bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Contextual Framework
Authors: Coss Peter 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 2 deals with the contextual framework for the study of Tuscany under three headings. These are: the Italian context, concentrating on the decline of the kingdom of Italy during the iron century which provides a backdrop to this study; public and private authority; patrimonialization and the localization of power; the Tuscan context, concentrating on its geography and its broad history, including the march of Tuscia; the role of bishops, and castles; and the historiography of Tuscany, introducing key scholars and the grand narrative which centred on the binary distinction between the city as the site of progress and the backward-looking feudal countryside. Key terminology will be discussed: signoria, incastellamento, libellus, pievi, contado, consorteria.
The Aristocracy in City and Contado
Authors: Coss Peter 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 3 examines the general characteristics of the Tuscan aristocracy across both town and city during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the important shifts which took place, centring on Florence and its contado, the Fiorentino. The reader will be introduced to the most recent Italian scholarship and its terminological underpinning. It will discuss the high aristocracy (marquises and counts) and the involvement of these and of the bishops in local politics. Particular attention will be given to the house of Canossa. The chapter then turns to the aristocrazia intermedia: their interests; their relationships with the high aristocracy; their role in monastic patronage; their family structure and strategies; and their changing relationship with the city of Florence. It concludes with a comparison between Florence and other Tuscan cities.
The Aristocracy of Southern Tuscany
Authors: Coss Peter 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
In this chapter we look at the aristocracy of southern Tuscany, where the signoria territoriale was more widely diffused and the dependence of the peasantry more general. Here we encounter the Aldobrandeschi, the southern equivalent of the Guidi. Beginning with their contention with the monastery of Monte Amiata and its subjection, we trace the family’s long process of transformation from imperial functionaries to a territorial dynasty. We look closely at their clientele, part of which was feudo-vassalic, and at the multiple functions of southern castles, including mineral extraction and industrial use. From these we turn to the minor aristocracy, the lambardi, whom Cortese calls ‘puntiform’, that is to say nuclear or local. We look at their consorterie, their control of natural resources, and their capacity for enterprise. Their residences within castles will also be examined. Finally the chapter looks at the fortunes of these signori in terms of the forward march of the city of Siena.
From Knighthood to Nobility
Authors: Coss Peter 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter deals with knighthood, the ‘crystallization’ of the nobility, and the relationship between the two. From a rather lowly affair, by the early twelfth century knighthood had become the chief means of social ascent in an increasingly militarized world. A detailed examination of the terminology employed in the sources shows that the references to nobility began in the late twelfth century, were relatively rare until 1220, and increased until the language of nobility became entrenched. The crystallization of the nobility, I argue, began in the highest ranks of seigniorial society and was diffused downwards in a spirit of exclusion in both the countryside and the cities. This was prompted by the social tensions arising within a commercially and demographically expanding world. The knighting ceremony would appear to be an important constituent. Opposition formed among the rich but non-aristocratic popolo. In Pisa it led eventually to a full-scale popolo regime in 1254. These developments were paralleled in other cities.
The Aristocracy in ‘Carolingian’ England
Authors: Coss Peter 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 9 argues that late Anglo-Saxon England was a state of the ‘Carolingian’ type. Lordship was fully integrated into the judicial system and public authority played a major part in legitimating comital rule. Traditional historiography is complemented by the concepts of aristocrazia intermedia and ‘zonality’ employed by Cortese for Tuscany. We examine the aristocracy of some Midland counties, with Leofric earl of Mercia taken as a case study for the exercise of comital power. We follow Maitland and Baxter in emphasizing the tripartite division into personal bonds, tenurial bonds, and judicial bonds. The chapter turns then to the rank and file of the aristocracy, the thegnage, and then to the aristocratic presence in towns. Finally, the chapter looks at the direction in which this society was travelling in the eleventh century and sees an increasing degree of uncertainty, competition, and anxiety. There was a relative decline in Königsnähe and an increasing localization of power as the authority of kings weakened.
The Structure and Articulation of Aristocratic Society in Anglo-Norman England
Authors: Coss Peter 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter employs the Italian approach to feudalism where the feudo-vassalic relationship is one among many varieties of lord–client bond. It turns to the tenurial relationship and to the question of the honour. The perspective of the honour is complemented by Cortese’s concepts of zonal and multi-zonal aristocracy, aristocrazia intermedia, and minor aristocratic families. Warwickshire is taken as a case study revealing Anglo-Norman society as a dynamic one in which families appear and rise or fall. We examine religious benefaction, family structure and strategy, local lordship, and the protection of estates, before moving to tournaments and proto-chivalry. We pay close attention to the men described as milites, and to the survival of Englishmen as sub-tenants and the like. It was from the ensuing mix that the militaristic minor aristocracy of twelfth-century England sprang. Finally, the chapter examines the interlocking of public and seigniorial courts. Tension and uncertainty persisted, despite a new equilibrium being established after the massive shock of the Norman Conquest.
Early Lutheran Christologies
Authors: Cross Richard 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter outlines the views of Melanchthon and the early Brenz, showing how Lutheran Christology bifurcated into two basic traditions—those accepting bodily omnipresence and those denying it. It demonstrates that Melanchthon quickly abandoned early claims affirming both the omnipresence of Christ’s human nature and its life-giving power, and ended up adopting a view very similar to Zwingli’s. The chapter outlines the first stages in the development of Brenz’s Christology, showing how Brenz, from 1528 or 1529 onwards, came to adopt a view of the hypostatic union according to which the divine person and human nature are the same person but different natures, and according to which human properties are borne by the divine person, and divine properties by the human nature (the so-called genus maiestaticum). By 1561 Brenz has begun to restrict the set of divine attributes that can be borne by the human nature, presumably in response to the Christology of Caspar Schwenckfeld, and the chapter ends with a brief summary of Schwenckfeld’s view.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Cross Richard 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter suggests that part of the early seventeenth-century debate between the theologians of Tübingen and the theologians of Giessen on the question of the communicatio idiomatum represents the conflicting structures of Brenzian and Chemnitzian accounts of the hypostatic union. At issue was the human nature’s possession of divine attributes during Christ’s earthly life, affirmed by the Tübingen theologians and denied by the Giessen ones. The 1624 Decisio saxonica ruled in favour of Giessen, and thus in effect against Brenzian understandings of Christ’s kenosis. Lutheran orthodoxy requires that some (and not all) divine attributes are communicated to the human nature. It concludes with puzzles about the way in which the genus maiestaticum might be possible at all, given the denial of any distinction between the divine essence and the divine energies.
Literature and Law in the Era of Magna Carta
Authors: Jahner Jennifer 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Literature and Law in the Era of Magna Carta traces the fortunes of literary training and experimentation across the early history of the English common law, from its beginnings in the reign of Henry II to its tumultuous consolidations under the reigns of John and Henry III. The period from the mid-twelfth through the thirteenth centuries witnessed an outpouring of innovative legal writing in England, from Magna Carta to the scores of statute books that preserved its provisions. An era of civil war and imperial fracture, it also proved a time of intensive self-definition, as communities both lay and ecclesiastic used law to articulate collective identities. Literature and Law in the Era of Magna Carta uncovers the role that grammatical and rhetorical training played in shaping these arguments for legal self-definition. Beginning with Thomas Becket, the book interweaves the histories of literary pedagogy and English law, showing how foundational lessons in poetics helped generate both a language and theory of corporate autonomy. Geoffrey of Vinsauf’s phenomenally popular Latin compositional handbook, the Poetria nova, finds its place against the diplomatic backdrop of the English Interdict, while Robert Grosseteste’s Anglo-French devotional poem, the Château d’Amour, is situated within the landscape of property law and Jewish-Christian interactions. Exploring a shared vocabulary across legal and grammatical fields, this book argues that poetic habits of thought proved central to constructing the narratives that medieval law tells about itself and that later scholars tell about the origins of English constitutionalism.
What You Want to Hear
Authors: Marsh John 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter discusses hope, how it works, and what people in the 1930s hoped for. It begins with a late science fiction story (Isaac Asimov’s “Liar!”) that reveals how hope works or, at least, how those who do not think much of hope think hope works. It then returns to one particularly ambiguous archive of Great Depression hope: the largely unprecedented genre of self-help books and success manuals. Many of these books reflect the tempered hopes of the decade, nowhere more so than in the pages of Alcoholics Anonymous, published in 1939. The skepticism about hope is also reflected in the politics of the decade. Chastened by the blasted hopes of the Depression, the greatest contribution policymakers made during the 1930s was to develop safety net provisions—unemployment insurance, social security—founded on the belief not that everything would turn out well but could turn out badly.
Introduction—Historiography and Sources
Authors: Field Clive D. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter provides essential context by outlining the recent historiography of secularization in Britain and the sources of religious statistics, on which subsequent chapters are largely based. The work of leading contributors to the debates about British religious change is summarized, notably Steve Bruce, Hugh McLeod, Callum Brown, Jeffrey Cox, Jeremy Morris, and Simon Green. In this book, secularization is used as a convenient shorthand descriptor for the waning social significance of religion, rather than an invocation of the classic theory of secularization as a by-product of modernization. Specifically, the focus is on secularization in relation to the individual, particularly religious allegiance (subsuming affiliation and membership of churches and Sunday schools) and churchgoing, being the two performance indicators of religious belonging and behaving most susceptible to long-term quantification. Data on them were variously gathered by the state (comparatively little), the Churches, and social investigators (including local religious censuses).
Before 1880—The Long Prelude
Authors: Field Clive D. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter summarizes what is known about religious allegiance and churchgoing during the long eighteenth century and the early Victorian era, with reference to statistics (noting methodological difficulties, especially affecting the 1851 religious census). There are separate analyses for England and Wales and Scotland. The dominant trend in religious allegiance was towards voluntaryism and pluralism, the established Churches of England and Scotland losing their near-monopoly of religious affiliation in the face of Dissent’s rapid advance. The nineteenth century witnessed sustained church growth, absolute and relative, in members and Sunday scholars. Despite the continued existence of legislation requiring churchgoing, its enforcement was infrequent and often ineffective. Absenteeism was a growing problem from the eighteenth century. It remains unclear whether there was any general rise in attendance during the early nineteenth century. By 1851, two-fifths of Britons may have worshipped, Wales being the most devout of the home nations, but churchgoing declined thereafter.
1918–39—The Depression Years
Authors: Field Clive D. 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
The inter-war years are a comparatively neglected period of British religious history. Yet, on the measure of ‘active church adherence’ used in this book, they emerge as far more significant in Britain’s secularization journey than the intensively studied 1960s. Between 1918 and 1939, there was a marked shift away from religious commitment and participation towards nominalism, especially in the Free Churches. Although Protestant church membership recovered after the First World War, it peaked in England and Wales around 1927 and dropped absolutely thereafter. There was no such post-war recovery in churchgoing, rather an acceleration of decline, partly because people worshipped less regularly. This fall was fuelled by a weakening Sabbatarian culture and competition from Sunday cinema and religious broadcasting. Congregations were also ageing and take-up of Anglican baptismal and marriage services diminishing. A further 2 million Sunday scholars were lost, while the number of religious ‘nones’ rose by 1 million.
Introduction
Authors: Atrey Shreya 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This introduction inaugurates the book by pointing to the prolific developments in the field of intersectionality theory which have eluded discrimination law over the last three decades. The book is introduced as an endeavour to respond to this gap between intersectionality theory and discrimination law. The introduction provides an overview of the discussion contained in each of the main chapters and, in doing so, states the central argument made in the book and the scheme in which it transpires.
The Theory
Authors: Atrey Shreya 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 2 posits a theoretical framework of intersectionality for the purposes of discrimination law. It identifies the core of intersectionality as comprising several mutually reinforcing aspects which include: the simultaneous focus on sameness and difference; interest in explicating patterns of group disadvantage; an appreciation of integrity of identity and context; and its final aim of transformation. The chapter also responds to some of the most pertinent and persisting critiques of intersectionality theory. Taking the example of Dalit feminism in India, the chapter then goes on to illustrate the relevance of intersectionality theory in discursive spaces. With this, the chapter develops, defends, and applies the framework of intersectionality, which helps unravel the distinct nature of intersectional discrimination.
The Practice
Authors: Atrey Shreya 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This chapter considers how intersectional claims are established in practice. The chapter thus traverses the labyrinth of discrimination law to understand how each of its central features interacts with and processes an intersection claim. In particular, it considers the significance of the text of equality guarantees, the basis of selection of grounds generally and specifically in claims of intersectional discrimination, the distinction between direct and indirect intersectional discrimination, the test for wrongful intersectional discrimination, the use of comparators, justification analysis, standards of review, the burden of proof, and choice of remedies. Comparative doctrine helps to unravel the complex issues pertaining to each and helps to underscore the interpretive possibilities which help realize intersectional discrimination.
Conclusion
Authors: Atrey Shreya 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This conclusion closes the book with a reminder that the endeavour to have the traditional model of discrimination law fit intersectionality may be ill-conceived. It thus highlights the urgency of remoulding discrimination law for the purposes of a distinct category of intersectional discrimination per se. It reiterates the theoretical and doctrinal steps needed to do this. The book concludes by seeing the present work as just one part of intersectionality’s transformative agenda and it underscores the significance of broader non-judicial efforts in realizing intersectionality catholically.
Apostles of Equality: James Brown Scott and the Feminist Cause
Authors: Amorosa Paolo 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Chapter 6 tracks the story of an unlikely alliance between Scott and leading feminist activists Doris Stevens and Alice Paul. The first section provides a short history of the women’s rights movement in the United States and details how Paul and Stevens rose to become key figures in the battle for women’s suffrage. Section 2 tracks the early interest by feminist activists in international politics. As Paul and Stevens moved toward internationalism, Scott moved closer to the positions of women’s rights activists by becoming a supporter of the equality of sexes under nationality law. Section 3 follows the collaboration between Scott and the feminist leaders. Beginning in 1928, the collaboration would peak in 1933 with the approval at the Montevideo Pan-American Conference of two equal rights treaties.
Authorizing Attacks in Response to Terrorist Attacks
Authors: Grzebyk Patrycja 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Some states (mainly the United States and Israel) intermingle the terms/principles of the law of armed conflicts/international humanitarian law regime and the regime of the law on the use of force in order to avoid legal constraints and to justify attacks against non-state armed groups in violation of the sovereignty of other states and the rights of particular persons. The counterterrorism strategy is created under the influence of legal arguments, and thus the recent trend of abusive interpretation of the regimes could encourage decision-makers to resort to military measures instead of using less intrusive instruments such as criminal cooperation. This tendency is more visible in times of crisis. States are then still interested in having legal justification for their actions, but they tend to see the role of law differently: the law is expected to serve the authorities, rather than to guide them, when the state’s fundamental interest—its security—is under threat.
Multiple Actors in Framing EU External Policy
Authors: Ruse Ilze 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
There is a strong correlation between the EU’s institutional architecture and policy output. The more complex the institutional set-up, the more challenges it poses for achieving an ambitious and coherent policy output. This is particularly at stake in the situation when the EU has to handle numerous crises and respond to international security challenges. The Lisbon Treaty has introduced a new institutional architecture by adding complexity with multiple actors in the field of Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The European External Action Service (EEAS) is in charge of EU foreign and security policy. At the same time, it must accommodate the interests of the EU Member States and those of the EU institutions in order to make the policy output credible and efficient. By contributing to this volume with its multidisciplinary approach, this chapter applies the Principal–Agent (P–A) theory of political science, which argues that the relationship between the Member States and the EEAS can be perceived as a delegation arrangement where the Member States (principal) sign a contract of delegation with the EEAS (agent) for fulfilling the mandate, yet deliberately leave a particular level of ‘discretion’ to the EEAS. The agent’s abuse of its empowered position may lead to ‘slippage’. To avoid this happening, the Member States could employ various control measures to keep the agent adhering to the preferences of the principal. The hypothesis is tested by drawing on the case of the EU Global Security Strategy. The chapter explores the means of control that the Member States use to maintain ownership in framing the new EU security strategy.
Recent Opposing Trends in the Conceptualization of the Law of Immunities
Authors: Dominelli Stefano 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
Traditional rules concerning immunity of states from jurisdiction are currently being challenged by Italian domestic courts, seeking the possibility to provide exceptions to foreign immunity based upon the gravity of the foreign state’s conduct and the consequences for human rights following recognition of immunity. This trend is opposed to others that do recognize immunity for states, state agents, and international organizations, even where these do not establish internal procedures to adjudicate or ensure access to justice. The aim of the present work is to reconstruct the opposing emerging trends so as to reflect on their value in the promotion of new rules, and to determine their consequences in terms of the ‘crisis of the law of state immunity’.
How to Limit Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Criminal Jurisdiction
Authors: Šturma Pavel 
Published: November 2019

Abstract
This contribution aims to shed more light on the question whether international law on immunities is in crisis and, if so, how to overcome the crisis. It will not deal with all kinds of immunities under international law but will focus only on immunity of state officials. Immunity of state officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction is governed by customary international law whose exact scope is often debatable both in theory and in practice, particularly in connection with the international effort to end impunity for the most serious crimes under international law, such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, including torture and enforced disappearances. Although state practice and case law of the International Court of Justice supports the absolute immunity ratione personae of the highest officials, such as head of state, head of government, and minister of foreign affairs, as long as they are in office, the situation of immunity ratione materiae that protects the official acts of other state officials seems to be less clear. There are good arguments in favour of exceptions to such immunity, at least in respect of crimes under international law.