bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Significant Changes in the Twenty-Second Edition of API 1104
Authors: Gould Melissa , Bruce William A. , Boring Matt , Lee Kenneth Y. , Scoles Russell 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
API Standard 1104, Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities, (API 1104) is the most widely-used industry standard in the world for pipeline construction. For operators in the United States, the use of certain sections of API 1104 are mandated by Federal regulations for the construction of cross-country pipelines. Since the First Edition was published in 1953, API 1104 is revised regularly to adapt to changing pipeline construction, welding, and inspection practices. The current version, which was issued in July 2021, is the Twenty-second Edition, which incorporates extensive changes as compared to the Twenty-first Edition.
This paper summarizes the major substantive changes between the Twenty-first and Twenty-second Editions of API 1104, and provides some insight into the rationale behind these changes. One example of a major substantive change is the introduction of “Category I” and “Category II” essential variables, which are applicable to “standard” welding procedure specifications (WPSs) and those that require hardness and/or toughness testing, respectively. The Twenty-second Edition also contains updated information on ultrasonic inspection of welds. Furthermore, requirements for the in-service repair of welds, including procedure qualification and welder qualification were added.
This paper will increase the understanding of the major substantive changes in the Twenty-second Edition of API 1104 for both users and regulators. It may also be used by operating companies in transitioning their welding practices and procedures to the requirements in the Twenty-second Edition from earlier editions of the standard.
Modelling Consequence From Natural Gas Storage Wells
Authors: Smith Shawn , Fraser Alex , Petraglia Pedro , Shironishi Mari , Shapiro Dan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A comprehensive quantitative framework for the risk assessment of natural gas storage wells, inclusive of wellhead components and associated piping, has been formulated for the evaluation of SoCalGas’s underground gas storage facilities located in California. This framework has been designed to surpass the stipulated requirements set forth by API RP 1171, as referenced in the US regulation 49 CFR 192.12, and to address the recent amendments to the California Code of Regulations. Additionally, it integrates several recommendations from the 2021 PHMSA study titled “Risk Assessment and Treatment of Wells.” This framework encompasses assessments of both life safety and environmental impacts resulting from potential releases from these wells. The methodology for consequence assessment involves several critical processes, including:
• Determining the probability of ignition using an empirical model based on historical release data.
• Adapting the Potential Impact Radius (PIR) model, initially developed for gas transmission pipelines by Stephens et al. in 2002, to the context of gas storage wells to identify areas at risk due to ignited releases.
• Computing the individual and societal life safety risk, distinguishing between normal operations, planned well interventions, and the public.
• Estimating the expected quantity of methane released and the corresponding global warming potential, incorporating an empirical model for time to contain a release based on historical release data.
• Combining the life safety and environmental risk using estimates for the value of a statistical life and the societal cost of carbon.
• Evaluating the efficacy of surface safety valves and downhole safety valves based on the reduction in life safety and/or environmental consequences.
This paper illustrates how the risk-reduction of a mitigation measure, installing a downhole safety valve, is captured by this framework, differentiating by the specific well context.
Modeling of Thermal Cycling on Initiation of Stress Corrosion Cracking
Authors: Zhu Zhenjin , Cooper Steven , Cooper Brian 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper develops a theoretical model to investigate the impact of thermal cycling on the initiation of stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Prior to commissioning, coatings may be disbonded in places due to poor material selection or application. Corrosive gases (i.e., O2, CO2) and water vapor diffuse into coating disbondment areas from the soil side. The diffused amount of each species is governed by Fick’s First Law. The accumulation of condensed water vapor depends on the solubility change of water vapor with respect to thermal cycling frequency and magnitude. The concentrations of [H+], [HCO3−], and [CO32−] are dependent on CO2 partial pressure. The metal surface potential is predicted using a resistance circuit model. When an open coating holiday occurs, the cathodic protection (CP) current arrives at the metal surface directly through the exposed electrolyte. The local surface potentials inside the crevice are simulated using a parametric equation. The pH value at an open holiday obeys Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis. Local tensile stress may come from hoop stress from design, residual stress from manufacturing and fabrication, thermal stress from operation, geotechnical stress from soil movement, and mechanical stress from deformation. When the pH value, surface potential, and tensile stress are within certain bounds, stress corrosion cracking may take place longitudinally or circumferentially depending on stress orientation. Types of SCC such as high-pH SCC or near-neutral pH SCC can be characterized. The findings should be useful for stakeholders in proactively developing preventive and mitigative measures for effective SCC threat management.
Design and Testing of a Flow Facility for Pipeline Leak Prediction, Detection, and Investigation
Authors: Ng Marlon Anthony , Chen Haobin , Khayami Farbod , Gulam Dhasthagir Yaser Arafath , Hugo Ron 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Flow facilities play a crucial role in advancing pipeline leak detection systems. Existing experiments are performed with a simulated leak from a hole drilled in the pipe wall with flow rate controlled by a valve. Although adequate for certain research objectives, the boundary conditions of a real-world pipeline failure are not properly replicated using this approach and as a result some of the critical mechanical signatures of an actual leak or rupture event are missed. The current research aims to address this deficiency.
A customized flow facility with flexible operating pressure and temperature has been designed for leak investigation of both gaseous and liquid transport. The pump and blower can deliver up to 50% (liquid) and 20% (gas) of a typical operational Reynolds number (ReD) in a 3-inch nominal diameter test section. The system is designed with the ability to perform flowing burst tests, controlled by increasing the average pressure of the flow loop while maintaining a constant ReD. Pipe sections with common threat mechanisms that include pitting corrosion, axial and circumferential cracking, or combinations with denting can be examined. The flow facility enables naturally evolving leak processes to be investigated in detail, starting with the precursors before a leak to the early stages of a leak. The data collected in the facility will be instrumental in the development of real-time monitoring technology for safe pipeline transport.
Defect Separation for Full-Scale Burst and Fatigue Testing
Authors: Lockey Aaron , Cosham Andrew , Simpson Gemma 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The LTS (Local Transmission System) Futures Project is conducting full-scale burst and fatigue testing in hydrogen and in water as part of an investigation into repurposing the gas transmission system. The length of the available pipe was limited, so it needed to be used efficiently, by minimising the length of each test vessel.
Finite element analysis (FEA) was used to determine the minimum separation distances between the end of the part-through-wall defect or dent, and the end of the test vessel in the burst and fatigue tests, and the minimum separation distances between the individual dents in the fatigue tests. The stress distributions along the pipe axis were calculated and compared with those for a large separation to determine whether the reduced separation was predicted to have a significant effect on the results of the burst or fatigue tests.
The methodology used for the analysis, the resulting stress distributions, and the conclusions drawn about minimum separation distances are presented and discussed. The findings show that FEA is useful for designing full-scale burst or fatigue tests when the available material is limited.
Full-Scale Burst Tests With Hydrogen
Authors: Cosham Andrew , Huescar Medina Clara , Koronka Max , Senior Gary , Simpson Gemma 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Five full-scale burst tests in hydrogen and four in water have been conducted on nominally identical pairs of vessels containing nominally identical defects to investigate the effect of hydrogen on the burst strength of defects in pipelines.
A short section of line pipe cut from a pipeline commissioned in 1969 was used to fabricate the test vessels. The line pipe has a nominal diameter equal to 609.6 mm (24 in.) and a nominal wall thickness equal to 11.91 mm. It is Grade X52. It has a longitudinal seam weld.
Five different types of defects were tested in the burst tests: an internal and external, sharp, part-through-wall defect (the internal defect was only tested in hydrogen); an external, blunt part-through-wall defect; a plain dent; and a dent and gouge (a notch). The part-through-wall defects were longitudinally orientated. The defects were all in the pipe body. The blunt and sharp, part-through-wall defects had nominally identical depths and lengths.
The failure pressures of the external, blunt and sharp, part-through-wall defects, plain dents and smooth dents and gouges (notches) in hydrogen and in water were similar.
The failure pressures of the internal, sharp, part-through-wall defect in hydrogen was significantly lower than that of the external defect in hydrogen and in water.
Managing Scaleup: Installation of a Novel Integrity Monitoring System Through Challenging Terrain
Authors: Jalilian Ehsan , Koles Steven , Kochatt Biju 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
High fidelity distributed fiber optic sensing (HDS) provides highly sensitive integrated acoustics, temperature, and strain/vibration over long distances. This technology has enabled preventative pipeline leak detection and several value-added integrity and operationally oriented applications utilizing acoustics and real-time and cumulative strain measurements. Machine Learning (ML) algorithms have successfully leveraged HDS data to deliver accurate event detection.
Deploying and commissioning this technology over very long distance pipelines comes with a multitude of practical challenges, including conduit deployment with open cut and trenchless construction methods, fiber cable injection, handhole and system hardware location selection, design of optical architectures to optimize data quality, autonomous and fault-tolerant management of remote systems, data management for hundreds of terabytes acquired daily, and the computationally intensive nature of field-deployed ML models. To complicate matters, some requirements remain dynamic, changing over the course of pipeline construction. For instance, optical architectures must continually adapt to the as-built reality of construction.
Case studies will be provided to demonstrate how these long-distance pipeline challenges were addressed throughout the construction of ∼980 kilometres (km) of new pipeline. Examples will be provided of challenges encountered during fiber optic placement along the right of way, including deployment using Horizontal Directional Drills (HDD), micro-tunneling, auger boring, Direct Pipe and other methods. Another study will review the innovative solutions employed to accelerate and automate the commissioning of the monitoring systems as well as performance of acoustic baselining to satisfy the regulatory requirements of the external leak detection / pipeline monitoring system being active at the onset of pipeline operation.
A discussion will be provided on how the deployment of this pipeline monitoring system has resulted in the delivery of a leak detection and integrity monitoring solution, while simultaneously enabling advanced pipeline analytics, automation, and control.
Predicting Fatigue Growth of Pipeline Cracks With Non-Ideal Depth Profiles
Authors: Anderson Ted L. , Ma Jing , Hay Clifford 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The MAT-8 fracture model has been widely applied in the pipeline industry since it was first introduced in 2016. It was recently modified to handle burst pressure predictions in pipe joints with axial surface flaws with complex depth profiles. However, this recent innovation did not address the fatigue growth of a complex crack-like feature. The present article fills this knowledge gap. Fatigue crack growth was analyzed in finite element simulations of 50 complex crack features that have been reported by ILI vendors. Based on the finite element results, an analytical methodology for modeling fatigue growth of complex crack-like features has been developed, which can be directly utilized in a probabilistic framework. Further work is required to experimentally validate the Modified MAT-8 model, including the burst pressure predictions and the fatigue crack growth estimates for cracking features with non-ideal depth profiles. Nevertheless, the approach presented herein represents a material improvement in handing fatigue propagation in crack-like flaws, compared with current models that assume an elliptical crack that encompasses a complex flaw.
Optimization of Hydrostatic Test Plan for Pipeline Crossing Significant Elevation Difference Terrain
Authors: Ma Te , Wu Tiantian , Gao Katherine 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The purpose of Hydrostatic Testing for new constructed pipeline is to establish the Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP) prior to pipeline operation.
There are challenges in conducting hydrostatic tests for pipeline passing through geological areas with significant elevation changes. These challenges include a large number of hydrostatic test sections and associated hydrostatic test risks and costs. A Point Specific MOP approach has been developed to address these issues. This approach considers the pressure variance associated with elevation changes along the pipeline and determines the actual pressure at each point during the hydrostatic testing. It optimizes the test sections to achieve the design capacity and ensures the transient pressure safety.
The subject pipeline is a newly constructed liquid transmission pipeline system with approximately 1180 km total length of pipe (nominal diameters of 762 mm/914 mm/1066 mm) and 16 stations (pump stations/trap sites/terminals). This pipeline system passes through geological areas with significant elevation changes (with the biggest elevation change of 1326 m within 50 km, between mountain top and river valley bottom).
This paper presents the hydrostatic testing considerations and optimization philosophies of Point Specific MOP approach, and the use of Hydraulic Pipeline Simulator to conduct hydraulic analysis for validation.
This paper also discusses the importance of incorporating this methodology during design and hydrostatic test phases, to provide guidance for future pipeline design.
Hydrogen Impurities and Their Potential Impact on Retrofitting Plans When Transitioning to Hydrogen – Natural Gas Blends
Authors: Esmaeely Saba N. , Sonke Johannes , Brown Martin J. , Finneran Shane 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Hydrogen is being considered as one of the key options toward decarbonizing the existing energy system, however, hydrogen production, which is a key part of hydrogen value chain, has remained a challenge as producing enough hydrogen for an impactful decarbonization plan is an energy and resource intense process. There are several pathways to produce hydrogen, with different colors such as grey, brown, blue, turquoise, and green have been designated to different hydrogens based on their production methods. For example, blue hydrogen is produced from steam methane reforming (SMR) process that includes carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, whereas green hydrogen is produced via water (H2O) electrolysis using renewable energy sources. While green hydrogen does not contain many impurities, hydrogen produced from fossil fuels may contain impurities such as carbon monoxide (CO), H2O, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), etc., that could jeopardize the integrity of the gas grid upon blending. Additionally, stored hydrogen including green hydrogen could get contaminated while being stored, e.g., stored hydrogen in depleted gas reservoirs could be contaminated with biological contaminants, which could lead to microbiological corrosion (MIC). The current paper examines different hydrogen impurities based on their production or storage paths and their potential adverse impact on the existing natural gas grid. Additionally, potential approaches are discussed to mitigate the negative impact of impurities on the overall grid’s integrity and continuity of operation.
Optimizing Risk Reduction: a Data-Driven Approach for Strategic Preventive and Mitigative Action Planning
Authors: Murray Jake 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
This paper presents an approach to empower risk management practitioners in navigating challenges posed by regulatory frameworks, aging infrastructure, and sustainability imperatives. The focus is on using quantitative risk assessment tools to identify, prioritize, and implement preventive and mitigative measures. The paper discusses tools, methods, and considerations that enable operators to synthesize risk assessment outputs, offering insights into feasible projects and evaluating their benefits in relation to costs.
Real-world applications across various energy sector operators emphasize the significance of quantitative risk modeling algorithms. The paper advocates for a data-driven decision-making framework, supporting the development of robust corporate risk management strategies. Example use cases highlight the integration of cost-benefit analyses and the application of the “As Low As Reasonably Practicable” (ALARP) criteria.
Key insights include principles for aggregating risk assessment results, process considerations for identifying candidate measures, and a methodology for consistent, actionable conversations about risk thresholds. The paper underscores the economic and operational advantages derived from specific risk mitigation measures, validating the ALARP principle’s efficacy in guiding investment decisions.
Conclusions offer strides in fortifying operational resilience and sustainability while keeping safety in the forefront. By leveraging quantitative risk modeling, data aggregation, and a consistent strategy for decision-making, the paper provides a practical approach for industry professionals to proactively address challenges and foster a culture of enhanced risk management.
Effect of Polyethylene Pipe on Wall Sticking of Waxy Oil in Low-Temperature Transportation
Authors: Zhang Yu , Huang Qiyu , Zhen Hanpeng , Zhang Xun , Wang Yijie , Xu Zhenkang 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
With the rapid development of the modern oil industry, oilfields have gradually transformed from a phase of high crude oil production to a period of high water cut. Consequently, heat transportation, which involves significant economic expenditure, is no longer feasible. Therefore, low temperature gathering and transportation technology has been proposed and applied. It enables the safe transportation of high water cut crude oil at temperatures below the pour point and the technical cost is increased pipe friction, which is less than heating loss. The low-temperature transportation of high water cut waxy crude oil was an energy conservation compared with heat transportation. In some oil fields, polyethylene (PE) pipes were used for low-temperature transportation of high water cut waxy crude oil in order to solve economic and environmental problem caused by pipeline corrosion. Unfortunately, few studies on effect of polyethylene pipe on wall sticking of waxy oil at low-temperature has been conducted. In this study, the critical velocity of wall sticking of waxy crude oil in the polyethylene pipes was found to be lower than that in the stainless-steel (SS) pipes in low-temperature transportation. The shear effect and structural strength of oil-wax gel, the most important factors to influence wall sticking of waxy crude oil, were calculated and compared. The shear effect was found to be similar in two pipes and the radial temperature gradient in polyethylene pipes was lower than that in stainless-steel pipes, which resulted in higher interface temperature in PE pipes. Under the influence of higher interface temperature, the solid wax content at oil-water interface in PE pipes was lower than that in SS pipes. The structural strength was affected by the solid wax content and strength enhanced with increase of the solid wax content. The strength of gelled oil in polyethylene pipes was lower than that in stainless-steel pipes, which implied that gelled oil sticking on wall was easier to be stripped from pipe wall in PE pipes. Therefore, the difference of radial temperature gradient in PE and SS pipes dominated the wall sticking process of waxy oil sticking and resulted in the lower wall sticking critical velocity of gelled oil in PE pipes.