bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sir Fred Hoyle. 24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001 Elected FRS 1957
Authors: Burbidge Geoffrey
Published: December 2006

Fred Hoyle's paternal grandfather was George Hoyle, who came from Lancashire to settle in Gilstead, a village on the edge of the moors above the town of Bingley in West Yorkshire. He was interested in mathematics and chess, and reportedly had a mass of grey curls. His son, Ben Hoyle, originally emigrated to the USA but returned to Gilstead to help his widowed mother. He started working in the wool trade in Bradford before World War I. Fred's father, Ben Hoyle, and his mother, née Mabel Pickard, were cousins, because their mothers were sisters. The sisters were part of the large family of Ben Preston. He was much respected in the village for the poems that he wrote and the regular articles that he contributed to the Bradford Argus. Ben Preston's mother was a member of the Hammond family, who were well-known brewers in Bradford. Both Ben Preston's house (Hammondale) and a pub that he built with his brother John can still be found in Gilstead.
Barry Edward Johnson. 1 August 1937 – 5 May 2002
Authors: Sinclair Allan M.
Published: December 2006

Barry Johnson made major contributions to the theory of Banach algebras, stimulating research on automatic continuity and cohomology in these algebras. His research on the continuous Hochschild cohomology of Banach and operator algebras led to major developments in these areas, and to ‘amenability’ moving from a group theoretic idea to one that is widely applicable in modern analysis.
Dorothy Mary Moyle Needham. 22 September 1896 – 22 December 1987
Authors: Teich Mikuláš
Published: December 2006

In July 1994 I was approached by The Royal Society asking whether I would be willing to help in putting together a biographical memoir for Dr Dorothy Moyle Needham, who died in December 1987. For a variety of reasons, the Fellow of The Royal Society who originally undertook to write the memoir had been unable to deliver it before his death. After responding that I would be happy to assist, I was informed that I would, no doubt, be contacted by the writer who undertook to complete the task. As it turned out, I heard nothing more and, while occasionally wondering at the unusual delay in the publication of the memoir, I left it at that. That is, until in the spring of 2000 when I noticed that there was still no memoir on ‘Dophi’, as she was known to friends and colleagues. I found this very strange in view of the fact that almost 111/2 years had elapsed since her death and that she was among the first 10 elected female Fellows of The Royal Society.

After some hesitation, I wrote on 7 May 2000 to The Lord Lewis of Newnham FRS (then Warden of Robinson College, Cambridge), alerting him to the situation. He was more than surprised and, following his enquiries, in July 2000 I became the third author invited to prepare Dr D.M. Needhams biographical memoir.

As in private duty bound, I accepted the invitation, although not without anxiety over predicaments perceived beforehand. For one thing, though I had been collaborating with Dorothy Needham since 1972, the subject was history of biochemistry. Usually a biographical memoir is prepared by a person acquainted at first hand with the experimental/theoretical features of the work of the deceased Fellow. For another thing, I realized that I would be able to work on the memoir only intermittently because of other commitments, including prolonged stays abroad. All this has something to do with the delay in preparing this memoir, including the format.
Louis Eugène Félix Néel. 22 November 1904 – 17 November 2000
Authors: Friedel Jacques , Averbuch Pierre
Published: December 2006

Louis Néel was from Norman stock by his father and from Lyon by his mother. He could trace his ancestors to the middle of the eighteenth century. They were leading citizens of small boroughs, his great grandfather a secondary school teacher. His grandfather, a chemist, showed him how to make pills by pressing powders in moulds; he had many coloured jars in his shop windows, one with a colony of leeches! Two of the chemist's sons worked in the colonies, one as administrator and the other as an army physician. Louis's father, a civil servant in the Ministry of Finances, also applied after a while for a post abroad, south of Tunisia, where he met his future wife, a niece of the local French representative. They married in 1903.
Sir Alec Westley Skempton. 4 June 1914 – 9 August 2001
Authors: Chandler Richard J.
Published: December 2006

Alec Westley Skempton is widely regarded as having been one of the leading developers of the subject of soil mechanics. In Britain he was pre-eminent in the subject throughout his professional life, while on the world stage he was outshone only by the founding father of the subject, Karl Terzaghi, who was some 30 years his senior. Soil mechanics was virtually non-existent as an engineering discipline at the time of Skempton's own engineering education in the 1930s, but long before he retired in 1981, as Professor of Civil Engineering at Imperial College, London, the subject was, along with structural and hydraulic engineering, one of the three main branches of civil engineering.
John Wilder Tukey. 16 June 1915 – 26 July 2000
Authors: McCullagh Peter
Published: December 2006

John Wilder Tukey was a scientific generalist, a chemist by undergraduate training, a topologist by graduate training, an environmentalist by his work on Federal Government panels, a consultant to US corporations, a data analyst who revolutionized signal processing in the 1960s, and a statistician who initiated grand programmes whose effects on statistical practice are as much cultural as they are specific. He had a prodigious knowledge of the physical sciences, legendary calculating skills, an unusually sharp and creative mind, and enormous energy. He invented neologisms at every opportunity, among which the best known are ‘bit’ for binary digit, and ‘software’ by contrast with hardware, both products of his long association with Bell Telephone Labs. Among his legacies are the fast Fourier transformation, one degree of freedom for non-additivity, statistical allowances for multiple comparisons, various contributions to exploratory data analysis and graphical presentation of data, and the jackknife as a general method for variance estimation. He popularized spectrum analysis as a way of studying stationary time series, he promoted exploratory data analysis at a time when the subject was not academically respectable, and he initiated a crusade for robust or outlier-resistant methods in statistical computation. He was for many years a scientific adviser to Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon. A 1965 report he wrote was the impetus leading to Congressional action that created the Environmental Protection Agency, and a later 1976 report (4)* confirmed the threat of halocarbons to stratospheric ozone. His work for the State Department on the Nuclear Weapons Test Ban Treaty led him to develop data-analytic tools to distinguish explosions from earthquakes. Evidence of his influence can be seen in a wide areas of science and technology, from oceanography to seismology, from topology to sampling and statistical graphics. Among many honours, he was awarded the S.S. Wilks award of the American Statistical Association in 1965, the Medal of Honour of the Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers in 1982, and the US National Medal of Science in 1973.
Norman Henry Ashton CBE. 11 September 1913 – 4 January 2000
Authors: Luthert Philip J. , Langley Cynthia Medford
Published: December 2006

Norman Ashton, the first ophthalmic pathologist in the UK, spent his career furthering the understanding and treatment of eye disease and exercising the political acumen to garner the funding necessary to advance this new field. His demonstration of the obliteration of growing retinal endothelial cells caused by the excessive administration of oxygen in premature infants is perhaps his best–known work. Apart from this, his casts of the choroidal and trabecular meshwork circulation and Schlemm's canal were the first to display the exact anatomy of these structures to the ophthalmic community. Studies of the pathogenesis of cotton wool spots, neovascularization and microaneurysms and the behaviour of retinal vessels contributed lastingly to the understanding of retinal vascular disease. With associates he demonstrated the role of the endothelium in the blood–retina barrier. Investigation of diabetic, hypertensive and other retinopathies provided fundamental contributions to the comprehension of these conditions. Original studies established an insight into amoebic ocular infections, ocular toxocariasis, nosematosis and a collection of eye diseases in animals and fish. Fight for Sight and the European Ophthalmic Pathological Society owe their beginnings, in large part, to his foresight and energy. He is remembered as a worthy researcher, a witty speaker, a respected supervisor and a kind man.
William Cochran. 30 July 1922 – 28 August 2003
Authors: Woolfson Michael
Published: December 2006

William Cochran was born at Driffenbeg, a moorland sheep farm, on 30 July 1922, to James Cochrane and Margaret Watson Baird; the final ‘e’ in the family name drifted in and out in random fashion through the generations. He traced his ancestry back more than 350 years to his great'great'great'great'great'great'grandfather, another William Cochran. In 1649 this forebear obtained title to Maynes of Craig ‘the four merks five shilling land of the five pound lands of Craig’ near Strathaven from Robert Hamilton of Sillertounhill. At around this time he married a widow, Alison Lawson, a marriage that provided a sound, if not abundant, foundation to the family fortunes from that time forth. The farm was passed from son to son–from William to John in 1669, to Alexander in 1717, to William in 1745 and to yet another William in about 1795. The most interesting of these early kin was John, who was a Covenanter, a Presbyterian rebel who opposed Anglicanism. He took part in the Covenanter Rebellion of 1679 in which, at Drumclog, the Covenanters defeated the forces of John Graham, Vicount of Dundee, who, in 1678, had been charged with task of suppressing the Covenanters. However, later the tide turned against the rebels and John was for some time imprisoned in Edinburgh with his farm ‘forfault’.
Sir Alan Hugh Cook. 2 December 1922 – 23 July 2004
Authors: Quinn Terry
Published: December 2006

Alan Cook was a man of many parts, described variously as a physicist with an unusually wide range of interests, a distinguished natural philosopher and a man who was seriously learned. He was all of these. He combined the qualities of a scientist, academic and scholar and was distinguished in all of them.
Colin Eaborn. 15 March 1923 – 22 February 2004
Authors: Smith J. David
Published: December 2006

Colin Eaborn was a distinguished chemist, best known for his wide–ranging contributions to organosilicon chemistry. His 566 publications, published over a 56–year period, covered a broad area that included physical organic chemistry, organometallic compounds generally, and coordination chemistry. He was a founding professor at the new University of Sussex and exercised considerable influence on the development of university education in chemistry during the big expansion of the 1960s. He served on a number of public committees, including the Council of the Royal Society from 1978 to 1980 and 1988 to 1989, and, as an editor of the Journal of Organometallic Chemistry, played an important part in setting high standards of presentation and clarity in the chemical literature.
Douglas Scott Falconer. 10 March 1913 – 23 February 2004
Authors: Bowman John C.
Published: December 2006

Douglas Scott Falconer obtained a first–class honours degree in Zoology at St Andrews University followed by a PhD at Cambridge for research on wireworms. He then worked with R. A. (later Sir Ronald) Fisher FRS, as a prelude to joining the ARC Genetics Section of its Animal Breeding and Genetics Research Organisation at Edinburgh University. There he spent the rest of his career, later becoming Head of Unit and a personal professor in the university.His research interests fell into three main categories: the formal genetics of the mouse, quantitative genetics, and the genetics of human diseases. His work on mouse mutants and gene linkage was a major contribution to mapping the mouse genome, and his research in quantitative genetics produced theoretical and practical findings that have been of much benefit to animal breeders and to human geneticists as well as to the understanding of traits of complex inheritance.From his research and teaching he developed his acclaimed textbook
Introduction to quantitative genetics
, which ran to four editions in 36 years. The book is used as a foundation text worldwide.Douglas was much admired as a stimulating and innovative scientist, a considerate and polite colleague, and family gentleman.
Albrecht Fröhlich. 22 May 1916 – 8 November 2001
Authors: Birch Bryan J. , Taylor Martin J.
Published: December 2006

Albrecht Fröhlich was one of the major mathematicians of the latter half of the twentieth century. He will be remembered as one of the few who have succeeded in creating a new subject: he was the creator of Galois module structure, which is now an important branch of algebraic number theory. He died in Cambridge on 8 November 2001, much loved and much honoured. Despite his relaxed persona and happy maturity, his early life was turbulent: he was a Jew, and left school abruptly when he and his family were forced to flee from the Hitler persecution. Thereafter, he completely broke the conventional mould for mathematicians, because he did not attend university till he was very nearly 30 years old and did his most important work when he was nearly 60 years old. He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society in 1976, joining his elder brother Herbert, who had been elected in 1951*.Ali (as he was always called by his friends) was born in Munich on 22 May 1916; he was the youngest of the three children of Julius and Frida Fröhlich, a Jewish couple who hailed from Rexingen in the Black Forest; his sister, Betti, had been born in Rexingen in 1904 and his brother, Herbert, in 1905. He attended Volksschule, and then the Wittelsbacher Gymnasium from 1926 to 1933; his school reports record that his work in history and religion was of outstanding (‘hervorragend’) quality and his work in mathematics and science was praiseworthy (‘lobenswort’), but his English and Latin were poor. In 1933, Hitler came to power, and life became impossible for Jewish families; the Fröhlichs had made no secret of their origins, and Ali made no secret of his opinionsindeed, he joined a Jewish left–wing discussion group* and one day walked home in full view of the Nazi offices with the pockets of his shorts stuffed full of pamphlets. A party of Brownshirts beat up Julius and came looking for Ali. The local policeman, who had an apartment above the Fröhlichs and was still a decent human being, had the presence of mind to arrest Ali as an ‘enemy of the state’. Ali was released the next morning, but the policeman's wife's reaction when she saw Ali was to ask, ‘Are you still here?’. Ali took the hint and left immediately. The people in the French Consulate were very helpful, and by that evening Ali was in Alsace; his father and mother followed soon afterwards.
Lionel Haworth. 4 August 1912 — 12 April 2000
Authors: Feilden G. B. R.
Published: December 2006

Lionel Haworth was one of the leading aero engine designers in the world. After initial training in 1934 to 1936 with the Associated Equipment Company of Southall–the builders of London's buses—he moved to Rolls–Royce, Derby, where he worked until 1963 when he transferred to the Bristol Siddeley engine company, which merged with Rolls–Royce in 1966. Throughout his career he was very much a 'hands on' engineer who insisted in keeping close to work on any new engine for which he was responsible. He worked on Rolls–Royce engines for aircraft ranging from the Meteor to Concorde, his crowning achievement in Derby being the Dart engine, which was an extremely successful, admirably simple turboprop that powered the Vickers Viscount and 11 other aircraft and had a wide influence on the future of civil aviation around the world. In Bristol, as Chief Designer, he took overall responsibility for the Concorde, Harrier and Tornado as well as all other aero engines being developed and built by Rolls–Royce, Bristol, between 1963 and 1977.
Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield KT CBE. 28 August 1919 – 12 August 2004
Authors: Wells P. N. T.
Published: December 2006

Within a few months of the discovery of X–rays by Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen in Wrzburg, Germany, on 8 November 1895, the practice of medicine had been revolutionized. The ability to see inside the intact human body advanced the diagnosis of disease from the art of guesswork into a new era based on knowledge and logic. However, there are limitations to what can be seen in X–ray shadow images. The different soft tissues of the body attenuate X–rays at very similar rates. Consequently, although the anatomical positions of many organs and structures can be seen on plain radiographs, it is often difficult to identify pathological tissue changes. On plain radiographs, the shadows of all the structures within the body are superimposed, so there is no means of depth discrimination in the images. Over the years, several technical innovations emerged that helped to mitigate these problems. First, contrast agents–compounds of iodine and barium, and air itself–can be introduced into the vessels and cavities of the body. This may make it possible to identify the corresponding structures in their images: examples of this approach include angiography and pneumoencephalography. Second, by moving the Xray source and the film by a system of mechanical linkages, the shadows of the tissues in a particular plane within the patient can be recorded in fixed positions on the film, whereas the shadows of tissues not lying in that plane are blurred by the motion. These two-dimensional images–so–called tomograms, from the Greek, tomos (meaning ‘a slice’) and graphein (meaning ‘to draw’) –can be made in contiguous planes, to build up a three–dimensional picture of the internal structures of the body. Third, a pair of X–ray images obtained at slightly different angles can be viewed stereoscopically. This is another way of obtaining three–dimensional information.
César Milstein CH. 8 October 1927 – 24 March 2002
Authors: Neuberger Michael S. , Askonas Brigitte A.
Published: December 2006

César Milstein was a scientist of the greatest distinction who made seminal contributions to our knowledge and understanding of antibodies. He advanced our knowledge of their structure, their expression, the generation of antibody diversity and the maturation of antibody affinity that occurs during the course of an immune response. Most spectacular was his discovery (jointly with Georges Köhler) of a method for obtaining monoclonal antibodies of predefined antigen specificity by fusing a continuously growing mouse myeloma cell line with a normal lymphocyte making monospecific antibody. For this, Milstein and Köhler received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1984. Although this discovery was the product of a purely academic project, its impact on medicine and technology as well as in fundamental research has been enormous, opening new avenues in diagnostics and therapy. César Milstein remained an enthusiastic, creative and passionate scientist throughout his life.
Phillip Sadler Nutman. 10 October 1914 – 4 May 2004
Authors: Bergersen F. J.
Published: December 2006

Dr Phillip Nutman was a microbiologist and plant physiologist, distinguished for his research into the infection of roots of legumes by root nodule bacteria of the genus Rhizobium. This is a subject that is truly symbiotic, involving both leguminous host plants and free–living soil bacteria, which join in a complex, often specific interaction to produce symbiotic, nodulated, nitrogen–fixing plants. His research pre–dated the molecular genetics now available to modern researchers and used the techniques of plant physiology and Mendelian genetics to explore the mechanisms of infection, subsequent nodule development and the symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. The research took place in the laboratories and fields of Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, where the study of nitrogen fixation by nodulated legumes first developed in the UK (Russell 1966). There were components of related research in Australia, 1953–57 (Bergersen 2001), and also in other countries during the International Biological Programme of 1966–73, in which Nutman was an active participant. He was a well–respected leader in active research during a period in which the subject underwent rapid development. In many ways his work became the basis on which more recent research has developed. He was a modest, self–effacing, scrupulously honest man who became increasingly impatient with the methods of research management that were emerging within the Agriculture and Food Research Council towards the end of his career at Rothamsted. After his retirement, in his Personal Record, he wrote critically about these matters.
Reginald Dawson Preston. 21 July 1908 – 3 May 2000
Authors: Cushing David
Published: December 2006

Professor Preston was born in Leeds on 21 July, 1908. His father, Walter Cluderoy Preston, was a self–employed builder who read Nature each week, but at that time the journal had a more general character than it has today. He was particularly knowledgeable in geography. He had some skill as a monumental mason and sculptor mainly of cemetery memorials. He had taught his son to read and ensured that he was well read; the child had read Robinson Crusoe at the age of five years and was reading Paradise lost at the age of four. His grandfather's brother made a living rolling pills in the cellar of his house and this was developed into a successful chemical business. Preston's great uncle Walter was married to Ethel and when she died he built over her grave in Lawnswood cemetery a statue (called ‘Ethel at the gate’) of her waiting, looking for his return as she had done during her lifetime. The memorial was featured in local postcards for many years. Preston's paternal grandfather, John Roger Gilpin Preston, was a prominent builder in Leeds, who became bankrupt and died of pneumoconiosis at the age of 45 years. His grandmother, Ann Cluderoy, was expert at cleaning ostrich feathers, fashionable ornaments at that time. They had three sons, of whom Preston's father was the eldest, and two daughters. Roger Preston had built Mount Pisgah Chapel in Tong Road, New Wortley, in Leeds, and later, during the Boer War, he built a residential estate. Preston's father rescued some furniture, crockery and some silver, and a piano with a movable keyboard on which Preston practised. His mother was Eliza Dawson, a seamstress whose mother, Rebecca White, had come from Ilkeston in Derbyshire; Preston's mother insisted that her son go to university. In April 1935 Preston married Sara Jane Pollard, by whom he had a son, David Roger, and two daughters, Maureen Anne, a physiotherapist, and Judith Margaret, a dental nurse. His wife died in 1962, as did David, who had become an organic chemist employed by Glaxo at Greenham and then by Imperial Chemical Industries and by Professor Lipson at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. In October 1963, in Leeds, Preston married Eva Frei (DrScNat), a Swiss scientist who had come to work with him.
Maurice Henry Lecorney Pryce. 24 January 1913 – 24 July 2003
Authors: Elliott Roger , Sanders J. H.
Published: December 2006

Maurice Pryce was a mathematician and theoretical physicist who became one of the most able and versatile of his generation. The inspiration that guided the development of his career came partly from his family and later from his teachers and mentors, many of whom had international reputations of the highest order. Maurice's father was born in Swansea, half Welsh and half English. He developed an early interest in physics and mathematics and took a degree in mathematics at Cardiff University, where subsequently he was for a short time a lecturer in mathematics. He had the ambition to become a theoretical physicist, but gave in to family pressure and became a civil servant, first at the Patent Office, then at the Air Ministry, and during World War II with the Ministry of Aircraft Production. In 1912 he married Hortense Elvire Lecorney, whose home was at Argentan (Orne) in Normandy. They had three sons, all of whom were given French first names: the middle son was Jacques and the youngest Jean-Michel. Their father was an excellent linguist and at home habitually spoke French; later, Maurice was always quick to point out that this was his first language. One of Maurice's research students at Oxford, Russianborn Anatole Abragam (ForMemRS 1983) in his autobiography (Abragam 1989) wondered how it was that such a well–educated man as Maurice spoke French ‘with the accent of a Normandy peasant’. Maurice's riposte was ‘But I am a Normandy peasant’.The Pryce family lived in comfortable middle–class surroundings, first at Croydon, where Maurice was born. In 1920 they moved a short way out of London to Guildford, and starting in the following year Maurice spent 16 months with his maternal grandparents in Argentan. It was at about this time that Maurice was asked what he wanted to do when he grew up. His reply was ‘I want to find out how things work’. In later life he commented, ‘If you can find a better definition of a theoretical physicist, tell me’.
George Ledyard Stebbins. 6 January 1906 — 19 January 2000
Authors: Bradshaw Anthony D. , Smocovitis Vassiliki B.
Published: December 2006

Ledyard Stebbins will be remembered by countless biologists, and more particularly by botanists working in the period immediately after World War II for the remarkable book
Variation and evolution in plants
(11) *, published in 1950. In its preface Stebbins wrote:

The present book is intended as a progress report on the synthetic approach to evolution as it applies to the plant kingdom. … It does not intend to offer any new hypotheses, except on certain limited phases of plant evolution. … No attempt has been made to give a final answer to any of the major problems confronting evolutionists, but the information and ideas are presented here in the hope that they will help to open the way towards a deeper understanding of evolutionary problems and more fruitful research in the direction of their solution.

In this synthetic approach Ledyard Stebbins can best be compared with Charles Darwin, and the impact of the book was similar, although of course the basic theory of evolution had by then been well established by the fusion of Darwinism and Mendelism. But the material presented in
Variation and evolution in plants
was so detailed, and made such sense, that botanists suddenly had to realize that plants really did evolve, and that they did this in all sorts of exciting ways, many hardly found in animals and certainly little understood by most evolutionists who, for the most part, were animal oriented.

But all this makes no reference to his many other attributes that made him one of the foremost botanists of the twentieth century, attributes that this memoir will attempt to cover.
Cromwell Varley FRS, electrical discharge and Victorian spiritualism
Authors: Noakes Richard
Published: December 2006

Cromwell Fleetwood Varley is chiefly remembered as a leading Victorian electrical engineer who was closely involved in the testing and laying of the successful transatlantic telegraph cables of the 1860s. Historians of physics principally regard him as a key figure in the ‘prehistory’ of the electron because in 1871 theProceedings of the Royal Societypublished a paper in which he seemed to anticipate the corpuscular nature of cathode rays. For many Victorians, however, Varley was as notable for his spiritualism as for his electrical researches. This paper argues that for Varley spiritualism was one of the most significant contexts of use for the 1871 paper. The latter work sought explicitly to unravel the mystery of the electrical discharge through rarefied gases but also showed the hazy boundary between the invisible and visible and material and immaterial domains. This suggested that one of the invisible powers associated with spiritualism—the ‘od’ force—might be photographed and rendered scientifically more credible, and also made it easier to understand how imponderable spirits could have apparently material attributes. Although the physical implications of Varley's 1871 publication were not explored until the 1890s, Varley's ‘spiritualistic’ uses of it shaped the way in which some late-Victorian scientists investigated the puzzling phenomena of psychical research.
Cranial Anatomy of the Lower Jurassic Pliosaur Rhomaleosaurus megacephalus (Stutchbury) (Reptilia: Plesiosauria)
Authors: Cruickshank Arthur R. I.
Published: December 2006

An account is given of the skull of a large pliosauroid plesiosaur from the lowermost Hettangian (Lower Lias; Lower Jurassic) of Barrow upon Soar, Leicestershire, identified as Rhomaleosaurus megacephalus (Stutchbury, 1846). It is proposed as the neotype of the species, as the holotype was destroyed in an air-raid on Bristol in November 1940. Details of the skull allow emendation of the diagnosis of the genus Rhomaleosaurus. Comparison of R. megacephalus with the Upper Liassic species, Rhomaleosaurus zetlandicus, shows that the former has a more gracile snout and a shallower lower jaw symphysis, and lacks squamosal-quadrate foramina. There may also be differences in the number and nature of the palatal grooves associated with presumed underwater olfaction. Lack of iron pyrites in the matrix surrounding the specimen allowed computed axial tomography (CAT)-scan sections to be obtained, which in association with the little-distorted nature of the skull, permitted a confident reconstruction of the skull. It shows a complete ring of circumorbital bones, and a suborbital fenestra. The braincase can be reconstructed from sagittal break-sections allied with CAT-scan sections. A stapes is identified. A poorly preserved dentition comprises conical, striated, teeth with caniniforms on each premaxilla and at the front of each maxilla. Although very similar to the later species, this skull is not so well adapted for apprehending and dismembering large prey, as is R. zetlandicus.
Dynamics and Evolution: Evolutionarily Stable Attractors, Invasion Exponents and Phenotype Dynamics
Authors: Rand D. A. , Wilson H. B. , McGlade J. M.
Published: December 2006

We extend the ideas of evolutionary dynamics and stability to a very broad class of biological and other dynamical systems. We simultaneously develop the general mathematical theory and a discussion of some illustrative examples. After developing an appropriate formulation for the dynamics, we define the notion of an evolutionary stable attractor (ESA) and give some samples of ESAS with simple and complex dynamics. We discuss the relationship between our theory and that for ESSS in classical linear evolutionary game theory by considering some dynamical extensions. We then introduce and develop our main mathematical tool, the invasion exponent. This allows analytical and numerical analysis of relatively complex situations, such as the coevolution of multiple species with chaotic population dynamics. Using this, we introduce the notion of differential selective pressure which for generic systems is nonlinear and characterizes internal ESAS. We use this to analytically determine the ESAS in our previous examples. Then we introduce the phenotype dynamics which describe how a population with a distribution of phenotypes changes in time with or without mutations. We discuss the relation between the asymptotic states of this and the ESAS. Finally, we use our mathematical formulation to analyse a non-reproductive form of evolution in which various learning rules compete and evolve. We give a very tentative economic application which has interesting ESAS and phenotype dynamics.
Structure and Formation of the Egg Capsule Tendrils in the Dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula
Authors: Feng D. , Knight D. P.
Published: December 2006

The tendrils of the egg capsule of the dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula appear to act as damped springs which become entagled with one another, attaching the capsule firmly to the seaweed Halidrys siliquosa. The present paper describes the structure of tendrils and their method of formation in a specialized region of the nidamental gland which we have termed the tendril-forming region (TFR). The tendrils provide a unique system for studying the assembly of a complexly ordered collagenous material. Tendrils show primary twisting and then undergo secondary helical coiling. In cross section they have a lamellated, spiral construction. Each lamella appears to consist of a broad and a narrow lamina. Collagen fibril orientation is approximately longitudinal in the broad lamina and approximately circumferential in the narrow one. Fine, longitudinal fluid-filled canaliculi lie between the lamellae and may act as shock absorbers. Spherical granules containing a high concentration of tyrosine residues are present in large numbers in the outermost lamellae and may have rubber-like properties. The collagen is probably heavily cross-linked and gives the tendril high tensile strength. The tendril appears to be formed from the adhesion of successive lamellae which are wrapped round a central core as the forming tendril undergoes counter-clockwise (left-handed) rotation within the TFR. The latter appears to represent a modification of the structure of the simpler capsule wall-forming region (CWFR). A wave of progressive activation of tubular glands of the TFR travelling anteriorly followed by a wave of deactivation in the opposite direction appears to be responsible for the secretion of first the posterior tendril, then the marginal rib of the egg capsule and finally the anterior tendril. Secreted material passes from glandular tubules through secretory ducts to a series of parallel transverse grooves which act as complex extrusion dies to form the lamellae of the tendril. We have gone some way towards describing how the complex three-dimensional organization of the tendril is produced by these dies. Observations suggested the following sequence of events within the extrusion dies: secreted material becomes uniaxially oriented in the secretory duct and is then passed between ciliated plates we have termed `baffle plates'. These separate the material into an anterior flow containing vertically oriented collagen molecules and a thinner posterior flow containing approximately horizontally oriented ones. These two flows then pass through a transverse groove to become respectively the broad and the narrow lamina of a single lamella of the tendril. The lamellae become pleated within the transverse grooves probably by anisotropic shrinkage. The canaliculi appear to be formed by the partial adhesion of the pleated lamellae as they are wound onto the forming tendril by rotation within the TFR. The mechanism of rotation of the forming thread and its subsequent coiling in the posterior oviduct is discussed.
Reconstitution of the Escherichia coli macrolide transporter: the periplasmic membrane fusion protein MacA stimulates the ATPase activity of MacB
Authors: Tikhonova Elena B. , Devroy Vishakha K. , Lau Sze Yi , Zgurskaya Helen I.
Published: January 2007

Periplasmic membrane fusion proteins (MFPs) are essential components of the type I protein secretion systems and drug efflux pumps in Gram‐negative bacteria. Previous studies suggested that MFPs connect the inner and outer membrane components of the transport systems and by this means co‐ordinate the transfer of substrates across the two membranes. In this study, we purified and reconstituted the macrolide transporter MacAB from Escherichia coli. Here, MacA is a periplasmic MFP and MacB is an ABC‐type transporter. Similar to other MFP‐dependent transporters from E. coli, the in vivo function of MacAB requires the outer membrane channel TolC. The purified MacB displayed a basal ATPase activity in detergent micelles. This activity conformed to Michaelis‐Menten kinetics but was unresponsive to substrates or accessory proteins. Upon reconstitution into proteoliposomes, the ATPase activity of MacB was strictly dependent on MacA. The catalytic efficiency of MacAB ATPase was more than 45‐fold higher than the activity of MacB alone. Both the N‐ and C‐terminal regions of MacA were essential for this activity. MacA stimulated MacB ATPase only in phospholipid bilayers and did not need the presence of macrolides. Our results suggest that MacA is a functional subunit of the MacB transporter.
Use of selamectin for the treatment of psoroptic and sarcoptic mite infestation in rabbits
Authors: Kurtdede Arif , Karaer Zafer , Acar Abuzer , Guzel Murat , Cingi C. Cagri , Ural Kerem , Ica Anil
Published: January 2007

Selamectin, a novel avermectin compound, was evaluated for its efficacy against naturally occurring infestations ofPsoroptes cuniculiandSarcoptes scabiei.A total of 42 New Zealand rabbits with psoroptic mange and 37 Angora rabbits with sarcoptic mange were used in the present study. On day 0, infested rabbits were treated topically with either selamectin at minimum dose of 6 mg kg−1(6–18 mg kg−1for New Zealand rabbits,n = 31 and 10–12 mg kg−1for Angora rabbits,n = 23) or vehicle only (control groups,n = 11 for New Zealand rabbits,n = 14 for Angora rabbits).

The efficacy of selamectin was assessed both clinically and parasitologically by the presence or absence of viable mites. Rabbits were scraped for sarcoptic mites on days 7, 14, 28, 42 and 56 and had otoscopeic and/or microscopic examination for the detection ofPsoroptesmites on days 7, 14, 42 and 56. Fisher's exact test was used to assess differences between the vehicle and selamectin treatment in the number of rabbits without mites (cure rates) on each assessment date.

It was found that significantly fewer selamectin‐treated rabbits had mites detected on skin scrapings (forS. scabiei) or otoscopeic and/or microscopic examination (forP. cuniculi) (P < 0.01) than the vehicle group. Results of the present study suggest that selamectin is effective against naturally infestations of P. cuniculiandS. scabieiin rabbits.
Biochemical characterization of human glutamate carboxypeptidase III
Authors: Hlouchová Klára , Bařinka Cyril , Klusák Vojtěch , Šácha Pavel , Mlčochová Petra , Majer Pavel , Rulíšek Lubomír , Konvalinka Jan
Published: January 2007

Human glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) is a transmembrane metallopeptidase found mainly in the brain, small intestine, and prostate. In the brain, it cleaves N‐acetyl‐l‐aspartyl‐glutamate, liberating free glutamate. Inhibition of GCPII has been shown to be neuroprotective in models of stroke and other neurodegenerations. In prostate, it is known as prostate‐specific membrane antigen, a cancer marker. Recently, human glutamate carboxypeptidase III (GCPIII), a GCPII homolog with 67% amino acid identity, was cloned. While GCPII is recognized as an important pharmaceutical target, no biochemical study of human GCPIII is available at present. Here, we report the cloning, expression, and characterization of recombinant human GCPIII. We show that GCPIII lacks dipeptidylpeptidase IV‐like activity, its activity is dependent on N‐glycosylation, and it is effectively inhibited by several known inhibitors of GCPII. In comparison to GCPII, GCPIII has lower N‐acetyl‐l‐aspartyl‐glutamate‐hydrolyzing activity, different pH and salt concentration dependence, and distinct substrate specificity, indicating that these homologs might play different biological roles. Based on a molecular model, we provide interpretation of the distinct substrate specificity of both enzymes, and examine the amino acid residues responsible for the differences by site‐directed mutagenesis. These results may help to design potent and selective inhibitors of both enzymes.
A Decade of Treating Networks Seriously
Authors: Robinson Scott E.
Published: January 2007

In the years since O'Toole called for scholars to “[treat] network seriously,” research has progressively improved our understanding of how organizations collaborate in the development and implementation of public policy. This essay reviews recent important texts in the area of policy networks. Together the works illustrate that the scholarship on network governance should move to documenting the diversity and dynamics of policy networks. The article concludes with a discussion of what these texts reveal about the most important standing questions in the study of networks and the methods that need to be brought to bear to investigate these systems.
Microscopic approach to an equation for the heat flow between wafer and E-chuck
Authors: Klick Michael , Bernt Mathias
Published: December 2006

Wafer cooling and heating by means of a gas at the wafer backside is a key technology in semiconductor manufacturing. A detailed understanding of the physical mechanisms is needed to yield the best process results. Besides the commonly used Smoluchowski interface condition, a microscopical approach is deduced describing the whole pressure range. Different thermal gas species and surface properties, as well as the velocity and angular distribution of the atoms, are basic features of the model. The angular distribution of the desorbed atoms is shown to have a significant influence on the wafer temperature. The heat transfer properties between the gas and two different surfaces are described by one value, the effective accommodation coefficient. The final wafer temperature is simulated as a function of the input power, the backside pressure, and the gas species. Helium has the best cooling properties of the inert gases, followed by neon. The influence of a pollution of the wafer surface on the uniformity of the wafer temperature has been determined. The surface roughness has no significant influence on the cooling abilities of an electrostatic chuck.
Real-time determination of electron-beam probe shape using an in situ fiducial grid
Authors: Hastings J. T.
Published: December 2006

Electron-beam probe shape is typically determined by imaging a known or quasirandom target; however, neither standard targets nor two-dimensional image acquisition and processing are suitable for real-time probe characterization during lithographic exposures. Here a new technique for continuously monitoring probe shape is proposed and evaluated. Fourier analysis of the signal generated by an in situ fiducial grid allows estimation of the x and y widths and rotation of a Gaussian beam. The grid itself is rotated with respect to the beam deflection axes to allow real-time estimation of two-dimensional probe shape from a one-dimensional line scan across the grid. Monte Carlo simulations of beam parameter variances versus signal-to-noise ratio reveal regions of operation where the algorithm’s precision is limited by either noise or grid geometry. Experiments using a 1μm period grid to estimate probe shape as a function of defocus demonstrate the effectiveness of the new approach.
Progress towards tubes with regular nanopatterned inner surfaces
Authors: Seunarine K. , Tormen M. , Gadegaard N. , Riehle M. , Wilkinson C. D. W. , Businaro L. , Romanato F.
Published: December 2006

The repair of vascular tubing is an important task in tissue engineering. The behavior of cells is strongly influenced by the topology of the surfaces, on both a micrometric and a nanometric scale, in their vicinity. Thus the authors wish to make tubes that are patterned on the inner surface. One way to do this is to use the good depth of focus capabilities of x-ray exposure to print an array of dots, 200nm diameter and 400nm pitch, onto a curved surface coated in resist. A die made from this structure allows nanoembossing into a biodegradable polymer. A closed vessel can then be made by adding a lid, that also has a similar nanopatterned surface. Details of the accuracy of transfer are given. It is concluded that x-ray printing is a suitable approach for the formation of internally patterned tubing.
Area selective atomic layer deposition of titanium dioxide: Effect of precursor chemistry
Authors: Sinha Ashwini , Hess Dennis W. , Henderson Clifford L.
Published: December 2006

Area selective atomic layer deposition (ALD) of titanium dioxide using polymer films as masking layers has been investigated. A number of factors which must be considered while designing a successful area selective ALD process have been determined and are briefly discussed. Reactivity of the polymer with the ALD precursor species, diffusion of ALD precursors through the polymer mask, and remnant precursor content in the masking film during ALD cycling are key factors. This article investigates the effect of different precursor chemistries in view of the above mentioned factors. Titanium tetrachloride and titanium isopropoxide have been used as two different metal precursors in conjunction with poly(methyl methacrylate) films as photodefinable masking layers. Processing problems arising from factors such as diffusion of precursors through the masking layer can be solved through careful choice of ALD precursors.
Development of a regeneration-type neural interface: A microtube guide for axon growth of neuronal cells fabricated using focused-ion-beam chemical vapor deposition
Authors: Hoshino Takayuki , Ozasa Akinori , Kometani Reo , Suzuki Takafumi , Matsui Shinji , Mabuchi Kunihiko
Published: December 2006

The authors’ goal is to develop a neural interface system that enables connection of the human nervous system with external devices and allows transmission of information in both directions. One way to connect interface to neurons is a regenerative electrode, where the electrode is placed between the two cut ends of a nerve. The cut nerve fiber can regenerate through channels in a metallic electrode on a two-dimensional (2D) plane of the regenerative electrode. As this type of electrode enables both the recording of signals from a single nerve fiber and the stimulation of a single nerve fiber, attempts have been made to develop it using traditional 2D microfabrication techniques. However, it is difficult to process such electrodes with these 2D microfabrication techniques, particularly the high-density integrated structure of the electrical wiring. The authors previously designed a neural interface system—a type of regenerative electrode consisting of an electrode segment and many carbon microtubes for guiding the regenerating axons of the neuronal cells—that can be made through three-dimensional processing. In the current study, the authors have fabricated a prototype of the guiding segment of the electrode (which was previously reported) and evaluated the biocompatibility of diamondlike carbon (DLC) made by focused-ion-beam chemical vapor deposition (FIB-CVD) and carbon microtubes in vitro. The microtubes were fabricated using FIB-CVD. DLC was deposited with a scanning 30keV Ga+ ion beam in an atmosphere containing phenanthrene (C14H10). The scanning patterns were determined by a computer-aided-design system before the fabrication. The beam was scanned over a Au-coated glass capillary or polycarbonate membrane to deposit DLC and form the carbon microtubes. For observation of the axon growth through the microtubes, the authors fabricated bifurcated carbon microtubes with an inner diameter of 3–6μm on the glass capillary and straight microtubes on the polycarbonate membrane. The fabricated microtubes were immersed in a culture medium containing nerve growth factor and PC12 cells were cultured inside the capillary and on the membrane to evaluate whether they could extend axons through the microtubes. Here, the authors show that cultured rat phaeochromocytomas adhered to and survived for days on a DLC surface while preserving their morphology provided that the adhesion molecule poly-D-lysine was used as an organic substance to anchor the cells to the DLC surface. As a result, cells spread and neurites projected on the DLC area, suggesting that the DLC had little cytotoxic effect.