bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evaluation of Stress-Relief Excavation for Pipelines Affected by Landslides: Case Studies
Authors: Ahmadipur Amir , Haferd Jeffrey , Mosaiebian Arash , Karimpour Hamid , Ebrahimi Ali 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
One of the mitigation methods for a pipeline affected by landslides is stress-relief excavation. In this mitigation approach, the soil above and around the pipeline in the affected area is excavated to allow the pipeline to rebound and relieve some of the accumulated elastic stresses on the pipeline. This paper presents the data collected before, during, and after stress-relief excavations at four landslide sites in the USA. These case studies include a variety of pipe strain condition, geometry, and ground conditions in which the stress-relief excavations were performed. The collected information includes pipe rebound measurements using survey laths, strain change measurements during and/or after stress-relief excavations using strain gauges when available, and pipeline rebound and strain change comparison before and after the stress-relief excavations using inertial measurement unit (IMU) measurements, when available.
Essential Elements of a Holistic Framework for the Management of Geohazards
Authors: Wang Yong-Yi , Liu Banglin , Warman David , Jia Dan 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Geohazards are a major contributor to pipeline incidents. A pipeline incident occurs when the demand on a pipeline segment exceeds its capacity. The demand is the loading imposed on the pipeline segment, while the capacity is the ability of the pipeline segment to resist the demand before an undesirable event, such as a leak or rupture, occurs.
Many geohazards management programs focus on the detection, characterization, mitigation, and monitoring of geotechnical hazards, i.e., demand, with limited consideration for the capacity of the affected pipeline segments. In some cases, mitigation decisions are made largely based on the characteristics of the hazards and whether the hazards are interacting with the pipeline. This approach can lead to over- or under-reaction as the hazards alone do not fully represent the level of integrity risk due to the lack of accounting for the capacity.
Geohazards could be managed more economically with a holistic approach covering the characteristics of hazards and the pipeline’s capacity. Mitigation decisions based on quantifiable safety margins, stability of the site, risk tolerance, and operational considerations can provide the most flexibility in the timing, scope, and methods of mitigation while ensuring the safety of the pipeline. A proactive integrity-focused approach can also aid pipeline operators’ decision making and response to emergency situations.
This paper presents a holistic approach to geohazards management with an ultimate goal of maintaining pipeline integrity. Lessons are drawn from incidents and successes. A contrast is made between the industry’s approach to managing common threats, such as corrosion, mechanical damage, and cracking, and its approach to managing geohazards. Different approaches to geohazards management as implemented by pipeline operators are described. Key elements of a holistic approach to geohazard management are explained and recommendations for practical actions are provided.
Case Study: Application of Best Practices for Pipeline Construction on Steep Slopes
Authors: Deelen Arend , Van Megen Clayton , Murray Carrie , Smith Colby , Bartel Riley , Bajnok Jesse 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In 2019, Coastal GasLink started the construction of the 670 km-long 48-inch gas pipeline across the province of British Columbia (BC) Canada. The project was constructed across varied terrain, including construction across two mountain ranges, the Rocky Mountains and the Coastal Mountain Range. The final 83 km of pipeline (Section 8) is characterized by an ascent through the Coastal Mountains to the highest point on the project at 1,428 m above sea level and a descent to sea level at the LNG Canada terminal in Kitimat, BC. Pipeline Section 8 contained a number of steep slopes (SS) ranging in angle from 15 degrees to 63 degrees. Many of these steep slopes had unique features, ranging from topography, geohazards, construction windows, accessibility, and weather-related factors. Each factor contributed to the selection process for the most suitable method of steep slope pipeline construction.
The steep slope pipeline construction techniques which were used consisted of:
i. Conventional open cut via trenching by blasting and mechanical excavation,
a. Open cut using winch-supported equipment,
b. Open cut with hydraulic sled using a top-down pipeline installation sequence,
ii. Raise bore of an inaccessible steep slope (SS3), and
iii. Cable cranes over a steep mountain side with slope lengths of up to 1,373 m and slopes angles up to 58 degrees.
The raise bore and the cable crane construction techniques were a first in Canada for pipeline installation, providing innovative and unique solutions to pipeline construction.
The objective of this case study is to provide an overview of the various steep slope pipeline construction techniques, provide a discussion on the challenges and successes for each technique with a summary of the lessons learned. A summary of the safety practices developed and implemented will also be presented.
Application of Gaussian Process Classification to the Integrity Management of Energy Pipelines
Authors: Sun Haotian 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Leveraging algorithms that autonomously evolve with data, machine learning has become integral and been extensively applied to the pipeline integrity management practice to create accurate predictive models, whose outputs can either be numerical or categorical. The latter corresponds to the classification analysis, whose models typically yield deterministic outputs, categorizing data points as of either the positive or negative class. However, practical engineering scenarios may demand a more nuanced approach. Additionally, the conventional “black-box” nature of many machine learning models often hinders their interpretability. This study introduces Gaussian Process Classification (GPC) — a probabilistic classification algorithm that has been found to be underutilized — to the realm of pipeline integrity management, where challenges in the classification accuracy and efficiency of specific problems have become noteworthy. Unlike some classifiers, GPC provides the probability that a data point belongs to the positive class, allowing for a more flexible decision-making process. Notably, users can self-determine the threshold probability. Moreover, the predictive process of GPC is analytically transparent, enhancing the overall interpretability of the machine learning model. The algorithm is applied to three distinct binary classification problems within pipeline integrity management: separating failure modes for cracked pipelines, differentiating failure modes for corroded pipelines, and predicting ignition upon rupture of onshore natural gas transmission pipelines, while each problem involves unique input features. The machine learning models for these problems undergo thorough training via hyperparameter tuning using the maximum likelihood method. This approach improves model robustness, mitigates overfitting, and optimizes performance. The developed GPC models are benchmarked against existing mechanics-based and log-logistic models for comparative evaluation, whose results demonstrate the accuracy and superiority of GPC in these specific scenarios. The present study demonstrates the value of probabilistic machine learning for improving the pipeline integrity management practice.
Integrated Methodology for Dent Gouging Susceptibility Studies: A Comprehensive Analysis Incorporating In-Line Inspection Data and Field Validation
Authors: Holliday Chris , Curtis Chris 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Failure of a pipeline due to excavation damage accounts for &gt; 11% of reported pipeline incidents in the United States between 2004 and 2023. However, perhaps more alarming is that excavation accounts disproportionately for the majority of both human fatalities and injuries; in fact, 24% of fatalities and 23% of injuries are reported to be a result of excavation damage.
With improvements in in-line inspection (ILI) technology and data analysis processes, in addition to the trending focus of the industry on deformations, it is common for an ILI to detect and report several hundred dents in a given inspected pipe segment. How, then, does an operator accurately and pragmatically determine which of these dents are a result of excavation damage and potentially contain gouging?
This paper proposes an innovative integrated methodology for the identification of dent gouging susceptibility in pipelines, with a primary focus on identifying the likelihood of potential third-party interference (TPI). The approach aims to enhance the understanding of dent-related threats by incorporating a comprehensive signal level analysis of metal loss, cracking and deformation in-line inspection (ILI) data. The study also considers various critical parameters such as depth of cover, dent restraint condition, dent shape and size, dent orientation, interaction with metal loss, ILI sensor lift-off, and other relevant factors.
The study also introduces a benchmarking process, utilizing field-validated dents with gouges. By comparing the ILI data from these validated cases with the proposed integrated methodology, both the reliability and accuracy of the approach are substantiated. This benchmarking step not only enhances the credibility of the proposed methodology, it also provides a practical validation of its effectiveness in identifying and characterizing gouges resulting from third-party interference.
The proposed methodology represents a holistic and proactive approach to dent gouging susceptibility studies, providing pipeline operators with a comprehensive toolset for the determination of the probability of TPI. By incorporating advanced data analysis techniques and benchmarking against field-validated cases, the approach offers a framework for identifying and mitigating threats associated with third-party interference-induced dents, thereby enhancing the overall integrity management of pipelines.
Trial and Error — Applications of Machine Learning Models to Pipeline Integrity Data
Authors: Kalivoda Mia , Iyer Parth , Allanbrook Wesley , Goertzen Josh 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
For pipeline operators, a thorough understanding of machine learning’s strengths and limitations is key to reaping the benefits of data-informed decision-making and efficient use of resources. This paper conducts an analysis of different machine learning models and data quality assessment tools/analytical methodology, bolstered by case studies, highlighting the critical need to choose a model that best aligns with the specific characteristics of the data to fully leverage these benefits. This paper undertakes an analytical exploration of the strengths and limitations inherent to each model, complemented by various case studies as a proof of concept of leveraging machine learning in the pipeline integrity workflow.
The accuracy of Bayesian Networks (BN) and Natural Language Processing (NLP) in predicting text-based data entries from inline inspection feature comments was compared, showcasing one model’s substantial superior performance.
Another case study revealed variation in the accuracy of BN in predicting absent information, by comparing predictions derived from a dataset with missing entries, against a modified validation dataset.
A final case study highlights the ability of text string comparison using Fuzzy Matching in automated Data Quality Assessment applications, to efficiently match and categorize wall thickness and outside diameter values, portraying significant time saving advantages.
A Comparison of Lidar Change Detection Informed Buried Pipe Deformation Analysis to High Resolution IMU Survey Data
Authors: Albin Brian , Wade Adam , Hart James D. , Gilbert Wayne 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
A highway widening project necessitated the reroute of a PG&E high pressure gas transmission line, resulting in a new pipeline alignment adjacent to a 155-foot-tall slope. Incipient slope failure, first observed as distress to the nearby highway, resulted in PG&E proactively reducing pressure in the section of pipeline believed to be within the nearby landslide mass. Several years of survey monitoring indicated that slope movement was ongoing, however, federal regulations require internal integrity inspections at regular intervals. These inspections require significantly higher pressure than was currently in the potentially distressed pipeline. Prior to increasing pressure for the inspection, PG&E performed an analysis to confirm that the creeping landslide mass had not compromised the pipeline integrity.
This paper describes a project application wherein lidar cloud differencing calculation methods were used to develop estimates of vertical and horizontal ground movements profiles associated within the landslide along the PG&E gas transmission pipeline. Estimated ground movement profiles were used as inputs to buried pipeline deformation analysis models which were subjected to internal pressure and temperature differential loads. The models were used to develop estimates of along-pipe profiles of pipeline curvature, bending strains, axial and von Mises stresses and axial forces. The lidar-based estimated ground movement profiles were compared to pipeline geometry profiles measured during a recent high resolution IMU survey of the pipeline, as well as comparisons with the key pipeline deformation results estimated from the buried pipeline analysis models. This paper illustrates how the combination of lidar differencing calculation methods and buried pipe deformation analyses provided a reasonable comparison with IMU survey data. This project furnishes a unique example of how these technologies can be useful as an aid in decision making with respect to pipeline structural integrity considerations for geohazard induced permanent ground movements.
Enhancements in Susceptibility of Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) on Liquid and Gas Pipelines
Authors: Tehsin Nauman , Al-Rabeeah Mohammed A. , Alghamdi Abdullah S. , Abduljawad Yaseen A. , Al-Saif Ahmad R. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Saudi Aramco is a fully integrated, global petroleum enterprise and a world leader in exploration, production, refining, transportation, distribution, shipping and marketing. The company runs a vast network of vintage pipelines from pre-1979 period to transport oil, gas and refined products all over the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Aramco initiated the inspection of these vintage liquid and gas pipelines using Ultrasonic Crack Detection In-Line-Inspection (UTCD ILI) tools and Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer ILI (EMAT ILI) tools respectively to detect the presence of Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). Following the inspection, Saudi Aramco has discovered SCC on both liquid and gas pipelines. Saudi Aramco built on the hybrid criteria for identifying SCC susceptible segments using ASME B31.8S [1], CEPA [2], and TTO8 [3] criteria to prioritize its network for conducting inspections on SCC. The criteria were based on pipeline design and operating parameters, environment, age and condition. A total of 43 pipelines (both liquid and gas) were inspected for SCC, where, 21 pipelines exhibited SCC which was also verified through direct examination.
This paper discusses in more detail how Saudi Aramco capitalized on the existing industry literature to enhance the SCC susceptibility criteria, prioritized pipelines for SCC inspection, and the major findings and highlights realized from this activity. The study team from Saudi Aramco used logistic regressions [4] to identify factors that increase or decrease the likelihood that cracking is present. The findings were used to identify liquid and gas pipelines susceptible to cracking to include in the future ILI run.
The Role of Residual Stress in Circumferential Stress Corrosion Cracking – An Initial Study
Authors: Long Fei , Persaud Suraj , Daymond Mark R. , Zhang Ken , Chune Ronald 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
In the past decade, several near-neutral pH external circumferential stress corrosion cracking (C-SCC) were found in various pipelines, and some features have led to in-service or hydrostatic test leaks. Previous studies have emphasized the significant role of stress in the integrity management of C-SCC, primarily in two aspects: i) the initiation and propagation of C-SCC, and ii) the burst and fitness for service (FFS) assessment of known C-SCC features.
Earlier research revealed that most C-SCC colonies were located near the top or bottom of the pipe, often associated with vertical field bends or local deformation at the bottom of the pipe, and often they are found on slopes. The mechanisms of stress corrosion cracking suggest that axial stress must surpass hoop stress for cracks to align in the circumferential direction. Historically, the sources of axial stress were identified as geohazard-induced axial stress, pressure-induced axial tension, or cross-sectional or local deformation. However, stress analysis on several recently discovered C-SCCs in operational natural gas pipelines revealed low global axial stress at these locations. This finding, confirmed by the observation of minimal or no movement during cut-out, necessitates a better understanding of additional axial stress sources, such as surficial residual stress at these locations.
In this study, detailed electron microscopy characterization was carried out on pipeline sections containing developed C-SCC. Advanced microscopy using focused ion beam (FIB) and S/TEM (scanning transmission electron microscopy) revealed that the formation of SCC is closely related to development of cracking/corrosion on cementite precipitates at the grain boundaries. Through thickness residual stress measurement and mapping were performed using high energy Synchrotron x-ray diffraction on both cracked and non-cracked pipe sections cut from in-service natural gas pipelines. The test results suggest high residual stress with substantial amplitude variation existed in the pipeline that had C-SCCs formation.
Hydrogen Pressure Cycling of Subscale Pipes to Simulate Full-Scale Testing of Transmission Pipelines
Authors: San Marchi Chris , Ronevich Joseph A. , Schroeder Benjamin , Davis Brendan C. 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Full-scale testing of pipes is costly and requires significant infrastructure investments. Subscale testing offers the potential to substantially reduce experimental costs and provides testing flexibility when transferrable test conditions and specimens can be established. To this end, a subscale pipe testing platform was developed to pressure cycle 60 mm diameter pipes (Nominal Pipe Size 2) to failure with gaseous hydrogen. Engineered defects were machined into the inner surface or outer surface to represent pre-existing flaws. The pipes were pressure cycled to failure with gaseous hydrogen at pressures to match operating stresses in large diameter pipes (e.g., stresses comparable to similar fractions of the specified minimum yield stress in transmission pipelines). Additionally, the pipe specimens were instrumented to identify crack initiation, such that crack growth could be compared to fracture mechanics predictions. Predictions leverage an extensive body of materials testing in gaseous hydrogen (e.g., ASME B31.12 Code Case 220) and the recently developed probabilistic fracture mechanics framework for hydrogen (Hydrogen Extremely Low Probability of Rupture, HELPR). In this work, we evaluate the failure response of these subscale pipe specimens and assess the conservatism of fracture mechanics-based design strategies (e.g., API 579/ASME FFS). This paper describes the subscale hydrogen testing capability, compares experimental outcomes to predictions from the probabilistic hydrogen fracture framework (HELPR), and discusses the complement to full-scale testing.
A Novel Correlation Model Between the Critical CTOD and Crack Tip Constraint of High-Grade Pipeline Girth Weld
Authors: Zhang Dong , Zhang Hong , Zhang Haonan , Yang Yue , Feng Qingshan , Wang Dongying , Wang Chong , Liu Xiaoben 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
Under the action of external load, the crack driving force of the girth weld is greater than the fracture toughness of the material, which will lead to the fracture failure accident of the girth weld of the pipeline. As an important parameter of the failure limit state prediction model, the fracture toughness of the material is affected by the constraint state of the structural crack tip. Therefore, it is necessary to establish an accurate correlation between the fracture toughness of the material and the crack tip constraint. In this paper, based on the theory of meso-damage mechanics, a multi-scale numerical simulation model of crack propagation resistance of girth welds is established to accurately describe the complete fracture behavior of crack tip passivation, crack initiation and tearing. An accurate characterization method of crack tip constraint difference of weld metal based on the equivalent plastic zone area of crack tip is proposed. A unified correlation between the CTOD of girth welds and the crack tip constraint is established, which is suitable for different material properties. The accuracy of the established constraint-fracture toughness correlation is verified by the finite element calculation results of full-scale pipeline girth welds, and the average relative error is less than 4 %. The research results can provide theoretical guidance for the accurate determination of fracture toughness of pipeline girth welds in fracture evaluation.
Pipeline Performance Monitoring in a Geohazard Management Program Using Inline Inspection and Strain Gauges
Authors: Manicke Heidi , Babcock Joel , Dewar Doug , Charlesworth Coleby , Rubinstein Laura 
Published: December 2024

Abstract
The focus of a pipeline Geohazard Management Program (GMP) has often been on monitoring ground movement at geohazard locations using technologies such as Borehole Inclinometers (BIs), surface surveys, and ground inspections. Often geotechnical engineers drive the investigation and monitoring of a pipeline intersecting a geohazard; therefore, less emphasis is placed on monitoring the impact on the pipeline and more focus is on monitoring the geohazard directly. Two common methods of monitoring pipeline performance in geohazards are Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges (VWSGs) and In-Line Inspection Inertial Measurement Unit (ILI IMU) surveys.
Vibrating Wire (VW) is a mature technology that has been used in a variety of monitoring applications, including monitoring strain in steel members such as pipelines, for nearly a century [1]. ILI IMU data analysis has been successfully used to detect landslide interactions in pipelines for over 25 years [2], with ongoing developments in technologies such as axial strain monitoring tools.
This paper highlights two cases studies where the efficacy of these monitoring techniques is examined and compared. This paper includes a discussion of the limitations of both VWSGs and ILI IMU and how these technologies can be complementary in a pipeline GMP, including recommendations on strain gauge implementation.