bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘Beautiful under the Scourges, Beautiful on the Cross’
Authors: O’Collins, S.J. Gerald 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
The institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper, celebrated in the face of imminent death, showed the beauty of Christ in a tragic situation. About to be betrayed by Judas and denied by Peter, Christ established a lasting covenant with his followers and looked forward to the joy of the coming kingdom. A beautiful theme of healing, forgiveness, and salvation runs through Luke’s passion story—right from the arrest of Jesus when he greets Judas by name and heals the man who has lost his right ear when Peter lashes out with a sword. The ‘divine composure’ of Jesus at his arrest characterizes the start of John’s passion story. It ends with the piercing of Christ’s side, symbolizing the gift of the Holy Spirit and the birth of the Church.
Where Does the Problem Come from?
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter outlines the history of the problem of reconciling, or of failing to reconcile, two conflicting intuitions, first an appreciation of the commonalities in the cognitive capacities that all humans share, and second, a recognition of the huge diversity in how they have been used including in the construction of contrasting belief systems and the adoption of divergent values. It criticizes various attempts to drive a wedge between different human populations and cultures with regard to their cognitive abilities. It evaluates so-called ‘fast and frugal’ reasoning and argues that the main effect of the development of formal logic was not so much to improve reasoning as to make available certain explicit distinctions that could be invoked in debate.
Modes of Discourse and the Pragmatics of Communication
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter investigates what an analysis of different modes of discourse and the pragmatics of communication can contribute to a resolution of the problems of mutual intelligibility across languages and cultures. Drawing on the work of J.L. Austin, Grice, Tambiah, and Hugh-Jones, and using examples from ancient history (Greece, China, and India) and anthropology (Barasana), it emphasizes the need to take into account the pragmatics of communicative exchanges, their social contexts, the roles of audiences and the availability of indigenous categories of discourse. It points especially to the dangers of the uncritical use of common Western distinctions, such as that between ‘rational account’ (logos) and ‘myth’.
The Argument from Sociability
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
Humans are all social animals, yet we live in societies of strikingly different kinds. This chapter examines what the development of human reasoning in all its diversity owes to our sociability. Taking examples from ethnography and more particularly from ancient Greece and China, it investigates critically the ways in which different social and political arrangements may foster or impede different modes of communicative exchanges. It considers how such arrangements may favour different core values and understandings of what it is to be human, including in particular the tension between more inclusive and more restricted views on that question. Recognizing that mutual misunderstandings may and do continue, it reflects on how and within what limits they may nevertheless be overcome.
The Evolutionary Issues
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
What conclusions should be drawn about human intelligence from the study of biological and cultural evolution? This chapter examines critically theories of some historical Great Divide among human populations, for instance Damasio’s Grand Synoptic Theory focussing on homeostasis or self-regulation, or Axial Age hypotheses stemming from Jaspers, that conjecture a radical break-through in the development of reflexive thought across Eurasia. Attempts to draw a line between more advanced societies and others considered primitive tend to oversimplify by underestimating our and their common cognitive capacities. The case of differences in spatial cognition is used to show how different cognitive capacities are in play but to argue for mutual intelligibility even across divergent paradigms.
Test Case 1
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
Do all humans engaged in ‘mathematics’? That is, can mathematics be considered a viable category of intelligent activity that can be applied cross-culturally? That question must be raised because of the evident diversity in the practices and ideas that have some claim to be thought of as relating to that category. This chapter considers the evidence from modern indigenous societies, such as the Wari’, and from ancient ones such as the Greeks and Chinese, to investigate the different notions that have been entertained (sometimes even with a single ‘culture’) and the various practices that have been cultivated and often highly prized, in relation to the key notions of quantity, number, shapes, and forms. It concludes that it is possible, within limits, to compare and contrast such ideas and activities.
Test Case 4: Aesthetics
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
Our notions of ‘art’ and ‘aesthetics’ have undergone several transformations in recent years. When we apply such ideas to the products of indigenous craftsmen (e.g. those studied by Gell or Scoditti on the island of Kitawa) we are liable to misrepresent their original aims and criteria which may relate to ‘efficacy’ rather than (just) to ‘beauty’ or ‘felicity’. The divergences in musical appreciation across the world tell a similar story where links to notions of morality are common. The ambitious correlation of artistic objects with underlying ontologies proposed by Descola underlines the difficulty of cross-cultural generalizations in this domain, though that is not to claim that we are quite at a loss to arrive at any understanding of others’ experience.
Conclusion
Authors: Lloyd G. E. R. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
The final chapter takes stock of the limited conclusions of this study of the varieties of intelligence and the possibilities for mutual intelligibility. We can, it is argued, appreciate some cross-cultural human universals (language and sociability), yet we must be continually alert to the diversity of human experience and the dangers of imposing Western categories. But the chief lesson to be learned is that when we encounter beliefs and practices that diverge sharply from what we are used to, we should see this as an opportunity, rather than as a threat. The lack of common ground should not be treated as tantamount to denying the possibility of any understanding whatsoever, though such understanding as we can reach will often involve the revision of our own initial assumptions and categories.
Entailments of change in the roots of change-of-state verbs
Authors: Beavers John , Koontz-Garboden Andrew 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
Chapter 2 examines the semantic and morphological predictions of Bifurcation, focusing on the roots of change-of-state verbs and their stative correlates. Using evidence from entailment, morphology, and sublexical modification it shows that English verbal roots fall into two classes. The flat class describe simple states, while the crack class describe states but also entail that the state came about from change, a templatic notion. A formal analysis of the semantic and morphological properties of the two classes is proposed, albeit one that rejects Bifurcation. It then considers a variety of alternative analyses that preserve Bifurcation, which all come at some theoretical and empirical cost.
Introduction
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
The Ethical Demand begins by considering Jesus’s proclamation to love one’s neighbour as oneself. It is argued that unless we can make sense of this proclamation, it would be a merely coercive commandment, which we would follow without any understanding. In fact, however, it is claimed that the proclamation can be made sense of in purely human terms, as a demand that arises out of our mutual dependence and vulnerability. This demand is said to be silent, radical, one-sided, and unfulfillable, in a way that is explored in what follows. The Introduction concludes with some methodological remarks, in which it is argued that the best approach involves paying careful attention to key conceptual distinctions, rather than adopting an overly systematic methodology.
The Fact from Which the Silent Demand Arises
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter begins by focusing on trust, which is a key example of our dependence on other people, and is integral to human life. In trusting another person, we deliver ourselves up to them by making ourselves vulnerable, which is why we react strongly when this trust is abused, and our vulnerability is thereby ignored. Given the risks involved in this vulnerability, conventional forms and practices are brought in to regulate our interactions. In response to this dependence, and the way in which their life is in our hands, we are required to do what is best for the other person—which may not be what they want us to do, so the demand is ‘silent’ in this respect, as it is not articulated through what they ask of us. However, this does not mean we can encroach on their individuality, or impose our ideas on them as an ideology.
Mediation
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter develops the issue concerning encroachment and considers a possible response to it, which is ultimately rejected. The response starts with the thought that the problem arises because we each have a conception or understanding of life by which our relations to one another are mediated—where the obvious solution may then seem to be to relate to each other in a direct or unmediated way, without bringing any conception of life to bear on our relations to one another. Having a medium between people may lead to encroachment, nonetheless the lack of a medium can do the same. This argument is illustrated by reference to the literary work of D. H. Lawrence, showing how characters such as Will Brangwen and Anna Lensky in Women in Love hope to find a kind of unmediated relationship, but in a way that leads to a breakdown of the love between them.
Antagonism towards the One-Sided Demand
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter focuses on another key feature of the ethical demand, namely that it is non-reciprocal or one-sided, in the sense that a person cannot make a counterdemand for coming to help another person. It is argued that this feature of the demand makes sense if a person thinks that life has been given to them, and so cannot demand something back. However, it is suggested that this outlook is compatible with thinking that there is no God as a gift giver, so that the Christian perspective is not essential to make sense of this view. Another challenge to this conception might be that life is not a gift, but a curse, if one’s life is left empty by the death of a loved one, or tormented by illness; this challenge is considered in the last section of this chapter.
Science and Ethics
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the relationship between ethics and our modern scientific world picture, both as regards metaphysics and as regards scientific determinism. The first issue arises because the ethical demand seems to involve a judging authority who holds us responsible for failing to meet it, where it is not clear that this authority can simply come from other people, as they are as flawed as us. But then it may appear that ethics is committed to a position which is metaphysically suspect, in introducing this authority into the picture. The second issue arises because determinism may seem to deprive us of any moral responsibility, insofar as our actions are determined. This chapter argues that responses to both these challenges can be met.
The Unfulfillability of the Demand and the Proclamation of Jesus
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter returns to an issue raised in the Introduction: how are we to see Jesus’s authority in relation to the requirement to love the neighbour? It is argued that while the requirement itself arises simply from our mutual vulnerability, and so does not rest on Jesus’s authority as a commander, he nonetheless does demonstrate a special authority in his capacity to proclaim his forgiveness of our failure to act as we should, as such forgiveness cannot come from a fellow human being, who is as prone to failure as we are. While the ethical demand itself thus makes sense in purely human terms, this still leaves room for the theological claim that Jesus has a special authority—not as the author of the ethical demand, but as the only being (alongside God) who is capable of forgiving us for coming under it at all, through our failure to love.
Polemical Epilogue
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter offers a critique of Søren Kierkegaard, as well as contemporary Kierkegaardians such as K. Olesen Larsen. It challenges Kierkegaard’s own account of the love commandment offered in the latter’s Works of Love. It is argued that Kierkegaard denudes our existence as living creatures of real value, and so makes our relation to God paramount. The command to love the neighbour therefore no longer becomes a command to care for the other person in their human needs, but instead to put them into the right relation to God. It is argued that this is a fundamental distortion of Jesus’s intention as illustrated by the parable of the Good Samaritan: here, it is earthly concern that is on display, and thus a valorization of all our human vulnerability on which the proper understanding of Jesus’s proclamation must rely.
Kierkegaard's and Heidegger's Analysis of Existence and its Relation to Proclamation
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , Stern Robert 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
In its first five chapters, this book offers a comparative assessment of Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, drawing out both similarities and differences. In the remaining three chapters, their views are subject to critique. The interpretation focuses on certain key ideas that are central to both thinkers, such as ‘life in the crowd’ or ‘das Man’; how this uniformity can be avoided; and what an authentic life requires instead. The critique argues that Kierkegaard holds that the only way to escape life in the crowd is through a relation to an infinite demand which is left empty, and Heidegger avoids offering any kind of ethics. In contrast to both, it is argued that it is instead possible to have an ethic which is not just a set of social rules on the one hand, but is more contentful than Kierkegaard’s infinite demand on the other: namely, the requirement or ethical demand to take on responsibility for the other person whose life is placed in your hands. This responsibility for the other, which sets the responsible individual apart, frees them from the crowd and thus offers an ethical route to an authentic existence, which both Kierkegaard and Heidegger overlook.
On Kierkegaard’s Account of the Problem of Taking over Concrete Existence
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the question of how the desire to be an authentic individual can be realized in concrete existence. It is argued that Heidegger does not really deal with this issue, but that it is central to Kierkegaard. For Kierkegaard, to achieve this the individual must decide to act not in the light of the finite and temporal, but of the infinite and eternal which is the ground of their existence, which is thus to act in the light of an infinite demand which comes from God, and to realize that before God the individual is nothing. It is argued, however, that this leaves the individual with insufficient grounds for action in the finite world, as illustrated in Kierkegaard’s treatment of the ‘edifying diversion’ of a trip to the Deer Park which is discussed in Concluding Unscientific Postscript.
Kierkegaard and Heidegger on the Concept of Guilt
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the role of guilt in the thought of Kierkegaard and Heidegger. Kierkegaard contrasts the quantitative and external guilt which belongs to life in the crowd with the guilt that attaches to the infinite demand, which is qualitative and internal, and thus falls under the category of ‘totality’. This means, however, that guilt feeds of itself, as one comes to feel guilty for feeling guilty. Like Kierkegaard, Heidegger does not just consider guilt in relation to ordinary ethical and judicial norms, but also in relation to one’s existence, but this means that for Heidegger it becomes ontological, as we feel guilty even for existing. Thus, both Kierkegaard and Heidegger draw similar distinctions between forms of guilt, and make guilt in its fundamental form inescapable, but while Heidegger gives this a purely ontological basis, for Kierkegaard it takes an ethical form in relation to an infinite demand.
The Absolute Demand of Concrete Existence
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter critiques Kierkegaard’s conception of the infinite demand. Kierkegaard’s demand remains abstract because he tries to derive content from form: namely, to derive its content from the fact that it is infinite, where this means that its aim is for the finite individual to know that they are nothing before God. But it is then impossible to treat this infinite demand as connecting to our relation with other people, and each involves radically different conceptions of guilt and responsibility. To avoid this problem, it is argued that we should think in terms of an ethical demand which remains between individuals, but which is also distinct from the social norms, as the person on whom the demand falls is ‘isolated’ and so must take individual responsibility for their response to the other, rather than merely following social norms and thereby being confined to life in the crowd.
Philosophy and Proclamation
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
This chapter considers the issue of religious proclamation. It is claimed that we must be able to understand any such proclamation through relating it to our experience of our own lives, otherwise it would be an obscure superstition. It is argued that Kierkegaard and Heidegger sought for this understanding in relation to existence, and offered four tests for a proclamation: does it leave the individual at the mercy of the crowd or not? Does it enable them to remain true to their existence as becoming and possibility or not? Does it offer an absolute certainty or instead leave room for the individual to assume their own responsibility? And does it subordinate existence to thought? It is argued on this basis that a proclamation cannot become identified with a social ideology, so that it is a mistake to use the Christian proclamation as the basis for a political and ethical position.
Resisting Openness
Authors: Freudlsperger Christian 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
The third chapter of Trade Policy in Multilevel Government introduces the field of procurement as a hard case of trade liberalization. Contracting in line with the principle of ‘best value for money’ curtails public actors’ ability to rely on procurement as a directed means of redistribution. Nevertheless, this principle has served as the rallying cry of an international regime of procurement liberalization that has gradually evolved since the 1970s and whose historical development is described here. In a second step, the chapter elaborates on the patterns of openness and resistance to procurement liberalization among the three multilevel polities chosen for analysis. Over the entire period of observation, the US states’ openness has been comparatively low. Intermittently, their resistance had decreased in the run-up to the 1994 GPA. In recent years, however, the number of states willing to be bound by international procurement disciplines plummeted to virtually zero. As for the Canadian provinces and territories, the picture shifted in recent years. Especially in the negotiations on CETA, they permitted the EU wholesale access to their procurement markets. Within a short period, the Canadian provinces’ position on international procurement liberalization thus witnessed a veritable sea change. Finally, in the EU case, openness on part of member state governments has consistently proved highest among the three cases. Already within the scope of the 1979 GATT Code, all EC members’ central procurement was covered, albeit modestly. In the 1994 GPA and its 2012 revision, the EU covered its procurement on the national, regional, and municipal level.
United States
Authors: Freudlsperger Christian 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
The first of the three case studies looks at the United States. It finds that while the states’ opportunities for individual exit have remained unconstrained in the non-coercive field of procurement in which federal pre-emption is not an option, no serious attempts have been made to systematically increase their voice. This is due, firstly, to the mechanics of the US senate-type system of multilevel representation and, secondly, to the lack of an institutionalized procedure of vertical collaboration in a policy environment characterized by ‘coercive federalism’. Persisting barriers in the internal market and a widespread politicization of international procurement liberalization as a threat to state sovereignty have further contributed to constituent units’ high propensity to seek exit from international constraints. Ultimately, the US case highlights the limits of self-rule systems in organizing trade openness across multiple levels of government. Endowing the states with little voice in polity-wide policy-making, the US model shows a marked tendency to breed resistance to internationally driven adaptational pressures among constituent units. As self-rule systems are built on a delineation of central and subcentral spheres of competence, they generally tend to lack the institutional means and ideational underpinnings to effectively organize collaborative power-sharing by establishing patterns of shared rule.
Conclusion
Authors: Freudlsperger Christian 
Published: May 2020

Abstract
The concluding chapter of Trade Policy in Multilevel Government not only elaborates on the theoretical model’s explanatory power and its limits in the light of the three analysed polities, but also turns to raising questions as to the democratic legitimacy of the multilevel pattern of trade policy described in the book. Questions of democratic legitimacy in multilevel systems are complicated by the fact that a popular and a territorial logic of representation coexist and, at times, compete. Both citizens and constituent units are entitled to input into the system. The ensuing tension between popular and territorial logics of representation also permeates multilevel trade governance. In the EU and the Canadian cases, territorial legitimacy clearly takes precedence over popular representation. Seen from this perspective, the US case appears in a somewhat different light. In the face of adaptational pressures arising from economic and political globalization, popular representation could also be regarded as an additional layer of autonomy in self-rule systems of multilevel government.