bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Living Selflessly
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter details how the two truths and emptiness hold the key to living a more compassionate and engaged life. First, it is worth reflecting on the importance of conventions: Conventional truths are still truths and are relevantly different from conventionally false things. Realizing emptiness does not preclude genuine interaction with others on a conventional level. More important, internalizing the emptiness of all things brings with it an important ethical shift. It helps an individual to break out of the confines that the idea of a self imposes, allowing that individual to live a life that is less isolated and more compassionate. This ethical shift is central to a very important concept in many forms of Buddhism: the bodhisattva. This term is used to characterize a particular selfless ideal. The bodhisattva becomes someone who works toward helping others better see reality and live in accordance with it. They aim to solve the problem not just for themselves, but for all beings.
Solitude and Meditation
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter describes the role of solitude and meditation in Buddhism. Solitude does play an important role in many Buddhist practices. The problem one is out to solve is very difficult and the intellectual, perceptual, and emotional habits that stand in the way are deep-seated. This means that attacking the problem requires focused time and energy. Establishing some distance from the diversions and pace of life allows the space to confront the problem in a sustained way. Many practices involve not only sustained focus, but also a greater degree of perceptual sensitivity to what is happening in the body and mind. It is not just being away from distractions that helps, but being away from the demands of the social world. Buddhists, particularly those who specialize in meditative practices, can take retreats that last for years. For those just starting out, such long periods of solitude can be dangerous. There is a reason that solitary confinement can be traumatic: Being suddenly alone for long stretches without preparation is psychologically risky.
Mindfulness of Breathing
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores mindfulness. As a Buddhist technique, mindfulness involves sustained attention to particular things in special ways in order to change how an individual experiences the world. The Buddhist concept of mindfulness includes not just attention, but also what we would call memory. To represent this connection with memory, many scholars use the term “retention” instead. This captures the idea of not only fixing attention on something but also keeping it there. There is a wide range of mindfulness techniques. A very common beginning exercise is centered on breathing. Indeed, it is a technique that has become widely taught and practiced outside of Buddhist circles. As such, it will be important to highlight how it works when done as a distinctly Buddhist practice.
Mindfulness of Death
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter studies Buddhist practices around death. Buddhist practice includes a wide range of reflections on death. Impermanence can be easy to accept as an abstract, intellectual idea, but death makes it personal and tangible. As such, these reflections can seem pretty grim. That is why it is important to remember their role in the larger contexts of Buddhist practice. They help an individual to get used to harsh truths about how the world is and change habitual responses to accommodate those truths. The idea is to reflect on the reality of death from a certain frame of mind—a diagnostic one intended to shed light on difficult aspects of reality and how one's intuitive responses deny or distort them. In a Buddhist context, the individual reflects on difficult things like death in order to better deal with it, to be able to forge a life in full view of such difficult facts.
Flesh and Bones
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses how many techniques in Buddhism involve reflecting in detail on physical bodies, both an individual’s own and those of others. These techniques typically emphasize the disgusting and repulsive aspects of each part of the human body. They also reveal ways in which the individual relates to their own body and subtle ways they are attracted to or repulsed by those of others. In traditional sources, women's bodies in particular are singled out for reflection and represented as impure and undesirable. As modern readers, this is one place where people are forced to consider the context of canonical Buddhist texts: Many were written by and for celibate monks in a cultural context where heterosexuality was assumed as the norm and women's status in society was far from equal to men's. There is no denying that today, such practices as written reinforce harmful body image norms and sexist attitudes. However, rather than pretending that such texts and practices do not exist, we are better off thinking about the underlying purpose of such reflections. This allows us to face up to uncomfortable historical facts while also illuminating how such practices might be adapted to be relevant in our own circumstances.
Gifts and Offerings
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter describes the wide range of Buddhist practices that center on offerings and gifts. For Buddhists, generosity is fundamentally about not being attached to things. These things might be material wealth but can also be more abstract things like time, knowledge, or even recognition. A generous individual sees clearly that there is no persisting self through time, so rather than holding on to these things lets them go easily. Meanwhile, selfless giving is strongly emphasized in a practice associated with Japanese Buddhism where the individual helps others secretly, without anyone knowing. This is a way of making sure that the giving is totally free from any hint of desire for praise or recognition. This kind of generosity is not done to get thanks nor is it done to make others see how virtuous the individual is. It is done solely to benefit others.
Sacred Speech
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter studies Buddhist practices that make use of sound in general and the human voice in particular. These practices are some of the most popular and widespread in the Buddhist world. They often involve saying a short series of syllables over and over. Sometimes these have linguistic meaning, sometimes not. Other practices involve recalling a particular Buddha by saying their name out loud. Though different in many ways, they all rely on the unique power of the human voice. The chapter then considers mantras. A particular mantra is a particular series of syllables that one repeats over and over. They might be repeated mentally but are usually repeated out loud, though sometimes quietly, as a barely audible murmur. Different mantras are supposed to invoke different buddhas, bodhisattvas, or even texts. This means that Buddhists bring them to mind or appeal to them.
Clearing Your Mind
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter discusses Buddhist practices that aim at a direct experience of the world free from concepts and labels. As an important practice in some schools of Zen Buddhism, koans have many uses and functions, some of which involve moving beyond language and concepts. One important role koans play is as a tool for the teacher to verify that a student has had a certain experience—that they have realized and internalized certain facts about the world. This is not about whether or not they know these things intellectually, but whether they get them on a gut level. Another practice important in Zen is called zazen—literally sitting Zen. These techniques aim at getting into a particular calm and receptive state of mind, free from the misleading effects of thought and categorization. In this state, one can better realize that all experiences are empty; since they are relational and impermanent, they all contain the key to solving the problem.
Convergences in the Ethics of Space Exploration
Authors: Green Brian Patrick 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter outlines the ethical frameworks provided by some of the leading figures in the contemporary debate on space exploration, identifying resonances between their views and traditional concepts in ethical philosophy such as natural law and virtue theory. One of the first deep similarities apparent to the ethical frameworks of these leading figures is that, to a certain extent, living things should just be left to be—that is, not meddled with, allowed to pursue their own ends. The second deep similarity between these ethics is that sometimes one ought to help things grow. As a third deep similarity is all of these ethics issues acknowledge that problems appear when one organism’s natural goals conflict with those of another organism. This, then, promotes the idea that one should avoid conflicts that harm other living things. Ultimately, despite their differences, these ethics converge on a broadly applicable ethical framework: protect alien life in proportion to its capacity for excellence.
Patterns of Law and Order Policies in 20 Western Industrialized Countries
Authors: Wenzelburger Georg 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 3 provides a quantitative analysis of the politics of law and order. It is presented in three steps. First, it is tested whether party competition affects how much parties emphasize law and order issues in their programs and whether this is different for issue owners. The study reveals that high public salience of security-related issues pushes all parties to emphasize law and order more strongly and that issue owners react strongly to the pressure of right-wing populist parties by emphasizing law and order in their manifestos. Second, the quantitative analysis tests whether these different programmatic stances translate into more spending on law and order. This is indeed the case, but only if constitutional courts are weak. Third, the analysis takes a closer look at legislation in France, Germany, Sweden, and the United Kingdom and finds the main results of the analysis on public spending corroborated.
The Partisan Politics of Law and Order: Past, Present and Future
Authors: Wenzelburger Georg 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Chapter 7 summarizes the main findings of the book and links them to the existing literature. It emphasizes the importance of putting political parties center stage when analyzing law and order policies. The chapter concludes by discussing three scenarios on how law and order policies may develop given the recent changes in political systems in Western democracies.
Selling Ideas
Authors: Khan B. Zorina 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
An extensive global market in patent rights and patented inventions helped creative men and women to increase their returns from inventive activity. Prominent multinational corporations further depended on portfolios of patents to acquire and maintain their domestic and worldwide competitive advantage. Markets in ideas aided the transfer of technology across the United States, Britain, Germany, Canada, Spain, and Japan. Patterns in the sale of patents and foreign patenting were responsive to national differences in incentives, legal rules, and institutions. The results shed light on central debates in economic development, including the net benefits of tailoring patent institutions to individual circumstances, relative to adherence to harmonized international standards.
The Mormons in Mexico, 1875–1901
Authors: Pulido Elisa Eastwood 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the origins of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Mexico, from the 1875 journey of the first missionaries to Mexico to the 1887 establishment of polygamous Mormon Colonies in the northern Mexican wilderness. The chapter argues that early converts to Mormonism in Mexico were attracted first to etiological narratives from Mormon scripture expounding on the chosen-ness of indigenous Americans and second to Mormon communalism. Early converts included Plotino Rhodakanaty, the father of Mexican anarchism, who sought to build a colony in collaboration with the Mormon Church. His aversion to hierarchical control soon separated him from Mormonism. Agrarian peasants from villages on Mexico’s Central Plateau found Mormon narratives regarding Mexico’s prophetic past and future compelling. In 1887, the Mormon Church turned its attention from proselytizing in order to build colonies in Mexico as safe havens for polygamists fleeing federal prosecution in the United States.
Mind Control
Authors: Herdova Marcela , Kearns Stephen 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter explores the relationship between self-control and decision-making. In particular, it examines various problems with the idea that agents can (and do) exercise self-control over their decisions. Two facts about decisions give rise to these problems. First, decisions do not result from intentions to make those very decisions. Second, decisions are often made when agents are uncertain what to do, and thus when agents lack best judgments. On the common understanding of self-control as an ability to act in line with an intention or best judgment (in the face of counter-motivation), decisions are not, and perhaps cannot, be the subject of self-control. In light of this, the authors propose that this common conception of self-control needs revision. As well as commitment-based self-control, they argue that there is also non-commitment-based self-control—the type of self-control over an action that need not involve any prior evaluative or executive commitment.
Achieving Goals by Imposing Risk
Authors: Hawley Katherine 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
When one is struggling to get motivated, one sometimes turns to social accountability strategies: telling others about one’s plans, or even promising to stick to them, in the hope that publicity will help achieve one’s goals. In this chapter, the author distinguishes four different strategies for social accountability, which vary in the content and strength of the commitments they involve. The chapter then explores different ways these strategies put one’s own interests, and those of others, on the line. When other people’s interests are at stake, this raises ethical questions about whether it is permissible to risk harm to others in order to achieve one’s own goals. The chapter shows how this can fruitfully be thought of as a problem within the morality of risk imposition. But, finally, it also argues that thinking in terms of risk imposition does not capture everything one cares about in the ethics of social accountability.
Self-Control, Cooperation, and Intention’s Authority
Authors: O’Brien Lilian 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
In this chapter the author defends a novel view of the relationships among intention for the future, self-control, and cooperation. The author argues that when an agent forms an intention for the future she comes to regard herself as criticizable if she does not act in accordance with her intention. In contexts where the agent has inclinations that run contrary to her unrescinded intention, her disposition for reflexive criticism helps her to resist these inclinations. Such intentions have, the author argues, a built-in mechanism for exercising self-control. The author goes on to argue that this mechanism can also function as a mechanism for cooperative behavior. Agents are not just equipped to abide by plans for the future, they are also thereby equipped for exercising self-control and for cooperating.
Introduction
Authors: Koppelman Andrew 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Should religious people who conscientiously object to facilitating same-sex weddings, and who therefore decline to provide cakes, photography, or other services, be exempted from antidiscrimination laws? This issue has taken on an importance far beyond the tiny number who have made such claims. Gay rights advocates fear that exempting even a few religious dissenters would unleash a devastating wave of discrimination. Conservative Christians fear that the law will treat them like racists and drive them to the margins of American society. Both sides are mistaken. This is not a matter of abstract principle, and none of the constitutional claims work. This is an appropriate occasion for legislative negotiation. This book is the only systematic accounting of the interests that must be balanced in any decent compromise, in terms that both sides can recognize and appreciate. This book explains the basis of antidiscrimination law, including the complex idea of dignitary harm. It shows why even those who do not regard religion as important or valid nonetheless have good reasons to support religious liberty, and why those who regard religion as a value of overriding importance should nonetheless reject the extravagant power over nonbelievers that the Supreme Court has recently embraced. The book also proposes a specific solution to the problem: that religious exemptions be granted only to the few businesses that are willing to announce their compunctions and bear the costs of doing so—an approach makes room for America’s enormous variety of deeply held beliefs and ways of life.
The Experience
Authors: Stadler Nurit 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
In this chapter the author analyzes the ritualistic inner experience in female sacred places. The author shows the centrality of the body and the “ritual of the body in motion.” As mentioned in the book’s introduction, in the Holy Land, places of veneration and rituals are based on canonical texts or mythologies of particular saints. As such, the assumption was that rituals are a product of texts and their translation into action. However, this chapter shows different dynamics of these rituals. Although the canon and its physical manifestations are robust, it is mostly “the body in motion” that shapes the experience.
Environmental Art and the Interaction of Ethical and Aesthetic Value
Authors: Nannicelli Ted 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter argues that (1) in contrast to the art forms already discussed, the ethical criticism of which sometimes invites the perspectivist approach and sometimes demands the production-oriented approach, the proper ethical criticism of environmental art requires the production-oriented approach; (2) the production-oriented approach to the ethical criticism of environmental artworks lends support to the moderate moralist’s claim about the interaction of ethical and aesthetic value: the presences of ethical defects in environmental artworks sometimes diminishes their aesthetic value; (3) because environmental artworks appropriate part of the natural environment as an aspect of their identity, an aesthetic flaw in an environmental artwork necessarily also creates aesthetic disvalue in the natural environment—disvalue that exists in virtue of the creation of the artwork. Insofar as the diminishment of the aesthetic value of the natural environment is ethically wrong, the aesthetic flaws of an environmental artwork necessarily constitute ethical flaws.
On Separating the Art and the Artist
Authors: Nannicelli Ted 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
This chapter works through a number of cases featuring well-known musicians and painters—Michael Jackson, Miles Davis, Gord Downie, Richard Wagner, Paul Gauguin, Graham Ovenden, and Jackson Pollock—to try to answer the question about when and how artists’ moral character ought to bear upon the ethical and artistic appraisal of their work. The chapter rejects the empiricist view that some aspect of the artist’s character must be manifest in the work, arguing, instead, on the basis of an analogy with virtue ethics, that the ethical status of the artist’s motivation in creating the work is relevant to an appraisal of it.
A summary of the history of exploration at the Sterkfontein Caves in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site
Authors: Thackeray J. Francis 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Sterkfontein Caves, near Pretoria, South Africa, are part of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site. The caves have yielded hundreds of hominin fossils recovered over a period spanning more than a century. Exploration of the deposits has occurred in three phases. In the first phase from 1895–1935, fossils of various animals were recovered unsystematically by limestone miners, who noted fossiliferous breccias. The second phase, from 1936–1966, involved teams led by Robert Broom and John Robinson. Broom and Robinson’s excavations recovered many hominin fossils from Members 4 and 5, stone artifacts, and initial mapping of the Sterkfontein deposits. The third phase, 1966 until the present, included excavations led by Philip Tobias, Alun Hughes, Tim Partridge, Ron Clarke, Kathy Kuman, and Dominic Stratford. During this phase, the six members of the Sterkfontein deposits were recognized and characterized, and additional fossils of hominins and other fauna, as well as stone artifacts were recovered. Importantly, extensive analysis of fauna and paleonvironments was conducted. Hominin fossils were also recovered from Member 2. Considerable geochronological work has been done to characterize the complex stratigraphy and dating of these deposits. This chapter reviews the history of fieldwork at Sterkfontein.
A new multidisciplinary age of 2.61–2.07 Ma for the Sterkfontein Member 4 australopiths
Authors: Pickering Robyn , Herries Andy I.R. 
Published: June 2020

Abstract
Sterkfontein Caves is the single richest early hominin site in the world, with deposits yielding two potential species of Australopithecus, Paranthropus robustus, and early Homo, as well as an extensive faunal collection and stone tools. Recent advances in uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating of speleothems and palaeomagnetic analysis at Sterkfontein provide the first consistent chronological framework for Member 4 (MB4) and so the interned australopith fossils. Current data suggest that the MB4 deposit and so australopith remains accumulated over at least 400,000 years (2.4–2.0 Ma) if not 500,000–800,000 years. This long period of deposition should be taken into account when studying the MB4 australopith remains and looking at variability in both anatomy and other data such as isotopic evidence for diet.