bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Twin seals in Scotland
Authors: Rae Bennet B.
Published: August 2009

Published accounts of twinning in seals are reviewed briefly and details are given of new records of twins in the Common and Grey seals in Scotland.
The distribution of some hydrolytic enzymes in the cells of the digestive gland of certain lamellibranchs and gastropods
Authors: Sumner A. T.
Published: August 2009

Five hydrolytic enzymes (acid phosphatase, aryl sulphatase, β‐glucuronidase, N‐acetyl‐β‐glucosaminidase, and non‐specific esterase) have been studied histochemically in the cells of the digestive gland of Mytilus edulis, Helix aspersa, and certain other lamellibranchs and gastropods. All the enzymes studied have basically similar distributions.

In the digestive cells, the enzymes occur in cytoplasmic granules which are believed to be primary lysosomes; in vacuoles which contain phagocytosed food material; and in vacuoles containing lipofuscin granules, which are the residues of digestive activity.

In the basiphil cells of M. edulis, most of the enzymes are localized in a few cytoplasmic granules; non‐specific esterase, however, is found throughout the cytoplasm. In the calcium cells of H. aspersa and the other pulmonate gastropods studied, the enzymes are either in cytoplasmic granules, or distributed diffusely throughout the cytoplasm. Acid phosphatase is also found in the calcium spherules, especially in H. aspersa.

In the excretory cells of H. aspersa and the other pulmonates studied, the enzymes are found in granules in the cytoplasm, and in the lipofuscin granules which lie in the vacuoles of these cells.
Chemical properties and occurrence on Kalahari sand of salt licks created by elephants
Authors: Weir J. S.
Published: August 2009

Chemical and physical data from analyses of soil samples of Kalahari Sand deposits in Wankie National Park, Rhodesia, show that salt licks created and used by elephant are characterized by high concentrations of water soluble sodium. Soils with concentrations of calcium, magnesium and potassium in, for instance, termite mounds are used as licks only in regions where soluble sodium is not present in quantity in the soil. Shallow steep‐sided salt licks are dug out by elephants with their forefeet during the dry season. Elephant dung is deposited in large quantities on and near salt licks at that season. A brown colour is present in aqueous extracts of salt‐lick soils and is likely to consist of sodium salts of humic derivatives of elephant faeces or urine. Rainwater gathering in salt licks in the wet season has an equivalent brown colour and a high sodium content. Similar soil regions rich in sodium but not used as licks have no brown colouration in the soil extract. This brown soluble humic derivative may enable the elephant to detect the salt lick by smell. Licks appear to be important in the social life of the elephant populations. The intensity of present usage of salt licks by elephants is leading to localized soil erosion which will eventually result in the filling in of many clay pans with coarser sands.
Some analyses of artificially incubated eggs and hatchlings of Green and Loggerhead sea turtles
Authors: Bustard H. R. , Simkiss K. , Jenkins N. K. , Taylor J. H.
Published: August 2009

Eggs of the Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) were incubated in coral sand or silica sand moistened with distilled water. The eggs and hatchlings were analysed for calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. There was less magnesium but more calcium in the hatchlings than in the original egg contents but this was not influenced by the type of sand used during incubation. The results are interpreted as indicating that the eggshell is the major source of calcium for the developing embryos. The Logger‐head sea turtle shows a greater efficiency in the incorporation of yolk magnesium and phosphorus into the embryo than does the Green sea turtle.
Water movements in the pennatulid coelenterate Pteroides griseum
Authors: Brafield A. E.
Published: August 2009

Injections of the canal system of the pennatulid Pteroides griseum (Bohadsch), and the subsequent movements of the dye within the colony, have afforded some information on the direction and relative importance of various water movements in this species. The respiratory role, for example, of these currents is assessed in the light of what is known of the oxygen consumption of Pteroides and the nature and role of water movements in other pennatulids.
An analysis of the selection of small African mammals by two break‐back traps
Authors: Neal B. R. , Cock A. G.
Published: August 2009

The records of animals caught by two kinds of breakback trap (Reporter and Museum Special) have been analysed to investigate the ways in which the catch of a trap may be selective. The data comprise 1583 individuals belonging to 12 species of small mammal.

The Reporter trap tends, in two distinct ways, to catch individuals which are heavier. Firstly, the proportion of the total catch of a given species caught by Reporter increases with the mean weight of the species. Secondly, within each species (with one trivial exception) the individuals caught by Reporter are, on average, heavier, the mean difference being 36%. In both of these respects significant species x trap interactions remain after the effect of species mean weight have been corrected for.
Abbreviated development of a non‐marine crab, Sesarma (Geosesarma) perracae (Brachyura; Grapsidae), from Singapore
Authors: Lam Soh Cheng
Published: August 2009

In Sesarma (Geosesarma) perracae Nobili, 1903 the ovigerous females live in burrows containing fresh‐water into which the young are released. The larval life is greatly abbreviated and the larval stages live entirely on stored yolk. The megalopa stage is almost unrecognizable.
The mammary gland of the echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus' with observations on the incubation of the egg and on the newly‐hatched young
Authors: Griffiths Mervyn , McIntosh D. L. , Coles R. E. A.
Published: August 2009

During the non‐breeding season the lobules of the mammary glands consist of solid cords of cells which may occasionally be embedded in a pad of fat tissue.

During the breeding season some mammary glands can exhibit a tubular grade of organization and can even secrete milk without the intervention of pregnancy. Apparently the stimulus of pregnancy and incubation of an egg in the pouch is generally, but not invariably necessary for development of an alveolar grade of organization. The ducts leading from the lobules to the skin of the areola undergo hypertrophy during the course of lactation.

The present work shows that the gestation period is at least 16 days long but evidence in the literature shows it may be as long as 27 days. The incubation period of an egg in the pouch was found to be of the order of 10–10·5 days.

A newly‐hatched echidna weighed 378 mg and was 1·47 cm long; it exhibited an egg tooth and the remains of foetal membranes attached to the abdomen. The newly‐hatched had well‐developed olfactory organs including sensory cells in the olfactory epithelium. The alimentary tract exhibited a degree of differentiation consistent with the notion that it could digest milk.

The fatty acid composition of the triglyceride fraction of a sample of milk taken just after hatching differed from that of mature milk in that the ratio of the concentration of oleic acid to palmitic acid in the early milk was about unity whereas it was 3·7 in mature milk. A high level of arachidonic acid may be a characteristic of the milk at hatching.

Iron was present in a concentration of 8·3 μg/ml in the early milk, and of 43·0 μ/mlg/ml in a sample of mature milk. The regression of the mammary glands from the alveolar to the solid‐cord state is described.

Two corpora lutea of pregnancy, taken about 11 and 19 days after egg laying, were degenerate.
The taxonomic status of the Pygmy hippopotamus, Choeropsis liberiensis, from the Niger Delta
Authors: Corbet G. B.
Published: August 2009

The isolated and possibly extinct population of the pygmy hippopotamus in the Niger Delta is described as a new subspecies and named Choeropsis liberiensis heslopi subsp. n. Eight cranial and dental characters enable the four available skulls of this subspecies to be clearly distinguished from all available skulls of C. l. liberiensis (Morton). The range of this species is shown to be very unusual amongst the vertebrates of the West African forest.
Notes on the teeth and ovaries of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) of known age
Authors: Short R. V.
Published: August 2009

A captive female African elephant, known to be 27 years old, died as a result of trauma. Her growth rate was similar to that of other captive African elephants, and slightly greater than that of wild animals. The 5th molar was in full wear, and the 6th was just coming into wear. There was extensive dental caries of the labial, lingual and occlusal surfaces of the 5th molars, presumably due to the unnatural diet. The ovaries contained a number of large cystic follicles, and at least 50 regressing corpora lutea. These abnormalities are probably related to the fact that the elephant had never been mated.
Feeding and digestion in Dinophilus gyrociliatus (Annelida: Archiannelida)
Authors: Jennings J. B. , Gelder S. R.
Published: August 2009

The littoral archiannelid Dinophilus gyrociliatus Schmidt 1857 is microphagous and feeds on bacteria, protozoa, unicellular algae, diatoms and organic detritus. Two types of feeding mechanisms are used and both are relatively unselective. In the first, suspended particles brought to the head in water currents set up by the beating of transverse ciliated bands are trapped in mucus and swept laterally and ventrally on to the under surface of the head, where further ciliary activity conveys them posteriorly to the mouth.

In the second feeding method the proboscis dislodges microscopic food from the sub‐stratum and freed particles are collected by ventral cilia and passed into the mouth.

Mucus discharged into the mouth facilitates ingestion and other non‐mucoid secretions are poured on to the food as it passes from the oesophagus into the proventriculus where it accumulates. The proboscis is then periodically thrust up the oesophagus to drive the accumulated material onwards into the stomach.

Digestion is entirely extracellular. Proteolysis initiated in the stomach by endopeptidases secreted by acidophilic glands in the stomach wall is completed in the posterior region of the stomach and in the intestine by exopeptidases produced by other components of the gut epithelium. Acid phosphatase activity is present throughout the gut epithelium at all times, irrespective of the nutritive state of the animal, but alkaline phosphatase can be demonstrated only whilst food is present in the gut. This enzyme is confined to a thin distal band below the cilia of the stomach and intestine, and reaches maximum activity in the intestinal wall 18 h after feeding, indicating that it is concerned with absorption of the products of digestion.

Fat deposits occur in the stomach wall and constitute the main food reserve. Amyloid granules are laid down subepidermally in the anterior region of the body and there is some evidence that these too are utilized during periods of food shortage.
The population ecology of a self‐maintaining colony of the Common frog (Rana temporaria)
Authors: Ashby K. R.
Published: August 2009

A population of the Common frog (Rana temporaria L.) which was self‐maintaining for food, subject to the minimum of interference and derived from one batch of spawn, was kept for nearly seven years in an enclosure of 65 m2 in which cover was provided by a pile of humified plant litter and by herbaceous vegetation. The seasonal pattern of activity, and observations on feeding and other aspects of behaviour are described. Hibernation took place in the plant litter when the only water available was in concrete pools up to 18 cm in depth, but there was evidence of preference for an underwater site for hibernation after a well vegetated concrete pond 50 cm deep had been provided. Individuals which could be readily observed were found to adopt fixed resting places during the summer. Breeding first occurred at the age of three years. Censuses made possible by aggregation for this purpose and also, in the last winter of the study for hibernation under water, indicated a population of 26 individuals at the age of three years, falling to 16 at the age of six years. A second cohort raised a year after the main population and under the same environmental conditions was eliminated: the reason for the failure of any of its members to survive is discussed. A provisional estimate is made of the population metabolism during the latter part of the study and a comparison is made with that of small homeotherms. Attention is drawn to the advantages of the low metabolic rate permitted by poikilothermy for small insectivorous land vertebrates.
The time and frequency of responses by Octopus vulgaris to an automatic food dispenser
Authors: Nixon Marion
Published: August 2009

An automatic food dispenser was designed for use with Octopus vulgaris Lamarck. One live crab was delivered each time the octopus pulled a white shape attached to the dispenser. The apparatus provided a continuous record of the time and frequency of feeding over periods of up to 15 days.
Mechanics of the feeding action of a cyprinid fish
Authors: Alexander R. McN.
Published: August 2009

The pressures in the buccal cavities of Golden orfe (Idus idus) have been recorded as the fish took food from a tube connected to a pressure transducer. Pressures 50–105 cm water below the pressure of the surrounding water were recorded as the buccal cavity expanded to suck the food in. Calculations based on the dimensions of the muscles lead to the conclusion that the levatores hyoidei, sternohyoideus, rectus abdominis, epaxial trunk muscles and obliquus internus probably all had to exert almost their maximum isometric tensions, to produce the largest reductions of pressure. These muscles seem nicely balanced in strength for their functions in feeding.
Feeding and the control of volume within the tests of regular sea‐urchins
Authors: Buchanan John B.
Published: August 2009

The rigid, fluid filled, echinoid test presents problems of internal volume control when the vital functions of the animal involve the introduction of material, from outside the test, into the internal fluid systems. The volume of food in the guts of echinoids can be shown to vary considerably in the short term, to an extent which demands considerable capabilities for internal volume compensation. This is achieved by adjusting the quantity of fluid held within the gut so that, although the volume of food may vary widely, the total volume of the gut remains constant within narrow limits. The volume of gut fluid varies inversely with the quantity of food, and ingestion of food through the mouth is compensated by ejection of an equal volume of fluid from the anus. Defaecation is compensated by intake of fluid into the gut. On starvation, the gut becomes completely fluid filled and free from food.

The food of regular urchins is habitually compacted into regularly sized subpherical pellets covered with a tough mucus coating. The formation of coated pellets takes place in the buccal cavity and pharynx. The pellets remain discrete throughout their passage along the gut. The mucus coating resists digestion and remains intact even after defaecation. The functional morphology of the buccal cavity and pharynx is described in detail.

It is suggested that the functional significance of the pellets is associated with the gut fluid, volume compensation mechanism, which requires free flow of fluid throughout the length of the gut. It is also suggested that the siphon may be implicated in volume control, where fine adjustment of gut volume can be achieved by balancing ejection of fluid from the anus with intake of water through the mouth, but that the water intake is by the siphonal route, thus avoiding the necessity of flushing and diluting the enzyme rich digestive stomach region.
The reproductive cycle of the Skomer vole (Clethrionomys glareolus skomerensis)
Authors: R. R. Coutts  , Rowlands I. W.
Published: August 2009

A histological examination has been made of the reproductive organs of the Skomer vole to study the reproductive cycle and fertility of this race of the Bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) in its insular habitat. The main aim of the work was to compare the cycle with that of Clethrionomys on the mainland of Britain which was similarly investigated by Brambell & Rowlands (1936).
Observations on the reproduction of female wild and park Fallow deer (Dama dama) in southern England
Authors: Armstrong Norma , Chaplin R. E. , Chapman D. I. , Smith B.
Published: August 2009

The reproductive organs of wild and park female Fallow deer have been examined. The deer appear to breed for the first time in their second year when they are about 16 months old; none of the fawns examined was pregnant. All the adult deer had ovulated and about 95% were pregnant. It is concluded that most adult Fallow deer breed each year. The only difference found between wild and park deer was in the incidence of transmigration of the ovum; this being 52% and 28% respectively.
Climatic changes and the distribution of forest vertebrates in West Africa
Authors: Moreau R. E.
Published: August 2009

Breaks in the distribution of forest mammals (of which the best data are for the primates), frogs and cyprinodont fishes and their subspeciations have been attributed by authors to the barriers presumably presented by a savanna gap formed by past extension of the Baoule V in the Côte d'Ivoire, by the present Dahomey Gap and by the course of the lower Niger. The potentials of these three features are considered and their history is discussed in the light of up‐to‐date geological and palaeo‐climatological information. As part of the back‐ground, evidence for the rate at which evolution can occur is summarized. The distributional data for each of the three classes and also for birds are then set out. Each class of animal is found to show different problems at taxonomic levels from the subspecies upwards.
Studies on the pelvis in British Muridae and Cricetidae (Rodentia)
Authors: Brown J. Clevedon , Twigg G. I.
Published: August 2009

The morphology and its variation of the bony pelvis in British species of Muridae and Cricetidae have been studied. The investigation began with the application of a mensural method for demonstrating sexual dimorphism and it is shown that for all species except those of Rattus the male os coxa can be distinguished from the female over a wide range of ages. During the study it became obvious that there are ranges of morphological variation in os coxae both inter‐ and intraspecific. There are constant interpecific differences which allow identification of os coxae of these rodents at least to genus and in many cases to species. Detailed descriptions of the morphology of the os coxa of each species are given together with an identification key. Intraspecific variation is mainly sex‐dependent and comprises sexual dimorphism, male pubertal changes and female parturition changes. The changes in the male are from epicene, through pubertal, to post‐pubertal phase, with the first of these resembling the agonadal, female, form and the last with a posterior border thickened and tuberculate in relation to the hypertrophied penis and its associated glands and musculature. These phases are not equally obvious in all species, but the pelvis in all except Rattus and Mus shows some evidence of the sexual development of the animal. In females the form of the pelvis may be modified during successive pregnancies to allow a wider pelvic outlet for parturition. Resorption and remoulding of the female pelvis allows the recognition of non‐parous, uniparous and multiparous animals in all Cricetid species, in Micromys and, more doubtfully, in Mus, but not in Apodemus and Rattus. Non‐sex‐dependent intraspecific variation, comprising differences in rugosity related to muscularity is also described.

The observations are discussed in relation to earlier experimental work, to the need for basic research on small mammal reproduction and population structure, and to the use of the pelvis in the analysis of osteological assemblages, such as occur in owl pellets.
Mechanics of the feeding action of various teleost fishes
Authors: Alexander R. McN.
Published: August 2009

Pressure changes have been recorded from the buccal cavities of nine species of teleost as they sucked food into their mouths. Some of the pressures recorded are discussed in relation to the sizes of the muscles responsible. Cinematograph films have been used to estimate how much the volume of the orobranchial chamber increases as food is sucked in. Some peculiarities in the feeding movements of Taurulus, Ictalurus and Anguilla are described and discussed.
The effect of temperature on the activity of three species of Helicid snail (Mollusca: Gastropoda)
Authors: Cameron R. A. D.
Published: August 2009

The activity of the land snails Cepaea nemoralis (L.), C. hortensis (Müll.) and Arianta arbustorum (L.) was measured over 24 hours at the constant temperatures of 0, 3, 8, 17, 22 and 26°C at 100% relative humidity and with 16 hours light and 8 hours dark. The activity of all three species varies significantly with temperature and light, and there are differences in the activities of the species at each temperature. A. arbustorum is relatively more active than Cepaea at low rather than high temperatures, as is C. hortensis with respect to C. nemoralis, though to a lesser extent. There is little diurnal rhythm in activity at 0°C, but all species become more nocturnal as temperature increases; C. nemoralis is most, and A. arbustorum least nocturnal. The results obtained assist in explaining the observed geographical and local distributions of the species concerned.
Ovoviviparity in the genus Excirolana (Crustacea: Isopoda)
Authors: Klapow L. A.
Published: August 2009

Studies on the intertidal sand‐beach isopod, Excirolana chiltoni, have shown the species to be ovoviviparous. Large yolk‐filled eggs are deposited into paired uteri of the female where they remain throughout gestation. Intrauterine development progresses through five stages and terminates upon birth of the manca which is morphologically similar to the adult but lacks the eighth pair of thoracic legs. The oostegites while present are much reduced and form a genital operculum rather than a brood pouch as they do in the majority of free living isopods. Six other species of Excirolana examined in the course of this investigation show evidence of internal incubation. Ovoviviparity thus appears to be characteristic of the entire genus, members of which live on exposed sand beaches throughout tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Internal retention of embryonic stages provides protection against a number of environmental stresses peculiar to this sort of habitat.
A comparison of the metamorphosing and macrophthalmia stages of the lampreys Lampetra fluviatilis and L. planeri
Authors: Hardisty M. W. , Potter I. C. , Sturge R.
Published: August 2009

Comparisons of metamorphosing and macrophthalmia stages of the closely related species, L. fluviatilis (L.) and L. Planeri (Bloch), have shown that these can be distinguished within a few weeks of the onset of metamorphosis by characteristic differences in colouration and body form. Measurements of several body intervals have disclosed differences between the macrophthalmia stages of the two species. A sharp distinction between the blunt teeth of L. planeri and the supposedly sharp teeth of L. fluviatilis has not been confirmed in these early stages, but significant differences have been found in the numbers of teeth in the anterior field of the oral disk and in the lateral and posterior marginal series. For material from several rivers, the range of length of metamorphosing and macrophthalmia stages of L. fluviatilis is83–119 mm (mean 99.3 mm). Weights varied from 0.71‐2.5 g (mean 1.51 g). Regression coefficients for weight on length are much lower in the macrophthalmia of L. fluviatilis than in comparable stages of L. planeri. Total oocyte counts on macrophthalmia of L. fluviatilis gave values from8000–20,000 which are in general agreement with egg counts for adults of this species in the river Severn. Observations on the earliest metamorphosing forms have shown that it is not possible at this stage to distinguish the males of the two species by the structure of the testes. The development of the lumen in the adult foregut of L. fluviatilis has been shown to be variable and in some instances the gut does not become patent until early Spring. The possibility has also been raised that, in exceptional cases, a temporary lumen may also be present for a short period in L. planeri. Observations on the foregut and dentition, together with field data, suggest that the climax of downstream migration and the onset of parastic feeding takes place in late March or April.
Neurosecretory cells in Dysdercus similis (Hemiptera)
Authors: Gupta D. P.
Published: August 2009

The neurosecretory cells of Dysdercus similis have been described. “A”, “B”, “C” and “D” types of neurosecretory cells are present. The “A” type of cells of the pars‐intercerebralis show cyclical secretion. When these cells show secretory activity during one to three days of emergence, they have scattered granules. The cells are seen packed with clumps of neurosecretory material when they are not secreting, and this is interpreted as a storage stage. The axons of these cells supply the corpora cardiaca and some neurosecretory material also reaches the corpus allatum. The release of this neurosecretory material can be correlated both with moulting in the young stages and later with reproduction in the adults.
Observations on the biology of Hemimems talpoides (Insecta: Dermaptera)
Authors: ASHFORD R. W.
Published: August 2009

The little known ectoparasitic insects of the genus Hemimerus lived and bred on a captive giant rat Cricetomys, allowing prolonged observation of their habits. They never normally left the host for more than a few seconds and never fed elsewhere than on the host. Food was taken from the skin, ears, eyes and mouth but the rat never showed serious irritation. Breeding was slow and possibly closely controlled by temperature. The position in copulation was quite different from that of typical Dermaptera.
The stalked eyes of Bathothauma (Mollusca, Cephalopoda)
Authors: Young J. Z.
Published: August 2009

In the larvae of some cranchiid squids the eyes are carried sideways on long stalks and also possess a presumed luminous organ. The structure of this organ is described but the only sign of light producing tissues is some possible luminescent bacteria. The stalked eye may be connected with plankton feeding at great depths, perhaps improving distance judgement. The older animals of these species carry a different form of luminous organ.
The absorption of antibody by the duodenum and jejunum in young rats
Authors: Morris B. , Begley D.
Published: August 2009

Experiments were performed to test the capacity of parts of the small intestine of rats aged27–29 days to absorb homologous antibody and transmit it to the circulation. No antibody absorption occurs after the oral administration of immune serum to rats of this age, for the postnatal transfer of immunity normally terminates at about20–21 days.

Antibody is readily absorbed and transmitted to the circulation from homologous immune serum introduced into the duodenum of27–28 day animals, after removal of the duodenal contents by flushing out with warm saline. Absorption and transmission occurs in some animals even if the duodenal contents are not previously removed. The animals used in these experiments were left with their mothers until shortly before the operation.

No transmission of antibody occurred when comparable experiments were performed on young rats aged27–28 days that had been weaned at the usual age of20–21 days.

Similar experiments were performed on the first segment of the jejunum. The results obtained are discussed in relation to the pinocytic activity of the epithelial components of the duodenum‐jejunum.
Serum proteins in young hedgehogs
Authors: Morris B. , Rudge Gail
Published: August 2009

Four serum protein components are present at birth: α‐, β‐ and γ‐globulins and albumin.

The preferential transfer of γ rather than β‐globulin, which occurs both prenatally and postnatally in this species, is reflected in the initial amounts of these proteins present at birth and in the relatively rapid increase in the concentration of γ‐globulin which occurs postnatally. By five weeks of age seven protein components are discernible in the serum, which is comparable in this respect to adult serum.

The albumin/globulin ratio changes from about 1.5 at birth to about 0.3‐0.4 in the active adult.
Reproduction and development of the Sudanese jerboa, Jaculus jaculus butleri (Rodentia, Dipodidae)
Authors: Happold D. C. D.
Published: August 2009

The courtship display and early development of the Sudanese jerboa, Jaculus jaculus butleri, is described. The young develop slowly except for the hindlimbs which reach 90% of adult length in 35 days; consequently the young can run as fast as adults as soon as they leave the nest. The bones of the posterior part of the skull are not ossified at birth, and development of the enlarged tympanic bullae occurs between the time of birth and emergence from the nest. The development of J. j. butleri is compared with that of J. orientalis and two other species of desert rodents.
An ecological study of the cavernicolous fauna of the Nullarbor Plain Southern Australia
Authors: Richards Aola M.
Published: August 2009

The Nullarbor Plain is a low plateau of Tertiary limestone in southern Australia. Its caves may be classified as deep or shallow. They occur in the inland open shrub steppe zone, and the coastal mingled arid scrub and semi‐arid mallee zone. Comparison is made between surface, doline and cave climate in both regions, and the significance of the special climatic conditions on the fauna is discussed. Although caves appear extremely dry, relative humidity is fairly high. Animal burrows have a microclimate intermediate between caves and surface. Plants on the surface are xerophytes, and many are halophytes; but in the dolines they are less salt‐tolerant and require moister, more sheltered conditions. Many vertebrates use the caves as temporary shelters, while others may be trapped in them accidentally. Nineteen species are recorded–eight mammals, eight birds and three reptiles.

Arthropods are the principal inhabitants of the caves. Ninety‐five species belonging to 17 orders and 58 families are recorded from 47 caves, and their distribution is given. Of these 25 % are accidentals, 17 % trogloxenes, 52 % troglophiles and 6 % troglobites. About 80 % are identified to genus or species. Within the caves four biotopes are examined–the Parietal Association, the Guano Association, the Dark Zone and the Liquid Medium. The species are grouped into several associations within the first three biotopes–on walls, on floor, under stones, around carcases, amongst guano and decaying vegetation. No macroscopic species have been found in the underground lakes. Only one arthropod species is definitely associated with deep as opposed to shallow caves. About 69% of the species are predators or saprophages; the rest are coprophages, necrophages or ectoparasites. Saprophages or coprop‐hages comprise the greatest number of individuals in the population. Food preferences are listed for a number of arthropods, and a generalized food web has been constructed. Some species travel considerable distances throughout the caves, and a number of Dark Zone species are recorded on the entrance talus slope, in the dolines, or on the surface. About 59 % of the species are known only from a single cave, but 29 % are widely distributed across the plain. Cave “breathing”, the cool, humid night climate, strong winds, occasional heavy rain and numerous animal burrows all contribute to the distribution of cave‐frequenting species across the plain. Subterranean migration may also occur. The cave arthropods may be divided into two groups, one much older geologically than the other. It is suggested that specific climatic conditions have been required for colonization of the caves, and these are considered in relation to current information on the Quaternary climate of the Nullarbor. Much recent colonization has been by species from eastern Australia.
Burrowing behaviour in the European lugworm Arenicola marina (Polychaeta: Arenicolidae)
Authors: Seymour Malcolm K.
Published: August 2009

A detailed analysis is presented of the mechanism of burrowing in Arenicola marina (L.). The following were recorded electronically, using further developments of the techniques introduced by Trueman: movement into the sand, internal pressure at various points in the body, external pressure in the surrounding sand. The results are interpreted in relation to direct visual observation of the burrowing process. The structural and functional specializations of the lugworm for burrowing and the factors concerned in the release and control of burrowing activity, are discussed.
On the female of the medusa Australomedusa baylii
Authors: Russell F. S.
Published: August 2009

The female of the medusa Australomedusa baylii Russell is described. The specimens, all of which were females, were collected from a salt water lagoon in Victoria, Australia.
On the ecology and distribution of subterranean insectivores in Kenya
Authors: Duncan P. , Wrangham R. W.
Published: August 2009

The Golden mole, Chrysochloris stuhlmanni fosteri, occurs in the west of Kenya, on Mount Elgon and the Cherangani Hills, while the mole‐shrews, Surdisorex pollulus and 5. norae occur on Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Mountains respectively (Fig. 1). These species were trapped and their stomach contents recorded over two months. Some ecological similarities between C.s. fosteri and Surdisorex are noted, and the factors responsible or their present‐day distribution are suggested.
Oogenesis and egg shell formation in Heterakis gallinarum (Nematoda)
Authors: Lee D. L. , Lešťan P.
Published: August 2009

The structure of the developing ova and egg shell formation of Heterakis gallinarum has been described. The oogonia are small, undifferentiated cells which are arranged around a central cytoplasmic rachis. The oogonia and young oocytes are in cytoplasmic continuity with the rachis and it is suggested that the rachis may influence synchronous development of the oocytes. The oocytes contain two types of granule; refringent, which give rise to the ascaroside layer of the egg shell, and another kind which appear to be a type of yolk for the developing egg. After fertilization the spermatozoon produces numerous ribosomes; a second unit membrane appears beneath the oolemma, and the chitinous layer of the shell forms between the oolemma and this inner membrane. The refringent granules later produce the ascaroside layer of the shell between the chitinous layer and the inner membrane. The outermost layer of the shell is produced from material secreted by the cells of the uterus.
The temperature relations of vocalization in infant Golden hamsters and Wistar rats
Authors: Okon Eyo E.
Published: August 2009

Environmental temperature changes are capable of evoking ultrasonic responses from the young of Wistar rats and Golden hamsters. The changes with age in the intensity of these sounds and the rate of calling are found to be related to the pattern of development of homiothermy in the two species. In the Golden hamster, the same temperature changes also evoke audible calls which show a different pattern of variation with age. These findings are discussed in comparison with those previously reported for albino mice.
The integument and sensilla of the pregenital abdomen of the Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) (Orthoptera: Acrididae)
Authors: Thomas Joan G.
Published: August 2009

The integument and sensilla of the abdominal segments II–VII, together with the tracheal and nerve supply, are described in so far as they can be seen using whole mounts. Such a method often enables the neurons of the sensilla to be seen clearly and to be associated definitely with a certain cuticular structure. The sensilla are compared with those already known from the palps, and it is concluded that probably all those on the abdomen also occur on the palps.
The effect of ambient temperature on the arousal frequency of the hibernating Greater horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus fermmequinum, in relation to site selection and the hibernation state
Authors: Ransome R. D.
Published: August 2009

Undisturbed hibernating Greater horseshoe bats were studied over three winters to find the effect of temperature on arousal frequency, timing of arousals and the selection of a hibernation site. The study showed that temperature is important in all three aspects and the ability to select a temperature zone accurately is an important factor in the survival of hibernation by a bat.

The arousal frequency falls with falling ambient temperature then seems to rise again below 6°C. There is a clear seasonal effect, bats waking up on average once a day at 10.5°C in winter compared with 8.5°C in spring. An arousal frequency of once in six days occurs at 8°C in winter compared with 6°C in spring. This shift of 2°C is compensated for by a shift of 2°C in temperature selection by the bats in relation to the same external climatic temperatures on the day of arousal. It appears that bats may select the temperature zone which, if prolonged, will result in the most advantageous arousal frequency in relation to feeding experiences.

The seasonal effect discovered indicates that inhibition of the arousal process is important in hibernation and a hormone is postulated.
An ecological study of the viper Vipera berus in southern Britain
Authors: Prestt Ian
Published: August 2009

A general ecological study was made of the Northern viper (adder) in Dorset. The principal aim was to obtain a detailed account of its seasonal activity and then to relate this to its habitat and other requirements. 166 marked individuals were studied in the field for at least three seasons and additional information was obtained from 194 post‐mortem examinations and from studies of live individuals in an enclosure. It was found the viper occupies two distinct habitats, high, dry ground for winter hibernation and low‐lying damp river meadows in the summer. Feeding essentially occurs from June to August and breeding is restricted by the short active season to alternate years. This study forms part of the research being carried out to help with the conservation of the British reptiles on the National Nature Reserves in this part of England.
The collection and examination of semen of the Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)
Authors: Dott H. M. , Utsi M. N. P.
Published: August 2009

Semen was collected from all the mature Reindeer bulls (9) in the Glenmore herd, both normal and vasectomized. Nineteen samples of semen were obtained. Reindeer semen is a viscous fluid, generally amber in colour: after vasectomy its viscosity is much lower. The mean volume of the ejaculates was 0–5 ml. and mean sperm density 467 × 104 spermatozoa. Motility was low in comparison with other mammals and the proportion of eosinophilic spermatozoa was high (74.5%). Other determinations included measurements of the size of unstained spermatozoa, and of fructose and citric acid concentration in the semen.
Studies on the fine structure of prothoracic gland cells of Centra vinula (Lepidoptera)*
Authors: Hintze‐Podufal Ch.
Published: August 2009

This electron microscopic study of the active prothoracic glands of the larvae of Cerura vinula suggests a structural basis for the mode of secretion of the hormone of this gland. In contrast to Blattarian prothoracic glands and steroid‐producing vertebrate cells the active gland is not only dominated by smooth‐surfaced endoplasmic reticulum but there are also large areas of rough surfaced endoplasmic reticulum. The vesicles of this membrane system progressively enlarge and empty on to the connective tissue sheath which surrounds the cells and penetrates into deep and ramified infoldings of the cell membrane. The ultra‐structural localization of the hormone cannot be stated with certainty, but one may conclude that the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is intimately associated with the biosynthesis of the hormone and of its extrusion into the haemocoel. The granular type of endoplasmic reticulum together with the ribosomes may be concerned with the production of enzymes
Polymorphism and population density in Donax mgosus (Lamellibranchiata: Donacidae)
Authors: Smith D. A. S.
Published: August 2009

Donax rugosus is a common member of the intertidal fauna on wave‐beaten sandy beaches in West Africa. In Sierra Leone, the animals breed during December and the shell grows about 3 mm a year to 24 mm after seven years. All populations studied are polymorphic with respect to shell colour, more so in Sengal than in Sierra Leone. Both the relative frequency of the white form and the total number of forms present in the same population increases with population density. There is little indication of significant differences in the relative frequency of colour forms in different year groups from the same population. The polymorphism is therefore assumed to be fairly stable at least over the short term.
Territorial behaviour in the Western Atlantic Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus)
Authors: Cameron Austin W.
Published: August 2009

Virtually all published accounts of territorial behaviour in the Grey seal apply to breeding males only. Long‐range field studies reveal, however, that lactating cows also maintain territories for a period of several weeks. During the summer months, adults and sub‐adults have specific resting places to which they return each day at low water and which they defend against other individuals of their own species.
Observations on the pituitary gland of some members of the suborder Suiformes (Mammalia: Artiodactyla)
Authors: Allanson Marjorie
Published: August 2009

The macroscopical and microscopical anatomy of the pituitary gland of the warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) is described and compared with that of the Vietnam pig (a domestic race of Sus scrofa). The glands of the two animals differ considerably in shape but agree in anatomical details.

The morphological and histochemical characteristics of cells of the pars distalis are described in the warthog, bush pig (Potamochoerus porcus), Vietnam pig (all members of the family Suidae) and hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius: Hippopotamidae). Close agreement was found between five cell types of the warthog and bush pig and the corresponding cell types in the domestic pig. The mucoid cells of the less closely related hippopotamus differed from those of the domestic pig in some morphological details.
Some notes on reproduction in the Patagonian Mountain viscacha, Lagidium boxi (Mammalia: Rodentia)
Authors: Weir Barbara J.
Published: August 2009

The material consists of the ovaries from a pregnant female and observations on a live female of the Patagonian species of Mountain viscacha (Lagidium boxi). The study is reported because it shows that L. boxi, like the Peruvian Mountain viscacha (JL. peruanum), appears to ovulate only from the right ovary (Pearson, 1949). Features of the material are compared with information known for other hystricomorph rodents.
Blood protozoa of wild carnivores in Central Africa*
Authors: Keymer I. F. , BROCKLESBY D. W.
Published: August 2009

Blood protozoa of wild carnivores from Central Africa are described.

Genetta tigrina appears to be a new host record for Nuttallia garnhami which is described and compared with the parasite discovered by Heisch (1952).

Intra‐leucocytic and extra‐cellular stages of a Hepatozoon sp. were found in the blood of Genetta rubiginosa and G. tigrina, and also schizonts in the liver and cardiac muscle of G. rubiginosa. The parasites are described in detail. Two forms of schizont were found in the heart and both differed from the one found in the liver. The gametocytes most closely resemble H. chattoni of Crocuta crocuta. Schizonts in Genetta spp. have not been described previously.

Intra‐leucocytic gametocytes and extra‐cellular forms in the blood, and the schizonts of a Hepatozoon sp. are described from Panther a (Pantherd) pardus. Two forms of schizont were found, both in cardiac muscle and lungs. The gametocytes are indistinguishable from H, canis of the dog and haemogregarines of Canis {Canis) adustus and P. (Leo) leo. Unlike the Hepatozoon of the dog and C. (C.) adustus, no schizonts could be found in liver, bone marrow, spleen or lymph nodes. Schizonts have not been described previously from P. (P.) pardus.

There was no evidence that any of the parasites were pathogenic.

No parasites were found in C. (C.) adustus; Lycaon pictus; Viverra (Civettictis) civet ta; Herpestes (Galerella) sanguineus; Ichneumia albicauda or Crocuta crocuta.
Eudrilinae from southern Nigeria and a taximetric appraisal of the family Eudrilidae (Oligochaeta)
Authors: Sims R. W.
Published: August 2009

A small collection of Eudrilid earthworms from Nigeria is reported. Two species proved to be of special interest, the first, lagosensis Beddard, is usually placed in the genus Hyperio‐drilus and the second is new to science. Their affinities and the uncertainties about the classification of the Eudrilidae are discussed. These problems led into a taximetric study of the family. It is concluded that on the basis of the accepted generic criteria, the subfamilies (Eudrilinae and Pareudrilinae) are phenetically valid and the Eudrilinae may be subdivided according to whether species have paired or single male and spermathecal pores. Further, the two species whose doubtful status prompted the investigation, may each be placed in a separate genus. The new species is accommodated in a new genus, described herein, while Heliodrilus Beddard is resurrected for lagosensis which is the type‐species. Additionally, a new interpretation is provided of the structure and function of the posterior male organs of Hippopera nigeriae Taylor.
The life history and ecology of the millipede Tymbodesmus falcatus (Polydesmida: Gomphoclesmidae) in northern Nigeria with notes on Sphenodesmus sheribongensis
Authors: Lewis J. G. E.
Published: August 2009

The life history of the gomphodesmid millipede Tymbodesmus falcatus in Zaria, Nigeria is described. Larvae of stadia I to VI are soil‐dwelling, stadium VII and adults are surface active.

Tymbodesmus probably completes its life cycle in two years; the adults are relatively shortlived and die before the onset of the dry season. The species survives the dry season as dia‐pausing larvae in moulting chambers in the soil.

The biology of Sphenodesmus is, in general, similar to that of Tymbodesmus.

Body form in the species is described and compared with that found in other polydesmoids. A possible relationship between brood size and the degree of surface activity in polydesmoids is discussed.
The life‐cycle of the Wolf spider Pardosa lugubris in Holland
Authors: Edgar Walter D.
Published: August 2009

Pardosa lugubris in Scotland has a 2‐year life‐cycle. In Holland the situation is less clear‐cut: spiderlings emerging from the summer egg sac can reach sexual maturity by the following spring. These spiders, with a 1‐year life‐cycle, have one instar fewer than the Scottish spiders. The Dutch spiderlings from the autumn egg sac, like the Scottish spiders, have a 2‐year life‐cycle and have the same number of instars as the Scottish spiders.

The shorter life‐cycle of some of the Dutch spiders is probably due to the fact that summer temperatures are higher in Holland than in Scotland. It is suggested that the length of the life‐cycle may be an important factor in spider distribution and that this may account for the relative scarcity of large spider species in high latitudes.