bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Irrationality in Republic VIII–IX
Authors: Scott Dominic 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
According to the moral psychology of the Republic, one factor that might make people resistant to argument is the power of the non-rational parts: if sufficiently strong, they might prevent one from following arguments that advocate moral restraint. But how common does Socrates take such intransigence to be? Are most people too dominated by their non-rational parts to be able to follow even the shorter route? The best way of answering this question is to examine the account of the four degenerate characters in books VIII–IX, the section of the work that details what happens when the non-rational parts dominate the soul. In this chapter I examine the first two of these characters, the timocrat and the oligarch, concluding that the former might well be open to argument, but not the latter.
Women and Moral Argument
Authors: Scott Dominic 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
In the Republic, Plato famously admits women into the guardian class and expects them to have the same education as men. The question arises as to what sort of argument Aristotle thought suitable for women. Although the rational capacities of women are not mentioned in the NE, the issue does arise in the Politics. According to one widespread interpretation, women have similar rational capacities to men, but their deliberation is overpowered by emotion, rendering them essentially incontinent. Against this interpretation, I argue that Aristotle thought women’s rational capacity limited in a different way. The problem he has in mind here is not incontinence. Rather, they are able to deliberate well at the individual level and in the household, but not in the political sphere. But this means they would still benefit from rational discussion about eudaimonia and about most of the topics covered in the NE.
Emotional Ideologies
Authors: Scheer Monique 
Published: November 2020

AbstractChapter 1 argues that there are two dominant strands of emotion theory in Germany in the modern period, one of “Enlightened,” one of “Romantic” character, which exist side by side and are mobilized in sometimes paradoxical ways. These heuristic categories aim to organize the vast stores of knowledge about emotions, and what implications it has for judgments about emotional practice. They are philosophical and aesthetic traditions which intertwine with emotional styles and theological orientations, and both underlie the development of psychology as a natural-science discourse in the mid-nineteenth century. By virtue of the influence of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century German philosophy and social theory, they still undergird scholarly and everyday discourse on emotions and conviction to this day, even beyond the strictly German context. This argument is built on an analysis of emotion concepts stored in German encyclopedias from the eighteenth to twenty-first centuries, which document shifts in the location of “real” emotion as well as normative stances on what “real” emotion is. Understanding the historical trajectory of knowledge about emotion more generally helps situate the analysis of debates on enthusiasm in the following chapters.
Safeguarding Interiority
Authors: Scheer Monique 
Published: November 2020

AbstractFollowing Chapter 1’s exploration of knowledge about emotions, Chapters 2, 3, and 4 examine how this plays out in practice. Chapter 2 looks at reactions to religious enthusiasm in nineteenth-century Germany to understand the demand for an interiorizing emotional practice. Starting with an examination of how the term Schwärmerei early in this period is redefined to create a kind of “proper,” inward religious experience, the chapter then focuses on the debates around how that interiority is to be accomplished. The emotional practices of evangelical revivals, the so-called “Protestant sects” and new forms of Methodism making their way across the Atlantic engender fascinated repulsion among liberal Protestant and scientific observers, but the focus in this chapter is on the deep and rather complex concern about them in the clerical press. German Lutheran pastors, unlike their more secular contemporaries, seek to maintain the possibility that the Holy Spirit can enter the heart, but view the exaltations of the “sects” as too exterior and superficial, and thus potentially dangerous. Harking back to older discourses, they fear such practices of enthusiasm can endanger the very institution of the Church.
The Archive of Fear
Authors: Zwarg Christina 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Not about Haiti but about the haunting power of its revolution, The Archive of Fear explores the traumatic force field that continued to inflect U.S. discussions of slavery and abolition both before and after the Civil War, sometimes with surprising intensity and endurance. Focusing on U.S. slavery and its aftermath in the nineteenth century, it challenges the long-assumed distinction between psychological and cultural-historical theories of trauma, discovering a virtual dialogue between three central U.S. writers and Sigmund Freud concerning the traumatic response of slavery’s perpetrators. To do so, it shows how trauma theory before Freud first involves a return to an overlap between crisis, insurrection, and mesmerism found in the work of Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and W. E. B. Du Bois. Mesmer’s “crisis state” has long been read as the precursor to hypnosis, the tool Freud famously rejected when he created psychoanalysis. But the story of what was lost to trauma theory when Freud adopted the “talk cure” can be told through cultural disruptions of New World slavery, especially after mesmerism arrived in Saint Domingue where its implication in the Haitian revolution in both reality and fantasy had an impact on the history of emancipation in the United States. The Archive of Fear argues that a strain of trauma theory and practice comes alive in the temporal and spatial disruptions of New World slavery—and that key elements of that theory still inform the infrastructure of race relations today. Reviewing trauma theory through its pre-Freudian roots—especially as the alarm of slavery’s perpetrators relates to the temporal patterns of Mesmer’s “crisis state”—widens our sense of the affective atmospheres through which emancipation had to be sought. And it illuminates the fugitive approach Douglass, Stowe, and Du Bois devised to confront and defuse the archive of fear still blocking full emancipation today.
Introduction
Authors: Zwarg Christina 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Mesmerism first arrived in the northern hemisphere through Haiti, and the link between mesmerism and slave insurrection that Douglass and Stowe revive before the Civil War is part of the fugitive archive of modernity. Because mesmerism is important to the early history of psychoanalysis, its affiliation with insurrection widens the psychic horizon to include the crisis triggered by the “impossible demands” of emancipation. Recognition of that enduring sense of crisis unites the work of Douglass, Stowe, and Du Bois and opens to view the environmental power shaping early trauma theory. Hegel believed that the transmission of affect at the center of the mesmeric crisis could supersede normal channels of communication while Douglass and Stowe found such relays alternately promising and threatening for democratic practice. Significantly, the temporal dimensions of Mesmer’s crisis state allowed for an extended recalibration of the ongoing moment, or “the future in the present.”
“More than Lynched”
Authors: Zwarg Christina 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Reading John Brown together with Black Reconstruction, Chapter 3 exposes the join of psychological and material concerns that Du Bois learns from Douglass. The anarchistic energy that Du Bois adopts to describe Brown is best articulated in Walter Benjamin’s early essay “On Violence.” As Judith Butler has argued, Benjamin borrowed the idea of the general strike from Georges Sorel to theorize a destructive power that is ironically pitched at violence itself. Such an idea matches the mesmeric notion of the “crisis state”: structurally it has a homeopathic dimension where an anticipated violence is reproduced to unmoor and undo its terror. Douglass shows his understanding of this unique destructive power when he expresses ambivalence about Brown’s invitation to join the raid on Harper’s Ferry, something Du Bois highlights by dwelling on the attention Douglass gives to Shields Green, the man who decided to “go down with the old man.”
Postlude
Authors: Zwarg Christina 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Du Bois borrows the idea of the interrupted lecture to develop his case study of Andrew Johnson in Black Reconstruction. Johnson represents the type of man that John Brown did not expect to find in the slave-holding world: someone who began his political career by hating the aristocrats responsible for slavery. Du Bois finds a potential for cross-racial alliance in a famous Tennessee lecture where Johnson is interrupted and hailed as a “Moses” of the color line. Even though the record of the lecture also exhibits traces of Johnson’s well-known racial prejudice, Du Bois momentarily suspends judgment in an effort to invite his reader into an anarchic space. Johnson would later perversely brag to Douglass about this stunning encounter but Du Bois rehearses Johnson’s positive response to the demands of his audience in order to challenge his reader to “demand the impossible” for themselves: the black reconstruction of democracy.
Government Role and Public Spending
Authors: Tanzi Vito 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers two polar cases in the role of government: Laissez faire and central planning. Past experiences with central planning, its difficulties and its influence, are discussed. The chapter looks at the role of the state during periods of laissez faire and the influence of Adam Smith. Low spending and low taxes characterize laissez faire policies. Economists put their trust in evolution and progress. The chapter then goes on to anaylze how the role of the state changed in the twentieth century and the new functions of stabilization and redistribution. The Industrial Revolution had a major impact on the role of the state in the nineeenth century, and in the twentieth, after World War Two, many states saw a growth in taxation and public spending. Finally the chapter considers whether more public spending leads to more social welfare
Why the Normative and Positive Roles of Governments Differ
Authors: Tanzi Vito 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Policies can aim at results that are good for the whole population or policies can be directed at special groups. General policies may help overall but hurt some subsectors, for example free trade that is now under attack because it has hurt some sectors even though it has promoted a higher growth. Economic theory has increasingly moved from policies that help overall to policies that help or hurt particular groups (the elite, the rich, industrial workers). Policies are frequently promoted by the groups that have the greatest political power, often accompaniedby economic power. Policies have become progressively more complex and less easy to understand for average citizens. Smaller groups, especially those with greater economic power find it easier to organize and to push their agenda and policy responds to such pressure. Various kinds of what could be called “termites” have entered the policymaking process. They include the length and the complexity of many laws, making them less transparent to normal citizens and easier to manipulate.
The Political Economy of Fiscal Deficit Reductions
Authors: Tanzi Vito 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Do policymakers learn from the past mistakes of previous governments or from mistakes made by other countries? Probably not. They mostly learn from their own mistakes. Governments often end up with fiscal deficits and a public debt that are too large. They regularly make pronouncements that they find difficult to satisfy, thus losing credibility. The loss of that credibility makes it difficult for them to introduce the necessary policies. The chapter provides some real life examples. Governments’ control over policymaking is often limited, as is their control over policy instruments. This is an area where principal–agent problems frequently exist.
The Theory versus the Reality of Fiscal Policy
Authors: Tanzi Vito 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This chapter describes the theory of fiscal policy when fiscal policy was assumed to promote the allocation of resources, stabilization of the economy, and the redistribution of income. The theory had several inputs but those from Nordic European countries were particularly important. The theory stated that there were various objectives to promote and various instruments that could be used to promote those objectives. It also established the system of equations that would relate instruments to objectives in econometric models that became popular in the 1960s. Using a concrete example from a specific country (Italy), the chapter describes how the theory can easily become unrealistic in at least some countries. Some of the main assumptions of the theory are seen to be unrealistic.
Complexity, Corruption, and Tax Evasion
Authors: Tanzi Vito 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the various links that exist between growing complexity, corruption, and tax evasion. Over the past three decades corruption and tax evasion seem to have increased in many countries. The growing complexity of tax systems that now require thousands of pages of laws and regulations has clearly been a determining factor. Tax laws have become increasingly difficult to interpret and to comply with. This has created an important asymmetry between clever and rich individuals who have the means to hire tax experts to prepare their tax returns and the rest. This asymmetry has also convinced many taxpayers, especially in Anglo-Saxon countries, that their taxes are higher than they actually are. The complexity and its impact on the taxpayers is likely to have been a contributing factors to the growing income inequality that has characterized recent years.
The Elusive Harmony between Government and Market Roles
Authors: Tanzi Vito 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
At any moment in time there ought to be some harmony between the intervention of the state that the market requires (to correct its market failures), and that citizens demand (to promote equity and a desirable income distribution) and the actual government intervention. This chapter argues that such harmony may have existed in the years when laissez faire was in place and was broadly accepted by those who had political power. The harmony became less and less evident in the later decades of the nineteenth century and during the Great Depression. There seemed to have been greater harmony in the 1960s. That harmony went down in the late 1970s and in the 1980s. It might have been partly restored in the 1990s, with a different conception of the role of the state, with less state and more market, at least in some countries. The harmony broke down again with the Great Recession in 2008–10, There is now, once again, a search for a new paradigm that would indicate the existence of a new harmony.
Issues with the Current Uneven Income Distributions
Authors: Tanzi Vito 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Partly as a result of deregulation, cuts in marginal tax rates, globalization, the rise in importance of intellectual capital (combined with new communications technologies), the reduced power of labour unions, and more trust in the role of the market in determining some large compensations for CEOs, in recent decades there have been important changes in the distribution of incomes. Individuals in the top one, or 0.1 of the income distribution have been appropriating large shares of the growth of total income, while the majority of the population has seen their income stagnate. This has created resentment, and diminishing trust in the market and also in democratic institutions. We may be at a crossroads where, as in the 1920s, something will need to change. Keynes then called for “new knowledge.” The need for new knowledge seems to be equally acute now. That new knowledge should hopefully be “as simple as possible.”
Mortgage Foreclosures and Older Americans
Authors: Trawinski Lori A. 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Economic conditions improved since the 2008–09 mortgage market crisis, and home prices recovered in many areas. Nevertheless, over time, growing numbers of older households have taken on greater mortgage debt than in the past. These families are also carrying mortgage loans into retirement, far more than they did in the past. Foreclosure rates for all loans have decreased to pre-recession levels for borrowers under age 50, while for borrowers age 50+, foreclosure rates in 2017 were higher than in 2007. This means that many older homeowners may face the loss of their homes, despite the fact that the economy improved after the financial crisis.
How Much Should the Poor Save for Retirement? Data and Simulations on Retirement Income Adequacy among Low-earning Households
Authors: Biggs Andrew G. 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
A number of US states have introduced automatic enrollment retirement accounts as a means to raise retirement savings for lower-income households. The presumption is that such households, whose rates of formal retirement saving are low, would benefit from higher saving and higher incomes in retirement. Nevertheless, there has been little explicit analysis of how much lower-income households should save in excess of their social security contributions. There is also little evidence that many current lower-income retirees are unable to maintain their pre-retirement standards of living. To study this issue, this chapter builds a simple model of retirement saving, allowing for the inclusion of social security benefits, different standards of retirement income adequacy, and different assumptions regarding pre- and post-retirement investment returns. Interestingly, low-income retirees express less satisfaction with the adequacy of their retirement incomes than other retirees, but their self-assessed retirement income adequacy has actually increased in recent years. The chapter also shows that, for very low earners, little savings are necessary on top of social security payments.
Household Debt and Aging in Japan
Authors: Horioka Charles Yuji , Niimi Yoko 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the borrowing behavior of Japanese households compared to the other Group of Seven (G7) countries, and it also evaluates patterns by the age of the household head. In Japan, pre-retirees (age 50–59) do not carry high amounts of debt, and their financial health is satisfactory. By contrast, households with a head age 30–39 have taken on sharply more debt holdings in recent years, due partly to the fact that tax breaks for housing purchase, reforms in the housing loan market since the early 2000s, and expansionary monetary policy enabled Japanese households to purchase housing younger than previously. As a consequence, households have become more vulnerable to rising interest rates over time.
Labor in Agriculture
Authors: Martin Philip 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This chapter explains the two major types of workers employed in agriculture—farmers and their (unpaid) family members, and hired workers. The incomes of farm families are the difference between what they receive for the commodities they sell and the costs of producing them, while the earnings of farm workers reflect the wages they earn per hour, day, or week. The average incomes of farm families are higher than for nonfarm families, while the earnings of farm workers are lower than for nonfarm workers. About 40 percent of the one billion people employed in agriculture around the world are hired workers, and they are generally on the bottom rungs of the labor market in both industrial and developing countries. The share of work done by hired workers rises with economic development as farm production concentrates on fewer and larger farms.
Development and Rural–Urban Migration
Authors: Martin Philip 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Economic development is associated with rural–urban migration. Low rural wages provide a supply push to move to urban areas, while higher urban wages act as a demand pull attraction. Lewis believed that the marginal productivity of many workers employed in agriculture was near zero, so that workers could leave agriculture and hold down urban wages while the remaining farmers maintained the supply of food, justifying government neglect of agriculture in favor of industry. Todaro emphasized that high urban wages encouraged rural residents to move to cities without guaranteed jobs. Schultz argued that the best government policy was to improve education and health care in rural areas to ensure that rural residents are productive whether they stay in rural areas or move to cities. Most countries agricultural systems obey 80–20 rules: 80 % of farms are small and account for 20% of farm output, while 20% of farms are large and account for 80 % of farm output.
Mexican Farm Labor
Authors: Martin Philip 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Mexico, like other Spanish colonies in the Americas, developed a haciendas or latifundia system of farming that required local residents to work for large landowners in exchange for housing and food; 2,000 families owned almost 90 percent of Mexico’s rural land on the eve of the revolution that lasted from 1910 to 1917 and gave land to the peasants. Post-revolution labor reform in the 1920s created ejidos, plots of land that could be farmed and transferred to heirs but not sold. The Mexican constitution was changed in the early 1990s to allow ejido land to be rented or sold on the eve of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), loosening ties between rural Mexicans and ejido land and contributing to massive Mexico–US migration between the mid-1990s and the 2008–9 recession. NAFTA also speeded up changes in Mexican agriculture, contributing to the expansion of farms that export fresh fruits and vegetables to the US. Large Mexican farms that export fruits and vegetables to the US rely on a million hired workers, including local residents employed seasonally and internal migrants from poorer areas.
Farm Labor in Other Countries
Authors: Martin Philip 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Countries with more than 50 percent of their workers employed in agriculture are poor, and countries with fewer than five percent of workers employed in agriculture are rich. The shrinking farm workforces of richer countries are more vulnerable due to rising shares of migrant, guest, and unauthorized workers. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are immigration countries that confront the challenge of protecting vulnerable workers who do not have secure statuses. Farmers in richer European countries hire migrants from poorer countries, including intra-EU migrants from Central European countries such as Poland and Romania. Brazil is an agricultural powerhouse, the leading exporter of commodities ranging from coffee to sugar, whose farmers rely on migrants from the poorer north and northeastern states. Some Brazilian migrants face harsh conditions, leading to efforts to extirpate modern slavery.