bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory (c.1951)
Authors: Turing Alan 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Turing gave the presentation ‘Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory’ on a radio discussion programme called The ’51 Society. Named after the year in which the programme first went to air, The ’51 Society was produced by the BBC Home Service at their Manchester studio and ran for several years. A presentation by the week’s guest would be followed by a panel discussion. Regulars on the panel included Max Newman, Professor of Mathematics at Manchester, the philosopher Michael Polanyi, then Professor of Social Studies at Manchester, and the mathematician Peter Hilton, a younger member of Newman’s department at Manchester who had worked with Turing and Newman at Bletchley Park. Turing’s target in ‘Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory’ is the claim that ‘You cannot make a machine to think for you’ (p. 472). A common theme in his writing is that if a machine is to be intelligent, then it will need to ‘learn by experience’ (probably with some pre-selection, by an external educator, of the experiences to which the machine will be subjected). The present article continues the discussion of machine learning begun in Chapters 10 and 11. Turing remarks that the ‘human analogy alone’ suggests that a process of education ‘would in practice be an essential to the production of a reasonably intelligent machine within a reasonably short space of time’ (p. 473). He emphasizes the point, also made in Chapter 11, that one might ‘start from a comparatively simple machine, and, by subjecting it to a suitable range of ‘‘experience’’ transform it into one which was more elaborate, and was able to deal with a far greater range of contingencies’ (p. 473). Turing goes on to give some indication of how learning might be accomplished, introducing the idea of a machine’s building up what he calls ‘indexes of experiences’ (p. 474). (This idea is not mentioned elsewhere in his writings.) An example of an index of experiences is a list (ordered in some way) of situations in which the machine has found itself, coupled with the action that was taken, and the outcome, good or bad. The situations are described in terms of features.
Operative treatment of dental caries in the young permanent dentition
Authors: Smallridge J A , Albadri S 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Caries is a chronic disease. If it starts to affect the permanent teeth the child patient is drawn into a cycle requiring ongoing care for the rest of his/her life. Therefore when treating the young permanent dentition we have to adopt an approach that considers and addresses the whole disease process and not just treat the outcome of the disease. Caries is still a considerable problem in children and adolescents. The 2013 Child Dental Health Survey for England, Wales, and Northern Ireland found that, on average, nearly half (46%) of 15-year-olds and a third (34%) of 12-year-olds had obvious decay experience. Although the proportion of children with untreated dentinal caries has improved from 2003, it remained high at 21% and 19% for 15-year-olds and 12-year-olds, respectively. These children are at high risk of pain and discomfort relating to their teeth. The 2013 survey also looked at the impact on daily life. On average, a fifth of 12- and 15-year-old children reported experiencing difficulty eating, and about half reported that their life had been affected by problems with their teeth or mouth within the previous 3 months (Steele et al. 2015). Caries prevalence declined in the later decades of the twentieth century. As it dropped, a concentration of the disease occurred, with a small percentage of the population experiencing most of the disease. Caries prevalence is greatest in the occlusal surfaces of the first permanent molars and buccal grooves of the lower first molars, and the prevalence in these sites has dropped by the smallest proportion. The least susceptible sites are the approximal surfaces of the incisors, so caries seen in these permanent teeth indicates more extensive disease (Sheiham and Sabbah 2010). The first permanent teeth erupt in the mouth at approximately 6 years of age, but may appear as early as 4 years of age. The eruption of the anterior teeth usually causes great excitement, as it is associated with ‘the fluttering of tooth fairy wings’. However, the eruption of the first permanent molars goes largely unnoticed until there is a problem.
Introduction
Authors: Whymark Caroline , Junkin Ross , Ramsey Judith 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
To pass the written part of the FRCA, candidates must achieve the pass mark for the SAQs and the MCQ/ SBA papers combined. Therefore, doing particularly well in one paper, or one area, can compensate for another in which you have scored poorly. The 30 SBA questions is an area that candidates commonly find difficult. There is a feeling these questions are unjust and that it is impossible to second guess the examiners and choose the correct option. They feel further punished that four marks are awarded for each correct answer or lost for an incorrect choice. While this reflects the fact that four answers have been eliminated in the course of choosing the best answer, candidates often state it is an unfair ‘all or nothing’ way to mark these questions. They can commonly narrow the choice down to a final two options but report finding it difficult to then choose between them. They receive no credit having successfully eliminated three of the options and cite the SBA element as being the reason they failed the examination. These comments however are not supported by examination success data published by the RCoA. The pass rate for this paper was consistent at around 70% before and after the introduction of the SBA component in September 2011. We believe the concepts behind the SBAs are misunderstood by many. When asked to write a SBA question, candidates inevitably produce a five- part A to E multiple choice question but with only one correct answer. The finer points of SBA questions are lost among quickly written revision aids containing what the authors believe to be examination standard questions, when often they are not. Further, because SBAs are a relatively new element to the FRCA there is a limited bank of questions, and a highly restricted number in the public domain. Both these factors make practice of these questions difficult. Part of exam success is practice of the technique and question type in advance. We believe the practice of SBAs is an area to which candidates do not give enough attention.
Neurosurgery
Authors: Whymark Caroline , Junkin Ross , Ramsey Judith 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
To pass the written part of the FRCA, candidates must achieve the pass mark for the SAQs and the MCQ/ SBA papers combined. Therefore, doing particularly well in one paper, or one area, can compensate for another in which you have scored poorly. The 30 SBA questions is an area that candidates commonly find difficult. There is a feeling these questions are unjust and that it is impossible to second guess the examiners and choose the correct option. They feel further punished that four marks are awarded for each correct answer or lost for an incorrect choice. While this reflects the fact that four answers have been eliminated in the course of choosing the best answer, candidates often state it is an unfair ‘all or nothing’ way to mark these questions. They can commonly narrow the choice down to a final two options but report finding it difficult to then choose between them. They receive no credit having successfully eliminated three of the options and cite the SBA element as being the reason they failed the examination. These comments however are not supported by examination success data published by the RCoA. The pass rate for this paper was consistent at around 70% before and after the introduction of the SBA component in September 2011. We believe the concepts behind the SBAs are misunderstood by many. When asked to write a SBA question, candidates inevitably produce a five- part A to E multiple choice question but with only one correct answer. The finer points of SBA questions are lost among quickly written revision aids containing what the authors believe to be examination standard questions, when often they are not. Further, because SBAs are a relatively new element to the FRCA there is a limited bank of questions, and a highly restricted number in the public domain. Both these factors make practice of these questions difficult. Part of exam success is practice of the technique and question type in advance. We believe the practice of SBAs is an area to which candidates do not give enough attention.
Doing Without Thinking
Authors: Smith Gary 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Nigel Richards is a New Zealand–Malaysian professional Scrabble player (yes, there are professional Scrabble players). His mother recalled that, “When he was learning to talk, he was not interested in words, just numbers. He related everything to numbers.” When he was 28, she challenged him to play Scrabble: “I know a game you’re not going to be very good at, because you can’t spell very well and you weren’t very good at English at school.” Four years later, Richards won the Thailand International (King’s Cup), the world’s largest Scrabble tournament. He went on to win the U.S., U.K., Singapore, and Thailand championships multiple times. He won the Scrabble World Championship in 2007, 2011, and 2013. (The tournament is held every two years and he was runner-up in 2009). In May 2015, Richards decided to memorize the 386,000 words that are allowed in French Scrabble. (There are 187,000 allowable words in North American Scrabble.) He doesn’t speak French beyond bonjour and the numbers he uses to record his score each turn. Beyond that, Richards paid no attention to what the French words mean. He simply memorized them. Nine weeks later, he won the French-language Scrabble World Championship with a resounding score of 565–434 in the championship match. If he had studied 16 hours a day for 9 weeks, he would have an average of 9 seconds per word to memorize all 386,000 words in the French Scrabble book. However, Richards reportedly doesn’t memorize words one by one; instead, he goes page by page, with the letters absorbed into his memory, ready to be recalled as needed when he plays Scrabble. Richards played as quickly and incisively in the French tournament as he does in English-language tournaments, giving no clue that he cannot actually communicate in French. For experts like Richards, Scrabble is essentially a mathematical game of combining tiles to accumulate points while limiting the opponent’s opportunities to do the same and holding on to letters that may be useful in the future. The important skills are an ability to recognize patterns and calculate probabilities. There is no need to know what any of the words mean.
General medicine
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The oral cavity is the largest and most used orifice in the human body. It is the opening of the aerodigestive tract, as well as a region of the body that is heavily involved in both sensing the outside world and communi­cating with it. Simply put, our mouths are complex and deeply intimate structures that can act as windows into the health of the rest of the body. Many disease processes that are systemically invisible may display quite overt oral manifestations. There are deep associations between bodily diseases and oral dis­ease counterparts, with considerable and mounting evidence to show that oral health may have an impact on systemic wellness. It is there­fore important to have an understanding of the wider human anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Understand and treat the patient as a whole, and think about all aspects of their health, whether it be routine pre­ventative treatment for periodontally compromised diabetic patients or polypharmacy patients requiring secondary dental care. Often at times, patients can be unclear about their own health condi­tion; having a fundamental understanding of general medicine will help to make those difficult choices regarding your patients a little easier and clarify when and whom to refer. Key topics are not included for this chapter, as it is a vast topic, and not the main focus of the dental undergraduate curriculum. It is, however, important to have a good basic knowledge of general human diseases, how they might interact with dental treatment, and the role that dentists can play in both diagnosis and management
Dental materials
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Dental material science can be a daunting subject for most dentists, given its origins in the pure sciences of physics and chemistry. Combining this with human biology, and trying to see through the fog of material manu­facturers’ commercial claims, can make it seem like a truly mystifying subject. It is important that any student of material sciences maintains a critical eye and an evidence- based approach when it comes to material selection and use. Today we are lucky enough to work with the most advanced dental materials we have ever had. But simply having such materials at your dis­posal does not ensure success. Clinical procedural techniques are often the prime focus in restorative dentistry; however, to achieve optimal aesthetics, function, and longevity from restorations, a clear under­standing of material sciences is required. Ancient Roman engineers clearly understood this concept when con­structing Rome. They had to work within the limitations imposed by the materials they had at their disposal. However, the longevity and solidity of the impressive infrastructure we see today can be attributed to their expertise in exploiting the unique properties of the material resources they had available. The Romans perfected concrete production (based on volcanic ash and lime reacting with seawater to form tobermorite crystals) to yield a water- hardening material, so durable and resistant to cracks that modern- day concrete (based on Portland cement) is still considered weaker. It can be argued whether operator skill or advancements in dental ma­terials have resulted in improvements in restorative dentistry. However, few would disagree that it is the combination of good operator skill and appropriate use of dental materials that is the key for successful long-term dentistry. Key topics include: ● Adhesive dentistry concepts ● Understanding material physical properties ● Elemental make- up of materials ● Manufacturing processing of materials ● Biocompatibility ● Appreciation of setting reactions and working time ● Appreciation of material aesthetic and optical properties.
Statistics, epidemiology, and dental public health
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The content of this subject is frequently overlooked, as it is often ‘not seen as pertinent’ to practitioners’ day- to- day work. However, the impact of dental public health (DPH) as a discipline can be far reaching. DPH is concerned with improving the oral health of the population, rather than the individual. It has been described as the science and art of preventing oral disease, promoting oral health, and improving quality of life through the organized efforts of society. DPH teams have numerous responsibilities, including oral health sur­veillance, developing and monitoring quality dental services, oral health improvement, policy and strategy development and implementation, and strategic leadership and collaborative working for health. As such, the impact of DPH can frequently been seen at a local level, e.g. through health promotion campaigns or provision of new/ redistribution of ser­vices (in conjunction with commissioners) to meet local needs. DPH is predominantly a postgraduate subject, and although the undergraduate curriculum does not cover the whole topic, some core knowledge is valuable. In particular, understanding research method­ology and basic statistics is a useful skill to help interpret the dental lit­erature appropriately. This is ever more necessary in the modern era of evidence- based dentistry. The questions in this chapter will predominantly cover the fundamen­tals of statistics relevant to medical research, along with the basics of study design. Additional questions will touch on the concepts of health promotion and epidemiology, with further reading suggested to supple­ment the content. Key topics include: ● Study design ● Data analysis ● Critical appraisal ● Epidemiology ● Health promotion ● Strategic working and collaboration ● Assessing evidence on oral health and dental interventions, pro­grammes, and services ● Developing and monitoring quality dental services.
Coinage and Identity in Pre-conquest Britain: 50 BC–AD 50
Authors: Williams Jonathan 
Published: November 2020

AbstractThis Chapter Looks at Coins made and used by peoples on the edge of the Roman world in Britain just before and just after their conquest. In it I want to ask what the evidence of the coinage, its inscriptions, designs, and findspots, can say about various kinds of collective identity in Britain in the late pre-Roman Iron Age and early Roman periods, how they were constituted, and how they changed. The reason for focusing on Britain in this period is not merely that I know more about it than anywhere else. It provides a well-attested external case for comparison with contemporary developments within the Roman empire discussed elsewhere in this volume, especially with regard to such overarching and perhaps overused narrative themes as ‘Romanization’. It also allows us to explore certain current propositions about how to exploit coins as a source for understanding ancient identities. In recent scholarship in ancient history and archaeology, particularly English-language scholarship, ‘identity’ and its kindred concepts have become a major focus of thought and debate, particularly with regard to questions of ‘ethnic identity’, or ‘ethnicity’. So intense has been the focus and so absorbing the debate, however, that certain important aspects of human identity often tend to be left out of the picture. As an instance of this, I might cite the notion of ‘identity’ underlying this very volume, which seems essentially restricted in range to those aspects of identity which we think Roman provincial coin-types are able to tell us about—ethnic, civic, and political. These are important, of course, but they aren’t by any means the whole story. There is perhaps also a general presumption that provincial coin-types take us straightforwardly into the shared symbolic world of the civic communities in whose names they were made. The possibility that the coins and their designs might rather be selectively representing symbols associated with certain groups, the sponsors or adherents of a particular local temple depicted on a city’s coins, or the wealthy participants in a festival whose prize-crowns were adopted as a civic coin-type, is not generally taken into account.
Religious-Cultural Identity in Thrace and Moesia Inferior
Authors: Peter Ulrike 
Published: November 2020

AbstractThe Beauty and Attractions of Philippopolis, named after Philip II, king of Macedonia, praised in this poetical manner by Lucian, were also celebrated on its coinage in Roman times. Hence the river Hebrus, navigable up to Philippopolis in antiquity, was often depicted on coins; on Hadrianic coins it was even named (pl. 8.1, 1). Its great importance for the city is further reflected in the common illustrations of the river-god and the city-goddess (pl. 8.1, 2). And one coin with the river-god also shows other sources of wealth for the city: little genii are depicted representing agriculture and mining (pl. 8.1, 3). While the AIMOΣ, depicted only on coins of Nicopolis ad Istrum, is shown as a male personification (in the form of a young hunter), the smaller mountains of Rhodope, situated near Philippopolis, are depicted as a charming female figure with an explanatory legend (POΔOΠH) on coins of Philippopolis 108(pl. 8.1, 4). In addition, the three hills which formed the acropolis of the city (which, as a consequence, was called Trimontium in Roman times), and are known today as Nebet-, Džambaz-, and Taximtepe, were depicted (singly or all together) on coins of Philippopolis (pl. 8.1, 5). Sometimes even the other hills of the city (which are said to have been seven in all) can be seen on the coins. So a statue of Heracles, situated on a hill, supposedly represented the second highest elevation of the city, the Bundardžika (pl. 8.1, 6). The pictures of these hills are combined with appropriate buildings—temples, statues, aqueducts— on the coins (pl. 8.1, 7). It is clear that such illustrations conveyed a specific image of the city and the landscape, and were intended to show essential aspects of the common identity of the Philippopolites. As a consequence they give a good insight into the processes of acculturation which led to the formation or change of identities. They show how indigenous, local, or regional traditions, myths, and stories of origins were conserved or changed. They also inform us about the adaptation of foreign influences (for example, the taking over and/or integration of foreign deities in the local pantheon) or the resistance against such influences. Such central aspects of ‘Coinage and Identity’ will be studied in detail in this chapter, with special regard to Thrace and Moesia Inferior.
Pergamum as Paradigm
Authors: Weisser Bernhard 
Published: November 2020

AbstractThe Editors of this Book Requested a study of an individual city to contrast with the broader regional surveys. This contribution attempts to demonstrate the advantages of a fuller exploration of the specific context of a civic coinage by focusing on selected issues from the coinage of Pergamum— alongside Ephesus and Smyrna one of the three largest cities in the Western part of Asia Minor. In the Julio-Claudian period Pergamum’s coin designs were dominated by the imperial succession and the city’s first neocorate temple (17 bc–ad 59). In ad 59 Pergamum’s coinage stopped for more than two decades. When it resumed under Domitian (ad 83) new topics were continuously introduced until the reign of Caracalla (ad 211–17). These included gods, cults, heroes, personifications, architecture, sculpture, games, and civic titles. After Caracalla the city concentrated on a few key images, such as Asclepius or the emperor. At the same time, coin legends— especially civic titles—gained greater importance. This trend continued until the city’s coinage came to an end under Gallienus (ad 253–68). The overall range of Pergamum’s coin iconography was broadly similar to that of other cities in the East of the Roman empire. Coins of Pergamum from the imperial period fall into (at least) sixty-four issues, the most diverse of which employed twenty different coin types. In all, around 340 different types are currently known. They provide a solid base from which to explore various relationships. These include the relationship between coin obverses and reverses, as well as the place of an individual coin type within its own issue, and within the city’s coinage as a whole. Coin designs could allude to objects and events within Pergamum itself, or focus on the city’s connections with the outside world: with small neighbouring cities, with the other great cities within the province of Asia, or with Rome and the imperial family. Communication via the medium of civic coinage was in the first instance presumably directed towards the citizens of Pergamum. At the same time coinage also reflected developments outside the city. Social and geographical mobility was encouraged by an imperial system which allowed distinguished members of local elites access to the highest military and administrative posts.