bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hypothesis Testing
Authors: Fisher Greg , Wisneski John E. , Bakker Rene M. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The purpose of hypothesis testing is to provide the decision maker with an efficient mechanism for reducing uncertainty using an inferential procedure to test the credibility of a potential solution to a strategic challenge. This is done by choosing an initial hypothesis about how to solve a problem and limiting data collection and analysis to those data that either defend or reject this hypothesis. This can be far more efficient than traditional methods of collecting data without purpose and deducing solutions by analyzing relevant data and eliminating irrelevant data along the way. This chapter discusses the underlying theory, core idea, depiction, process, insight or value created, and risks and limitations of hypothesis testing. The chapter also continues the illustration of the DISH Network and applies the steps of hypothesis testing to this case.
Balanced Scorecard
Authors: Fisher Greg , Wisneski John E. , Bakker Rene M. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The purpose of the balanced scorecard is to provide a holistic perspective to setting firm goals and monitoring performance. The balanced scorecard provides a financial, marketing, operations, and human resources perspective of a firm’s performance. When used to implement strategy, the balanced scorecard approach prompts managers to think about what needs to happen in different elements of the business for the strategy to take hold. It encourages managers to think about how the strategy will impact the customer, operational, and people processes to ultimately affect financial results. This chapter discusses the underlying theory, core idea, depiction, process, insight or value created, and risks and limitations of the balanced scorecard. The chapter also continues the illustration of the Chocolate Moose and applies the steps of the balanced scorecard to this case.
‘The Manifold Divinity of the Gods’
Authors: Gassman Mattias P. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The idea of a unified ‘paganism’ is usually taken to be an intentional Christian distortion of the true diversity of ancient polytheism. This chapter presents a different view. Inscriptions recorded by antiquarians and archaeologists at Rome since the fifteenth century document fourth-century senators’ participation in a vast range of priesthoods and mystery initiations. These inscriptions include epitaphs, senatorial résumés, and especially altars commemorating performance of the taurobolium, a sacrifice of a bull to the Magna Mater. The (admittedly fragmentary) evidence reveals a philosophical theology that united all the gods into a single divine reality. It also suggests, contrary to recent scholarship, that the senators’ religious involvement was driven by a desire not just for personal prestige but also (and sometimes more important) for divine favour and mystical insights. When this polytheistic religiosity is set alongside the polemical ‘paganism’ of Firmicus Maternus and ‘Ambrosiaster’, a new picture takes shape. The Christian polemicists’ sharp opposition between ‘pagans’ and ‘Christians’ is an oversimplification of a religious situation whose tensions were generally less overt. Nevertheless, the idea of ‘paganism’ is not polemical invention but a Christian theorisation of a prominent contemporary approach to polytheism.
Commemorating Vettius Agorius Praetextatus
Authors: Gassman Mattias P. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Late in 384, a leading pagan senator and priest, Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, died shortly before he was to take up the consulship. Senatorial aristocrats produced epigraphic and literary monuments that reveal the continued vitality of pagan religious discourse after the final separation of the traditional cults from Roman imperial power. As urban prefect, Symmachus negotiated one commemorative campaign between the Senate and Valentinian’s court, upholding Praetextatus as a model of non-sectarian civic virtue. This stance brought Symmachus into disagreement with the Vestals and Praetextatus’ wife, Paulina. As an initiative of an ancient Roman priesthood, the Vestals’ now-lost commemoration likely highlighted Praetextatus’ involvement in the civic cults. For Paulina, religion had indeed been her husband’s most important pursuit, but it aimed, beyond the well-being of Rome, at immortality. Attacking Paulina, Christians such as Jerome promoted an alternative aristocratic devotion focused on ascetical humility, rather than on the religious virtuosity, paralleled by political success, of which both pagan and Christian senators boasted. In his first book of Epistles, which was likely published some years later, Symmachus foregrounded Praetextatus’ expertise as a pontifex but ignored his private religious pursuits. For Symmachus, public religion was vital to Praetextatus’ legacy and to the aristocratic world they had shared.
Governance
Authors: Mitchell George E. , Schmitz Hans Peter , Bruno-van Vijfeijken Tosca 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 8 discusses how governance reforms have been designed to improve legitimacy and alleviate structural inequalities among TNGO (con)federation members. TNGO governance reforms may involve centralization, decentralization, global restructuring, adding new governance bodies, and experimenting with digitally enabled global fora, although each type of governance reform carries risks and trade-offs. Specific considerations include structural inequalities, dual citizenship, board composition, roles, culture, power centers, and resources. Appropriate governance reforms may be able to address long-standing disparities, but their results remain uncertain. Additionally, organizational agility and transaction costs remain concerns, and long-established norms and patterns of learned behavior remain powerful inhibitors of successful change.
Mergers and Acquisitions
Authors: Mitchell George E. , Schmitz Hans Peter , Bruno-van Vijfeijken Tosca 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 11 argues that mergers and acquisitions (M&As) can be an important strategic tool for acquiring capabilities needed to improve organizational effectiveness, relevance, and competitiveness. However, typically M&As within the sector are rare and often reactive in nature. They usually involve the joining together of a smaller, financially stressed organization with a larger, healthier TNGO looking to expand. Much less common are more proactive M&A efforts where both partners come together from positions of strength. M&As appear to be underutilized as a strategic tool to increase scale and impact due to a variety of normative and institutional barriers. These include legal structures that disincentivize or prevent takeovers, cultures of uniqueness among TNGOs and their supporters, and the lack of M&A matchmakers and resources for competently exploring and executing the M&A process.
Mystifying Kabbalah
Authors: Huss Boaz 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The book offers a study of the genealogy of the concept of “Jewish mysticism.” It examines the major developments in the academic study of Jewish mysticism and its impact on modern Kabbalistic movements in the contexts of Jewish nationalism and New Age spirituality. Its central argument is that Jewish mysticism is a modern discursive construct and that the identification of Kabbalah and Hasidism as forms of mysticism, which appeared for the first time in the nineteenth century and became prevalent since the early twentieth, shaped the way in which Kabbalah and Hasidism are perceived and studied today. The notion of Jewish mysticism was established when Western scholars accepted the modern idea that mysticism is a universal religious phenomenon of a direct experience of a divine or transcendent reality and applied it to Kabbalah and Hasidism. The term Jewish mysticism gradually became the defining category in the modern academic research of these topics. Mystifying Kabbalah examines the emergence of the category of Jewish mysticism and of the ensuing perception that Kabbalah and Hasidism are Jewish manifestations of a universal mystical phenomenon. It investigates the establishment of the academic field devoted to the research of Jewish mysticism, and it delineates the major developments in this field. The book clarifies the historical, cultural, and political contexts that led to the identification of Kabbalah and Hasidism as Jewish mysticism, exposing the underlying ideological and theological presuppositions and revealing the impact of this “mystification” on contemporary forms of Kabbalah and Hasidism.
The Modern Concept of Mysticism
Authors: Huss Boaz 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter deals with the genealogy of the modern category of mysticism as it was shaped in the late nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. The chapter examines the theological context of the modern definitions of mysticism. It shows that theological assumptions underlie a perennialist perception in which all mystical experiences are basically identical. These theological assumptions also have a bearing on the contextual approach to mysticism, according to which not only are the interpretations of mystical experiences shaped according to their cultural context but also the mystical experiences themselves. The chapter demonstrates that mysticism is a discursive construct and points out difficulties in applying it as an analytical category.
The Mystification of Kabbalah
Authors: Huss Boaz 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter examines how the application of the category of “mysticism” to Kabbalah and Hasidism shaped the image and practice of Kabbalah among the broader public. Subjugation of the Kabbalah to the category of mysticism led to an emphasis on Kabbalistic phenomena that were similar to what was perceived as mysticism, for example, reports of visions, ascension to other worlds, and union with God. Researchers assumed ecstatic visions and experiences underlay Kabbalistic texts, even when the text did not mention them. The chapter focuses on analyzing how the hegemonic perception of Kabbalah as “Jewish mysticism” led to a growing interest in the writings of the thirteenth-century Kabbalist Avraham Abulafia and to his description as the Jewish “mystic” par excellence. Despite Abulafia’s rejection from the traditional Kabbalistic canon, he became a current Kabbalistic cultural hero.
We Built Reality
Authors: Blakely Jason 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Popular culture is saturated with claims about a science of human life. Demographics are said to predict how we will vote; chemicals in our brains, who we’ll date; game-like scenarios, how we’ll spend our money; and genes, what we will think. This book explores this flood of scientism as it has spread in the last fifty years into almost all facets of daily existence. Readers will discover how popular pseudoscience has radically changed the world we live in, including spheres as different as dating, economics, politics, and artificial intelligence. The abuse of popular scientific authority has had catastrophic consequences, contributing to the 2008 financial crisis, the failure to predict the rise of Donald Trump, increased tensions between poor communities and the police, and the sidelining of nonscientific forms of knowledge and wisdom. But this book also shows a way out of the superstition and ideology of scientism. This book introduces readers to the “hermeneutic” or interpretive approach, which promises to free ordinary people from the tyranny of pseudoscience. An interpretive approach to human life offers a way to become a better reader of both the many claims to science around us and the cultural spaces we inhabit and help create.
Norms and Necessity
Authors: Thomasson Amie L. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This book develops a new approach to understanding our claims about what is metaphysically necessary or possible: modal normativism. While claims about what is metaphysically necessary or possible have long played a central role in metaphysics and other areas of philosophy, such claims are traditionally thought of as aiming to describe a special kind of modal fact or property, or perhaps facts about other possible worlds. But that assumption leads to difficult ontological, epistemological, and methodological puzzles. Should we accept that there are modal facts or properties, or other possible worlds? If so, what could these things be? How could we come to know what the modal facts or properties are? How can we resolve philosophical debates about what is necessary or possible? The normativist rejects the assumption that modal claims aim to describe modal features or possible worlds, arguing instead that they serve as useful ways of conveying, reasoning with, and renegotiating semantic rules and their consequences. By dropping the descriptivist assumption, the normativist is able to unravel the notorious ontological problems of modality, and provide a clear and plausible story about how we can come to know what is metaphysically necessary or possible. Most importantly, this approach helps demystify philosophical methodology. For we are able to see that resolving metaphysical modal questions does not require a special form of philosophical insight or intuition. Instead, it requires nothing more mysterious than empirical knowledge, conceptual mastery, and an ability to explicitly convey and renegotiate semantic rules.
Introduction
Authors: Thomasson Amie L. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that recent work on modality has been implicitly guided by the descriptivist assumption—that is, the assumption that modal claims aim to describe modal features of this world, or features of other possible worlds. But this assumption leads to ontological “placement” problems of saying what such things are and how they fit into a physicalistic ontology, to epistemological problems of saying how we could come to know these modal facts, and to methodological problems about how we can answer questions about what is metaphysically possible or necessary. This chapter suggests that we may do better by taking a cue from the deflationary and expressivist traditions and adopting a non-descriptive approach. On this view, modal claims are seen not as descriptive, but rather as functioning to convey, enforce, or renegotiate rules or norms in advantageous ways. It closes by overviewing the plan of the chapters to come.
Epistemological Advantages
Authors: Thomasson Amie L. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that accepting modal normativism brings significant epistemological advantages. Those who aim to account for modal knowledge face the integration challenge of reconciling an account of what is involved in knowing modal truths with a plausible story about how we can come to know them, and the reliability challenge of explaining how we could have evolved to have a reliable faculty for coming to know modal truths. Recent empiricist accounts of modal knowledge cannot solve these problems regarding specifically metaphysical modal truths—leaving us with the threat of skepticism about large portions of metaphysics. However, by giving a different functional story, the modal normativist can develop a plausible response to the remaining versions of both of these classic problems for modal epistemology. Modal normativists can also respond to further worries parallel to those raised by Sharon Street’s evolutionary debunking arguments in meta-ethics.
Close Encounter of the Philosophical Kind
Authors: Nicolaides Demetris 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
It’s an imaginative encounter between the modern physicist and the ancient natural philosophers, during a beautiful hot summer day, where the physicist takes a first glance at their rational views of nature. Old sage Thales, playing by a river, is in search of something. Atomist Democritus is staring curiously in the void. Legendary Pythagoras solves all mathematical irrationalities. Anaximander is concerned with cosmic justice. For Heraclitus everything is constantly changing; for Parmenides nothing ever is. Anaximenes cools down when his condensed sweat rarefies and evaporates. Anaxagoras finds everything, in everything, to be a puzzle. Zeno can’t even get the door. Melancholy Empedocles leaps through the Air over a Fire but lands safely on Earth, in fact in the Water. Brilliant Aristotle is meticulously studying them all. Everyone’s senses are keen. But so is everyone’s intellect contemplating it all. What a beautiful day! What a beautiful nature! What is her nature?
The Construction of Christian Self-Definition
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses the fact that the producers of apologetic literature were also the major architects of the Christian system of thought and belief. It accounts for the work that was done to ensure internal cohesiveness, as well as the efforts that Christian communities made to form in opposition to both Greco-Roman social and political elements, and Jewish authority. Apologetic writings reflected an existing contemporary situation in which the borders between Christians, Jews, and Greeks were clearly discernible. They were engaged in the very discursive practice that was also endeavoring to bring these borders into existence. Both apologetic writers and their opponents sought to produce and police the borders between Christians, Jews, and Greeks.
Persecution and the Ambiguity of Roman Law
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the legal status of Christianity before the first imperially initiated persecution under Decius (249–251). Generally speaking, there are a number of ambiguities when it comes to determining the attitude of Roman law toward Christian communities. Roman officials rarely found themselves in legal situations that would have demanded special legislation toward the Christians. As a result, only a tiny amount of legal protocol had accumulated before the mid-third century for regulating procedure when it came to dealing with Christians. After several exhaustive reviews of Christian and non-Christian sources in the 1960s, against which there have been no successful contradictory arguments, it appears that the Romans did not issue any special legislation against Christians or Christianity.
Earliest Christian Responses
Authors: Williams D. H. 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the earliest Christian apologetic literature. Paul’s speeches in Acts served as an initial mold by which several kinds of apologetic technique were later formed. In Luke’s narrative, a series of situations call for the charge and countercharge of apologetic speech, before both Jews and Romans. While Paul addresses a non-Jewish audience in only two of his speeches—neither of which are apologetic—the charges raised by Jewish leaders in the other four instances where he must defend himself are taken up by Roman magistrates. In Acts 21, Paul is beaten by the Jews in Jerusalem, rescued by Roman soldiers, and thereafter addresses the entire crowd in Jerusalem in chapter 22, where he declares he is making an apologia before them (22:1).
The Puzzle of Prison Order
Authors: Skarbek David 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
The Puzzle of Prison Order presents a theory of why prisons and prison life vary so much. While many people think prisons are all the same—rows of cells filled with violent men who officials rule with an iron fist, life behind bars varies in incredible ways. In some facilities, prison officials govern with care and attention to prisoners’ needs. In others, officials have remarkably little influence on the everyday life of prisoners, sometimes not even providing necessities like food and clean water. Why does prison social order around the world look so remarkably different? This book shows that how prisons are governed—sometimes by the state and sometimes by the prisoners—is tremendously important. It investigates life in a wide array of facilities—prisons in Brazil, Bolivia, Norway, England and Wales, a prisoner of war camp, women’s prisons in California, and a gay and transgender housing unit in the Los Angeles County Jail—to understand the hierarchy of life on the inside. Drawing on theories from political economy and a vast empirical literature on prison systems, the book offers a framework for understanding how social order evolves and takes root behind bars.
When Prisoners Govern
Authors: Skarbek David 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 2 describes how in many Latin American prisons, officials provide little of the resources, administration, or governance that prisoners often desire. In their absence, prisoners themselves govern. They often create extensive ruling bodies, including associations and committees, that create rules, enforce property rights, and maintain stability within the prison. They participate in flourishing markets, both among themselves and with the outside world. In doing so, prisoners fill the gap in governance and resources created by absent officials. The chapter then examines prisons in Brazil and Bolivia to understand how and why prisoners play such a substantial role in operating prisons.
When Officials Govern
Authors: Skarbek David 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
3 shows how in Nordic counties, prison officials provide significantly more resources, more competent administration, and higher-quality governance than is found in Latin American prisons. As a result, prisoners have few reasons to spend time, energy, and resources on providing these same goods and services. The chapter goes on to show that there are few prisoner-created organizations with relatively little influence on the everyday life of prisoners, and social norms are the predominant governance mechanism in place as small prison populations make gossip and ostracism powerful tools for punishing bad behavior. Even in the sphere of illegal drug use, prisoners do not use markets to coordinate the use of resources, relying instead on a system of sharing.
When No One Governs
Authors: Skarbek David 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 4 discusses the case of the Andersonville Prisoner of War Camp established during the American Civil War, which stands out as one of the most brutal and deadly camps then in operation. It describes how officials provided shockingly few resources, no basic infrastructure, and essentially no governance within the facility. However, prisoners themselves did little to organize because there were few benefits from doing so. There was no access to outside economic activity, no trade was possible, and there were few natural resources within the perimeter of the camp. As such, there were no gains from acting collectively. As chapter 4 explains, the case of Andersonville shows that governance institutions do not emerge automatically, even in the face of state failure.
Understanding Institutional Diversity
Authors: Skarbek David 
Published: July 2020

Abstract
Chapter 8 summarizes the main empirical implications discussed in the governance theory. It points toward public policy options for reshaping prison social order and also argues that prison ethnographers should incorporate more comparative analysis into their work. There is a large body of literature on methods and methodology of making comparisons, especially in the field of comparative politics and comparative historical sociology. Incorporating more comparative methods will increase the importance and usefulness of individual ethnographic studies and open up a large number of new research questions.