bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Silica nanoparticles induce mitochondrial pathway‐dependent apoptosis by activating unfolded protein response in human neuroblastoma cells
Authors: Hou Shanshan , Zhang Xiayu , Du Haiying , Ning Xiaofan , Wu Hao , Li Chunrui , Liu Yuxin , Sun Zhiwei , Du Zhongjun , Jin Minghua 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe application of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) in areas of agriculture and medicine has raised great concerns for the potential adverse effects of SiNPs. The increasing toxicological studies focused mainly on the lung and cardiovascular system, but the adverse effects of SiNPs on nervous system have not been well explored. This study aimed to evaluate the role and mechanism of unfolded protein reaction (UPR) in SiNPs‐induced cell injury on nerve cells in vitro. We investigated the UPR‐mediated apoptosis caused by SiNPs in human neuroblastoma (SH‐SY5Y) cell line. The size of SiNPs and its effect on cell ultrastructure were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Cell growth, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), calcium ion (Ca2+), apoptosis rate, and the expression level of related proteins were evaluated using MTT, flow cytometry, and western blot in SH‐SY5Y cells exposed to SiNPs. The results showed that with the increase of SiNPs concentration, cell viability decreased, MMP decreased, active oxygen (ROS), and Ca2+ levels increased in a dose‐dependent manner. In addition, protein expression of PERK, GRP78, and other related proteins in the unfolded protein response increased in a dose‐response manner together with the expression of apoptosis proteins. Conclusively, this study confirmed that SiNPs can affect the neural system by interfering structure and functional and inducing apoptosis in nerve cells through unfolded protein response.
Africa–European Union Climate Change Partnership
Authors: Olutola Oluwole 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe need to heighten climate action momentum is a key outcome of the Climate Action Summit organized by the United Nations (UN) in September, 2019. The same concern reverberated in most of the presentations and discussions at the twenty-fifth Conference of Parties (COP 25) – the annual climate summit under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This chapter seeks to investigate the relevance of the call for more climate action in terms of what further climate priorities and strategies are required in the context of the existing climate change partnership between Africa and the European Union (EU). It relies on liberal institutionalism as its theoretical framework and data from a range of purposely selected secondary sources as reference points. Beyond arguing the case for more climate action to further strengthening the Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES), particularly in the area of environmental partnership, this chapter emphasizes the need to align the required further climate action with the mitigation goals of the Paris Agreement and the UN transformative initiatives on the global climate action. It concludes with an insight into some policy recommendations, including the need for a dedicated and regional-based approach in tackling Africa’s climate change beyond the conventional worldwide UNFCCC (United Nations Convention on Climate Change) framework that has failed to deliver tangible results for some time past.
Agricultural Interventions to Enhance Climate Change Adaptation of Underutilized Root and Tuber Crops
Authors: Gweyi-Onyango Joseph P. , Sakha Michael Ajanja , Jefwa Joyce 
Published: December 2020

AbstractAgricultural intensification worldwide is increasingly relying on a narrow range of crops such as rice, wheat, and maize. The reliability on this relatively small numbers of food diversities raises a very serious concern about the sustainability managing our nutrition today and in the future. We conducted a scoping review using online databases to identify various agricultural interventions that can be utilized for enhancement of underutilized root and tuber crops adaptability under the current observable effects of climate change. This is because reports of underutilized crops’ adaptability to climate change continues to remain anecdotal with limited research capacity to support them. The results mooted a wide range of crop production techniques that can be utilized in production of root and tuber crops. They includes biofertilizers, tied ridging method, improved seed varieties, management of community seed banks, cropping systems, irrigation methods, exploiting abandoned lands, agroforestry practice, clean seed production technologies, and nutrient use efficiency. Based on the findings, each of these interventions plays different roles in management of the negative impacts brought up by climate change and thus they would be useful when adopted in combination since package adoption would enable farmers to benefit from the positive synergy of the selected interventions. The interventions are therefore recommended not only for sustainability but also for profitable production to meet feed, food, energy, and fiber needs and foster economic growth in the ever changing world. Therefore this chapter contributes immensely towards the development of innovative mechanisms for strengthening the resilience of root and tuber crop.
Introduction
Authors: Sampson Helen 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe shipping industry transported a total volume of 10.3 billion tons of cargo in 2017 (UNCTAD 2017) and is estimated to employ 1.5 million workers (http://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labour-standards/seafarers/lang%2D%2Den/index.htm accessed 1/2/18) who are classed as seafarers. Such workers are employed on different vessel types in the cruise and cargo sectors. Sailors working for the military are not classed as seafarers. However, seafarers may be employed on board in a variety of roles which are not directly associated with marine navigation (as croupiers or entertainers on a cruise ship for example) but their ship should be engaged in a voyage which would differentiate them from taking a ‘fishing trip’ for example. Doumbia-Henry describes some of the provisions of ILO Convention No. 185 stating that:
Multiple Roles and Role Conflict: Seafarers As Economic, Humanitarian and Security Actors
Authors: Senu Amaha 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe chapter aims to draw attention to the experiences of seafarers when encountering undocumented migrants in the maritime domain. Focussing on seafarers’ interactions with stowaways and migrants across the Mediterranean Sea, it explores the tensions, contradictions and outcomes that arise from the often-diverging expectations placed upon seafarers. The chapter demonstrates how seafarers are forced to assume multiple and conflicting economic, humanitarian and security roles in their interactions with stowaways and migrants at sea. Navigating the tensions and conflicts between these roles can prove challenging for seafarers with severe implications for both seafarers and the migrants in some instances.
Can the UK Tonnage Tax Minimum Training Obligation Address Declining Cadet Recruitment and Training in the UK?
Authors: Gekara Victor Oyaro 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThis chapter presents a critical analysis of the capacity of the nation-state to develop and implement effective policy interventions on behalf of national labour interests in highly globalized industries. This follows the consistent observation that, under neoliberal capitalism, governments have lacked the power and/or will to implement pro-labour legislation in the same way as they have done for capital (Fourcades-Gourinchas and Babb 2002; Peck 2004; Kotz 2015). This discussion is developed with reference to the Tonnage Tax policy, introduced by the UK government in 2000, as the key policy strategy to revitalize the ailing shipping industry (Department for Transport 1998). In the broadest terms, the strategy is a tax concession designed to attract British ship owners to re-flag their ships to the UK national register, retain the majority of their ship management in the UK and train British seafarer cadets (Selkou and Roe 2002; Brownrigg et al. 2001; Gekara 2010). The core of the strategy, i.e. the tax element, represents an alternative system of calculating corporation tax for shipping companies based on fixed rates and with reference to a shipping company’s total operating tonnage per year rather than its total income, which represents a highly reduced rate of taxation. To specifically address the decline in the British national seafarer labour market and the supply of British officers, a Minimum Training Obligation (MTO) was included for all British-registered ships, which simultaneously incentivized and compelled shipping companies to increase their cadet recruitment and training activities (Selkou and Roe 2002).
The Experience of Being a Filipino Seafarer on a Multinationally Crewed Ship
Authors: Acejo Iris 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe globalised labour market for seafarers has led to multinationally crewed vessels. According to a study conducted by Seafarers International Research Centre in 2003, about 60% of ships have multinational crews (Ellis and Sampson 2003). A more recent study showed that 85% of vessels that call in ports in Finland have multinational crew mix and that two and three nationalities are the most prevalent crewing pattern (Storgård et al. 2013). The Philippines, is one of the world’s biggest source of seafarers, as such it is worth considering the lived experiences of Filipino seafarers on multinationally crewed vessels.
Introduction: The European Union, the Insurance Industry and the Public-Private Mix in Healthcare
Authors: Benoît Cyril , Del Sol Marion , Martin Philippe 
Published: December 2020

AbstractResearch has paid little attention to date on how the European Union (EU) affects private (usually voluntary) health insurance at domestic level and more broadly, the political economy of the public-private mix in healthcare. Our argument in this Introduction is that EU law and regulation is, essentially, likely to do so through the provisions applicable to the insurance sector as a whole. We then explain why it could potentially be a vehicle for transformative changes of private health insurers, and why, by extension, it could interact with the prior effects of domestic policy choices in healthcare. Ultimately, such interactions could also help change the nature and scope of health coverage. On the basis of these statements, we develop an analytical approach to elucidate, characterize and prove this influence. We then outline the research design and case selection processes and discuss the various methods applied in the nine contributions to this book. After a short summary of their respective findings, we reflect in a concluding section on how they echo wider debates in the literature on the role of private actors in contemporary Welfare States and on EU influence in healthcare.
The Role of Universities Building an Ecosystem of Climate Change Education
Authors: Reimers Fernando M. 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThis chapter introduces the field of climate change education, noting the paradox that in spite of many efforts at incorporating climate change in education policy and curriculum frameworks, and a diversity of practices in schools, there is little evidence that such efforts are contributing to adaptation, mitigation or reversal of climate change. The chapter reviews the role of international development organizations advocating for and developing frameworks in support of climate change education. This is followed by an analysis of ongoing efforts of climate change education.The chapter argues that more effective education for climate change at the primary and secondary education levels around the world requires context specific strategies that align the specific learning outcomes with the impacts of climate change in that context. Implementing those strategies requires the development of institutional capacity in schools that is aligned to the stage of institutional development of the school. The chapter explains how a multidisciplinary framework that accounts for the cultural, psychological, professional, institutional and political dimensions of the change process can support the development of collaboration and coherence in implementing those climate change education strategies. Those strategies need to also specify the particular populations that need to develop such competencies and the optimal means of delivery. The chapter also situates the literature on climate change education within the larger context of the literature on deeper learning, twenty first century skills and education system change, explaining how deeper learning in climate change education might influence attitudes and behaviors in ways that prevailing didactic approaches focused principally on the transmission of scientific knowledge do not.To develop such context specific climate change education strategies and to build the institutional capacity to implement them, the chapter makes the case for more intentional engagement of universities, in partnership with schools and non-formal education organizations. This would serve the dual role of providing support for schools in advancing climate change education, while also educating higher education students on climate change through problem based, participatory and contextually situated approaches.
Introduction—The Evolution of Deterrence Strategy and Research
Authors: Freedman Lawrence 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe concept of deterrence has dominated Western strategic thought for some seven decades. It shows no signs of easing its grip. In the face of any new security threat, such as terrorism or cyber-attacks, one of the first questions to be asked is ‘can this be deterred?’ Even when the answer is not very encouraging the inclination is to persevere until some way is found at least to reduce if not remove the threat through some form of deterrence. This may have less to do with deterrence’s reliability or effectiveness as a strategy and more because of its inherent normative appeal. When a state adopts a deterrence strategy it signals that it does not seek a fight but still considers some interests to be so vital that they are worth fighting for. It implies a defensive intent without weakness. It seeks to prevent aggression while being non-aggressive. It sustains rather than disrupts the status quo. For these reasons, it has positive associations that other potential strategies lack. Appeasement as a deliberate strategy has been discredited since the 1930s; conquering other states is now seen to be as demanding as it is illegal. There is no dishonour in deterrence.
Targeted Sanctions and Deterrence in the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Giumelli Francesco 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe use of sanctions is often associated with coercion and deterrence. The former implies that sanctions contribute to changing the behaviour of targets, while the latter suggests that the damage threatened by sanctions should discourage actors from embarking on certain policies. However, sanctions have evolved substantially over the last twenty years, thus this chapter discusses whether the emergence of targeted sanctions was enough to change the classical deterrence/sanctions relation. This chapter argues that while there are similarities with the past, there are elements of change that need to be carefully considered. On the one hand the imposition of a cost to certain policy actions, the existence of an audience and the potential impact on the wider society remain central problems for both comprehensive and targeted sanctions. On the other hand, targeted sanctions present unique features that directly interact with the concept of deterrence. First, sanctions do not target states and governments only, but also individuals and non-state actors. Second, targeted sanctions are designed to reduce their impact not only on innocent civilians, but there are clear boundaries of damage that can be inflicted on targets. Third, targeted sanctions can have a moral hazard problem, so that their imposition creates an incentive for actors to embark on the very actions that sanctions aim to deter.
Nuclear Deterrence in the Algorithmic Age: Game Theory Revisited
Authors: Lindelauf Roy 
Published: December 2020

AbstractCommonly used game and decision theoretic models fail to explain the empirics of deterrence. This has unjustly led many theorists to criticize the (rationality and other) assumptions underpinning of such models. No serious game theorist will contend that his theoretic model will possibly take account of all the peculiarities involved in decision making and therefore be an accurate model of such situations. Games are an aid to thinking about some of the aspects of the broader situation. Game theory models prescribe what a decision maker ought to do in a given situation, not what a decision maker actually does. To maintain nuclear strategic stability, it is of paramount importance to understand the dynamical interplay between all players involved in decision making processes with regard to nuclear strategy. History has shown some progress in understanding nuclear deterrence by the use of initial game- and decision theoretic models to alleviate the burden of human cognitive biases. Since it is highly likely that (semi-)autonomous systems will in some way participate in the future nuclear strategic landscape, combined with the fact that the nuclear deterrent decision-cycle will also be based on algorithmic analysis, rational deterrence theory is and should be an integral element of strategic thinking about nuclear deterrence. That, or it might as well be game over.
Deterrence: A Continuation of Emotional Life with the Admixture of Violent Means
Authors: Zilincik Samuel , Duyvesteyn Isabelle 
Published: December 2020

AbstractDeterrence is more than anything a psychological mechanism. It depends on emotions that orchestrate processes across organisms to deal with the challenges of the present and the future. However, deterrence scholarship has had a turbulent relationship with emotions. The main aim of this chapter is to review what we know and what we do not know about emotions and deterrence. The secondary aim is to develop a dynamic and interactive emotion-centric model of deterrence to explain where and how emotions play a role in such a mechanism. We combine the methods of theoretical analysis and literature review to achieve these aims. Our findings indicate that emotions give a new meaning to deterrence by changing the nature of the theory and by highlighting problems of practice. More specifically, scholars should reconsider both the means and the ends of deterrence. Practitioners should be aware that deterrence efforts are hard to sustain and may produce emotional effects detrimental to their original purpose.
The US and Extended Deterrence
Authors: van Hooft Paul 
Published: December 2020

AbstractThe U.S. provides extended nuclear deterrence to allies in Europe, Asia, and elsewhere. The 2018 NPR signals several potentially destabilizing policies, including lowering the threshold for use and adding low-yield capabilities, and it emphasizes the need for nuclear superiority. This chapter argues that the U.S. is changing its nuclear posture to address the growing challenge to U.S. conventional superiority. Extended nuclear deterrence is inherently dubious and the asymmetry between the U.S. on the one hand, and its allies and adversaries on the other, makes it doubly so. In the coming decades, this will continue to generate problems for the U.S. as long as it maintains its alliance commitments.
Deterrence by Punishment or Denial? The eFP Case
Authors: Noll Jörg , Bojang Osman , Rietjens Sebastiaan 
Published: December 2020

AbstractIn 2017 NATO initiated Enhanced Forward Presence (eFP) in the Baltics to deter Russia. While most studies analyse eFP from the perspective of NATO or the troop contributing countries, this chapter addresses the question how the host nations, i.e. in this contribution Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, perceive the deterrence strategy underlying eFP as well as their own strategies. In doing this, the chapter emphasizes how strategic culture influences the Baltic countries’ behaviour towards deterrence. We found that in Estonia perspectives on eFP were ambiguous. While official documents reflect the official NATO narrative based on deterrence by punishment other sources stress the illusion, expectation or aspiration of deterrence by denial. In Lithuania, documents, officials and experts emphasize deterrence by denial as opposed to deterrence by punishment. Latvia considers the strategy behind eFP as deterrence by punishment. The strategic cultures, the history and threat perceptions of the Baltic states explain these differences to a large extent. In particular the presence of Russophone minorities in Estonia and Latvia, lead to some reluctance in fully embracing NATO’s strategy, while at the same time both countries prepare to counter Russia’s threat with their allies.
The Essence of Cross-Domain Deterrence
Authors: Sweijs Tim , Zilincik Samuel 
Published: December 2020

AbstractBoth deterrence theory and deterrence practice are evolving to address contemporary strategic challenges. In the military domain, states progressively integrate and synchronise military operations. Outside of it, they exploit grey zone strategies that combine different instruments of influence across multiple domains. These developments are now giving birth to a new wave of thinking about cross domain deterrence (CDD), what it precisely entails, and what favouring conditions are necessary for it to be effective. This chapter situates CDD in the context of today’s challenges, and identifies the prerequisites for these favouring conditions based on a review of a rather diverse body of literature. It finds that one strand of that literature predominantly focuses on practical and technical prerequisites in order for CDD to be effective, leaving the framework of traditional deterrence theory intact. It also finds a second strand that holds that the nature of today’s challenges requires more than mere innovation in application. The ideas about deterrence proposed by this second strand are expanding on common understandings of deterrence to the extent that deterrence is no longer only about fear nor about convincing opponents to refrain from certain behaviour. The conclusion summarises the findings and elaborates their implications for theory and practice.