of samples in fisheries (seines, nets) and wildlife (mist nets, live traps) involve collection of individuals as clusters. Unfortunately, clusters (e.g., human families) often consist of closely related or similar individuals. Because within cluster variation is often relatively low, it is often advantageous and cost-effective to instead adopt two-stage cluster sampling (considered in Chapter 9) for which only a sample of units within each selected cluster are examined, thereby allowing more clusters to be examined for the same total survey cost.
Multi-phase sampling
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B. 
Published: December 2019

AbstractAttention is restricted to two-phase or double sampling. A large first-phase sample is used to generate a very good estimate of the mean or total of an auxiliary variable, x, which is relatively cheap to measure. Then, a second-phase sample is selected, usually from the first-phase sample, and both auxiliary and target variables are measured in selected second-phase population units. Two-phase ratio or regression estimators can be used effectively in this context. Errors of estimation reflect first-phase uncertainty in the mean or total of the auxiliary variable, and second-phase errors reflect the nature of the relation and correlation between auxiliary and target variables. Accuracy of the two-phase estimator of a proportion depends on sensitivity and specificity. Sensitivity is the probability that a unit possessing a trait (y = 1) will be correctly classified as such whenever the auxiliary variable, x, has value 1, whereas specificity is the probability that a unit not possessing a trait (y = 0) will be correctly classified as such whenever the auxiliary variable, x, has value 0. Optimal allocation results for estimation of means, totals, and proportions allow the most cost-effective allocation of total sampling effort to the first- and second-phases. In double sampling with stratification, a large first-phase sample estimates stratum weights, a second-phase sample estimates stratum means, and a stratified estimator gives an estimate of the overall population mean or total.
Spatially balanced sampling
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B. 
Published: December 2019

AbstractIn many ecological and natural resource settings, there may be a high degree of spatial structure or pattern to the distribution of target variable values across the landscape. For example, the number of trees per hectare killed by a bark beetle infestation may be exceptionally high in one region of a national forest and near zero elsewhere. In such circumstances it may be highly desirable or even required that a sample survey directed at estimation of total tree mortality across a forest be based on selection of random locations that have good spatial balance, i.e., locations are well spread over the landscape with relatively even distances between them. A simple random sample cannot guarantee good spatial balance. We present two methods that have been proposed for selection of spatially balanced samples: GRTS (Generalized Random Tessellation Stratified Sampling) and BAS (Balanced Acceptance Sampling). Selection of samples using the GRTS approach involves a complicated series of sequential steps that allows generation of spatially balanced samples selected from finite populations or from infinite study areas. Selection of samples using BAS relies on the Halton sequence, is conceptually simpler, and produces samples that generally have better spatial balance than those produced by GRTS. Both approaches rely on use of software that is available in the R statistical/programming environment. Estimation relies on the Horvitz–Thompson estimator. Illustrative examples of running the SPSURVEY software package (used for GRTS) and links to the SDraw package (used for BAS) are provided at http://global.oup.com/uk/companion/hankin.
Solidarity and Compliance
Authors: Auger Peter 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses how sixteenth-century Scottish court poets and English translators showed deference towards Du Bartas’ example. Thomas Hudson, John Stewart of Baldynneis, William Fowler, and other poets at James’ court expressed their admiration for Du Bartas’ verse but did not seek to emulate him. The scholar, ambassador, and poet Adriaan Damman composed a Latin translation of Sepmaine that was circulated among continental friends in manuscript, and in a revised print edition to promote James’ reputation abroad. We also see how Du Bartas’ first translators in London, aware of his Scottish connections, also complied with James’ vision of Du Bartas’ significance.
City-Size Distributions in a Quasi-Open Economy: The India Evidence
Authors: Mathur Om Prakash 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
This chapter examines India’s urbanization and urban system. It shows that urbanization in India continues to be driven by natural increase and reclassification of rural settlements into urban, with rural-to-urban migration playing, at best, a modest role in the urbanization process. Recent economy-wide shifts including higher economic growth have made little impact on either the pace or the structure of urbanization, which continues to be dominated by a large number of small towns and a small number of large cities. India’s urban system displays neither primacy nor does it conform to the rank-size distribution. Upper-tail cities are not large enough to fit into the rank-size distribution and the populations of the lower end are smaller than the predicted values, raising questions about their capacity to generate scale and agglomeration economies. Marked variations are observed in urban systems across states. This chapter emphasizes the need for further research to help understand the urban systems of India’s federal structure.
Migration in the People’s Republic of China
Authors: Lu Ming , Xia Yiran 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the characteristics of migration in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) after its reforms and opening up. Rapid urbanization in the PRC has resulted from recent decades of intense rural–urban migration. The scale of migration increased rapidly and long-term migration is the main characteristic. The population characteristics of migration are determined not only by a personal decision, but also a joint decision within households to send members with comparative advantages in manufacturing and services, usually male and young, to work in cities. Coastal regions where manufacturing and services are better developed, especially big cities, are the major destinations. The aspiration for higher incomes and better job opportunities is the major force that drives migration, while public services and urban amenities also partly account for population flows. However, in the PRC there are still major institutional barriers—especially the Hukou system and related segmentation in the urban labour market, social security, and public services access—that hinder rural–urban and interregional migration. Facing the challenges of fast urbanization and growing urban diseases, local governments still rely on the current system to control the population flow into large cities. Controlling population growth using discriminative policies will lead to more social problems. Policymakers should reconsider the way to achieve efficient and harmonious urbanization by shifting to more pro-market policies and reducing the migration costs embedded in institutional constraints
Rural-to-Urban Migration and the Urban Labour Market: the Case of India
Authors: Mitra Arup 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
In relation to urbanization, findings suggest that the unemployment rate after migration tends to decline. States with higher urbanization levels reveal a larger increase in regular wage employment after migration. With an increase in city size, the migration rate rises mainly because employment prospects are better in large cities due to agglomeration effects. Migration, urban informal sector employment, and the proportion of the Scheduled Caste population in urban and rural areas are all positively associated, suggesting that the socially backward groups are more likely to migrate from rural areas and get absorbed in the urban informal sector. This pattern is accompanied by a decline in the incidence of poverty in both rural and urban areas: even the urban informal sector activities are able to provide relatively better job opportunities and higher living standards.
Foreign Direct Investment, Capital Flows, and Urbanization: the Case of China
Authors: Liu Dan 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
With a surge in foreign direct investment (FDI), the People’s Republic of China (PRC) made great achievements in urbanization during the three decades since the reforms and opening-up policies were implemented. This chapter investigates the trends and patterns in FDI and domestic capital flows, and their roles in the process of urbanization. The big picture in capital flows in the PRC is that both FDI and private domestic capital concentrate on the coastal areas, while government transfers flow mostly to the middle and western regions. At the same time, under more favourable government policies, both FDI and private capital are moving to the middle and west. It has been found that FDI affects the speed and pattern of urbanization by creating more jobs and affecting the extent and direction of migration.
Infrastructure in China
Authors: Li Zhigang 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
The recent experience of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) suggests an intertwined relationship between infrastructure investment, urbanization, and economic growth. This chapter analyses infrastructure-related institutions and the interrelation between infrastructure and urbanization. It addresses the following issues: What is the relationship between infrastructure, growth, and urbanization? How efficient have investment and financing been for infrastructure construction? How can we evaluate the performance of infrastructure development? How and to what extent should the government be involved in infrastructure construction? Although the current infrastructure investment system is still distorted by local governments’ incentives and decisions, there is no evidence of overinvestment in infrastructure at the aggregate level. Nevertheless, there is strong evidence that the marginal return to infrastructure investment in the PRC has been rapidly declining. Hence, it is urgent for policymakers to reform the existing system to base their investment decisions on the economic returns to infrastructure.
Metabotropic signal transduction
Authors: Fain Gordon L. 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
“Metabotropic signal transduction” is the fourth chapter of the book Sensory Transduction and reviews the structure and function of G-protein cascades, which are essential components of transduction in many sensory receptors. G-protein cascades are found throughout the body and are responsible for mediating the effects of many hormones and synaptic transmitters in the CNS. The chapter describes the components of these cascades, including G-protein-coupled receptors, heterotrimeric G proteins, effector molecules, and second messengers including calcium. It then describes the special properties of channels gated by second messengers, including cyclic-nucleotide-gated channels, which were first discovered in sensory receptors. It concludes with a description of transduction in the lizard parietal eye, where a single cell type can respond to light in two different ways.
Hearing and hair cells
Authors: Fain Gordon L. 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
“Hearing and hair cells” is the sixth chapter of the book Sensory Transduction and begins with hearing in insects, describing the anatomy and physiology of tympanal organs and Johnston’s organ. It reviews the literature on vertebrate hair cells, which are the sensory receptors of the inner ear. It begins with the anatomy of hair cells and then describes tip links, hair cell transduction proteins, and our present understanding of the nature and identity of the mechanoreceptive channels, including the role of channel gating in bundle stiffness and adaptation of hair cells. A review is given of the anatomy and physiology of the organs of the lateral line, the vestibular system, and the cochlea, together with a description of endolymph and the endocochlear potential, outer hair cells and tuning in mammals, and the role of electrical resonance in tuning in the turtle basilar papilla.
Chemoreception and the sense of smell
Authors: Fain Gordon L. 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
“Chemoreception and the sense of smell” is the seventh chapter of the book Sensory Transduction and begins with a general description of chemoreception, including chemotaxis in bacteria. It then describes olfaction in insects, including new discoveries of the nature of insect receptor proteins and the coding of olfaction in insects. It proceeds to review olfaction in vertebrates, beginning with the primary olfactory epithelium. It describes olfactory receptor proteins, the mechanism of olfactory transduction, and pathways of desensitization and adaptation. The basis of coding in the principal olfactory epithelium is described together with the anatomy and physiology of the olfactory bulb. A final section is provided on the accessory olfactory system and vomeronasal organ, including a description of receptor proteins, transduction cascades, and wiring to the accessory olfactory bulbs.
Bodies
Authors: Brown Deborah J. , Normore Calvin G. 
Published: December 2019

Abstract
Against a growing consensus that Descartes was a closet monist committed to the idea that the divisions between bodies were either modal or phenomenal, this chapter argues that Descartes held to the doctrine of actual parts and real distinctions within a plurality of extended substances. Four arguments for the monistic reading are addressed and arguments both textual and conceptual advanced for a pluralist reading. These four arguments for monism are: the argument from the incoherence of infinitely divisible substances; the argument from the absence of substantial forms; the argument against individuation by motion; and the argument from the unreality of motion. Contrary to this trend, we argue that if the concept of body is to serve the purposes of a finite Cartesian physics, there had better be real divisions between individual bodies or extended substances. Alternative interpretations of those passages which seem to suggest otherwise are advanced.