bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
New Liberal Successions: The Modernization of an Ideology
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

An examination of J. S. Mill's ideational legatees offers a useful insight into ideological variation, since later liberals constantly alluded to Mill as a yardstick by which to measure their own attainments; we thus face a tradition consciously absorbed and recreated by a new generation of ideological consumers, employing common points of reference to forge a sense of ideological community through expanding horizons. The Millite paradigm of the previous chapter becomes pivotal not merely as a preference of the analyst of ideologies, but because so many shapers of liberalism believed Mill to be pivotal; assessment of their contributions on the basis of that perception is methodologically justified, and moreover, from the historical perspective, a period offering instances of both ideological continuity and change is optimally suited to studying ideological diversity and conceptual mutability. In answer to the question of how the core concepts of liberty, individualism, progress, rationality, the general interest, sociability, limited, and responsible power fared in the hands of the Millite succession, it is contended in this chapter that they all remained constituents of the liberal core, but that some underwent redecontesting owing to changing scientific fashion, new sets of ethico‐cultural beliefs, and specific events that made their mark on ideological assumptions. The final feature of liberalism—structural tolerance—was a key facilitator in that process, allowing critical distancing from the modernist project with which liberalism was associated. The eight sections of the chapter are: (a) The idealist liberalism of T. H. Green; (b) Perimeter practices and adjacent aftermaths; (c) The new liberalism: the evolution of an ideology (d) The changing adjacencies of liberty; (e) The organic analogy; (f) Fleshing out the new liberal morphology; (g) State, group, and society: the German case; and (h) state, group, and society: the French case.
Socialism, Liberty, and Choice
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

The ideas of liberation and emancipation were integral to the Continentalist socialist tradition, while within the British socialist tradition, as well as in non‐Marxist Continental socialism, both liberty and individuality were desirable values. The impact of British liberal ideas on socialism was also greatly amplified by J. S. Mill in remarks where he welcomed a cautious move to collective ownership, although he also cast doubt on the compatibility of socialism with the free and spontaneous development of individuals. This chapter looks at socialism in relation to liberty and choice in six sections: (a) The pursuit of liberalism by other means; (b) Equality and liberty: a partnership of equals?; (c) The fundamental nature of revisionism; (d) Continental comparisons; (e) The perimeter problem of market socialism; and (f) A note on other socialisms.
Feminism: The Recasting of Political Language
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

The latter part of the twentieth century has seen the emergence of a number of groupings of political thought that attempt to escape from the morphological and interpretative constraints of the older established ideologies. One way of effecting this has been through the processes of redefining the domain of the political, reconceptualizing the ideational elements of the contending ideologies, renaming the components of political vocabulary, and revalorizing marginal political concepts. Another has been through decreased internal integration in comparison to existing ideological families, the outcome being the formation of thin‐centred assimilative ideologies, which then either challenge the relevance of additional ideological baggage, or thicken by ingesting the patterns of other ideologies. This chapter and the next examine two of the more prominent exemplars, and illustrate a potentially deep divide among analysts: are these ideologies extensive but eclectic or unique but truncated? Here, feminism is examined; the eight sections of the chapter are: (a) The feminist core: between critique and prescription; (b) Gender and power; (c) The political domain; (d) Paradigms lost and regained; (e) Postmodernism: an alliance of convenience?; (f) Equality and the feminist traditions; (g) An ideological reading of ideologies; and (h) The role of the concrete.
Green Ideology: Retreat and Regrouping
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

The latter part of the twentieth century has seen the emergence of a number of groupings of political thought that attempt to escape from the morphological and interpretative constraints of the older established ideologies. One way of effecting this has been through the processes of redefining the domain of the political, reconceptualizing the ideational elements of the contending ideologies, renaming the components of political vocabulary, and revalorizing marginal political concepts. Another has been through decreased internal integration in comparison to existing ideological families, the outcome being the formation of thin‐centred assimilative ideologies, which then either challenge the relevance of additional ideological baggage, or thicken by ingesting the patterns of other ideologies. This chapter and the next examine two of the more prominent exemplars, and illustrate a potentially deep divide among analysts: are these ideologies extensive but eclectic or unique but truncated? Here, green ideology is examined; the seven sections of the chapter are: (a) The core concepts of green discourse; (b) Deficient dichotomies; (c) Conservative components?; (d) The individualist ingredient; (e) The ambivalence of power; (f) The green perimeter; and (g) Eco‐feminism: a distinct position?
The Politics of Presence
Authors: Phillips Anne
Published: October 2003

A number of contemporary democracies have introduced measures to ensure a more equitable representation of women and/or ethnic minority citizens within elected assemblies. These measures have included the use of gender quotas in the selection of parliamentary candidates, and the use of ‘race‐conscious’ districting to increase the electoral chances of ethnic minority representatives. Drawing on a distinction between the politics of ideas and the politics of presence, this book explores and defends the case for such measures. The politics of ideas considers accountability in relation to declared polices and programmes, and sees the sex or race of the representative as a matter of relative indifference. In the politics of presence, by contrast, the gender or ethnic composition of elected assemblies becomes a legitimate matter of democratic concern. This book addresses the concern that the case for political presence could encourage essentialist understandings of group identity or group interest. It argues against an either/or alternative between the politics of ideas and the politics of presence and for a new combination of these two models of representation.
From a Politics of Ideas to a Politics of Presence?
Authors: Phillips Anne
Published: October 2003

Introduces the distinction between a politics of ideas and a politics of presence. In the conventional understandings of liberal democracy, difference has been regarded primarily as a matter of ideas, and representation has been considered more or less adequate depending on how well it reflects voters’ opinions, preferences, or beliefs. This has been challenged by an alternative understanding of political representation that stresses proportionate representation according to characteristics such as gender or ethnicity. The chapter addresses three objections. The first is that this alternative model of representation over‐politicizes group difference, thereby disrupting social cohesion or stability. The second is that making representation even partially dependent on personal or group characteristics can undermine the basis for political accountability. The third is that reinforcing the role of group interest in politics can undermine a politics based on general interest of shared concerns.
Quotas for Women
Authors: Phillips Anne
Published: October 2003

In recent decades, a significant number of political parties have taken steps to increase the representation of women in national assemblies, often by introducing gender quotas. The arguments for this fall into four categories: those that dwell on the role model that successful women politicians offer; those that appeal to principles of justice between the sexes; those that identify particular interests of women that would otherwise be overlooked; and those that see women as introducing new forms of political behaviour. The case for quotas depends on the idea that interests are gendered, but should not presume a unitary set of women's interests. The use of quotas raises new questions about the accountability of representatives to their constituents.
Loose Ends and Larger Ambitions
Authors: Phillips Anne
Published: October 2003

This chapter addresses three issues. The first is whether the arguments for ensuring equal or proportionate representation by gender and ethnicity in legislative assemblies should also apply to social class. The second is whether focusing on the institutions of representative democracy blocks more ambitious proposals for extending democratic participation, for example, those put forward in arguments for associational or associative democracy. The third is whether the case for an equal representation of women and proportionate representation of ethnic minority groups should also apply to appointed bodies like quangos or the judiciary. The chapter concludes that the case for a politics of presence is strongest when allied to some of these larger ambitions.
Employment Equality Strategies in Liberal Welfare States
Authors: O'Connor Julia S.
Published: October 2003

Examines strategies related to pay and employment equity in four countries representing the liberal welfare state regime: Australia, Canada, the UK, and the USA. After outlining the strategies pursued since the 1960s, the discussion shifts to their outcomes in terms of gender inequalities regarding occupational segregation and wage differentials. The concluding section discusses political and institutional explanations of the cross‐national differences between the countries, especially the importance of parties and industrial relations frameworks.
Macro Markets
Authors: Shiller Robert J.
Published: October 2003

This book, which is part of the distinguished Clarendon Lectures in Economics series, puts forward a unique and authoritative set of detailed proposals for establishing new markets for the management of the biggest economic risks facing governments and society. Robert Shiller argues that we have largely the wrong financial markets, and that establishing new ones may fundamentally alter and diminish international economic fluctuations (and thus enable better risk management) and reduce the inequality of incomes. Shiller argues that although some risks, such as natural disaster or temporary unemployment, are shared by society, most risks are borne by the individual, and standards of living are determined by luck. He investigates whether a new technology of markets could make risk sharing possible and shows how new contracts could be designed to hedge all manner of risks to the individual's living standards. He proposes new international markets for perpetual claims on national incomes, and on components and aggregates of national incomes, concluding that these markets may well dwarf our stock markets in their activity and significance. He also argues for new liquid international markets for residential and commercial property. Establishing such unprecedented new markets presents some important technical problems that Shiller attempts to solve with proposals for implementing futures markets on perpetual claims on incomes, and for the construction of index numbers for cash settlement of risk management contracts. These new markets could fundamentally alter and diminish international economic fluctuations, and reduce the inequality of incomes around the world. Much of the book is technical, and it is intended mostly for economists, contract designers at futures and options exchanges, originators of swaps and other financial deals, and designers of retail products associated with risk management (such as insurance, pension plans, and mortgages). However, the material within the book is mostly arranged so that a non‐technical reader can follow the broad themes, and until Ch. 6, most of the technical material is relegated to appendices.
Psychological Barriers
Authors: Shiller Robert J.
Published: October 2003

One reaction to proposals for new markets is that the general public will not want to deal in them, because of some psychological inability to appreciate the benefits that the risk management may offer—such a reaction is often given by people in the futures and options industry, who have seen many innovative contracts fail. The general public, it is asserted, will not trade directly in such futures, and if the reason they will not is that they do not appreciate the benefits of risk management, then it may be difficult for retailers of risk‐management services to repackage the contracts in a form that will interest them. However, the general public, including both individuals and firms, does use some risk‐management services, notably insurance policies—the insurance industry has not failed to market risk‐management policies to the general public, rather, their success has been highly variable. This chapter investigates whether the macro markets proposed by the book resemble the life insurance policies (for which there is a ready market), or whether they more resemble the disability or flood insurance markets or farmers’ hedging markets. This is done by analysing the psychological literature on demand for insurance. The issue of promoting proper public use of macro markets (by public education and proper product design) is also discussed.
Mechanisms for Hedging Long Streams of Income
Authors: Shiller Robert J.
Published: October 2003

Most people are interested in hedging risk of claims on long‐term income flows, rather than on the risk of the next month's or next year's income, and this means that any market that allows hedgers to protect themselves from information that is adverse to their income over the indefinite future must be a market in the present value (capital value) of this income stream, not a conventional futures or options market in the income itself. This chapter considers two ways in which such new markets, where the information about income flows is so intangible, could be created. One way is to create a sort of derivative market, based on an index of observed prices in other (relatively illiquid) markets for claims on the same income stream (settlement based on cash‐market asset price). Liquid markets in residential real estate might be set up this way (this example is pursued in the chapter), and such a method of insuring against adverse information is analogous to that used to provide fire insurance, where the income stream is the flow of rents (or imputed rents) on the property, and the maximum insurance is the present value of this stream inferred from the sale prices of comparable properties. The other way is to create a market for perpetual, or at least long‐horizon, claims on an income flow itself, making no use of prices of claims on the flow in any other market; the income flow can be a theoretical construct of statisticians, not the dividend on any tradable asset, and liquid markets in national incomes might be set up in this way (settlement based on measures of income rather then price, achieved either through perpetual claims or perpetual futures markets).
Real Estate and Other Markets
Authors: Shiller Robert J.
Published: October 2003

There are other income factors, besides the aggregate national income and labour income factors discussed in Ch. 4, that contribute as much uncertainty to the incomes of individuals and organizations as do many risks currently traded in financial markets. If those who retail insurance policies against risks of changes in values of claims on incomes or service flows are to be able to tailor their insurance to the various exposures that their different clients have to these risks, they will want to layoff in hedging markets the risks of changes in these income factors that influence them because they are providing the insurance policies. This chapter considers some of the most salient of these other markets: real estate, unincorporated business, and privately held corporations, consumer and producer price index futures, agriculture, and art and collectibles. It also presents some ideas on systematic approaches to finding other markets, including modelling the tendency for co‐movement of incomes and inferring the underlying factors, i.e. looking for the major risk factors to incomes for which new markets would be most useful.
Index Numbers: Issues and Alternatives
Authors: Shiller Robert J.
Published: October 2003

This chapter addresses the fact that creating index numbers for settlement of contracts requires some judgement, and that no single method is likely to be applicable to all circumstances—there are trade‐offs, and choices have to be made with limited information. Before applying a repeated‐measures method like the ones defined in the preceding chapter, a decision has to be made as to whether there are enough repeated measures to ensure that the standard errors are not going to be too high, and whether there is enough unmeasured quality variation across subjects to warrant the increase in error variances caused by the addition of many subject dummies. A choice has to be made as to which kinds of hedonic variables, if any, to include in the analysis, and not all quality measures are appropriate for index number construction, so a choice needs to be made as to whether these variables or the subject dummies are to be constrained in any of various ways. Prior information of an imprecise nature may be used to put probabilistic, rather than rigid, restrictions on the regression coefficients. There are also some fundamentally different variants of the hedonic repeated‐measures regression methods that could be considered, methods in which quality is inferred as an observed factor associated with each subject (factor analytic methods), and methods in which a separate selection equation is used to correct for possible selection bias in the mechanism by which it is determined which subjects are to be measured (selection bias correction methods).
The Employment Relationship
Authors: Marsden David
Published: October 2003

The employment relationship is flexible because it is open‐ended or ‘incomplete’, but no workers would agree to be become employees unless there were some agreement over the limits to which managers can direct their work. Simon argues that jobs are based on a ‘zone of acceptance’ consisting of tasks that a worker is willing to carry out. However, this is too prone to opportunistic behaviour. To counter this, the parties develop work rules that enable workers and their line managers to identify the set of tasks individual workers may normally undertake. The chapter ends with a short analysis of the sub‐contract systems that preceded the employment relationship in many countries.
Societal Diversity of Employment Systems: Comparative Evidence
Authors: Marsden David
Published: October 2003

Evidence of wide diffusion of the four types of employment systems is presented for major sectors within different countries, based on secondary data. It shows wide diffusion of both the ‘production’ and the ‘training’ approaches to skill organization, as well as for the ‘task‐oriented’ and ‘function‐oriented’ approaches to performance management, and their effects on wage structures. The countries surveyed included Britain, France, Germany, Japan, and the US.
Performance Management
Authors: Marsden David
Published: October 2003

Performance management is central to business success, but it is subject to the same types of opportunism as task assignment, and both parties need protection against these if the employment relationship is to appeal. The difficulty to achieve agreed standards for performance measurement leads to the widespread use of simple, robust, and conventional criteria. These are shown to reflect closely the type of work rule operating within the employment system.
Pragmatism Against Morality: Ethnicity in the Aztec Empire
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

In Mesoamerica, conquest, predatory or segmentary expansion, and migration frequently brought together heterogeneous social, cultural, and linguistic populations under a single ruler. In the Aztec (Mexica) empire, ethnic distinctions were made, but little was made of them. Far from being a proselytizing, normatively mobilizing, moralistic polity, the Aztecs, like other patrimonial societies in Mesoamerica and elsewhere, were principally interested in extraction: ‘little more than a band of pirates’, Eric Wolf called them. Though Aztec rulers were interested in the formation of an identifiably Mexica ruling class, there was no policy of cultural homogenization affecting subject populations: there was no reason for one, nor could it have been easily implemented. Ethnicity was not a significant factor in the organization of inter‐city Mesoamerican politics and political relations.
Pluralism in a Patrimonial Bureaucracy: The Ottoman Empire
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

Some of the most horrifying episodes of ethnic violence of the twentieth century occurred in a territory originally part of the Ottoman Empire. Although for later generations the Empire was a byword for ramshackle, corrupt organization, and by the nineteenth century this was probably correct, in its heyday, in the 150 years or so from the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many regarded it as a symbol of harmony, and indeed for Jews fleeing persecution in Spain it offered a safe haven. During that period the Empire incorporated ethnic and religious differences into its system of rule in ways that gave formally subordinate groups relative autonomy in their cultural, religious, economic, and political affairs (the millet system), and allowed some of their members to rise to positions of great power and eminence, e.g. the slave elite created by the devshirme.
A ‘Magpie Society’? from ‘Assimilation’ To ‘Integration’ In Britain and France
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

Like the US, Britain and France have had a shared concern with the assimilability of peoples of immigrant origin. Although there are important differences between them, in the last decades of the twentieth century all three abandoned policies of out‐and‐out assimilation and espoused more pluralistic solutions described variously as ‘integration’, ‘insertion’, or ‘multiculturalism’. The impact from c. 1960 onwards of immigrants from the so‐called ‘New Commonwealth’ was addressed in Britain through a legislation controlling entry, redefining British nationality; outlawing racial discrimination; and introducing anti‐racist and multicultural policies and practices, especially in education. Designed to combat what were seen to be outstanding problems of day‐to‐day living in contemporary multicultural Britain, they represented a coming to terms with the end of empire.
Pluralism and the Postmodern Condition
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

In the last third of the twentieth century, contrary to what modernity predicted, ethnic and cultural difference had a high salience, and contemporary societies in Europe and North America felt compelled to recognize this and implement policies of multiculturalism to cope with the demands that emanated from it. The reasons for this shift to the recognition of difference are complex, but it may be partly ascribed to the vast social, economic, and technological changes associated with post‐industrial economies under conditions of neoliberalism and globalization. In countries of immigration, transnationalism, too, enhanced the space of ethnic and cultural pluralism. Yet, pluralism may take many forms, and it is unclear whether the difference that will prevail in contemporary post‐modern societies will take the form of an essentialist version of multiculturalism, or some kind of ‘hybridity’.
Trade in Goods
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

The main GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) rules on specific instruments of trade control––tariffs, quotas, subsidies, customs procedures, and product standards are described, and the political economy rationale underlying them are discussed. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Tariffs, para‐tariffs and indirect taxes; Quantitative restrictions and import licensing; Customs clearance‐related provisions; subsidies; State trading enterprises; Technical regulations and product standards; Sanitary and phytosanitary measures; Trade‐related investment measures; and Conclusion.
Trade in Services
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter starts with brief overviews of global trade flows in services, the barriers that restrict such trade, and the economics of service sector protection and liberalization. This is followed by a summary of the main elements of the GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services) and a discussion of the experience obtained in the first five years of the operation of the GATS in expanding the coverage of the agreement. The chapter ends with a brief assessment of the usefulness of the GATS as an instrument for the pursuit of service sector reform. The different sections are as follows: Conceptual and empirical issues; Barriers and potential gains from reform; The Uruguay Round negotiations; The GATS; Sector‐specific negotiations and agreements; Electronic commerce; The challenge of expanding the GATS; and Conclusion.
Protection of Intellectual Property
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

An overview is provided of the economic rationales for protection of IPRs (intellectual property rights) and the reasons behind moves to adopt multilateral rules in this area. Some of the major conflicts of interest that shaped the TRIPs (Trade‐Related Intellectual Property Rights) agreement on this are summarized, as are the basic elements of the substantive disciplines imposed. The agreement is unique in the WTO (World Trade Organization) context in that it imposes obligations upon governments to adopt a set of substantive rules in an area that traditionally has been regarded as the purview of domestic regulation. It is an example of what Tinbergen (1954) has called ‘positive integration’; this is in contrast with the ‘negative’ integration found in the GATT, which involves agreements not to use certain policies that directly affect (distort) trade flows––such as export subsidies or quotas––or if used, imposes constraints on when and how trade policies may be applied. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of implementation‐related questions, focusing in particular on the options that exist to reduce the potential negative aspects of stronger IPRs on national welfare. The different sections are as follows: Intellectual property and international trade; International conventions and GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) history; The Uruguay Round negotiations; WTO rules on intellectual property rights; Implementation concerns and challenges; and Conclusion.
Plurilateral Agreements
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

The provisions of the WTO (World Trade Organization) for allowing for the negotiation of so‐called ‘plurilateral agreements’ are discussed. These apply only to those members that sign them. The most important of these is currently the Agreement on Government Procurement. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Government procurement; The civil aircraft agreement (Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft); and Conclusion.
Towards Deeper Integration? The ‘Trade and’ Agenda
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

The general issue of dealing with ’behind the border’ regulation is discussed in the WTO (World Trade Organization) context, and an introduction provided to the main issues that are likely to be prominent on the multilateral negotiating agenda in the coming decade. A key question is to identify the rationale for––and objectives behind––proposals to address a specific issue in the WTO, and determine what type of cooperation is appropriate, if any. Various issues that are likely to be on the negotiating agenda for some time to come, including competition (anti‐trust) policy, labour standards, trade facilitation, and investment and environmental policies, are discussed. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Contestability of markets as a criterion; Foreign direct investment policies; Competition law; Trade facilitation; Environmental policies; Social policies and labour standards; Domestic regulation; and Conclusion.
Whither the Trading System?
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M.
Published: October 2003

This short concluding chapter presents some final remarks on the future of the WTO (World Trade Organization) and the challenge of international cooperation in the trade area.
Spain: Still the Primacy of Corporatism?
Authors: Molinaxs Álvarez De Cienfuegos Ignacio
Published: October 2003

Starts with an account of the Spanish administration over the last two decades (to 1997); includes a definition of the Spanish civil service bureaucratic élite as composed at the top level (which must be filled by public employees) and of senior civil servants who hold political posts. Followed by an analysis of the historical legacy of the Spanish civil service. The next section looks at exactly who the senior civil servants are in relation to the other public employees in the central administration, and in relation to educational background: three different circles of senior bureaucrats are distinguished: a political circle, a politico‐administrative circle, and a bureaucratic circle. Further sections discuss the sociological characteristics of senior officials, the position of the civil servant in the organization, and Spanish civil servants in relation to politics. The conclusion discusses the main structural problems of the Spanish civil service and the constant demands for transformation that there have been over the last two centuries.
Italy's Senior Civil Service: An Ossified World
Authors: Cassese Sabino
Published: October 2003

The beginning of the twentieth century saw a progressive southernization of jobs in the Italian public sector, with a sizeable migration of personnel from South to North. In 1995, some 35% of civil servants worked in the North and 65% in the Centre‐South, but 27% of civil servants in the North were from the Centre‐South, which, in this way, contributed to the administration and the provision of public services in the North; in the top echelons of the state administration, the disequilibrium was even stronger. State employees in general, therefore, and senior officials, in particular, are not representative in territorial terms, resulting in the paradox of a senior civil service that administers the nation, but which is not national. This chapter aims to illustrate this paradox. It looks first at the subject to be analysed (the senior civil service) and its organizational context, and then defines a profile of senior officials, illustrating the characteristics of the category in which they are found; finally it analyses the two (failed) attempts of reform.
The Senior Civil Service in France
Authors: Rouban Luc
Published: October 2003

In France, the notion of a senior civil servant is a social rather than a legal one, and senior civil servants may be defined through their role as privileged partners of political power and participation in government decision‐making; they are a heterogeneous group of senior managers of the state public administration, whose members share neither the same careers nor prestige nor professional culture, and regard themselves generally as intellectuals rather than as managers. The relationship between senior civil servants and politicians is more ambiguous and closer in the 1990s than it was during the 1960s, and the politicization of the senior civil service has been considerably strengthened, but senior civil servants still consider themselves as representing the permanence of the state, and are still reluctant to talk freely about their political involvements. Whatever the social changes that have occurred during the last 15 years and whatever the political changes, the senior civil service remains strong. An overview of the higher French civil service has to take into account three variables that interact simultaneously: the fundamentally individualistic culture acquired during years of professional training; the decisive role of the grand corps in the career path and in the representation of what is ‘good administrative work’; and the privileged social rank of the higher civil service. This chapter presents the main characteristics of senior public managers in France by trying to highlight signs of an evolution since the 1960s; the different sections look at recruitment and promotion methods, the political activity and mobility of senior civil servants, the internal hierarchy of the civil service, the sociological characteristics of senior public managers, the professional relationships of senior civil servants, the absence of any higher civil service policy, and the debated question of the erosion of higher civil service social status.
The Senior Civil Service in Belgium
Authors: Brans Marleen , Hondeghem Annie
Published: October 2003

The Belgian senior civil service is in transition, with external pressures clearly pushing the government firmly towards a reform agenda and improving public confidence in the administrative system, in terms of democracy and accountability and of economy and efficiency. In addition, budgetary pressures have combined with political will to ensure that the operation of the administration complies with the new managerialist paradigm. This chapter gives an overview of the position of senior civil servants in the Belgian federal ministries (the federal civil service). It consists of three main sections: the first describes the coexistence of two opposing civil service models, a formal bureaucratic one and an informal politicized one, and assesses the implications of the clash between these models for the position (job definition, classification, and security; the career ladder; salaries; political appointments; and ministerial cabinets) and role conceptions of top civil servants; the second addresses the issue of representativeness of the senior civil service in terms of education, language, and gender; the third deals with the two major challenges to the Belgian senior civil service (external pressure and internal constraints) and the resulting structural reform agenda.
Senior Officials in the German Federal Administration: Institutional Change and Positional Differentiation
Authors: Goetz Klaus H.
Published: October 2003

This account of institutional change and positional differentiation of senior officials in Germany's Federal administration is presented in five sections. Section I, ‘Senior Officials and the Reassertion of Political Authority’, is introductory and discusses the causes and implications of change in the organization and in the political and administrative roles of the senior civil service; changes identified include party politicization, parliamentarization and federalization of the national policy process, modernization initiatives, European integration, and unification. Section II gives a brief survey of the Federal senior ministerial personnel (looking at pay grade and rank, and centrality), and section III considers paths to the top, paying particular attention to the procedures for recruitment and promotion and the consequences of weak formal structures for personnel planning and development. Following on from the definition of political craft as a defining attribute of effective top officials, section IV highlights the central position of political coordination units as training grounds in the Federal administration and comments on the informal positional differentiation that they encourage. The discussion concludes in section V with an assessment of the implications of the partition of the ministerial bureaucracy between Bonn and Berlin.
The Senior Civil Service in the Netherlands: A Quest for Unity
Authors: Van Der Meer Frits M. , Raadschelders Jos C. N.
Published: October 2003

Dutch society takes pride in its egalitarian character, and political and administrative officeholders are neither separated off nor placed on a pedestal. This general attitude originates in the predominantly middle‐class nature of Dutch society, in which the idea of formal incorporation of top civil servants in a separate class of administrative personnel is foreign; however, at the same time, there is a striving for unity in the national administration. The issue of tension between unity and fragmentation forces an assessment in this chapter of current developments in the higher civil service in comparison with the situation as it existed from the Second World War up to the early 1990s, with the emphasis on developments in the past two decades in which the most important event was the formation of a Senior Public Service (the Algemene Bestuursdienst, or ABD) after 1 July 1995. The first main section of the chapter (section II) examines what is meant by a ‘senior civil service’ in the Dutch context, where even the creation of the ABD does not provide a conclusive answer, since there are many senior civil servants outside it. In order to address this issue, the characteristics of the Dutch personnel management system are examined, and a brief outline given of the ABD and of the number of top civil servants working at central government level in the period 1976–1995. Section III turns to the political–administrative organization and the consultative structures at the top of the central government departments, and discusses the structure of the ABD, while section IV discusses the political affiliation (politicization) of top civil servants, and section V looks at functional mobility at the top, with special attention to the functional motives for creating the ABD. Finally, the social political structure of the civil service is reviewed, with sections on social (VI) and educational (VII) background.
The Welfare State Managers: Senior Civil Servants in Sweden
Authors: Pierre Jon , Ehn Peter
Published: October 2003

The first part of this chapter discusses retrenchment, recent institutional changes, and senior civil servants in Sweden; it attributes the recent changes in the senior civil service to the budgetary crisis of the state and the emergence of a less interventionalist control regime, in which the heyday of state‐driven economic and social change has gone. The main source of uncertainty now concerns the final destination of the rapid changes in many core aspects of Swedish politics and public administration. The different sections of the chapter look at: the size and structure of the Swedish civil service; ranks of senior civil servants; systems of recruitment and promotion; party membership among senior civil servants; inter‐ministerial mobility of civil servants; status in the civil service; the social and educational backgrounds of top officials; informal contacts across ministries and between ministries and agencies; the relationship between national and sub‐national officials and those working in agencies; political party policies towards the civil service; and the social status of the senior civil service.
Kant and Welfare
Authors: Kaufman Alexander
Published: October 2003

Two formal arguments in favour of the traditional (libertarian) interpretation of Kant's political thought remain influential. The first argument asserts that Kant's metaphysical principles of right severely constrain the authority of the state to intervene to influence subjective welfare. The second claims that Kant's account of right cannot guide the positive content of the law, since positive law is by definition contingent. The first argument, however, is inconsistent with Kant's explicit arguments in the Rechtslehre, while the second argument confuses contingency of content with contingency of form in Kant's account of positive law.
Happiness and Welfare
Authors: Kaufman Alexander
Published: October 2003

Many scholars view Kant's explicit rejection of the principle of ’welfare’, as a basis for legislation, as decisive in favour of the traditional (libertarian) interpretation of Kant's political thought. This reading, in fact, misconstrues both the subject matter and analytical level of Kant's claims. First, the traditional interpretation conflates the notion of welfare to which Kant objects with the general notion of social welfare. Second, the traditional interpretation misconstrues the level of generality of Kant's argument: Kant argues against a principle of welfare as the ground of a system of legislation, not as the ground of individual legislative acts.
Teleology, Rational Faith, and Context Dependence
Authors: Kaufman Alexander
Published: October 2003

If a society is to realize a rightful civil condition, the metaphysical principles of right specified in the Rechtslehre must be embodied in positive legislation. Kant's account of teleological judgement provides a potential methodology for specifying the substantive implications of these principles. Teleological judgement develops the notion of a highest political good as an ideal exemplifying the social implications of Kant's political theory. The highest political good represents an ideal criterion against which existing institutions may be evaluated. In order to provide a compelling practical account of teleological judgement, however, Kant must provide an account of moral salience that defines objects and relations in experience so that they may be properly specified as inputs to a teleological judgement.
Systematicity and Political Salience
Authors: Kaufman Alexander
Published: October 2003

Kant's account of systematicity, in the Critique of Judgment, provides the basis for judgements regarding the moral salience of objects in experience, thus satisfying this necessary condition for the practical employment of teleological judgement. Kant's account of systematicity, however, grounds merely theoretical teleological interpretation of experience without necessarily grounding practical judgements. In order to provide a basis for practical judgements, teleological judgement must subordinate the teleological interpretation of experience to an account of the necessary commitments of a rational subject.
Political Judgment
Authors: Kaufman Alexander
Published: October 2003

Kant's argument for ‘man under moral laws’ as the ‘final purpose of creation’, to which all subjective purposiveness in experience must be subordinated, provides the basis for subordinating the teleological interpretation of experience to an account of the necessary commitments of a rational subject. This argument thus grounds the practical employment of teleological judgement. The faculty of teleological judgement may therefore ground judgements through which the metaphysical principles of right may constrain and influence the content of positive law. In addition, Kant's argument for man under moral law as a final purpose of creation constitutes the basis for Kant's otherwise obscure claim, in Perpetual Peace and Conflict of the Faculties, that rational beings are obligated to further the realization of the highest political good (a form of civil society in which citizens, through legal motivation, act consistently with the requirements of morality).
Political Science and the Other Social Sciences
Authors: Dogan Mattei
Published: October 2003

Political science has developed as a trans‐disciplinary process of hybridization. Innovation occurs in exchanges with other fields, and few political scientists work in a core of their subject. Political psychology, geography, sociology, economics, anthropology, comparative politics, and politics in the natural and social sciences are such hybrid research areas.
Political Institutions, Old and New
Authors: Peters B. Guy
Published: October 2003

What's ‘new’ about ‘new institutionalism’? New institutionalism arises through the use of new behavioural methodology, bringing with it new variables, new focus of interest, and a growth in comparativism. Varieties of new institutionalism exist, and these are reviewed in the form of normative, rational choice, historical, social, and structural applications. Theoretical issues related to new institutionalism are considered.
Political Behavior: Reasoning Voters and Multi‐Party Systems
Authors: Pappi Franz Urban
Published: October 2003

Advances a model of voting in multi‐party systems in the light of existing theory and research, with the addition of a mediating variable––party preference profiles. This variable serves as a link between political reasoning and vote choice, and separates the processes of political awareness and voting behaviour. An analysis is offered for the explanation of how party preferences are formed and how they influence voting decisions.
Political Behavior, Old and New
Authors: Miller Warren E.
Published: October 2003

Provides a dissemination of the differences between ‘old’ and ‘new’ political behaviour research in data analysis, specifically in voting and the study of democracy. The ‘new’ and the ‘old’ differ in methodology, as analysis of large data sets has become more sophisticated and methods of statistical analysis have developed. The new and the old also differ in the range of analysts with access to these methodological advances and data sets. Whilst we have learnt much about voters and the electorate, a new definition of citizenship is emerging. Do the old and the new help us understand it?
Comparative Politics: Democratization Studies
Authors: Whitehead Laurence
Published: October 2003

Provides an overview of the sub‐field of democratization. Three questions are asked of democratization studies: ‘who is it for?’, ‘what is it like?’, and ‘how is it done?’. Methodological and theoretical issues arising are discussed, including relativism and normative dilemmas, contingency in causation, process, concept formation, and objectivity. Democratization is singled out for its growth as a discipline and its inherent tensions in subjectivity and prescription. The latter should not limit the former.
International Relations: An Overview
Authors: Goldmann Kjell
Published: October 2003

Provides an introduction and overview to the issues and tensions in the field of international relations. Four main areas of contention are discussed. (1) What is the role of the State in world politics and how can we measure it? (2) What is the reason for research––is it theoretical or purposive? (3) How might theories contain concepts of purpose and meaning in international relations? (4) Are theories conjectures or are they instruments of power? These questions provide specific issues for international relations as theory meets practice. The result has been a fragmented discipline in purpose and in method.
Political Theory: An Overview
Authors: Young Iris Marion
Published: October 2003

Traces the developments in contemporary political theory of the last 20 years in the politicization of the social. Six major trends are analysed. The debate around social justice is a disagreement about the relationship between equality and liberty. Recent democratic theory deals with the question of citizen participation. Feminists have challenged the traditional public–private distinction as well as the universality they regard as male gendered. Post‐modernism reflects on the relationship between political institutions and social power, and conceptualizes political actors as shaped by political processes. New social movements bring previously private issues into the political sphere. Finally, communitarians aim to understand political values from within their specific social and cultural contexts.