bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Essential role of the Wnt pathway effector Tcf-1 for the establishment of functional CD8 T cell memory
Authors: Jeannet Grégoire , Boudousquié Caroline , Gardiol Noémie , Kang Joonsoo , Huelsken Joerg , Held Werner
Published: May 2010

Immune protection from intracellular pathogens depends on the generation of terminally differentiated effector and of multipotent memory precursor CD8 T cells, which rapidly regenerate effector and memory cells during recurrent infection. The identification of factors and pathways involved in CD8 T cell differentiation is of obvious importance to improve vaccination strategies. Here, we show that mice lacking T cell factor 1 (Tcf-1), a nuclear effector of the canonical Wingless/Integration 1 (Wnt) signaling pathway, mount normal effector and effector memory CD8 T cell responses to infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). However, Tcf-1–deficient CD8 T cells are selectively impaired in their ability to expand upon secondary challenge and to protect from recurrent virus infection. Tcf-1–deficient mice essentially lack CD8 memory precursor T cells, which is evident already at the peak of the primary response, suggesting that Tcf-1 programs CD8 memory cell fate. The function of Tcf-1 to establish CD8 T cell memory is dependent on the catenin-binding domain in Tcf-1 and requires the Tcf-1 coactivators and Wnt signaling intermediates β-catenin and γ-catenin. These findings demonstrate that the canonical Wnt signaling pathway plays an essential role for CD8 central memory T cell differentiation under physiological conditions in vivo. They raise the possibility that modulation of Wnt signaling may be exploited to improve the generation of CD8 memory T cells during vaccination or for therapies designed to promote sustained cytotoxic CD8 T cell responses against tumors.
Effects of the USA PATRIOT Act and the 2002 Bioterrorism Preparedness Act on select agent research in the United States
Authors: Dias M. Beatrice , Reyes-Gonzalez Leonardo , Veloso Francisco M. , Casman Elizabeth A.
Published: May 2010

A bibliometric analysis of the
Bacillus anthracis
and Ebola virus archival literature was conducted to determine whether negative consequences of the
U
niting and
S
trengthening
A
merica by
P
roviding
A
ppropriate
T
ools
R
equired to
I
ntercept and
O
bstruct
T
errorism” (USA PATRIOT) Act and the 2002 Bioterrorism Preparedness Act on US select agent research could be discerned. Indicators of the health of the field, such as number of papers published per year, number of researchers authoring papers, and influx rate of new authors, indicated an overall stimulus to the field after 2002. As measured by interorganizational coauthorships, both
B. anthracis
and Ebola virus research networks expanded after 2002 in terms of the number of organizations and the degree of collaboration. Coauthorship between US and non US scientists also grew for Ebola virus but contracted for the subset of
B. anthracis
research that did not involve possession of viable, virulent bacteria. Some non-US institutions were dropped, and collaborations with others intensified. Contrary to expectations, research did not become centralized around a few gatekeeper institutions. Two negative effects were detected. There was an increased turnover rate of authors in the select agent community that was not observed in the control organism (
Klebsiella pneumoniae
) research community. However, the most striking effect observed was not associated with individual authors or institutions; it was a loss of efficiency, with an approximate 2- to 5-fold increase in the cost of doing select agent research as measured by the number of research papers published per millions of US research dollars awarded.
Elusive transition state of alcohol dehydrogenase unveiled
Authors: Roston Daniel , Kohen Amnon
Published: May 2010

For several decades the hydride transfer catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase has been difficult to understand. Here we add to the large corpus of anomalous and paradoxical data collected for this reaction by measuring a normal (> 1) 2° kinetic isotope effect (KIE) for the reduction of benzaldehyde. Because the relevant equilibrium effect is inverse (< 1), this KIE eludes the traditional interpretation of 2° KIEs. It does, however, enable the development of a comprehensive model for the “tunneling ready state” (TRS) of the reaction that fits into the general scheme of Marcus-like models of hydrogen tunneling. The TRS is the ensemble of states along the intricate reorganization coordinate, where H tunneling between the donor and acceptor occurs (the crossing point in Marcus theory). It is comparable to the effective transition state implied by ensemble-averaged variational transition state theory. Properties of the TRS are approximated as an average of the individual properties of the donor and acceptor states. The model is consistent with experimental findings that previously appeared contradictory; specifically, it resolves the long-standing ambiguity regarding the location of the TRS (aldehyde-like vs. alcohol-like). The new picture of the TRS for this reaction identifies the principal components of the collective reaction coordinate and the average structure of the saddle point along that coordinate.
Widespread genomic divergence during sympatric speciation
Authors: Michel Andrew P. , Sim Sheina , Powell Thomas H. Q. , Taylor Michael S. , Nosil Patrik , Feder Jeffrey L.
Published: May 2010

Speciation with gene flow is expected to generate a heterogeneous pattern of genomic differentiation. The few genes under or physically linked to loci experiencing strong disruptive selection can diverge, whereas gene flow will homogenize the remainder of the genome, resulting in isolated “genomic islands of speciation.” We conducted an experimental test of this hypothesis in
Rhagoletis pomonella
, a model for sympatric ecological speciation. Contrary to expectations, we found widespread divergence throughout the
Rhagoletis
genome, with the majority of loci displaying host differences, latitudinal clines, associations with adult eclosion time, and within-generation responses to selection in a manipulative overwintering experiment. The latter two results, coupled with linkage disequilibrium analyses, provide experimental evidence that divergence was driven by selection on numerous independent genomic regions rather than by genome-wide genetic drift. “Continents” of multiple differentiated loci, rather than isolated islands of divergence, may characterize even the early stages of speciation. Our results also illustrate how these continents can exhibit variable topography, depending on selection strength, availability of preexisting genetic variation, linkage relationships, and genomic features that reduce recombination. For example, the divergence observed throughout the
Rhagoletis
genome was clearly accentuated in some regions, such as those harboring chromosomal inversions. These results highlight how the individual genes driving speciation can be embedded within an actively diverging genome.
Detecting individual memories through the neural decoding of memory states and past experience
Authors: Rissman Jesse , Greely Henry T. , Wagner Anthony D.
Published: May 2010

A wealth of neuroscientific evidence indicates that our brains respond differently to previously encountered than to novel stimuli. There has been an upswell of interest in the prospect that functional MRI (fMRI), when coupled with multivariate data analysis techniques, might allow the presence or absence of individual memories to be detected from brain activity patterns. This could have profound implications for forensic investigations and legal proceedings, and thus the merits and limitations of such an approach are in critical need of empirical evaluation. We conducted two experiments to investigate whether neural signatures of recognition memory can be reliably decoded from fMRI data. In Exp. 1, participants were scanned while making explicit recognition judgments for studied and novel faces. Multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA) revealed a robust ability to classify whether a given face was subjectively experienced as old or new, as well as whether recognition was accompanied by recollection, strong familiarity, or weak familiarity. Moreover, a participant's subjective mnemonic experiences could be reliably decoded even when the classifier was trained on the brain data from other individuals. In contrast, the ability to classify a face's objective old/new status, when holding subjective status constant, was severely limited. This important boundary condition was further evidenced in Exp. 2, which demonstrated that mnemonic decoding is poor when memory is indirectly (implicitly) probed. Thus, although subjective memory states can be decoded quite accurately under controlled experimental conditions, fMRI has uncertain utility for objectively detecting an individual's past experiences.
Disease-causing missense mutations in actin binding domain 1 of dystrophin induce thermodynamic instability and protein aggregation
Authors: Henderson Davin M. , Lee Ann , Ervasti James M.
Published: May 2010

Mutations in the dystrophin gene cause Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) most commonly through loss of protein expression. In a small subpopulation of patients, missense mutations can cause DMD, Becker muscular dystrophy, or X-linked cardiomyopathy. Nearly one-half of disease-causing missense mutations are located in actin-binding domain 1 (ABD1) of dystrophin. To test the hypothesis that ABD1 missense mutations cause disease by impairing actin-binding activity, we engineered the K18N, L54R, D165V, A168D, L172H, and Y231N mutations into the full-length dystrophin cDNA and characterized the biochemical properties of each mutant protein. The K18N and L54R mutations are associated with the most severe diseases in humans and each caused a small but significant 4-fold decrease in actin-binding affinity, while the affinities of the other four mutant proteins were not significantly different from WT dystrophin. More interestingly, WT dystrophin was observed to unfold in a single-step, highly cooperative manner. In contrast, all six mutant proteins were significantly more prone to thermal denaturation and aggregation. Our results suggest that missense mutations in ABD1 may all cause loss of dystrophin function via protein instability and aggregation rather than through loss of ligand binding function. However, more severe disease progressions may be due to the combinatorial effects of some mutations on both protein aggregation and impaired actin-binding activity.
A myopathy-linked tropomyosin mutation severely alters thin filament conformational changes during activation
Authors: Ochala Julien , Iwamoto Hiroyuki , Larsson Lars , Yagi Naoto
Published: May 2010

Human point mutations in β- and γ-tropomyosin induce contractile deregulation, skeletal muscle weakness, and congenital myopathies. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the hitherto unknown underlying molecular mechanisms. Hence, we recorded and analyzed the X-ray diffraction patterns of human membrane-permeabilized muscle cells expressing a particular β-tropomyosin mutation (R133W) associated with a loss in cell force production, in vivo muscle weakness, and distal arthrogryposis. Upon addition of calcium, we notably observed less intensified changes, compared with controls, (
i
) in the second (1/19 nm
−1
), sixth (1/5.9 nm
−1
), and seventh (1/5.1 nm
−1
) actin layer lines of cells set at a sarcomere length, allowing an optimal thin-thick filament overlap; and (
ii
) in the second actin layer line of overstretched cells. Collectively, these results directly prove that during activation, switching of a positive to a neutral charge at position 133 in the protein partially hinders both calcium- and myosin-induced tropomyosin movement over the thin filament, blocking actin conformational changes and consequently decreasing the number of cross-bridges and subsequent force production.
Contingent cooperation between wild female baboons
Authors: Cheney Dorothy L. , Moscovice Liza R. , Heesen Marlies , Mundry Roger , Seyfarth Robert M.
Published: May 2010

The apparent rarity of contingent cooperation in animals has convinced many investigators that such reciprocity is unimportant, stimulating consideration of alternative explanations for cooperation, such as by-product mutualism and biological markets motivated by the likelihood of immediate reward. Nevertheless, there is also limited evidence that animals do sometimes rely on memory of recent interactions when behaving altruistically toward others. Here we describe a playback experiment conducted on wild female baboons, suggesting that contingent cooperation may occur among unrelated individuals, even when there is a temporal delay between the two cooperative acts. Hearing the recruitment call of an unrelated recent grooming partner caused subjects to move in the direction of the loudspeaker and approach their former partner, particularly when this partner had an infant. When the subject and her partner were close kin no such effect was observed. Subjects’ responses were not influenced by any type of recent interaction, because prior grooming and prior aggression influenced their behavior in qualitatively different ways. Similarly, their responses were not prompted only by the motivation to resume friendly interactions, because prior grooming alone did not elicit approach. Instead, subjects were most likely to approach their former grooming partner when they had also heard her recruitment call. Results suggest that at least some forms of cooperation in animals may be based on memory of specific recent interactions.
Acute stress modulates genotype effects on amygdala processing in humans
Authors: Cousijn Helena , Rijpkema Mark , Qin Shaozheng , van Marle Hein J. F. , Franke Barbara , Hermans Erno J. , van Wingen Guido , Fernández Guillén
Published: May 2010

Probing gene–environment interactions that affect neural processing is crucial for understanding individual differences in behavior and disease vulnerability. Here, we tested whether the current environmental context, which affects the acute brain state, modulates genotype effects on brain function in humans. We manipulated the context by inducing acute psychological stress, which increases noradrenergic activity, and probed its effect on tonic activity and phasic responses in the amygdala using two MRI techniques: conventional blood oxygen level–dependent functional MRI and arterial spin labeling. We showed that only carriers of a common functional deletion in
ADRA2B
, the gene coding for the α2b-adrenoreceptor, displayed increased phasic amygdala responses under stress. Tonic activity, reflecting the perfusion of the amygdala, increased independently of genotype after stress induction. Thus, when tonic activity was heightened by stress, only deletion carriers showed increased amygdala responses. Our results demonstrate that genetic effects on brain operations can be state dependent, such that they only become apparent under specific, often environmentally controlled, conditions.
Neuronal expression of
Mgat1
rescues the shortened life span of

Drosophila Mgat1
1

null mutants and increases life span
Authors: Sarkar Mohan , Iliadi Konstantin G. , Leventis Peter A. , Schachter Harry , Boulianne Gabrielle L.
Published: May 2010

The enzyme UDP-GlcNAc:α3-D-mannoside β1,2-
N
-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I (GnT1, encoded by
Mgat1
) controls the synthesis of paucimannose
N
-glycans in
Drosophila
. We have previously reported that null mutations in
Drosophila Mgat1
are viable but exhibit defects in locomotion, brain abnormalities, and a severely reduced life span. Here, we show that knockdown of
Mgat1
in the central nervous system (CNS) of wild-type flies decreases locomotor activity and life span. This phenotype is similar to that observed in

Drosophila Mgat1
1

null mutants, demonstrating that
Mgat1
is required in the CNS. We also found that neuronal expression of a wild-type
Mgat1
transgene rescued the shortened life span of

Mgat1
1

null mutants and resulted in a dramatic 135% increase in mean life span relative to genetically identical controls. Neuronal expression of a wild-type
Mgat1
transgene in wild-type flies resulted in a modest 9% increase in mean life span relative to genetically identical controls. In both

Mgat1
1

null mutants and wild-type flies, neuronal expression of wild-type
Mgat1
transgene resulted in a significant increase in GnT1 activity and resistance to oxidative stress. Whereas dietary restriction is not absolutely essential for the increased life span, it plays a role in the process. Interestingly, we observe a direct correlation between GnT1 activity and mean life span up to a maximum of ~136 days, showing that the ability of GnT1 activity to increase life span is limited. Altogether, these observations suggest that
Mgat1
-dependent
N
-glycosylation plays an important role in the control of
Drosophila
life span.
Obligatory role in GTP hydrolysis for the amide carbonyl oxygen of the Mg
2+
-coordinating Thr of regulatory GTPases
Authors: Zurita Adolfo , Zhang Yinghao , Pedersen Lee , Darden Tom , Birnbaumer Lutz
Published: May 2010

When G-protein α subunits binds GTP and Mg
2+
, they transition from their inactive to their active conformation. This transition is accompanied by completion of the coordination shell of Mg
2+
with electrons from six oxygens: two water molecules, the ß and γ phosphoryls of GTP, a helix-α1 Ser, and a switch I domain (SWI) Thr, and the repositioning of SWI and SWII domains. SWII binds and regulates effector enzymes and facilitates GTP hydrolysis by repositioning the γ-carbonyl of a Gln. Mutating the Ser generates regulatory GTPases that cannot lock Mg
2+
into its place and are locked in their inactive state with dominant negative properties. Curiously, mutating the Thr appears to reduce GTP hydrolysis. The reason for this difference is not known because it is also not known why removal of the Thr should affect the overall GTPase cycle differently than removal of the Ser. Working with recombinant Gsα, we report that mutating its SWI-Thr to either Ala, Glu, Gln, or Asp results not only in diminished GTPase activity but also in spontaneous activation of the SWII domain. Upon close examination of existing α subunit crystals, we noted the oxygen of the backbone carbonyl of SWI-Thr and of the γ-carbonyl of SWII Gln to be roughly equidistant from the oxygen of the hydrolytic H
2
O. Our observations indicate that the Gln and Thr carbonyls play equihierarchical roles in the GTPase process and provide the mechanism that explains why mutating the Thr mimics mutating the Gln and not that of the Ser.
Designing ethical organizations for spiritual growth and superior performance: an organization systems approach
Authors: Collins Denis
Published: May 2010

The emerging field of spirituality at work provides new energy to the well‐established field of business ethics and social responsibility by directing organizational leaders to achieve superior financial performance and productivity in harmony with ethical behavior and spiritual
transcendence. This article provides a systematic model organizational leaders can implement to infuse ethics and spirituality throughout operations. The model recognizes that all employees are morally imperfect, and offers processes, practices, and structures that reinforce ethical behaviors
and allow personal spirituality to flourish. The organization systems approach embraces the best practices for determining the ethics of job candidates, codes of ethics, ethical decision‐making, ethics and diversity training, ethics officers and hotlines, ethical leadership, ethical
work goals and performance appraisals, environmental management, and community outreach. World peace and social justice requires the existence of ethical organizations that provide high‐quality goods and services and are places for spiritual growth and development.
Perceiving and responding to job insecurity: a workplace spirituality perspective
Authors: Probst Tahira M. , Strand Paul
Published: May 2010

With unemployment at record highs and rising job insecurity due to the fear of unemployment, it is important to understand the behavioral, physical, psychological, and social ramifications of such insecurity. More importantly, it is crucial to identify variables that may help to prevent
and/or alleviate the effects of such job insecurity. To date, there has been scant theorizing or empirical research examining how spirituality may influence the experience of job insecurity or fear of job loss. The purpose of our paper is to develop theoretical propositions regarding the roles
that spirituality may play in the appraisal of and response to job insecurity. We begin by briefly reviewing known correlates of job insecurity. Next, we define spirituality for the purposes of this paper; and finally, we develop propositions regarding the role of spirituality in these processes
and suggest avenues for empirically testing these propositions. As research on the efficacy of spirituality is growing, investigators look to non‐traditional but complementary methods of treating disease, trauma, and other adverse life events. In a similar vein, we call upon researchers
to examine the role that spirituality may play in how employees react to the stressor of job insecurity.
Botulinum hemagglutinin disrupts the intercellular epithelial barrier by directly binding E-cadherin
Authors: Sugawara Yo , Matsumura Takuhiro , Takegahara Yuki , Jin Yingji , Tsukasaki Yoshikazu , Takeichi Masatoshi , Fujinaga Yukako
Published: May 2010

Botulinum neurotoxin is produced by Clostridium botulinum and forms large protein complexes through associations with nontoxic components. We recently found that hemagglutinin (HA), one of the nontoxic components, disrupts the intercellular epithelial barrier; however, the mechanism underlying this phenomenon is not known. In this study, we identified epithelial cadherin (E-cadherin) as a target molecule for HA. HA directly binds E-cadherin and disrupts E-cadherin–mediated cell to cell adhesion. Although HA binds human, bovine, and mouse E-cadherin, it does not bind rat or chicken E-cadherin homologues. HA does not interact with other members of the classical cadherin family such as neural and vascular endothelial cadherin. Expression of rat E-cadherin but not mouse rescues Madin–Darby canine kidney cells from HA-induced tight junction (TJ) disruptions. These data demonstrate that botulinum HA directly binds E-cadherin and disrupts E-cadherin–mediated cell to cell adhesion in a species-specific manner and that the HA–E-cadherin interaction is essential for the disruption of TJ function.
Multiple Myo4 motors enhance ASH1 mRNA transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Authors: Chung Sunglan , Takizawa Peter A.
Published: May 2010

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, ASH1 mRNA is transported to the bud tip by the class V myosin Myo4. In vivo, Myo4 moves RNA in a rapid and continuous fashion, but in vitro Myo4 is a nonprocessive, monomeric motor that forms a complex with She3. To understand how nonprocessive motors generate continuous transport, we used a novel purification method to show that Myo4, She3, and the RNA-binding protein She2 are the sole major components of an active ribonucleoprotein transport unit. We demonstrate that a single localization element contains multiple copies of Myo4 and a tetramer of She2, which suggests that She2 may recruit multiple motors to an RNA. Furthermore, we show that increasing the number of Myo4–She3 molecules bound to ASH1 RNA in the absence of She2 increases the efficiency of RNA transport to the bud. Our data suggest that multiple, nonprocessive Myo4 motors can generate continuous transport of mRNA to the bud tip.
Sox10 is required for Schwann cell identity and progression beyond the immature Schwann cell stage
Authors: Finzsch Markus , Schreiner Silke , Kichko Tatjana , Reeh Peter , Tamm Ernst R. , Bösl Michael R. , Meijer Dies , Wegner Michael
Published: May 2010

Mutations in the transcription factor SOX10 cause neurocristopathies, including Waardenburg-Hirschsprung syndrome and peripheral neuropathies in humans. This is partly attributed to a requirement for Sox10 in early neural crest for survival, maintenance of pluripotency, and specification to several cell lineages, including peripheral glia. As a consequence, peripheral glia are absent in Sox10-deficient mice. Intriguingly, Sox10 continues to be expressed in these cells after specification. To analyze glial functions after specification, we specifically deleted Sox10 in immature Schwann cells by conditional mutagenesis. Mutant mice died from peripheral neuropathy before the seventh postnatal week. Nerve alterations included a thinned perineurial sheath, increased lipid and collagen deposition, and a dramatically altered cellular composition. Nerve conduction was also grossly aberrant, and neither myelinating nor nonmyelinating Schwann cells formed. Instead, axons of different sizes remained unsorted in large bundles. Schwann cells failed to develop beyond the immature stage and were unable to maintain identity. Thus, our study identifies a novel cause for peripheral neuropathies in patients with SOX10 mutations.
Disease-causing mutations in Parkin impair mitochondrial ubiquitination, aggregation, and HDAC6-dependent mitophagy
Authors: Lee Joo-Yong , Nagano Yoshito , Taylor J. Paul , Lim Kah Leong , Yao Tso-Pang
Published: May 2010

Mutations in parkin, a ubiquitin ligase, cause early-onset familial Parkinson's disease (AR-JP). How parkin suppresses Parkinsonism remains unknown. Parkin was recently shown to promote the clearance of impaired mitochondria by autophagy, termed mitophagy. Here, we show that parkin promotes mitophagy by catalyzing mitochondrial ubiquitination, which in turn recruits ubiquitin-binding autophagic components, HDAC6 and p62, leading to mitochondrial clearance. During the process, juxtanuclear mitochondrial aggregates resembling a protein aggregate-induced aggresome are formed. The formation of these “mito-aggresome” structures requires microtubule motor-dependent transport and is essential for efficient mitophagy. Importantly, we show that AR-JP–causing parkin mutations are defective in supporting mitophagy due to distinct defects at recognition, transportation, or ubiquitination of impaired mitochondria, thereby implicating mitophagy defects in the development of Parkinsonism. Our results show that impaired mitochondria and protein aggregates are processed by common ubiquitin-selective autophagy machinery connected to the aggresomal pathway, thus identifying a mechanistic basis for the prevalence of these toxic entities in Parkinson's disease.
SENP1-mediated GATA1 deSUMOylation is critical for definitive erythropoiesis
Authors: Yu Luyang , Ji Weidong , Zhang Haifeng , Renda Matthew J. , He Yun , Lin Sharon , Cheng Ee-chun , Chen Hong , Krause Diane S. , Min Wang
Published: May 2010

Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) modification of proteins (SUMOylation) and deSUMOylation have emerged as important regulatory mechanisms for protein function. SENP1 (SUMO-specific protease) deconjugates SUMOs from modified proteins. We have created SENP1 knockout (KO) mice based on a Cre–loxP system. Global deletion of SENP1 (SENP1 KO) causes anemia and embryonic lethality between embryonic day 13.5 and postnatal day 1, correlating with erythropoiesis defects in the fetal liver. Bone marrow transplantation of SENP1 KO fetal liver cells to irradiated adult recipients confers erythropoiesis defects. Protein analyses show that the GATA1 and GATA1-dependent genes are down-regulated in fetal liver of SENP1 KO mice. This down-regulation correlates with accumulation of a SUMOylated form of GATA1. We further show that SENP1 can directly deSUMOylate GATA1, regulating GATA1-dependent gene expression and erythropoiesis by in vitro assays. Moreover, we demonstrate that GATA1 SUMOylation alters its DNA binding, reducing its recruitment to the GATA1-responsive gene promoter. Collectively, we conclude that SENP1 promotes GATA1 activation and subsequent erythropoiesis by deSUMOylating GATA1.
Social Networks and Health
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

Social Networks and Health provides a comprehensive introduction to how social networks influence health behaviors. Section one provides an introduction to major research themes and perspectives used to understand how networks form, evolve, and channel the spread of ideas and behaviors. An intellectual history of the field is provided as well as conjectures on why network science took so long to develop. Methodologies for studying networks and assessing personal network data are discussed. Section two covers algorithms and applications of the most common network metrics divided into four chapters: centrality, groups, positions, and network level. For each chapter, descriptions of how the metrics are calculated and how they influence health behavior are presented. Section three reviews applications of social network analysis to health behaviors. The actor-oriented stochastic evolution model is presented first which provides a way to statistically test network evolution properties. Diffusion of innovations models are presented next which describe how networks influence the spread of ideas and practices within and between communities. Network interventions are also presented and a typology describing network interventions and evidence from empirical studies presented. This book enables researchers to understand how network data are collected and processed; and how to calculate appropriate metrics and models used to understand network influences on health behavior. Simple examples and data are presented throughout so researchers can adopt this methodology and perspective in their own investigations. Examples of health behaviors include smoking, substance use, contraception, HIV/AIDS, obesity, and many others.
Ego- and Personal-Network Effects
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter shows how researchers can collect network data from randomly drawn samples. The data only represent the respondent personal network, usually from the respondent's perspective. The chapter then details the various measures derived from personal network data and the research questions and hypotheses that have been tested. Personal network exposure, concurrency, and tie strength hypotheses are discussed. A comparison between ego-centric and sociometric data is presented. The chapter discussed how to convert egocentric data to a dyadic dataset thus facilitating analysis and testing of certain hypotheses. Although ego centric data are somewhat limited, they still provide powerful measures of interpersonal influence that are strongly predictive of behavior. The chapter closed with a discussion of the application of snowball sampling including network recruitment.
Centrality
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides background on the calculation, interpretation, and uses of various measures designed to determine which nodes occupy the center of a network. The chapter focuses on the three most common centrality measures developed by Freeman (1979): degree, closeness, and betweenness. Other centrality measures are also listed. The distinction between centrality and centralization is made and extent of correlation among centrality measures reported. The chapter reviewed how each of these centrality measures might function in the diffusion of innovations and behavior change and discussed the roles of opinion leaders in the behavior change process.
Positions
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter introduces positional analysis which is conducted by defining positions in a network and reducing a network to these positions and mapping the relations between positions. The chapter also covers individual measures of positions in which nodes are defined as occupy the same position based on their connections to others or the similarity in their distances to others in the network. These individual equivalence positions can be used to group people into positions and to model the ways in which network positions influence behavior. Positions are composed of people who seem to be in the same space in the network, regardless of whether they are directly connected to one another, though they might be.
11 Compassion: Human and Animal
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C.
Published: May 2010

Most discussions of the continuity in compassionate concern between humans and other animals focus on continuities and on “good discontinuities,” areas in which humans appear to have superior moral abilities. This chapter focuses on “bad discontinuities,” areas in which human compassion appears diseased and obtuse in ways that correspond to no defect in other species. After offering an analysis of the cognitive structure of compassion, the chapter then examines the relationship between each component of compassion, as it appears in standard human cases, and its role in a variety of animal cases, mapping the differences between humans and a range of animal species. The chapter then attempts to pinpoint the ways in which human compassion goes awry, through the influence of distortions supplied both by defective cultural norms and by a more tenacious underlying anxiety about weakness and need that leads human beings to create classes of subordinate beings to whom they then refuse compassion. Finally, this analysis is used to illuminate a range of cases in which humans refuse compassion to other humans in ways that appear deformed and reprehensible.
12 Jonathan Glover
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: May 2010

This brief chapter is a lively, anecdotal appreciation of Jonathan Glover written by a friend and former colleague.
Executive Function: Description and Explanation
Authors: Dick Anthony Steven , Overton Willis F.
Published: May 2010

The concept “executive function,” which broadly refers to the psychological processes involved in the conscious control of action and thought, occupies a central place in the study of cognition and cognitive development. However, while adequate as a working definition, this understanding is vague and imprecise. In this chapter, we examine contemporary approaches to executive function development that operate as behavioral descriptions, and as biological or psychological explanations. We argue that, in order to avoid reductionism to a single level of explanation, a relational perspective is necessary. This perspective emphasizes that description and multiple explanatory levels of analysis are complementary features of a complete explanation. Thus, any complete explanation may entail all levels, but no level represents a competing alternative to other levels. Within this context, we explore the advantages of this approach for executive function research, and conclude with suggestions uniting the levels into an integrated system of explanation.
Developments and Regressions in Rule Use: The Case of Zinedine Zidane
Authors: Burack Jacob A. , Russo Natalie , Dawkins Tammy , Huizinga Mariëtte
Published: May 2010

Zinedine Zidane's “head-butt” of the Italian defender Marco Materazzi in the championship game of the 2006 World Cup provides the context for asking why people make clearly detrimental decisions, even in contexts in which they are experienced and expert. Werner's developmental notion of regression is an essential component of a developmental framework that can be used to understand Zidane's impulsive behavior, as even well-ingrained rules can be overwhelmed by lower developmental behaviors in certain circumstances. In this context, the notion of the development of rule learning and use is more nuanced than the simple attainment of the understanding or even the ability to of a rule in certain situations, but entails the adaptability to flexibly implement the optimal choice of rules in particularly challenging and stressful situations, such as the World Cup final.
The Development of Future-Oriented Decision-Making
Authors: Moore Chris
Published: May 2010

This chapter considers the development of future oriented decision-making and its relations to theory of mind, executive function, and the temporally extended self. Recent work using a modified choice-based delay of gratification paradigm to study future oriented decision-making is reviewed. In general, it is found that children start to be able to make prudent choices in favor of future benefits for self and others at about 4 years of age. This development is associated with a suite of social–cognitive changes, including the understanding of the diversity of mental states across self and other, the ability to inhibit immediate responses to salient information, and the ability to conceive of the self as extended in time.
Early Social and Cognitive Precursors and Parental Support for Self-Regulation and Executive Function: Relations from Early Childhood into Adolescence
Authors: Landry Susan H. , Smith Karen E.
Published: May 2010

Development of executive functions and self-regulation, two important goals for school age children, are described in this chapter. To better understand their development, we examine the evidence for several early skills as precursors, including social communication, language, and pretend play. The potential for the quality of caregivers' early verbal input to also support these skills is described, particularly as this input occurs during early childhood. Finally, evidence is provided for the links between early precursor skills and caregiver input with school age executive functions and adolescent social competence. Evidence for these relations comes from a unique longitudinal study of 360 children and their caregivers examined in home settings from 6 months to 13 years of age. Findings highlight how skills developing in infancy and early childhood provide a foundation for executive functions and self regulation in middle childhood and early adolescence and the importance of the child's social context.
Implicit Motives
Authors: Schultheiss Oliver , Brunstein Joachim
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides an overview of the history of research on implicit motives. Six common principles of implicit motive research are laid out: (1) Implicit motives are nonconscious, (2) motive arousal is associated with characteristic changes in thought content and behavior, (3) motives act as affect amplifiers, (4) motives interact with situational incentives to shape behavior, (5) motives affect multiple levels of psychological functioning, and (6) the number of implicit motives is biologically constrained. The chapter also provides an overview of the structure and topics of the book.
Chapter 4 Activity Inhibition
Authors: Langens Thomas A.
Published: May 2010

McClelland and his colleagues first introduced the notion that spontaneously using the negation not in speech or writing indicates a stable tendency to restrain or inhibit motivational impulses, which they termed activity inhibition (AI). This chapter will start out with a brief summary of the history of the concept of AI and its measurement in verbal material, followed by an investigation of the role of AI in the expression of implicit motives and emotion regulation and some speculations about the developmental precursors of AI. Finally, the chapter presents a model that integrates the various findings on AI, suggesting that AI does not neutralize emotional or motivational impulses, but rather leads to their intensification and a delayed and refined expression in behavior.
Chapter 5 Content Coding Methods in Implicit Motive Assessment: Standards of Measurement and Best Practices for the Picture Story Exercise
Authors: Pang Joyce S.
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the major topics such as picture selection, administration, coding systems, and data processing that are related to usage of the Picture Story Exercise (PSE), a major content coding method for assessing implicit motives. It offers a step-by-step guide description of different aspects of preparing, administering, scoring, and processing PSE data. Included in the chapter is a discussion about developing multi- and single-motive picture sets for the PSE; such recommendations are followed by previously unpublished cue strength statistics for a PSE picture set that targets the achievement motive.
Chapter 12 Implicit Motives and Explicit Goals: The Role of Motivational Congruence in Emotional Well-Being
Authors: Brunstein Joachim C.
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews research highlighting the importance of the concept of motivational congruence, defined as the degree of correspondence between what people consciously seek to attain and what they nonconsciously would like to do, in the prediction of well-being experiences. It begins with a brief overview of research showing that implicit motives assessed with Picture Story Tests do not overlap with self-reported goals and subjective intentions. It then reviews research demonstrating that a high degree of motivational congruence is an important prerequisite for high emotional well-being. The chapter considers potential mechanisms (goal achievement and motive satisfaction) accounting for this relation and discusses procedures helping people achieve a sense of harmony between their implicit and explicit motives.
Chapter 16 Clinical Implications of Implicit Motives
Authors: Weinberger Joel , Cotler Tanya , Fishman Daniel
Published: May 2010

Those who study implicit motives and those who study clinical psychology are often ignorant of one another’s work. Yet, they have much to offer one another. Satisfying dominant implicit motives results in a sense of well-being. Frustrating them results in unhappiness and even psychopathology. The interaction of explicit motives and implicit motives is also clinically relevant. When they are in harmony, the outcome is usually positive; when they conflict, negative outcomes ensue. Models by Kuhl and by Freud are reviewed to explain these findings. Kuhl’s is shown to have empirical support. Freud’s has not yet been adequately tested. The next focus is on psychotherapeutic treatment. The most clearly established variable underlying successful psychotherapy is the therapeutic relationship. The therapeutic relationship may be partly understood through implicit motivation. It is argued that the oneness motive, an implicit motive revolving around a need to belong to or be part of something larger than the self, partly underlies the therapeutic relationship and its ameliorative effects. The oneness motive is defined and supporting data are reviewed. Special attention is paid to data relating to clinical populations. These results are then applied to the therapeutic relationship.
Photoperiodic Control of Flowering in the Short-Day PlantOryza sativa
Authors: Izawa Takeshi
Published: May 2010

This chapter summarizes the progress made in understanding photoperiodic flowering in rice. Over the last decade, major questions regarding the photoperiodic control of flowering in plants have been addressed. First, the external coincidence model was supported at the molecular level in both long-day and short-day plants. Next, studies identified the major genetic components that differ between long-day and short-day plants. Their opposite responses to photoperiods were attributed to the distinct transcriptional mechanisms of florigen genes, such as FT and Hd3a. Finally, the molecular nature of these florigens was revealed. In addition to these achievements, biochemical studies were undertaken to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the interaction between light signals and circadian clocks, in order to explain how Arabidopsis thaliana can recognize day length and consequently express FT.
Photoperiodic Control of Dormancy and Flowering in Trees
Authors: Heino Pekka , Nilsson Ove , Palva Tapio
Published: May 2010

Plants as sessile and poikilothermic organisms have to grow, reproduce, and survive in a wide variety of environmental conditions. Consequently, plants have evolved an array of adaptive strategies, both physiological and developmental, that allow them to recognize different environmental variables, which then trigger the responses required for optimal growth and survival. This chapter integrates recent findings in annual long-day plants (Arabidopsis) and short-day plants (rice and morning glory), and in woody plants (Populus), respectively, in order to examine photoperiodic control of dormancy and flowering in trees.
Photoperiodism in Copepods
Authors: Marcus Nancy H. , Scheef Lindsay P.
Published: May 2010

This chapter summarizes studies of photoperiodism in copepods and suggests directions for additional research. There is ample evidence that several copepod functions manifest a pattern of rhythmicity that is synchronized to the cycle of day and night. Moreover, in regions that experience seasonal changes in the light—dark cycle, it is evident that the pattern of the rhythm and manifestation of the function may change (e.g., appearance of a dormant phase or a cessation of vertical migration).
Photoperiodism in Insects: Aphid Polyphenism
Authors: Hardie Jim
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the complicated role of photoperiod in regulating life history traits in aphids. As for all organisms responding to day length, aphids require a photoreceptor system that can distinguish light from dark, a clock mechanism that can measure the duration of the light (or in most cases the dark period), a counter or photoperiodic memory that accumulates the number of long or short days, and an endocrine/neuroendocrine effector system that modifies the developmental processes associated with either long- or short-day development.
Photoperiodism in Fishes
Authors: Borg Bertil
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides an overview of how the photoperiod controls seasonal cycles in fishes. Most attention is given to reproduction, but migration is also included. The chapter mainly deals with experimental studies; investigations where biological events are correlated with environmental factors (e.g., sampling series from the field) are given less attention.
Photoperiodism in Mammals: Regulation of Nonreproductive Traits
Authors: Demas Gregory E. , Weil Zachary M. , Nelson Randy J.
Published: May 2010

This chapter addresses the physiological and cellular mechanisms underlying the detection of and response to environmental factors in regulating nonreproductive seasonal adaptations. Although the majority of the research within the area of mammalian seasonality has focused on seasonal changes in reproduction, pronounced fluctuations in other nonreproductive responses — including changes in energy balance, immune function, and behavior — occur as well. Most research has focused on the role of photoperiod; presumably, with only two bits of data, length of day and direction of change in the photoperiod, individuals can precisely determine time of year, and might then use this information to anticipate subsequent seasonal environmental changes.
Photoperiodism and Reproduction in Mammals
Authors: Kriegsfeld Lance J. , Bittman Eric L.
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides a broad overview of seasonal breeding in mammals, emphasizing the role of photoperiod in changes in neuroendocrine function and the means by which day length affects the reproductive axis. Diverse mechanisms regulate the timing of fertility in mammals, but both long- and short-day breeders make use of the circadian system in order to respond to photoperiodic cues. In some species this information entrains a circannual oscillator, whereas in others it induces and breaks refractory phases.
Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms of Mammalian Photoperiodism
Authors: Hazlerigg David
Published: May 2010

This chapter considers the challenge of accounting for the mechanisms behind seasonal photoperiodic timing in mammals for two well-defined seasonal responses: reproductive activation and the molting cycle. Topics discussed include neuroanatomical basis to the seasonal control of breeding and the molt; organization of the mammalian “photoperiodic axis”; the control of melatonin synthesis; and the link between melatonin signal transduction and deiodinase-expressing cells.