bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The enzymatic hydrolysis of triglyceride‐phospholipid mixtures in an organic solvent
Authors: Haas M. J. , Cichowicz D. J. , Jun W. , Scott K.
Published: June 2007

The abilities of four commercially available lipolytic enzymes [three immobilized lipases—Lipozyme IM‐20, SP‐435 (Novo Biolabs, Danbury, CT), and AY‐30/Celite (Amano Enzyme Co., Ltd., Troy, VA)—and a nonimmobilized Amano phospholipase B preparation] to hydrolyze mixtures of triacylglycerols (TG) and phospholipids (PL) were determined. All of the lipases hydrolyzed both types of substrates in water, with maximum rates of TG hydrolysis exceeding those of PL hydrolysis by between 20‐ and 200‐fold. The phospholipase B preparation was inactive against both TG and PL in water. All the enzymes showed some activity against lipids in hexane. The amount of activity was sharply dependent on the amount of water added to the reaction. Lipozyme IM‐20 and AY‐30/Celite hydrolyzed both TG and PL in hexane. Their estimated initial activities were between 10‐ and 100‐fold lower than those in water. Complete hydrolysis of the TG (measured as the hydrolysis of at least one ester bond in each molecule) was achieved, whereas only 40–60% of the phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) were hydrolyzed. Lipase SP‐435 was inactive against TG in hexane but hydrolyzed PC at a rate comparable to that seen in water, and it achieved complete hydrolysis of this substrate. Amano phospholipase B was inactive against TG in hexane but completely hydrolyzed the PC. The abilities of the enzymes to hydrolyze the TG, PC, and PE components of soybean soapstock, a by‐product of edible oil production, were also examined. Lipozyme IM‐20 hydrolyzed all the TG and a fraction of the PL in soapstock. SP‐435 and AY‐30/Celite were active only on soapstock that had been acidified prior to being dissolved in hexane. SP‐435 displayed significant activity only toward PE under these conditions, whereas AY‐30/Celite was active only toward TG. Phospholipase B was inactive against soapstock in hexane. The identity of the acid used in the acidification of soapstock affected the degree of hydrolysis by AY‐30/Celite, with nitric and hydrochloric acids giving the best activity.
Partition coefficient of diglycerides in crystallization of palm oil
Authors: Siew Wai‐Lin , Ng Wee‐Lam
Published: June 2007

Crystallization of palm oil with and without solvent was carried out over a temperature range of 10–25°C. The yields of olein, the diglyceride contents, and compositions of the stearin and olein phases were determined by thin‐layer and gas‐liquid chromatography. The three major diglycerides, analyzed as C32, C34, and C36, are mainly dipalmitoyl glycerol, palmitoyloleoyl glycerol, and dioleoyl glycerol. In crystallization without solvent, C32 (PP) had a strong affinity for the stearin fraction and C36 diglycerides concentrated in the olein phase. The partition coefficient of diglycerides between the olein and stearin phases was temperature‐dependent and was influenced by the type of solvent used. Although solvent enhances the diglyceride partition into the olein phase, partitioning is more effective at low temperatures and with acetone as the solvent for fractionation.
Association of seed size with genotypic variation in the chemical constituents of soybeans
Authors: Liu KeShun , Orthoefer Frank , Brown Edward A.
Published: June 2007

Ten soybean genotypes grown in 1992 with seed size ranging from 7.6 to 30.3 g/100 seeds and maturity group V or VI were selected and tested for oil and protein content and for fatty acid composition. In these germplasm, protein varied from 39.5 to 50.2%, oil, 16.3 to 21.6%, and protein plus oil, 59.7 to 67.5%. Percentages of individual fatty acids relative to total fatty acids varied as follows: palmitic, 11.0 to 12.8; stearic, 3.2 to 4.7; oleic, 17.6 to 24.2; linoleic, 51.1 to 56.3 and linolenic, 6.9 to 10.0. Seed size showed no significant correlations with individual saturated fatty acids, protein or oil content. However, significant correlations were found between seed size and individual unsaturated fatty acids: positive with oleic, and negative with linoleic and linolenic. Oil and protein content were negatively correlated with each other. Among the major fatty acids, only the unsaturated were significantly correlated with each other: negative between oleic and linoleic or linolenic, and positive between linoleic and linolenic. A subsequent study with soybeans grown in 1993 generally confirmed these findings. Variation in relative percentages of unsaturated fatty acids andr values for most pairs of relationships were even higher than those obtained from the 1992 crop.
Lecithins in oil‐continuous emulsions. Fat crystal wetting and interfacial tension
Authors: Johansson Dorota , Bergenståhl Björn
Published: June 2007

Lecithin is a powerful emulsifier widely used in foods, feeds and pharmaceuticals. Several analytical methods have been proposed to characterize lecithins, but they are often inadequate to determine the industrial functionality. The purpose of this study was to find a relationship between the interfacial properties of lecithins (adsorption to oil/water and fat crystal/oil/water interfaces), phospholipid composition and functionality. Results show that all lecithins adsorb to fat crystals at the triglyceride oil/water interface, making their surface more polar (observed as an increase in the contact angle measured through the oil at the interface: fat crystal/oil/water). This adsorption process is quick (less than five minutes) for relatively polar lecithins, such as soybean phosphatidylcholine (PC), and results in highly polar surfaces (contact angle ∼180°). Less polar lecithins give slow adsorption (some hours) and less polar crystals (contact angle ≤90°). The adsorption of different lecithins to the oil/water interface, observed as a decrease in interfacial tension, follows the adsorption pattern to the fat crystals. We found a relation between high‐fat crystal polarity and poor lecithin functionality in margarine (margarines spatters during frying), and also between high‐fat crystal polarity and a high polar to nonpolar phospholipids [Σ(PI + PA + LPC)/ΣPE; PI, phosphatidylinositol; PA, phosphatidic acid; LPC, lysoPC, PE, phosphatidylethanolamine] ratio in lecithin. The correlations might bevia aggregation properties of lecithin in the oil. We found also that monoolein shifted the adsorption kinetics of lecithin (soybean PC) to fat crystals and the hydrophilicity of adsorbed layers probably due to formation of mixed aggregates between monoolein and soybean PC.
Isolation of erucic acid from rapeseed oil by lipase‐catalyzed hydrolysis
Authors: McNeill Gerald P. , Sonnet Philip E.
Published: June 2007

Three lipases were compared for their ability to hydrolyze high erucic acid rapeseed oil, with the objective of concentrating the erucic acid in a single glyceride fraction. Lipase fromPseudomonas cepacia released all fatty acids rapidly and did not result in selective distribution of erucic acid.Geotrichum candidum lipase released C20 and C22 fatty acids extremely slowly, resulting in their accumulation in the di‐ and triglyceride fractions. Less than 2% of the total erucic acid was found in the free fatty acid (FFA) fraction. Lipase fromCandida rugosa released erucic acid more slowly than C20 and C18 fatty acids at 35°C but only resulted in a limited accumulation of the erucic acid in the di‐ and triglyceride fractions. However, when hydrolysis catalyzed byC. rugosa lipase was carried out below 20°C, the reaction mixture solidified and was composed solely of FFAs and diglycerides. The diglyceride fraction contained approximately 95% erucic acid while about 20% of the total erucic acid was found in the FFA fraction. It is concluded that hydrolysis at low temperature withC. rugosa lipase results in a higher purity of erucic acid in the glyceride fraction than can be obtained withG. candidum lipase, but with considerable loss of erucic acid to the FFA fraction.
Enzyme‐assisted aqueous extraction of shea fat: A rural approach
Authors: Tano‐Debrah Kwaku , Ohta Yoshiyuki
Published: June 2007

The use of enzyme‐assisted partial hydrolysis as a preextraction treatment in a rural shea fat extraction process to improve upon the extraction rates of the process was explored following an observed possibility in a preliminary investigation. Finely ground shea kernel meal samples were mixed with water in predetermined ratios and heated to inactivate any enzymes present. A crude protease and an enzyme with both hemicellulase and cellulase activities were added and mixed, also in predetermined concentrations. The suspensions were incubated in a waterbath shaker at temperatures ranging from 30 to 45°C for specified periods of time. The treated meal samples were then extracted using an adapted traditional aqueous extraction process. At optimum meal‐to‐water ratio of 1:2, enzyme concentration of 1%, the natural pH of the meal (about 5.3), and incubation time of 4 h, the enzyme treatment increased the extraction rate from about 40% in the typical traditional system (control) to about 75%, of the total fat content (estimated by the Soxhlet method). The enzyme‐treated meal samples were very easy to extract as there was no need to cream or whip out the fat, as is laboriously done in the traditional process. The extracted fat samples had apparently less unsaponifiable matter content and slightly less free fatty acid content and peroxide value, compared to samples from the typical traditional process and, in some cases, the Soxhlet extracted samples. The observations confirmed the results of the preliminary investigations and suggest that the enzyme‐assisted preextraction treatment could significantly improve upon the aqueous shea fat extraction process.
Viscosities and solubilities of synthetic detergent mixtures containing soluble silicates
Authors: Getty Raymond , McCready Newton
Published: June 2007

Slurries containing synthetic detergents, silicates, phosphates, and sometimes other additives, were prepared and their viscosities measured at several stresses. Portions of the mixtures were oven‐dried and dilute solutions prepared. Their turbidities and pH values were determined.

Mixtures of silicate with pyrophosphate yielded lower viscosities and turbidities than with tripolyphosphate. A mixture of the two phosphates with silicate resulted in a still lower viscosity, but an intermediate turbidity. Increasing the alkalinity of the silicate decreased the turbidity, but the minimum viscosity occurred at an intermediate silicate ratio in most cases. A number of the additives tested lowered the viscosity, but all lowered the turbidity.
A bench‐scale method for evaluating the processing characteristics of oilseeds for filtration‐extraction
Authors: Graci A. V. , Spadaro J. J. , Paredes M. L. , D'Aquin E. L. , Vix H. L. E.
Published: June 2007

A simple laboratory testing apparatus and its use have been described. With relatively few pounds of material it is possible to evaluate many preparation and filtration variables and to predict with a fair degree of accuracy the behavior of a continuous horizontal vacuum filter. It is felt that such a unit will be invaluable for use in commercial plants, especially during the start‐up operations of a new plant. The bench‐scale unit should also find application in connection with other processes employing the unit operations of extraction and filtration.
Reactions of fatty materials with oxygen. XVII. Some observations on the secondary products of autoxidation of methyl oleate
Authors: Coleman Joseph E. , Knight H. B. , Swern Daniel
Published: June 2007

Methyl oleate, autoxidized for short and long periods of time, has been fractionated with urea. Up to a peroxide content of about 15% the autoxidation mixture can be cleanly separated into a peroxide concentrate containing 90% peroxide and unoxidized methyl oleate. From about 15% peroxide to the maximum peroxide content (35–40%) concentration to only about 70% peroxide can be obtained, and the remaining material is largely a mixture of oxygenated compounds and residual methyl oleate.

If the autoxidation is conducted beyond the peak value in peroxide content, little, if any, concentration of peroxide can be obtained. Also, beyond the peak in peroxide value and in the range of 30–20% peroxide, methyl oleate is substantially absent and the autoxidation mixture consists almost entirely of oxygenated compounds containing only one functional group in the chain.

Evidence is presented which shows that in the autoxidation of methyl oleate substantially all of it undergoes single attack by oxygen (or peroxides) before any significant quantity of multiple attack occurs.

α,β‐Unsaturated carbonyl compounds are among the important secondary products of autoxidation.
Solubility of 1‐monostearin in various solvents
Authors: Ward T. L. , Singleton W. S.
Published: June 2007

The practical limits of the solubility of pure monostearin in various solvents at different temperatures has been determined for isopropyl alcohol, ethanol, acetone, methanol, and commercial hexane. The synthetic method was employed, in which the temperature of known quantities of solvent and solute was decreased until crystallization of the solute began. This temperature, corrected for supercooling and heat loss to the surrounding bath, was taken as the equilibrium temperature between the known weight of solute and the known weight of solvent.

The solubility‐temperature data of monostearin in each of the various solvents are presented both graphically and in tabular form.

A comparison of the solubility of monostearin in the various solvents at comparative temperatures indicates that its solubility is greatest in isopropyl alcohol and decreases in the order ethanol, acetone, methanol, and hexane.
Surfactants from fatty esters of polyalkoxylated polyol glycosides
Authors: Wilham C. A. , McGuire T. A. , Mehltretter C. L. , Otey F. H.
Published: June 2007

The glycoside raw materials used to prepare the surfactants were mixtures produced directly from low cost starch and the polyols by transglycosidation. After alkoxylation with ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, the glycosides were transesterified by the methyl esters of various fatty acids to yield the final products. Monolaurates of the polyalkoxylated glycosides containing a combination of 8 mol ethylene oxide and 4 mol propylene oxide per mole of glycoside showed detergency in an alkaline formulation comparable to two commercial detergents. An advantage in this application is the potential for complete biodegradation because of the fatty ester carbohydrate structures. The two monolaurates of glycerol glycoside polyethers containing 4.8 and 8 mol propylene oxide, in particular, produced oil‐inwater emulsions of high stability.
Analysis of soybean lecithin by thin layer and analytical liquid chromatography
Authors: Erdahl W. L. , Stolyhwo A. , Privett O. S.
Published: June 2007

The application of thin layer and analytical liquid chromatography to the analysis of two samples of commercial soybean lecithins is described. A combination of column chromatography and quantitative thin layer chromatography showed that these products consisted of ca. 82% mixture of the major phospholipids of soybeans, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and phosphatidyl inositol. The remainder of these products contained essentially the entire spectrum of lipid classes found in soybean oil‐some 24 known and unknown glycolipids and phospholipids, in addition to the neutral lipids. Applications of analytical liquid chromatography to these lecithins gave a composition profile of the lipid classes comparable to two‐dimensional thin layer chromatography. The potential of this method for the complete analysis of complex lipids, such as soybean lecithins, is indicated.
Biochemistry of the sphingolipides. X. Phytoglycolipide, a complex phytosphingosine‐containing lipide from plant seeds
Authors: Carter Herbert E. , Celmer Walter D. , Galanos Dimitris S. , Gigg R. H. , Lands William E. M. , Law John H. , Mueller Katherine L. , Nakayama Teishi , Tomizawa H. H. , Weber Evelyn
Published: June 2007

A new complex lipide, phytoglycolipide, has been isolated from soybea, corn, flaxseed, peanut, sunflowerseed, cottonseed, and wheat phosphatides. This material is obtained by a mild alkaline saponification procedure which destroys glycerol‐containing lipides. The new lipide constitutes about 5% of the crude phosphatides and is obtained as a white amorphous powder of identical composition, optical activity, and solubility properties from the various sources. Phytoglycolipide gives on hydrolysis phytosphingosine (and, in the case of soybean only, an unsaturated derivative of phytosphingosine) fatty acids, inositol, glucosamine, a hexuronic acid, galactose, arabinose, mannose, and phosphate.

Phytoglycolipide is the first sphingolipide of plant origin to be described and is unique among complex sphingolipides in that it has the structural features of a glycolipide and of a phosphatide.
Application of near infrared spectrophotometry to the study of the autoxidation products of fats
Authors: Slover Hal T. , Dugan L. R.
Published: June 2007

The usefulness and limitations of near infrared spectroscopy as applied to the oxygenated products of fat oxidation has been studied. Hydroperoxides, acids, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, and ketones all absorb in the narrow range from 2,700 mμ to 3,000 mμ. Alcohols may be distinguished from hydroperoxides and acids, but the latter are too close together to be resolved. In mixtures all the C=O absorptions attributable to esters, aldehydes, and ketones combine to form one band. In autoxidizing methyl oleate, the increase in alcohol, carbonyl, and combined acid‐hydroperoxide can be followed in the near infrared spectra of CCl4 solutions. In the absence of acid the increase in hydroperoxide absorbance is linear with peroxide value. The changes in the spectra of a reduced and bicarbonate‐washed sample of oxidized methyl oleate correlate well with the expected chemical changes.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Oil Research program
Authors: Stansby M. E. , Butler Charles
Published: June 2007

The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries has had under way since 1955 an extensive research program to develop wider uses for fish oils. The program is carried out in the Bureau's own laboratories, in university laboratories, and in other qualified laboratories.

The initial effort has been concentrated largely on basic research in an effort to learn more about the chemistry of fish oils, a field heretofore incompletely explored. Some applied research projects also were begun concurrently.

Basic studies are being carried out on the chemistry of the components of fish oils (for example, polyene fatty acids), on the extracted fish oils themselves, and onin situ fish oils of the fish tissue.

Investigations of fish‐oil fatty acids are being made on chemical structure, methods of separation, chemical reactions, oxidative deterioration, and nutritive value, with especial emphasis on possible therapeutic aspects for human beings.

The applied research projects include investigation of fish oils and the chemically modified compounds thereof as fungicides, as leather lubricants, and as ore‐flotation agents.

The applied and basic programs are coordinated so that findings of the basic work can be put to use in the applied work as soon as available.
Fatty acids of lard. A. Identification by gas‐liquid chromatography
Authors: Herb S. F. , Magidman Paul , Barford R. A. , Riemenschneider R. W.
Published: June 2007

Abstrat

A fresh commercially rendered lard was separated into its component fatty acids by subjecting the methyl esters to gas‐liquid chromatography on nonpolar and polar columns. The lard methyl esters were first chromatographed on a silicone column. This column achieved separation of the component esters principally on the basis of chain length, and fractions which were represented by a single peak or series of peaks were collected. The collected fractions were then rechromatographed on an ethylene glycol succinate polyester column to separate and identify the saturated and the unsaturated esters. Qualitative evidence was obtained for the presence of 29 fatty acids ranging in chain length from 10 to 20 carbon atoms. Included were the esters of the following: Satrated acids (10,12,14,15,16,17,18,19,20, and 22 C‐atoms), monounsaturated acids (14,16,17,18,19, 20, and 22 C‐atoms), and polyunsturated acids (18蝘2,20蝘2,22蝘2,18蝘3,20蝘3,22蝘3,20蝘4,22蝘4,20蝘5, and 22蝘5).3. Peaks for several additional trace components were also observed.
Reactions of unsaturated fatty alcohols. XV. Styrentation of fatty vinyl ether polymers in terpene solvents
Authors: Gast L. E. , Schneider Wilma J. , Teeter H. M. , McManis G. E. , Cowan J. C.
Published: June 2007

Styrenation of fatty vinyl ether polymers in dipentene at 145舑165C gives products containing from 20 to 67% styrene by weight but little or no unreacted monomeric styrene remained. After 27 mounths no gelation occurred in these products. Apparently dipentene serves as an effective chain transfer agent during styrenation, keeps the growing polymer chains short, and reduces crosslinking reactions. The amount and type of unsaturation needed in the fatty side chains of the polymer to produce homogeneous products were studied. Ultraviolet and infrared analyses were useful in determining the function of unsaturation in these reactions.

Tests on baked films from these products showed that as the amount of styrene was increased, both hardness and alkali resistance were significantly increased. Films prepared from products containing 34 and 67% styrene had Sward hardness values of 10 and 60, and alkali resistance of 33 days and over 65 days, respectively. Films from products prepared in aromatic solventsversus dipentene at the same styrene level showed no difference in hardness, but the alkali resistance of the 舠dipentene film舡 was greater.
Reactions of ozone. VII. Ozonization of fatty acids and their derivatives
Authors: Maggiolo Allison
Published: June 2007

Ozone was a useful tool very early in the history of structural studies involving fatty acids and their derivatives. More recently the productions of azelaic and pelargonic acids by the ozonolysis of oleic acid has become of commercial importance. This paper reviews the chemistry of the ozonolysis of various unsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives. The products can be varied from a single starting material depending on the manner of decomposing the intermediate ozonide. Thus, variations in starting material and variations in procedure make possible a great variety of straight chain products containing one or two functional groups such as carboxyl, aldehyde, hydroxyl, and amino.
Direct gas chromatographic examination of volatiles in salad oils and shortenings
Authors: Dupuy H. P. , Fore S. P. , Goldblatt L. A.
Published: June 2007

A simple, rapid and direct gas chromatographic technique was developed for the examination of volatiles in salad oils and shortenings at the 10 ppb level without prior enrichment. The liner of the inlet of the gas chromatograph is carefully packed with volatile‐free glass wool to allow slow diffusion of the sample on the glass wool, but to prevent seepage onto the gas chromatographic column. The liner with sample is inserted in the heated inlet, and the volatiles are eluted rapidly from the samples as the carrier gas flows through the linear and sweeps the volatiles onto the column, which is temperature‐programed between 55 and 190C to resolve the volatiles. Numerous samples of salad oils and shortenings were examined, and the better quality oils had only small amounts of volatiles.
Lipid composition of selected margarines
Authors: Carpenter D. L. , Slover H. T.
Published: June 2007

Results of analytical studies on the composition of 10 selected margarines representative of consumeravailable hard and soft types are presented. Paired hard and soft products from the same manufacturer were chosen where possible. All of the margarines were compared on the basis of total fatty acid composition, polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratios, totaltrans and thetrans content of the monoene and diene fractions, location of the double bond in the monoene isomers, per cent conjugation, distribution of the fatty acids at the 2 position of the triglycerides, tocopherol content, and the ratios of α‐tocopherol to polyunsaturated fatty acids. As expected the soft margarines contained more polyunsaturated fatty acids than their companion hard types, but all soft margarines did not contain more polyunsaturated fatty acids than all of the hard margarines. The one margarine containing safflower oil had the highest polyunsaturated to saturated ratio. Eight of the ten margarines contained more than 15%trans monoene and nine contained less than 5%trans diene. Positional isomers in the monoene fraction were Δ6 toΔ12 with thecis Δ9 isomer predominating. All of the margarines contained less than 1.9% conjugation. The percentage oftrans monoene at the 2 position was greater for some margarines than that in the total fatty acid. This was attributed to the preferential placement of polyunsaturated fatty acids at the 2 position in the original vegetable oils. The forms of tocopherol found were characteristic of the original vegetable oils. Ratios of α‐tocopherol to PUFA varied from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/g. Determination of the relationship of the amount of tocopherol content to either source or hardness is not possible on the basis of our data.
Biological studies with cyclopropenoids inactivated with fatty acids
Authors: Hopkins D. T. , Dahlgren R. R. , Davis D. , Munson A. W. , Dupuy H. P.
Published: June 2007

Cyclopropenoids inactivated by reactingSterculia foetida oil with cottonseed oil fatty acids were fed at three dietary levels to growing rats and laying hens for 4 weeks. At the termination of the experiments, all animals were autopsied and examined microscopically for pathological lesions, but no pathology that could be related to dietary treatment was observed. Hemoglobin, packed cell volume and plasma cholesterol were similar in animals fed all of the diets. Growth rate of rats and egg production of hens fed the experimental diets were similar to those of animals fed the control diet. After 3 and 6 months of storage, eggs from hens fed the inactivated cyclopropenoids were normal and showed no evidence of the unusual characteristics of cyclopropenoid feeding. Lipids of heart, liver and adipose tissues of all the rats and hens varied little from the normal fatty acid composition. Small amounts of three unidentified fatty acids were found in the adipose tissues of rats fed the higher levels of inactivated cyclopropenoids. The results of these feeding studies suggest that inactivation of cyclopropenoids with fatty acids eliminates the unusual biological effects attributable to cyclopropenoids.
Optimum blowing steam rate in deodorization and steam distillation
Authors: Chirgwin L. D.
Published: June 2007

On the basis of Bailey's equation for deodorization it is proposed that there is an optimum sparging rate, characteristic of each individual system, for steam distillation and its specialized forms, such as deodorization and stripping. It is suggested that the principles involved are applicable to continuous or batch systems of any size.

A simple method of determining this optimum rate is described and illustrated with data from a commercial batch deodorizer.

It is proposed that, under optimum conditions:

the ratio of absolute pressure (P) to the blowing steam rate (R) is at a minimum;

total distillation is at a maximum;

the linear velocity of the vapor is at a maximum; and

entrainment is disproportionately high.

It is recognized that this technically optimum blowing steam rate may not coincide with the most economical conditions of operation, depending on the characteristics of the system.

It is concluded that operation at rates appreciably above the optimum can in no way be justified.
Builder performance in detergent formulations and biodegradability of poly(sodium carboxylate) containing vinyl alcohol groups
Authors: Matsumura Shuichi , Shigeno Haruo , Tanaka Toshiyuki
Published: June 2007

Two series of poly[(disodium fumarate)co‐(vinyl alcohol)] and poly[(disodium maleate)‐co‐(vinyl alcohol)], containing vinyl alcohol moieties as biodegradable segments in the polymer chain, were prepared and evaluated for builder performance in detergent formulations as well as for their biodegradability. From the biological oxygen demand test and gel permeation chromatography of the polymer in the biodegradation test media, it was found that biodegradability of the copolymers was dependent on the content of vinyl alcohol moieties in the polymer chain. Significant degradation was observed for fumarate copolymers containing more than 75% vinyl alcohol units and for maleate copolymers containing more than 88≈99% vinyl alcohol units in the copolymer chain. The decisive factor for rapid degradation of the polymer by polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)‐degrading microbes seems to be the chainlength of the successive vinyl alcohol groups in the polymer chain. A definite chainlength is needed to become a substrate for the PVA‐degrading enzyme. For rapid biodegradation to occur, a copolymer containing more than about five to seven successive vinyl alcohol blocks is needed. Builder performance in the detergent formulation is dependent on the content of carboxylate groups in the polymer. Polymers with high carboxylate content showed better detergency, and the fumarate copolymer was more effective than the maleate copolymer. Detergency performance improved greatly with increasing amounts of polymeric builder used in the detergent formulation.
Kinetics of the aminolysis of hydrogenated tallow by allylamine and other primary amines in methanol
Authors: Jordan Edmund F. , Artymyshyn Bohdan , Roland Eddy C. , Wrigley Arthur N.
Published: June 2007

Kinetics of the aminolysis of hydrogenated tallow by allylamine in methanol solution under sodium methoxide catalysis was studied at several temperatures (60 to 90C) and catalyst concentrations. Under the experimental conditions the triglycerides were rapidly converted to the mixed methyl esters, which slowly reacted with the amine to produce the mixed amides. At constant catalyst concentration, disappearance of triglyceride was found to be first order in triglyceride and in amine. Because rate was found to be directly proportional to catalyst concentration, the experimental over‐all rate was 蜢d[Triglyceride]/dt=k3[Triglyceride] [Amine] [RO蜢], and k3 was 2.022 kg2 mole蜢2 hr蜢1. A mechanism proposed by Bunnett and Davis for ester aminolysis involving an ester‐amine complex formed in a rapid pre‐transition‐state equilibrium is consistent with thermodynamic terms which reconcile a large negative entropy of activation (蜢44.17 cal deg蜢1 equivalent蜢1) and relatively small energy of activation (11.60 kcal equivalent蜢1). Relative rate constants at 70C under sodium‐methoxide catalysis for the aminolysis of hydrogenated tallow by a variety of structurally different primary amines agreed, in general, with those found by others for the ethylene glycol‐catalyzed reaction of methyl acetate with the same amines at 25C. However, monoethanolamine reacted nineteen times faster than predicted, which suggested a mechanism involving initial attack by the alkoxy anion of the ethanolamine in the rate detering step, followed by rapid, base‐catalyzed, acyl acyl oxygen‐to‐nitrogen (O薔N) migration. The velocity constants and thermodynamic constants reported enable prediction of the time required for specific yields under a variety of experimental conditions.
LAS removal across an institutional trickling filter
Authors: Kumke G. W. , Renn C. E.
Published: June 2007

Field studies with a low‐rate trickling filter have shown a paraffin‐derived LAS surfactant to be removed nearly as efficiently as the rest of the organics contained in an institutional sewage. A nondomestic cracked‐wax‐derived LAS surfactant, which was fed over a second two‐month period for reference purposes, was removed at a somewhat lower rate. These tests were conducted at the New Jersey Colony at New Lisbon during the period April to August, 1965.
Elaboration of aflatoxin on cottonseed products byAspergillus flavus
Authors: Mayne R. Y. , Pons W. A. , Franz A. O. , Goldblatt L. A.
Published: June 2007

In controlled laboratory experiments heat sterilized and unautoclaved glanded and glandless whole cottonseed or decorticated kernels and sterilized cottonseed meals were found to be utilized as substrates by an aflatoxin elaborating strain ofA. flavus with the production of high levels of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. Gossypol pigments in cottonseed products are apparently not a barrier to either mold invasion or aflatoxin production. Cottonseed hulls, lint cotton, and cottonseed linters were found to be poorly utilized as substrates for either mold growth or aflatoxin production.
Methyl glucoside fatty acid diesters
Authors: Gibbons J. P. , Swanson C. J.
Published: June 2007

Summary and Conclusion

Procedures are described for the preparation of methyl glucoside diesters by direct esterification, using a ratio of one mole of methyl glucoside with two moles of fatty acids. Rate studies indicated that lead or stannous soaps are more effective catalysts than the sodium soaps for speeding up tis esterification. With equal molar quantities of methyl glucoside and fatty acid, the lead and the sodium soap catalysts give products containing predominantly diester and half the methyl glucoside remaining unreacted. Under the same conditions stannous soap catalysis gives high yields of monoesters containing only very small percentages of unreacted methyl glucoside. From the standpoint of speed of reaction, color of the final produets, ease of removal of catalyst from the ester products, and catalyst cost, litharge is the preferred cytalyst for the preparation of methyl glucoside diesters.

Properties of various methyl glucoside fatty acid diesters, prepared on a laboratory scale, are given. Du Noü;y surface‐tension measurements indicate that small quantities of the methyl glucoside dilaurate, dicaprate, or dioleate are quite effective in lowering the surface tension of water.
Properties of ethoxylate derivatives of norrandom alkylphenols
Authors: Smithson L. H.
Published: June 2007

Performance evaluation data for highly biodegradable C8蜢C18 nonrandom lȷnear alkylphenol ethoxylates and ethoxysulfates are presented for typical heavy‐ and light‐duty detergent formulations. The effect of the derivatives' molecular weight on performance characteristics is discussed, including variations in the hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts of the molecule.
Effect of cotton substrate characteristics upon surfactant adsorption
Authors: Ginn M. E. , Kinney F. B. , Harris J. C.
Published: June 2007

It is shown that the reported differences in anionic surfactant adsorption on cotton can be largely attributed to the presence of variable amounts of natural wax on the fiber surface. High adsorption values with peaks near critical micelle concentration (cmc) result from surfactant adsorption on the wax surface. Wax‐free surfaces fail either to show the same high maxima or the same relative magnitude of adsorption. At surfactant cmc the adsorption relationship for waxy cotton (millimoles/g. of cotton) cationic: nonionic: anionic was roughly 66 to 17 to 74. For dewaxed cotton, this became 40 to 10 to nil.

Confirming the findings of others, no adsorption by cotton of sodium tripolyphosphate occurs either with waxy or wax‐free cotton. Also addition of tripolyphosphate decreased the adsorption of several anionic surfactants.

At concentrations greater than cmc and at sufficiently‐high solution temperature, anionic surfactants can solubilize cotton wax, leaving a less waxy substrate upon which adsorption is then reduced.
The reaction of picric acid with epoxides. II. The detection of epoxides in heated oils
Authors: Fioriti J. A. , Bentz A. P. , Sims R. J.
Published: June 2007

A colorimetric method, based upon the reaction of the oxirane group with picric acid, was used to determine the epoxide content of heated vegetable oils. The picration method is particularly suitable for measuring small quantities of epoxide because it is much more sensitive than the common titrimetric methods, and it is not subject to interference from cyclopropene, conjugated dieneols, or ॅ, ॆ‐unsaturated carbonyls.

Thin‐layer chromatography was used to separate mixtures of picrated, epoxidized methyl esters. Separation ofcis‐ andtrans‐methyl epoxystearate, methyl epoxyoleate, and methyl diepoxystearate in a mixture of these four esters was achieved in this manner. The presence of saturatedcis‐ andtrans‐epoxystearates and unsaturated epoxides was demonstrated in heated vegetable oils.
Lipids in wheat from various classes and varieties
Authors: Pomeranz Y. , Chung Okkyung , Robinson R. J.
Published: June 2007

Lipids were extracted with petroleum ether and with water‐saturated n‐butanol from 8 hard red winter, 5 hard red spring, and one each from soft red, durum, and club wheat varieties from 2 harvests. The butanol‐extracted lipids were fractionated into nonpolar and polar lipids by silicic acid column chromatography, and the two major fractions were subfractionated by thin‐layer chromatography. Durum wheats contained the highest lipid contents, and the highest concentration of nonpolar lipids. The breadmaking wheat varieties had a lipid content which was consistent for the 2 years examined. The total and nonpolar lipid contents of hard red spring wheats were higher than of hard red winter wheats. The polar lipid contents of wheats from the two classes were essentially equal. Total lipid contents were substantially higher in wheats than in flours milled from the wheats. Nonpolar lipids constituted about one‐half of the flour lipids and two‐thirds of the wheat lipids. Concentrations of triglycerides were higher in wheat than in flour nonpolar lipids. Glycolipids were present in comparable concentrations in wheat and in flour polar lipids; concentration in polar lipids of phosphatidyl choline was higher and of other phospholipids was lower in wheat than in flour polar lipids.
Origins and assessment of snowball Earth hypotheses
Authors: HARLAND W. BRIAN
Published: June 2007

Brian Harland was for many years an editor of this journal. He was also a seminal figure in the origins of the current ‘snowball Earth’ debate, having recognized in 1964 the significance of coupling emerging palaeomagnetic data on palaeolatitude with his interpretations of diamictites. Harland worked extensively in the Arctic and knew well many of the workers involved in the arguments surrounding the origin of diamictites. He thus had a unique perspective on the evidence and the disputes surrounding it. This was his last paper but he was not able to complete it before he died. However, with the help of Professor Ian Fairchild to whom we are indebted, the editors have lightly revised this work which is presented as the personal view of one of the key figures with a very broad stratigraphic appreciation of the problems of ‘snowball Earth’.

Records of Precambrian glaciation onwards from the late nineteenth century led to the concept of one or more major ice ages. This concept was becoming well advanced by the mid 1930s, particularly through the compilation of Kulling in 1934. Even so tillite stratigraphy shows that glaciation was exceptional rather than typical of Earth history. Some Proterozoic tillites, sandwiched between warm marine facies, indicate low, even equatorial palaeolatitudes as determined magnetically, and more recently led to ideas of a snow- and ice-covered ‘snowball Earth’. However, interbedded non-glacial facies as well as thick tillite successions requiring abundant snowfall both militate against the hypothesis of extreme prolonged freezing temperatures referred to here as an ‘iceball Earth’ in which all oceans and seas were sealed in continuous ice cover. On the other hand tropical environments were interrupted by glaciation several times in the Proterozoic, something that did not recur in the Phanerozoic. The term ‘snowball Earth’ is consistent with the established view of extremely widespread Proterozoic glaciation, but the ‘iceball Earth’ version of this is not compatible with the geological record.
Young People's Extra-Curricular Activities: Critical Social Engagement – Or ‘Something for the CV’?
Authors: BROOKS RACHEL
Published: June 2007

The government has argued in various arenas that ‘active citizenship’ is one way in which young people can be effectively re-engaged with their communities, and with the political process more broadly. As part of this analysis, it has placed particular emphasis on the potential contribution of youth volunteering. However, many researchers have argued that such initiatives are essentially conservative, placing emphasis firstly on the skills and competences necessary to make a contribution to the economy rather than more innovative understandings of citizenship, and secondly on the importance of active community participation rather than an understanding of welfare rights and social citizenship. In engaging with this debate, this article draws on a study of 21 young people (aged between 16 and 18) involved in a range of different voluntary, peer-driven and socially focused extra-curricular groups in sixth-form colleges. It argues that, for the young people involved in this study, the effects of becoming involved were complex, multidirectional and, in some cases, apparently contradictory. While in some ways the activities appeared to serve essentially conservative functions (for example, by developing sympathy for those in positions of power), in other respects they engendered a much more critical stance to some aspects of the young people's worlds.
Is ELF a variety of English?
Authors: Prodromou Luke
Published: June 2007

This article discusses recent attempts to describe English as a lingua franca (ELF). In it, I will consider claims made for ELF as a variety of English ‘with a life of its own’, which is said to be emerging among users of English for whom it is not their mother tongue. I examine a number of weaknesses in the case made for ELF by a school of thinking in mainland Europe, focusing on: the role of the native speaker in ELF; the relationship between ELF and Standard English; and the search for a grammatical common core for contexts in which English is used as an international lingua franca. The article draws on research which suggests that the aspect of Standard English which may be inappropriate for ELF is not in the grammatical system but the area of idiomaticity. I conclude with a consideration of the pedagogic implications of the ELF debate.
Viscosity structure of the crust and upper mantle in western Nevada from isostatic rebound patterns of the late Pleistocene Lake Lahontan high shoreline
Authors: Bills Bruce G. , Adams Kenneth D. , Wesnousky Steven G.
Published: June 2007

Large lakes can both produce and record significant crustal deformation. We present an analysis of the isostatic rebound pattern recorded in the shorelines of paleolake Lahontan, in western Nevada, using a layered Maxwell viscoelastic model. The inferred viscosity structure depends on loading history. We use three variants of a well‐documented lake surface elevation model as input and recover corresponding estimates of viscosity and density structure. A simple two‐layer model, with an elastic plate over an inviscid half‐space, fits the observed elevation pattern quite well, with a residual variance of 32% of the data variance. Using multilayered, finite viscosity models, the residual variance is reduced to 20% of the data variance, which is very near to the noise level. In the higher‐resolution models, the viscosity is below 1018 Pa s over the depth range from 80 to 160 km. The minimum viscosity is very similar to the value that has been seen in the eastern Great Basin, from similar analyses of Lake Bonneville shorelines, but the low‐viscosity zone is thinner beneath Bonneville. Making small adjustments to a seismically derived density structure allows an improved fit to the shoreline observations. Additionally, we find that small variations in proposed loading models can result in presumably spurious density inversions, and suggest that this modeling approach provides a test for loading histories.
Impacts of an accumulation hiatus on the physical properties of firn at a low‐accumulation polar site
Authors: Courville Z. R. , Albert M. R. , Fahnestock M. A. , Cathles L. M. , Shuman C. A.
Published: June 2007

Recent field investigations of a megadune region of East Antarctica provide evidence that differences in grain size, thermal conductivity, and permeability across a megadune profile are due to spatial accumulation variability in the absence of significant microclimate variations. The megadunes are low‐amplitude (2–8 m), long‐wavelength (2–5 km) bands with perceptible but low accumulation (less than 40 mm water equivalent (weq) yr−1) and accumulation hiatus within several kilometers proximity, as determined by remote sensing, surface feature classification, and ground‐penetrating radar profiling. Our hypothesis that accumulation rate impacts the extent of temperature gradient–driven metamorphic growth in low accumulation rate sites is supported by measurements of various firn physical properties. Relatively small differences in accumulation rate (less than 40 mm weq yr−1) result in large differences in physical properties, including grain size, thermal conductivity, and permeability, which are apparent in satellite‐based microwave data from both passive and active sensors. The differences in physical snow structure between low‐accumulation areas and accumulation hiatus areas in the near surface are sufficiently distinct that evidence of past accumulation hiatus should be observable in the physical and chemical properties of an ice core record.
Horizontal and vertical propagation and dissipation of gravity waves in the thermosphere from lower atmospheric and thermospheric sources
Authors: Vadas Sharon L.
Published: June 2007

The dissipation of high‐frequency gravity waves (GWs) in the thermosphere is primarily due to kinematic viscosity and thermal diffusivity. Recently, an anelastic GW dispersion relation was derived which includes the damping effects of kinematic viscosity and thermal diffusivity in the thermosphere and which is valid before and during dissipation. Using a ray trace model which incorporates this new dispersion relation, we explore many GW properties that result from this dispersion relation for a wide range of thermospheric temperatures. We calculate the dissipation altitudes, horizontal distances traveled, times taken, and maximum vertical wavelengths prior to dissipation in the thermosphere for a wide range of upward‐propagating GWs that originate in the lower atmosphere and at several altitudes in the thermosphere. We show that the vertical wavelengths of dissipating GWs, λz(zdiss), increases exponentially with altitude, although with a smaller slope for z > 200 km. We also show how the horizontal wavelength, λH, and wave period spectra change with altitude for dissipating GWs. We find that a new dissipation condition can predict our results for λz(zdiss) very well up to altitudes of ∼500 km. We also find that a GW spectrum excited from convection shifts to increasingly larger λz and λH with altitude in the thermosphere that are not characteristic of the initial convective scales. Additionally, a lower thermospheric shear shifts this spectrum to even larger λz, consistent with observations. Finally, we show that our results agree well with observations.