bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Two Hands Clapping: Redox Reactions
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
I promised in Reactions 3 and 4 to lead you to the promised land of the modern understanding of oxidation and reduction reactions. This is the section where these two great chemical rivers flow together and acquire great explanatory power and wide applicability. I have already shown that one great class of reactions, those between acids and bases (Reaction 2), takes place by the transfer of one fundamental particle, the proton. I shall now show you that oxidation and reduction reactions all take place by the transfer of another fundamental particle, in this case the proton’s cousin, the electron. Don’t be put off by the thought that in this unification of two great rivers I am embarking on a highly abstract, distant-from-reality account. All I am doing is looking for and presenting the essential step that is involved in these reactions. This is a bit like looking for the core idea of many sports, which is to get a projectile to move into a particular location, be it soccer, baseball shooting, darts, archery, or billiards. I hope you will begin to appreciate in the course of this chapter that when chemists carry out their reactions by stirring, boiling, and mixing, all they are doing is encouraging fundamental particles, in this case electrons but in Reaction 2 protons, to migrate from where they are found to where the chemist wants them to be. Industry does the same coaxing on a massive scale. My aim here is to show you that everything I discussed in Reactions 3 and 4 boils down to the consequences of the transfer of electrons from one species to another. You have already caught a glimpse of that process as we stood together perilously deep inside the blast furnace in Reaction 4 and saw that O2– ions transfer electrons to Fe3+ ions to bring about the reduction of the ore to the metal. Tighten your intellectual seat belt. I intend to develop the very sparse view that oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is their gain. That is the austere message to take from this chapter, but I will cloak it in velvet.
Marriage Broking: Catalysis
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
A ‘catalyst’ is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being consumed. The Chinese characters for catalyst, which translate as ‘marriage broker’, convey the sense exactly. For instance, a huge advance in industrial chemistry was achieved early in the twentieth century when the German chemist Fritz Haber (1868–1934) found that nitrogen and hydrogen could be induced to combine to form ammonia, NH3, if the two gases were heated under pressure in the presence of iron. They hardly react at all if iron is not present. Haber’s achievement has helped to save the world, as well as contributing not a little to its destruction. Ammonia is of prime importance for the production of fertilizers, and through that application catalysis has helped to feed the world. Ammonia is also of prime importance for the manufacture of explosives, and through that application catalysis has taken away with that hand some of what the other hand has provided. The chemical industry could not function without catalysts as they enable reactions to occur at economically viable rates. They also enable some reactions to occur which in their absence would not occur at all. Catalysts are used to refine fuels, thus enabling transport. They are used in the manufacture of polymers, thus enabling the fabrication of so many of the artefacts of everyday life as well as the fabrics of fashion and furnishings. Without catalysts there would be very little of what we recognize as the familiar modern world. Our bodies also function under the control of catalysts. Biological catalysts are called enzymes, and I describe their function in Reaction 27. There are two broad classes of catalyst. A ‘heterogeneous catalyst’ is typically a solid and the reagents are liquids or gases that flow over the solid and react as they come into contact with it; this is the case with Haber’s catalyst. A ‘homogeneous catalyst’ is a gas or a substance that dissolves in a liquid reaction mixture. Anthropogenic (human-made) chorine atoms, perhaps from aerosol gases that have travelled up into the stratosphere, are homogeneous catalysts for the destruction of ozone.
Snapping Together: Condensation Polymerization
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
One of the most famous of all plastics is nylon. I shall use it to represent how the second type of polymers is made. There are many varieties of nylon, but it will be enough to consider just one exemplar, the one known as ‘nylon-66’. It is so called because the repeating motif is a chain of six carbon atoms, then a group of atoms that provide a link, and then another chain of six carbon atoms. The pattern C6-link-C6 is repeated indefinitely to give the ‘66’ polymer. As you will see in more detail in Reaction 27, nylon is a very primitive version of a protein-like molecule, the molecules that control all bodily process and also form claws, nails, and hair. A protein molecule has the same links but more varied combinations of carbon atoms. It is, however, an interesting point that we clad our exteriors in material that emulates our interiors. One of the molecules used to build the polymer is 1 (on the next page; note the six C atoms). As it happens, this molecule is a close relative, with four and five C atoms respectively instead of six, of the two compounds cadaverine and putrescine, with names indicate their origin and odour. Thus, not only does nylon emulate the living, but we clad ourselves in molecules akin to the odour of death. The other molecule we need is 2 (note the six C atoms again). The task of the nylon manufacturer is to link the –NH2 end of one molecule to the –COOH end of the other molecule, then doing it over and over again to grow long spindly polymer molecules. You know from Reaction 2 that NH3 is a base (a proton acceptor), so you should be able to accept that the –NH2 business end of molecule 1 is also a base. Similarly, you saw in the same discussion that –COOH is a structural motif of acetic acid, an acid (a proton donor), so you should be able to see that the business end of molecule 2 is an acid.
Zippers: Base Catalysis
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
A base, you should recall from Reaction 2, is the second hand clapping to the acid’s first. That is, whereas an acid is a proton donor, a base is its beneficiary as a proton acceptor. The paradigm base is a hydroxide ion, OH–, which can accept a proton and thereby become H2O. However, in the context of catalysis, the topic of this section, its role is rather different: instead of using its electrons to accept the proton, it uses them to behave as a nucleophile (Reaction 15), a searcher out of positive charge. Instead of forming a hydrogen–oxygen bond with an incoming proton, it sets the electronic fox among the electronic geese of a molecule by forming a new carbon–oxygen bond and thereby loosening the bonds to neighbouring atoms so that they can undergo rearrangement. The OH– ion in effect unzips the molecule and renders it open to further attack. Base catalysis has a lot of important applications. An ancient one is the production of soap from animal fat. To set that scene, I shall consider a simple model system, the ‘hydrolysis’ (severing apart by water) of the two components of an ester, 1 (the same compound I used in Reaction 17, a combination of acetic acid and ethanol), and then turn to soap-making itself. You saw in Reaction 17 how esters can be broken down into their components, a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, by an acid; here we see the analogous reaction in the presence of a base. To be specific, the reagent is a solution of sodium hydroxide, which provides the OH– ions that catalyse the reaction. We watch what happens when a solution of sodium hydroxide is added to an ester and the mixture is boiled. The O oxygen atoms of the ester have already ripened the molecule for nucleophilic attack by drawing some of the electron cloud away from the C atom to which they are both attached, leaving it with a partial positive charge, 2. The negatively charged OH– ion sniffs out that positive charge and jostles in to do its business.
Adding Up: Addition
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Adding up, or more formally ‘addition’, is just what it says: it is the attachment of atoms to a sensitive spot on a molecule. I need to stand back for a moment and explain what I mean by a ‘sensitive spot’. You already know (from Reaction 13) that some atoms are held to each other by an electron cloud (a ‘single bond’) and others by a doubly dense cloud (a ‘double bond’). There is a third type in which the atoms are held together by an even denser, triply dense cloud of electrons, forming a ‘triple bond’. Here I am concerned with the latter two types of bond, the so-called ‘multiple bonds’. These are the sensitive spots of organic molecules for it is quite easy to attack a multiple bond, rearrange the clouds, and attach other groups. For simplicity, I shall deal only with the more common type of multiply bonded molecule, one with a double bond. A double bond is a region rich in electrons, so you should suspect that any missile that will attack it will be an electrophile (a seeker-out of negative charge, of electron richness, Reaction 16). I shall consider a very simple case: the addition of bromine to cyclohexene, 1. As we have seen in Reaction 15, the presence of a bromine atom, Br, in a molecule is often the starting point for building on other groups of atoms, so this is an important reaction in a chain that might be used to construct something useful, such as a pharmaceutical. Bromine is a liquid composed of Br2 molecules. Cyclohexene is a liquid composed of hexagonal benzene-like molecules but with only one double bond in each molecule. Why I have chosen this slightly elaborate molecule rather than something simpler, such as ethylene (ethene, Reaction 13), will soon become clear. Let’s shrink together down to our normal molecular size and watch what happens as the bromine is poured into the cyclohexene. We already know from Reaction 16 that a bromine molecule has a nose for negative charge, so you should not be surprised to see one homing in on the electron-rich double bond of a nearby cyclohexene molecule.
Carbon Footprints: The Wittig Reaction
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
As a molecular architect working on an atomic construction site you need to be able to build up the carbon skeleton of your project, not merely decorate it with foreign atoms. There are dozens of different ways of doing that, and in this and the next section I shall introduce you to just two of them to give you a taste of what is available. A secondary point is that throughout chemistry you will find reactions denoted by proper nouns, recognizing the chemists who have invented or developed them. One example is that of the ‘Wittig reaction’, which is named after the German chemist Georg Wittig (1897–1987; Nobel Prize 1979). The reaction is used to replace the oxygen atom of a CO group in a molecule by a carbon atom, so that what starts out as decoration becomes part of a growing network of carbon atoms. You need to know that phosphine, PH3, 1, the phosphorus cousin of ammonia, NH3, is a base (Reaction 2). When it accepts a proton it becomes the ion PH4+. The H atoms in that ion can be replaced with other groups of atoms. A replacement that will be of interest is when three of the H atoms have been replaced by benzene rings and the remaining H atom has been replaced by –CH3. The resulting ion is 2. In the presence of a base, such as the hydroxide ion, OH–, the –CH3 group can be induced to release one of its protons, so the positive ion becomes the neutral molecule, 3. Note that there is a partial positive charge on the P atom and a partial negative charge on the C atom of the CH2 group. The presence of that partial negative charge suggests that the species could act as a nucleophile (Reaction 15), a seeker out of positive charge, with the CH2 group the charge-seeking head of the missile. Let’s watch what happens when 3 attacks a molecule with a CO group, specifically 4: perhaps you want to sprout a carbon chain out from the ring and intend to begin by replacing the O atom with a C atom.
Irritating Atmospheres: Atmospheric Photochemistry
Authors: Atkins Peter 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
The problem of photochemically generated smog begins inside internal combustion engines, where at the high temperatures within the combustion cylinders and the hot exhaust manifold nitrogen molecules and oxygen molecule combine to form nitric oxide, NO. Almost as soon as it is formed, and when the exhaust gases mingle with the atmosphere, some NO is oxidized to the pungent and chemically pugnacious brown gas nitrogen dioxide, NO2, 1. We need to watch what happens when one of these NO2 molecules is exposed to the energetic ultraviolet photons in sunlight. We see a photon strike the molecule and cause a convulsive tremor of its electron cloud. In the brief instant that the electron cloud has swarmed away from one of the bonding regions, an O atom makes its escape, leaving behind an NO molecule. We now continue to watch the liberated O atom. We see it collide with an oxygen molecule, O2, and stick to it to form ozone, O3, 2. This ozone is formed near ground level and is an irritant; ozone at stratospheric levels is a benign ultraviolet shield. Now keep your eye on the ozone molecule. In one instance we see it collide with an NO molecule, which plucks off one of ozone’s O atoms, forming NO2 and letting O3 revert to O2. Another fate awaiting NO2 is for it to react with oxygen and any unburned hydrocarbon fuel and its fragments that have escaped into the atmosphere. We can watch that happening too where the air includes surviving fragments of hydrocarbon fuel molecules. A lot of little steps are involved, and they occur at a wide range of rates. Let’s suppose that some unburned fuel escapes as ethane molecules, CH3CH3, 3. Although ethane is not present in gasoline, a CH3CH2· radical (Reaction 12) would have been formed in its combustion and then combined with an H atom in the tumult of reactions going on there. You already know that vicious little O atoms are lurking in the sunlit NO2-ridden air. We catch sight of one of their venomous acts: in a collision with an H2O molecule they extract an H atom, so forming two ·OH radicals.
Managing Infection
Authors: Prieto Jacqui , Kiernan Martin 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This chapter addresses the fundamental nursing role and responsibility of preventing the risk of infection in all healthcare settings. Every nurse should possess the knowledge and skills to assess the risk of infection, to select and implement evidence-based strategies to prevention infection, and to review the effectiveness of these to inform any necessary changes in care. Healthcare-associated infection (HCAI) is the term used to describe an infection that arises as a result of some exposure to healthcare. Unlike the more traditional terms ‘hospital-acquired’ or ‘nosocomial’ infection, this updated term encompasses the range of settings in which healthcare is delivered and from which infections may arise. In recent years, much of the attention on HCAIs has focused on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Clostridium difficile (C. difficile), both of which are closely monitored in acute hospitals and in England as part of a programme of mandatory surveillance (National Audit Office, 2009). It is important to recognize that HCAIs are caused by a wide variety of microorganisms, for example Escherichia coli (E. coli), which require equal attention in clinical practice. Because the principles of infection prevention are applicable to all causes of HCAIs, this chapter focuses on these underpinning principles rather than on specific microorganisms of concern. As a nurse, you have a fundamental responsibility for minimizing the risk of infection in all healthcare settings and in the patient’s own home by understanding and applying these principles in practice. HCAI is a significant problem in all healthcare settings, although much more is known about its prevalence and incidence in hospitals than in other healthcare environments. Prevalence of HCAI is the total number of cases that occur either at a particular time (point prevalence) or over a defined period of time (period prevalence). The UK prevalence surveys, conducted in 2006, estimated that, at any one time, approximately one in eight hospital inpatients has a HCAI (Smyth et al., 2008; Reilly et al., 2008). This figure is comparable with data from inpatient populations in other countries, with reported rates ranging between 3.5% and 9.5% (e.g. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2008; Gravel et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2005).
Silencing of FOREVER YOUNG FLOWER-Like Genes from Phalaenopsis Orchids Promotes Flower Senescence and Abscission
Authors: Chen Wei-Han , Jiang Zhi-Yi , Hsu Hsing-Fun , Yang Chang-Hsien 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Ectopic expression of FOREVER YOUNG FLOWER (FYF) delays floral senescence and abscission in transgenic Arabidopsis. To analyze the FYF function in Phalaenopsis orchids, two FYF-like genes (PaFYF1/2) were identified. PaFYF1/2 were highly expressed in young Phalaenopsis flowers, and their expression decreased significantly afterward until flower senescence. This pattern was strongly correlated with the process of flower senescence and revealed that PaFYF1/2 function to suppress senescence/abscission during early flower development. Interestingly, in flowers, PaFYF1 was consistently expressed less in petals than in lips/sepals, whereas PaFYF2 was expressed relatively evenly in all flower organs. This difference suggests a regulatory modification of the functions of PaFYF1 and PaFYF2 during Phalaenopsis flower evolution. Delayed flower senescence and abscission, which were unaffected by ethylene treatment, were observed in 35S::PaFYF1/2 and 35S::PaFYF1/2 + SRDX transgenic Arabidopsis plants due to the downregulation of the ethylene signaling and abscission-associated genes EDF1-4, IDA and BOP1/2. These results suggest a possible repressor role for Phalaenopsis PaFYF1/2 in controlling floral senescence/abscission by suppressing ethylene signaling and abscission-associated genes. To further validate the function of PaFYF1/2, PaFYF1/2-VIGS (virus-induced gene silencing) Phalaenopsis were generated and analyzed. Promotion of senescence and abscission was observed in PaFYF1/2-VIGS Phalaenopsis flowers by the upregulation of PeEDF1/2, PeSAG39 and PeBOP1/2 expression, the early occurrence of greening according to their increased chlorophyll content and the reduction in water content in flower organs. Our results support that PaFYF1/2 function as transcriptional repressors to prohibit flower senescence and abscission in Phalaenopsis.
Federalism Theories and Principles of the US Supreme Court—Implications for National and State Powers and Public Policy and Administration
Authors: Wise Charles 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
This article reviews and analyzes the federalism theories and principles that the US Supreme Court has employed during various eras and compares and contrasts them. It does this by specifying the major theoretical frameworks that have been proposed for Supreme Court federalism decision making and then examines how the Supreme Court has employed their components during various eras. It then draws implications for public policy and administration and poses research questions for the future.
Building a National Economy: Origins of Centralized Federalism in India
Authors: Tillin Louise 
Published: November 2020

AbstractIndia’s post-colonial constitution introduced a new approach to federalism based on a substantial sphere of shared responsibility between Central and State governments, especially in the fields of social and economic policy, and a Central government with strong prerogatives to intervene in provincial affairs. This was qualified at the time as a diminished or “quasi” form of federalism. Existing explanations of the origins of India’s centralized federalism focus on efforts to curb further secession attempts in the aftermath of Partition or the need for a strong Center to consolidate democracy in a highly unequal society. This article draws on archival materials to demonstrate that distinctive elements of Indian federalism were shaped at their foundations by the desire to boost industrial development and lay the foundation for a national welfare state in a post-colonial future by preventing the consolidation of “race to the bottom” dynamics arising from unregulated inter-provincial economic competition.
Supply and demand indices and their welfare implications
Authors: Lusk Jayson L , Tonsor Glynn T 
Published: November 2020

Abstract
Despite wide availability of publicly reported price and quantity movements of agricultural commodities, these data alone do not easily allow one to determine whether and to what extent changing market conditions are due to shifts in underlying supply and demand curves. Such information, however, is needed to determine contemporaneous changes in consumer and producer well-being. To address these issues, this paper derives supply and demand indices, links the indices to structural parameters in equilibrium displacement models, and shows how the measures can be used to calculate welfare changes over time. Empirical applications are presented for the US cattle, hog, and chicken sectors and for county-level corn supply. We show that supply and demand improvements have led to significant gains in beef producer and consumer welfare over time. Hog, and especially chicken, supply indices have increased markedly over the past four decades, reflecting significant productivity gains, whereas growth in cattle supply index has stagnated in recent years. We test the validity of the supply and demand indices for livestock, and find they correlate in hypothesized directions with factors such as corn prices, drought, aggregate agricultural total factor productivity, gross national product, and exchange rates. Trends in disaggregate corn supply indices reveal marked heterogeneity across US counties with the largest gains since 1980 being observed in the Dakotas, Kansas, Missouri, and the Mississippi Delta. Many areas of Ohio and Indiana have experienced negative corn supply shocks in 2016–8 relative to 2000. The approaches illustrated in this paper potentially have wide application in the study of many agricultural markets. For example, the supply index is an easy to calculate commodity- and geography-specific alternative to commonly used aggregate total factor productivity measures. The demand, supply, and welfare indices can provide timely information about the economic fundamentals in a market that can be coupled with other data to analyze structural adjustment patterns and rapidly determine changes in the well-being of producers and consumers.