bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Leveraging Advanced Technology and Data Integration in Managing Challenging Pipelines in Subsidence Areas
Authors: SooTot Josiah , Michels Connor , Curiel Fernando , Shafrova Svetlana 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The contemporary landscape of the 21st-century pipeline industry is marked by continual technological progress such as high-resolution in-line inspection (ILI) and advanced monitoring systems. This paper elucidates the successful integration and application of cutting-edge technology for the identification and management of a pipeline situated within an active subsidence area. The term “subsidence” herein refers to ground sinking resultant from the expansion of subsurface cavities until surface level indications are seen. This phenomenon could be a result of pumping, fracking, and mining, including improper well completion practices.
This case study specifically delves into the utilization of different periodic and continuous monitoring techniques to address an active subsidence threat. The monitoring included satellite Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) techniques for subsidence measurement, where periodic satellite images are superimposed to reveal surface motion or deformation over time. Beyond conventional InSAR data collection, the operator implemented strain gages and subsidence prisms on the pipeline segment exposed to earth movement. This data, in conjunction with inertial mapping unit (IMU) bending strain analysis, enables real-time monitoring of bending (vertical and horizontal) and membrane strain components on the pipeline. The incorporation of a high strain trigger alarm serves to promptly notify the operator of potential issues.
The continuous data integration process aims to comprehensively understand and manage the subsidence threat by gathering diverse stakeholders at regular intervals to interpret and discuss the latest monitoring results. The proactive approach of the operator extends further into the realm of threat probability mapping solutions, demonstrating a creative and innovative methodology. This led to the strategic design of a pipeline reroute, diverting it away from the subsidence area and ensuring the sustained long-term operation of the pipeline.
The complexity of this process necessitates a series of analyses and discussions among subject matter experts (SMEs), reflecting a meticulous and innovative approach. The success of this endeavor not only secures the short-term integrity of the pipeline but also sets a precedent for long term identification and management of emerging threats within the industry. This study underscores the transformative power of integrating advanced technologies and creative problem-solving strategies in addressing and mitigating challenges in pipeline risk management.
Development and Application of Geobuffer System to Reduce the Impact of Ground Movements on Buried Pipes
Authors: Fathi Ali , Cheng Samuel , Kowis Jared , Hubert Yvan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper introduces an alternative solution for enhancing the performance of buried pipelines under various scenarios of ground displacements through the installation of Geobuffer elements. Installation of the Geobuffers allows for controlled modification of pipe’s boundary conditions based on the expected ground movement rate and direction. This modification enables the pipe to distribute the applied displacement more effectively, which prevents concentration of stress/strain.
The orthotropic properties of the Geobuffer make it flexible in one direction and stiff in the other orthogonal directions. As a result, it can accommodate large pipe movements without developing large reactive forces, while adequately resisting soil and overburden pressure. By using this method, the pipe maximum curvature and axial elongation are reduced significantly which results in lower longitudinal strain ranges and lower risk of subsequent failures. Reduction of the longitudinal strain accumulation rate also increases pipes life span in steady and slow ground movement scenarios (e. g., slope creep); and decreases probability of failure in episodic movement scenarios (e.g., fault slip).
This paper reviews the background and development stages of the Geobuffer system and continues with presenting its application on one pipeline crossing an axial/oblique landslide. The installation scope and layout were developed for this site based on the landslide and pipe characteristics and targeted tolerance level for future movements. The key design and development steps for this application are reviewed here, including design inputs, sizing and layout, performance evaluation analysis, installation, and the monitoring system. This paper concludes with a discussion of utilizing the Geobuffer system in the integrity management of pipelines and how it can offer value in certain areas.
Practical Solutions for Mountainous Pipeline Construction: Mechanically Stabilized Earth Retaining Walls on a Western Canadian Transmission Pipeline Project
Authors: Hou Wenzhu , Gartner Joseph , Baumgard Alex , Gauthier Dave , Otten Taco 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipeline construction in various mountainous terrains presents unique challenges. When the deeper burial is needed for mitigating against geohazards, the conventional methods relying on shallow ditches can become impractical. Trenchless methods may not always be technically feasible or cost-effective. A transmission pipeline project in Western Canada encounters steep slopes, rocky terrains, and numerous environmental complexities. Narrow construction corridors across streams and gullies prone to geohazard risks pose additional intricacies to the design and pipeline construction. This paper presents two case studies from this project about application of Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) retaining walls as an alternative solution to achieve the hydrotechnical and geotechnical dominant design intent for mitigating geohazard risks in challenging terrains. The first case study is on rocky ground. Concrete box culverts were installed beneath the MSE wall and the pipe at a creek crossing to convey surface water across the Right-of-Way (RoW) while maintaining a drivable forest road atop the pipeline. The second case study is on steep and colluvium mantled hillside slopes. The design incorporated a combination of culverts, headwalls, concrete swales, and riprap armoring to mitigate the potential scour from debris slides and flows. This paper presents practical tools and best practices of applying MSE retaining walls tailored to pipeline construction to resolve challenges in rugged terrains, promote a cost-effective engineering approach and minimize environmental impact. The presented case studies provide adaptable solutions to ensure the long-term integrity and resilience of pipelines in geohazard-prone landscapes.
Reducing Cost of ILI Inspections by Assessing and Improving Accuracy of Past Inertial Surveys
Authors: Czyz Jaroslaw A. , Joseph Joshua , Daiyan Nasser , Dewar Doug 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Although IMU has been part of ILI surveys for 35 years, there is no standard method of reporting inertial mapping accuracy to operators. ILI vendors often report the accuracy of IMU runs as a standard tool specification rather than run-specific values, and when such specific values are reported, they can be easily misinterpreted. A method of assessing IMU survey accuracy explained in this paper could be adopted by the ILI industry to ensure reporting clarity and consistency between different vendors.
The error estimation is also the basis for producing a master pipeline listing using single or multiple IMU data sets. The presented method delivers more accurate pipeline centerline shape, improved odometer distance, and corrected GPS locations, particularly when data from multiple surveys is available. Incorporating master pipeline listings into an ILI vendor’s program will reduce operator costs. It produces more accurate dig locating and allows for accurate distance (chainage) calculations in the event of an odometer failure. It also eliminates the requirement for repeat high-accuracy GPS surveys of AGMs, valves and other pipeline features. It can even eliminate the need for collecting future IMU data, unless pipeline movement and bending strain monitoring are required, or there is a major re-route of the pipeline. Using the same distance for all future surveys would simplify data alignment, cross-reference, and movement analysis between runs. In the process of calculating master listing, more accurate data for pipeline movement analysis can also be delivered for the entire run. Evaluation and improvement of past inertial surveys accuracy is necessary for deciding whether additional GPS or IMU surveys are needed to produce master listing with the required accuracy.
River Crossing Reliability Screening Analysis Using a Bayesian Framework
Authors: Fowler Matthew , Sen Millan , Yoosef-Ghodsi Nader 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipelines cross tens of thousands of river and stream crossings throughout North America. Scour of the riverbed material at these crossing locations can cause buried pipelines to become free-spanning and susceptible to vortex induced vibration fatigue or overstress failure. Current reliability assessment approaches require extensive (20+) site specific inputs, which correspondingly require detailed desktop review and/or field visits. Obtaining the data required to conduct these types of detailed assessments at every stream crossing is often neither feasible nor practicable for entire pipeline networks.
In this paper, the authors present a systemwide screening analysis approach to estimate the probability of failure of pipelines at river and stream crossings, requiring only 3 input variables but expandable to include more input variables. In this way, crossings that exceed a particular target can be prioritized for more detailed assessment. Moreover, a key strength of the model is modularity: the number of inputs can vary depending on the known characteristics of the crossing being assessed, which is beneficial at small streams where detailed inspections have not been conducted. Conversely, results are enhanced using additional inputs at crossings where more information is known.
The model uses historical industry failure observations as its basis and employs a Bayesian updating approach. Conditions that led to previous failures are compared to characteristics at crossings of interest to evaluate their probability of failure. A benefit of the approach is, unlike index-based models which can rely on subject matter expert judgement for index weightings, the Bayesian approach uses known data from historical failures as a fundamental basis. Distributions are fit to the historical failure data (e.g. bankfull width, measured depth of cover prior to failure, pipeline diameter) and the characteristics of the fitted distributions directly influence the response of the model, which eliminates the need for expert judgement in setting index factor weights.
In consideration that only minimal input data is required, the model was applied to all 5,000+ river crossings across Enbridge’s liquids pipeline mainline system. The screening model results were compared to the currently available detailed models results and showed reasonable agreement. It was also shown that approximately 90% of known stream crossings did not warrant detailed analysis under their current conditions.
New Specifications for Steel Pipeline Induction and Cold Bends (CSA Z245.16 and Z245.17)
Authors: Fernandez Marchi Pablo , Myschuk Fred , Xu Su , Mirabolghasemi Hamed 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Steel pipe bends manufactured by induction or cold bending processes have become increasingly prevalent in the oil and gas pipeline industry, often replacing fittings in many applications. However, the absence of clear specifications for the manufacturing of these types of bends in the existing CSA standards prompted the development of new standards. In response, two new standards, CSA Z245.16:22 Induction bends, and CSA Z245.17:22 Cold bends were developed, and were published in August 2022. Notably, the CSA Z245.17:22 Standard, focusing on the manufacturing processes of factory-made cold bends designed primarily for integration into oil or gas pipeline systems, is the first of its kind. This is a significant development in the Canadian oil and gas pipeline industry, complementing the existing specification of CSA Z662 Oil and gas pipeline systems.
The main objective of these new standards is to establish clear and consistent requirements for factory-made induction and cold bends, distinct from the existing CSA Z245.11 Steel fittings standard. This differentiation is important because starting material and manufacturing processes qualification differ from those for fittings. The publication of these new bends standards provides clarification on the requirements specific to induction and cold bends.
This paper reviews the content and application of CSA Z245.16:22 and CSA Z245.17:22. It discusses the main requirements introduced and outlines a plan for future changes to the standards for their next edition in 2025.
Accounting for Measurement Uncertainty in Alternative Sampling Plans for Verification of Pipeline Material Properties
Authors: Ludlow Jed 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The statistical formulations of alternative sampling plans to achieve “at least a 95% confidence level that material properties used in the operation and maintenance of the pipeline are valid” under US 49 CFR 192 have been studied previously. The resulting conservative lower bounds on yield strength (YS) have been presented under both frequentist and Bayesian approaches.
Every physical measurement of YS, whether in the field or in the laboratory, embodies at least two components of variation. First, the YS itself varies throughout the material under test across the many pipe joints in a population. Second, the measurement method has an associated uncertainty inherent in the technology employed to accomplish it. The observed results reported from the measurement method necessarily contain contributions from both sources of variation. The previous formulations for statistical lower bounds on YS remain conservative in the presence of measurement uncertainty by bounding the total material and measurement uncertainties taken together. But those bounds might be an overly conservative bound on YS if the measurement uncertainty is not negligible.
This paper presents a study of statistical approaches to developing a lower bound on YS that explicitly account for the presence of measurement uncertainty, separating out the effects of measurement uncertainty to arrive at a less conservative bound on just the YS variation. The study employs simulations of alternative sampling plans under various YS and measurement uncertainty conditions across a range of YS and measurement uncertainties that might be typical in actual pipeline applications. The study examines the effectiveness of the statistical approaches at separating the components of the combined uncertainty, recovering both the true lower bound on YS and the true associated measurement uncertainty. A comparison against truth is possible since full knowledge for the simulated populations is available. The resulting YS bounds are also compared against the more conservative statistical bounds developed previously that combine both sources of uncertainty into the bound.
Matching of Corrosion Features in Multiset Pipeline In-Line Inspection Data Utilizing Relative Point Positions
Authors: Ling Jiatong , Liu Zheng 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Pipeline in-line inspection (ILI) stands out as an effective approach for comprehensively understanding the conditions of pipelines. Matching of corrosion features detected in multiset pipeline ILI is an essential prerequisite to determining corrosion growth. State-of-the-art methods for corrosion defect matching require the iterative process to find the optimal affine transformation or the extraction of individual defect attributes for matching model training. However, not only are these processes labor intensive, but the collection of substantial amounts of data is also challenging. To simplify the matching process, an automated method was proposed to match corrosion features that use the position of the features. This algorithm requires only the positions of detected corrosion points and applies to complex defect scenarios with high corrosion density. Firstly, triangles are constructed based on corrosion features. Secondly, local matching was employed to identify matching triangle pairs within two ILIs. Then, a global matching strategy was applied to refine the initially identified matches, filtering the false matches based on predefined requirements. Finally, the points in the final pairs of matched triangles serve as correspondences to determine the registration transformation. Experiments were conducted to validate the efficacy of the proposed method. The results demonstrate its reliability in accurately matching features within pipelines, which supports the integrity and risk assessment of pipeline systems.
Numerical Methods to Reduce Measurement Uncertainty and Lower CPM Leak Thresholds
Authors: Choquette Gary , Rans Rick , Petersen Warren 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Within a pipeline system (gas or liquid), the measurement of inbound and outbound flow/energy should balance. In an ideal system, free of measurement or estimation error, a balance showing more product entering the system than exiting the system would indicate loss of product (potential leak or theft). Achieving an exact balance is, in practice, unachievable due to measurement uncertainty and accounting errors.
This paper describes novel and technically advanced analytic methods used to identify meter(s) that are the most probable contributors of a discrepancy as well as sub-sections of the system where unmeasured and inaccurately measured quantities are likely to exist. This allows the operator to initiate measures to reduce measurement uncertainty (thereby lowering the threshold of detection for measurement leaks) or identify subsections of the system where physical surveillance should be performed.
The methods presented here estimate the relative order of magnitude of measurement error/leak and have been validated on double blind simulated data.
An Investigation of Indicators for Determining Significant Changes in Dent Shapes Using Repeat ILI Data
Authors: Bankehsaz Morry , Sager Ryan , Wilde Andrew 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) has recently updated regulations for U.S. gas pipelines which went into effect in May 2023. As part of the new requirements for dent engineering critical assessments (ECA) detailed in 49 CFR § 192.712(c), a dent profile comparison shall be performed between the most recent and previous in-line inspections (ILIs) to identify significant changes in dent depth and shape. While the new initiative is essential to the integrity of the pipeline, either for new dent identification or ensuring the stability of the existing dents, a definition of “significant change” is not clarified in PHMSA regulations.
In this paper, various indicators are investigated to help pipeline operators screen for an identify dents that may have undergone significant material changes in terms of depth or shape across multiple inspections. Limits are investigated to effectively differentiate dents exhibiting altered shapes from those merely experiencing variations within the expected depth during successive inspections utilizing high-resolution ILI. The approach involves a comprehensive examination of diverse indicators, including ILI listing dimensions, curvature-based strain calculations, and direct comparisons of profiles. Through the application of this methodology to a dataset comprising 650 dents, the efficacy in systematically screening for and identifying dents that are new or have undergone substantial changes is demonstrated, thereby providing a valuable tool for proactive integrity management.
Discussion is also included on the factors that could lead to a change in dent shape and the importance of understanding the pipeline’s internal and external loading history.
Reliability-Based Evaluation of Corrosion Assessment Safety Factors for Pipelines Designed to Risk-Based Safety Class System
Authors: Adianto Riski , Koduru Smitha , Lu Dongliang 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A risk-based pressure design approach for designing onshore transmission pipelines has been developed and incorporated in the Annex C of the 2023 edition of Canadian Standard Association (CSA) Z662 standard. This approach uses a set of hoop stress factors (termed class factors) calibrated for six consequence-based safety class system to design the required minimum wall thickness of the pipeline to limit the pipeline risk at a consistent acceptable level. This non-mandatory approach provides an alternative to the more established experience-based hoop stress factors (product of design and location factors) described in Clause 4.3.5 of the standard.
As written in the CSA standard, Clause 4.3.5 hoop stress factors are also used as safety factors to assess corrosion features as prescribed in Clause 10 of the standard. Following the same principle, Annex C class factors described in Clause C.5 are also prescribed to be used for the Clause 10 corrosion assessment. This paper evaluates the reliability implications of applying the class factors for corrosion assessment of pipelines designed to the Annex C safety class approach.
Three gas pipeline cases were considered in this evaluation, one in undeveloped area and the two others in developed areas. All pipelines were considered in two scenarios: 1) designed using the Clause 4.3.5 approach, and 2) designed using the Clause C.5 approach. Similar corrosion populations representative of decades-long operation were simulated for each scenario using information in public domain literature, and corrosion assessments to determine repairs were carried out using the approach described in Clause 10.10.2.5 of the CSA standard. In this assessment, each scenario utilized the corresponding hoop stress factors for the pipeline design as the corrosion safety factors (i.e. design and location factors for scenario 1, class factors for scenario 2). The implication of using these safety factors was evaluated by assessing the reliability of the pipelines with the remaining corrosion features that passed the Clause 10.10.2.5 assessments and subsequently their overall safety. Comparison was made between the Clause 4.3.5 and Clause C.5 scenarios to demonstrate the implied safety with both approaches.