bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Belief, Reason, Persuasion, Faith
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
In a short work on the art of persuasion, Pascal argues that our beliefs are shaped both by our understanding and by our will. The persuader must therefore take account of his audience’s existing beliefs and desires. Pascal sees knowledge as depending on fundamental concepts that cannot be defined and fundamental principles that cannot be proved. He distinguishes between ‘geometrical’ and more intuitive ways of thinking; his account of the latter is compared with Newman’s. The existence of God cannot be convincingly proved by philosophical argument. In any case, faith is a divine gift; it is not a rational conviction resulting from proof, but more like the belief we have in the fundamental realities of our experience such as time, space, and number. Argument, such as Pascal himself uses in the Pensées, may, however, pave the way for faith.
The Fall
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Pascal argues that the doctrine of the Fall explains the contradictions he has studied. Human nature has been transformed by original sin. Our ‘greatness’ is the residue of our former nature, the vestigial memory of which takes the form of our frustration at the ‘wretchedness’ into which we have fallen. Pascal’s particular conception of the Fall is essentially inspired by St Augustine, from whom he derives the key notion of concupiscence (earthly desire), and certain problems in the Augustinian theory are discussed. The chapter concludes by mentioning more recent presentations of the doctrine in the work of Kierkegaard and Rahner, and of contemporary theologians discussing the relationship between the doctrine and findings in biology.
Conclusion
Authors: Moriarty Michael 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
There is a brief discussion of Pascal’s affinities with existentialism. One of these concerns his denial that we can infer moral norms from human nature as it is. Our attitude to human nature will largely condition how we react to his philosophy. His arguments for Christian belief are to a certain extent detachable from his particular version of Augustinian theology. He remains relevant partly because we cannot escape confronting human nature as a problem and because he insists on the liberating potential of Christianity. He functions still as a witness to his faith.
Ahmednagar
Authors: Manz Stefan , Panayi Panikos 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Ahmednagar developed the same type of symbolic importance for those interned in India as that which Knockaloe held for the Germans interned in Great Britain. While much smaller in scale than the head camp further north, Ahmednagar lasted for a similar length of time and played a leading role in the incarceration of Germans from East Africa, India, and Siam. The camp lay on the site of a medieval fort. The few thousand male internees complained about the conditions they endured but, as in other imperial camps, they experienced humane treatment and developed a rich prison camp society. As in the rest of the Empire, the Germans in Ahmednagar and in the other camps in India faced deportation back to Europe, especially upon the Golconda during 1915 and 1916. This ship came to have the same symbolic significance as Ahmednagar for the end of the German presence in India.
Forging Germans under Germany
Authors: Mezger Caroline 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapter 3 is dedicated to the German occupation of the Western Banat during World War II. Employing archival and press sources from Germany and Serbia, as well as original oral history interviews, it explores the interplay between Reich-German and local Donauschwaben authorities in shaping institutions that would profoundly affect ethnic German children and young people’s wartime experience and conceptualizations of “Germanness”: the National Socialist Volksgruppenführung (minority leadership), the German-language school, and the Church. As the chapter shows, experiences of violence, the Nazi takeover of virtually all local ethnic German organizations, and the disappearance of any official religious alternatives caused an at least public equation of “German” with “National Socialist”—a definition which would be promoted, ignored, and resisted by individual youth.
Language Reform and the Lens of Simile in Experimentalist Texts
Authors: Webster Erin 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter sheds new light on the ‘plain style’ movement associated with the experimental philosophy of England’s Royal Society by demonstrating that our critical understanding of this movement as inherently anti-figurative has been hampered by an anachronistic understanding of how early modern Europeans understood figurative language to function. Drawing upon philosophical and experimentalist writings by Francis Bacon, Thomas Sprat, Robert Boyle, and Robert Hooke, this chapter shows that, rather than being against the use of metaphor and simile outright, experimentalist writers conceived of textual ‘similitudes’ as literary analogues to the mechanical technology of the lens. As such, they, like lenses, could serve both to clarify and to distort the objects they were used to describe and therefore must be carefully chosen and applied. The chapter concludes with an exploration of how readers responded to Hooke’s use of simile in his 1665 treatise on microscopy, Micrographia, by analyzing contemporaneous critiques of his work by Andrew Marvell, Samuel Butler, and Margaret Cavendish that target his literary style in addition—and relation—to his optical science.
Envisioning Empire in Bacon, Hooke, and Cavendish
Authors: Webster Erin 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines Francis Bacon’s fictional ‘new world’ discovery narrative, The New Atlantis (1626), and its influence on Robert Hooke’s Micrographia (1665) and Margaret Cavendish’s Blazing World (1666). It begins by showing how Bacon’s dream of a visually rooted imperial empiricism gives shape to Hooke’s observations, both physical and textual, of the ‘new world’ revealed to him by the technology of the microscope. It then turns to Cavendish’s utopian fiction as another new world narrative in this tradition and argues that in this work Cavendish directly responds to the visually charged imperialistic empiricism of The New Atlantis and Micrographia. Where Bacon and Hooke posit optically enhanced vision as a means through which particular humans could both discover and ‘improve’ nature to meet their own ends, The Blazing World, in keeping with Cavendish’s own vitalist philosophy, celebrates the knowledge of non-human animals and holds out intersubjectivity in place of objectivity as the most fruitful means of engaging both human and non-human nature.
The Optics of Virtue in Boyle, Cowley, and Behn
Authors: Webster Erin 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
This chapter reads Aphra Behn’s farcical play, The Emperor of the Moon (1687), as a sustained and engaged critique of the figure of the experimentalist ‘virtuoso’ as he is presented in defences of the Royal Society circulating in Restoration London. It begins with a close reading of the language of virtue in a series of Royal Society apologetics before turning to Behn’s play in order to show how Behn exposes the ironies present in the virtuoso’s claim to transcend sensual pleasures in pursuit of intellectual ones when measured against the sexually charged language with which these same self-proclaimed virtuosos describe their own experimental practices. By bringing the conventional controlling father figure of Restoration comedy together with the figure of the virtuoso, Behn’s play reveals the extent to which the latter was dependent upon a gendered rhetoric of voyeurism and visual control. At the same time, she leverages the hypocrisy of the virtuoso’s claims to virtuous viewership in order to question other forms of patriarchal authority over women’s bodies and women’s desires. The chapter concludes with a reading of Behn’s poem ‘On a Juniper Tree’ (1684) as an imaginative work that presents a more ethical model of visual engagement with feminine and natural bodies.
Criminalizing Atrocity
Authors: Berlin Mark S. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Why do countries adopt criminal legislation making it possible to prosecute government and military officials for human rights violations? Over the past thirty years, dozens of countries have prosecuted their own or other states’ officials for past atrocities. Criminalizing Atrocity tells the story of the global spread of national criminal laws against atrocity crimes—genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity—laws that have helped pave the way for this remarkable trend toward greater accountability. It traces the early-twentieth-century origins of national atrocity laws to a group of influential European criminal law scholars and explains the global patterns by which they have since spread. The book shows that understanding why countries criminalize atrocities requires understanding how they do so. In many cases, criminalization has not been the result of concerted government initiative, but of inconspicuous choices made by technocratic legal experts who have been delegated authority to draft large-scale reforms to countries’ criminal codes. Drawing on research in comparative law and norm diffusion, Criminalizing Atrocity explains how such reform projects prompt technocratic drafters to select legal ideas, like atrocity laws, that have been endorsed by their professional communities and deemed by drafters to be important features of a “modern” criminal code. To test this argument, Criminalizing Atrocity draws on a range of original quantitative and qualitative data, including in-depth case studies of Guatemala, Colombia, Poland, and the Maldvies, and a new, comprehensive dataset tracking the global spread of atrocity laws since Word War II. The book’s findings highlight the importance of professional communities in the modern renaissance of atrocity justice and the domestication of international legal norms.
The Puzzle of Atrocity Criminalization
Authors: Berlin Mark S. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Why do governments take atrocity offenses, like genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, from international law and legislate them into domestic criminal law, empowering national courts to prosecute their own, and sometimes other states’, government and military officials? The question is important, because the international community has constructed an international legal regime to prosecute the most serious human rights violations, but that regime is designed to rely primarily on domestic criminal courts to try offenders. To fulfill this role, domestic courts often require specific legislation that defines and criminalizes these offenses in national law. Yet, the adoption of national atrocity laws is puzzling, since in a number of ways, these laws appear to threaten states’ interests. This introductory chapter highlights the puzzle of atrocity criminalization and discusses its importance for the functioning of the international atrocity regime. It then situates this study in existing literatures and highlights the book’s contributions to research on atrocity justice, human rights, and international law. Next, it summarizes the book’s main arguments and details the study’s multi-method research design, which combines quantitative analyses of new, original datasets with in-depth qualitative case studies of Guatemala, Colombia, Poland, and the Maldives.
The Means Principle
Authors: Quong Jonathan 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapter 7 develops and defends a novel conception of the means principle. The chapter argues that there is an absolute prohibition on the harmful use of another person’s body or other rightful property, unless the person who is harmed is duty bound to permit this use, or has otherwise waived their claims against such use. He argues that this principle does not focus on an agent’s intentions, but rather only on whether achieving the outcome that ostensibly justifies an agent’s act requires the use of another person’s body or rightful property. The chapter argues that this conception of the means principle is superior to competing principles in the literature, and it outlines some of the implications for the morality of defensive force.
Capital Allocation, Credit Access, and Firm Growth
Authors: Kinghan Christina , Newman Carol , O’Toole Conor 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
In this chapter, the authors explore the relationship between firm growth, access to finance, and the efficiency of capital allocation in Vietnam over 2005–15. They test whether firms with higher marginal returns to capital are more or less likely to get access to financing. This is a key test of how efficiently the financial system is functioning. The authors also test whether credit supply constraints are hindering capital allocation by limiting the investment and employment activities of firms with the highest marginal return on capital. They find that high return investors, with the greatest marginal return on capital, have a lower likelihood of having formal finance (loans outstanding with formal credit institutions). The study finds evidence that rejected credit applications are limiting investment activity but not employment, particularly for firms with higher investment efficiency. This suggests a link between firm growth and a suboptimal allocation of credit.
Why Do Household Businesses Stay Informal?
Authors: Tran Thi Bich , La Hai Anh 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Using unbalanced panel data from the small and medium enterprise surveys in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2015, this chapter investigates factors associated with informality in Vietnam. We assume that household businesses, especially the top tier firms, become formal either because they perceive benefits of formalization such as an increase in the household performance, or because they want to escape bribes and harassment. Using the random effects model with controlling for the pre-formalization trends, our results show that productive household businesses stay informal because net costs from tax payment may surpass net benefits from formalization. Moreover, government controls do not promote formalization, especially among the ‘upper’ tiers of informal households. Our findings raise suspicions of collusion corruption between informal households in top tiers and officials. Future steps could be qualitative and quantitative studies to investigate collusion corruption as a determinant of informality in developing countries.
Pecuniary Returns to Working Conditions
Authors: Nordman Christophe J. , Sharma Smriti 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Using matched worker-firm data from three waves of the Vietnam Small and Medium Enterprises data, we examine whether workers are compensated with higher wages for working in vulnerable jobs and unfavourable working conditions. Wage equations indicate that there are no clear compensating mechanisms for working in poor conditions, for having an informal contract, and for having few financial benefits. Quantile regressions show that workers in the upper tail of the wage distribution are more likely to be penalized for working in adverse working conditions. Employees recruited through official hiring channels with an informal contract earn less than employees hired through social networks. Upon estimating mean decompositions of wage gaps based on working conditions, we find that the gap is almost entirely explained by the conjunction of worker, job, and firm characteristics in 2015, in contrast to the previous survey year of 2013.
The Big Bang: discovery
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
A very small number of very smart individuals discovered the Big Bang (as it became known) and its aftermath. The fact that the stars are all moving away from us in a structured velocity-versus-distance relationship as first discovered by Edwin Hubble is simply fascinating, almost as fascinating as learning that just prior to this, most everyone—including Einstein himself—assumed that the stars were static, non-moving objects in the sky, just sitting there.
The Atom: science
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
The atom is comprised of a nucleus, which contains protons, neutrons, and the strong nuclear interaction holding them together, and orbiting electrons, which interact with the nucleus through the electromagnetic interaction. The quantized orbit of the electrons give the atom volume, while Pauli exclusion prevents atom overlapping with other atoms. Both phenomena result in a atom that can be modelled as a hard sphere.
The Atom: discovery
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Many independent discoveries led to the discovery of the atom. Einstein’s explanation of Brownian motion provided proof that atoms exist. J.J. Thomson identified the cathode rays produced in Crookes‘ tube as electrons. Rutherford discovered that most atom mass is concentrated in a small central region. Bohr combined this with Planck’s quantized energy results from blackbody radiation studies to create the first physical model of the atom. Schrodinger, Heisenberg, and Born mathematically model the behavior of orbiting electrons, Heisenberg discovers uncertainty, Pauli defines exclusion, Dirac predicts spin, Chadwick discovers neutrons, and Fermi discovers weak interaction. Finally, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann discover nuclear fission, Yukawa discovers the strong interaction, the Stanford Linear Accelerator discovers the quark, and physicists capture the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions in the Standard Model.
Bernoulli and Euler unite Newton and Leibniz
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Daniel Bernoulli’s Hydrodynamica was the first recorded derivation of the kinetic theory of gases and of the equation for fluid flow. He collaborated with Leonhard Euler to unite Newton’s laws of motion based on the concept of force with Leibniz’s early work on the concept of energy, which he called vis.
Clausius and the road to entropy
Authors: Hanlon Robert T. 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
After a brief recap of how we got to this chapter on Rudolf Clausius, including a discussion on why two laws are needed to govern the maximum performance of Carnot’s engine, the critical question is addressed: what to do with dQ/T? Clausius answered this question in his Nine Memoirs, starting with his first memoir of 1850 and culminating with his final memoir of 1865 in which he introduced a new property of matter: entropy. And it wasn’t just the discovery of entropy that was important, but also the declaration of an increasing entropy, for it was this behavior that opened the door to quantifying irreversibility in thermodynamics.
Other Collectivities
Authors: Kenny Neil 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Beyond the family, other collectivities also played a role in the production of written works that endured across generations. For literary and learned works, these other collectivities included: households (with their servants, secretaries, disciples, and collaborators in addition to family members); networks of clients, patrons, and friends; salons; courtly circles; institutions such as universities, humanist colleges, and printers’ workshops; religious communities ranging from monastic orders to Jesuits to Protestant churches. They had complex and varying relationships to families. Some overlapped with families or were supplementary extensions of them—especially households, governed by the family head. But some of these other collectivities were in competition with families for loyalty or offered an alternative to them. Moreover, literary and learned legacies could reach beyond the family to benefit broader communities.
The Family Function
Authors: Kenny Neil 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Michel Foucault’s notion of the author function provides a way of describing the practice of attributing works and groups of works to a sole author figure rather than to the co-authors, amanuenses, editors, commentary writers, translators, publishers, and print workers who may in reality have contributed to it. The ‘author’ is at least to an extent an imaginary construction, to which various powers, intentions, characteristics are attributed by readers. Foucault does not mention another tendency: the attribution of agency in the production of works not to individual authors but to families. This family function, while less widespread than the author function, operated in combination with it or else as an alternative to it. The two functions were not symmetrical. The family function did not on the whole stipulate that a work was ‘by Family X’ but drew attention to the ways in which the work had emerged from within a family.
Not Going to Plan
Authors: Kenny Neil 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Even those families for whom works of literature and learning afforded ways of projecting themselves into the past and the future did not always follow through smoothly on that projecting. Many works of literature and learning therefore communicated a version of family that did not square with smooth patrilinear norms. One kind of disruption was illegitimate birth. Others included bitter personal, confessional, and inheritance-based divisions within families. Two case studies are highlighted: that of the poet and magistrate Jean Vauquelin de la Fresnaye and his children, in particular his courtier and libertin-poet son Nicolas Vauquelin des Yveteaux; and that of Nicolas Vignier (the once-Protestant historian) and the confessionally divided literary producers who were his descendants.
Conclusions
Authors: Kenny Neil 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Many early modern French works, ranging from individual poems to large-scale histories, were produced with a sense that they emanated not just from individuals but from families. Such works, which I call family literature, played a big part in the attempts by families and individuals to rise, or at least to avoid falling, within the social hierarchy. Their production became part of what some families were socially or of a new direction in which some members wished to push the family. Literature could be presented as the voice of a lineage as much as of an individual. It was often designed to pin down the image of a family that circulated among readers rather than to open it up. But, through its orientation towards the future, family literature offered descendants and other future readers affordances, including as yet undetermined ways of renewing that image, and sometimes of questioning or disrupting it.
Introducing the Marots
Authors: Kenny Neil 
Published: April 2020

Abstract
Chapters 16–19 are a case study of the family that produced the best-selling vernacular literary author of sixteenth-century France: Clément Marot. The example of this family also provides one way of examining the relationship to family and social hierarchy of a genre of writing that was fundamental to literate culture: poetry. The aspiration to social ascent was only one of the reasons why poetry was so widely composed in sixteenth-century France, but it was a key one. Like other cultural practices—ranging from dress and heraldry to forms of address—poetry was therefore itself part of the very mechanics that constructed social hierarchy.