bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Farmer Sarah
Published: March 2020

The postwar history of rural France has often been experienced and analyzed as one of perpetual decline measured by rural outmigration and the death of the peasantry as a social class. While this book has underlined and explored these dislocations and ruptures, it has also pushed back against a declensionist narrative by showing ways in which the French countryside was renewed and changed in the decades of the 1960s ad 1970s by social practices and culture representations that attached symbolic and material value to rural life. Rural society did not die when the peasantry disappeared. Rather, it continued to be reinvented.
The Democratic Advantage in Theory
Authors: Kroenig Matthew
Published: March 2020

This chapter puts forth the argument that democracies enjoy built-in advantages in long-run geopolitical competitions. It begins by defining key terms, such as “democracy” and “autocracy.” Then, drawing on the writing of political philosophers, such as Herodotus, Machiavelli, and Montesquieu, and contemporary social science research, this chapter explains the unique economic, diplomatic, and military advantages that democracies bring to the international arena. These advantages include: higher long-run rates of economic growth, access to international capital, larger and more reliable alliances, and a tendency to win international wars. It then explains how these advantages grant democracies an edge in amassing wealth and power, becoming great powers, and achieving global hegemony at rates greater than their autocratic rivals.
The Autocratic Advantage?
Authors: Kroenig Matthew
Published: March 2020

This chapter explores the idea of an autocratic advantage in international politics. Throughout the ages, scholars, including Alexis de Tocqueville, have argued that autocracies have an advantage in international politics. These arguments are resurfacing today as Russia and China vie for global leadership. According to the autocratic advantage idea, autocracies can set a long-term plan and stick to it. They can take bold action. They can be ruthless when necessary. And their domestic politics are marked by stability. In contrast, democracies are preoccupied by two-year election cycles, stymied in endless debate, and unduly constrained by morality and law. And their politics are marked by messy political infighting. This chapter weighs these ideas, and concludes that many of these so-called autocratic advantages are not, in fact, unique to autocracies and others should more properly be considered handicaps rather than advantages.
The Democratic Advantage by the Numbers
Authors: Kroenig Matthew
Published: March 2020

This chapter examines quantitative evidence for a link between a state’s domestic political institutions and its power in the international system. Using standard international relations datasets, it finds significant support for the democratic advantage idea. It is notable how often democracies appear at or near the top of global power rankings. And this is even more remarkable when one considers how historically rare this form of government has been. This chapter finds that, on average, democracies possess more power than autocracies. It reveals that they are more likely to find themselves among the major powers and at the very top of the global distribution of power. Finally, it also demonstrates that, when comparing democratic and autocratic competitors from a common baseline and watching their power trajectories unfold over time, the trend-lines favor democracies. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the research design for the case studies to follow.
The People’s Republic of China
Authors: Kroenig Matthew
Published: March 2020

This chapter analyzes the rise of China and the threat it poses to the United States and its allies. Some argue that we must begin to come to grips with what life will be like “when China rules the world.” Others maintain that the rise of China and decline of the United States could result in World War III. Fortunately, these predictions are much too dire. This chapter argues that a China led by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is unlikely become the world’s leading state. Its autocratic model is not well suited to building a world-beating, innovation economy, to winning friends and allies around the world; or to constructing a lethal military force with global power-projection capabilities. China has a storied past, and it will likely always remain a great power, but it is unlikely to overtake the United States as the world’s leading state any time soon.
Introduction
Authors: Foxen Anya P.
Published: March 2020

This introduction presents the argument and general parameters of the subsequent chapters. It argues that modern postural yoga as practiced in popularized contexts (such as gyms and corporate studios) is only tangentially related to premodern Indian yogic traditions. Broadly, it makes the case that the dynamics of cross-cultural translation necessitate that we examine both the original and host context of the concept or practice in question. It then outlines the main areas that must be considered in framing such an argument, specifically the difficulty of defining yoga, the historical role of Orientalism, the definition of “harmonialism,” and the issues surrounding gender, race, class, and white supremacy.
Pneumatic Dancing Girls
Authors: Foxen Anya P.
Published: March 2020

Chapter 4 examines American Delsarteism as a form of harmonialism, positioning it between harmonial breath and movement practices being advocated within the broader New Thought movement and the development of modern dance. It focuses on the work of Genevieve Stebbins, whose use of esotericism closely connects her to prominent proponents of New Thought such as Warren Felt Evans, but whose influence on women such as Isadora Duncan and Ruth St. Denis makes her something of a grandmother of modern dance. It then traces the innovations within American Delsarteism exemplified by Stebbins into Duncan’s work, which exhibits a strong esotericist influence and a harmonial subcurrent. In this context, it points out the lack of Asian content in these formulations as they culminate in Duncan’s strong Hellenic neoclassicism. Finally, it positions St. Denis as a contrast to Duncan’s Hellenism by focusing on her engagement with a resurgent and popularly explosive Orientalism.
Epilogue
Authors: Foxen Anya P.
Published: March 2020

This short epilogue returns, in broad strokes, to some of the issues explored in the preceding chapters, specifically definition, identity, origins, ideological imperialism, and colonial appropriation. It takes up the issues inherent in treating influence as a mechanical process that represents an objective, accurate, and wholesale transfer of knowledge. It also grapples with the unavoidable issues of personal identity that characterize our engagement, both as scholars and as practitioners, in dealing with culturally complex, situated, and diffuse concepts and practices. Finally, it argues that we should take practices like popular yoga seriously, even as we acknowledge and critique their problematic histories and equally problematic contemporary dynamics.
On the Waterfront
Authors: Zukin Sharon
Published: March 2020

The transformation of industrial ruins on the Brooklyn waterfront into New York’s newest tech district shows how urban spaces come to embody fictional narratives of economic growth shared by venture capitalists, economic development officials, university presidents, and real estate developers: the people who form a city’s “growth machine.” Both real and hyped, the building of the innovation complex on the waterfront results from an ingenious use of public money to leverage private investment, investors’ self-interested desire to shield capital gains or procure US visas, and sheer speculation in tech-led growth. Among notable projects in this de facto innovation district, the chapter examines the Brooklyn Navy Yard and the Brooklyn Tech Triangle. Interviews with major participants in the development process are combined with descriptions of specific sites and analysis of the rise of the “innovation district” model in urban economic redevelopment after 2010.
“The Address of Innovation”
Authors: Zukin Sharon
Published: March 2020

This chapter shows that “innovation” is basically a political category that brings the most benefit to investors, corporate executives, and real estate developers who control the supply of land and circulation of financial capital. Highlighting tech’s corporate power over cities, we see Amazon’s plan to open a second headquarters in Long Island City, New York, defeated by public protest against government subsidies to tech titans. The chapter also examines the jobs that are created by the growth of the tech industry, the effects of capital gains of highly successful tech founders on urban housing markets, and the ideological effects of the “post-political” crisis management sponsored by the World Economic Forum, including a brief comparison with the innovation complex in China.
The Objection of David Hume and the Project of Enlightenment
Authors: Anderson Abraham
Published: March 2020

Chapter 1 places Kant’s declaration about his debt to Hume against the background of the Preface to the Prolegomena as a whole. It argues that Kant sees Hume’s attack on metaphysics as a contribution to Enlightenment. Kant praises Hume by opposing his critics, like Beattie, whose invocation of common sense against Hume Kant associates with the Inquisition’s enforcement of orthodoxy via “chisel and hammer.” We must read Kant’s defense of Hume, the Preface argues, against the background of the scandal produced by Hume’s Dialogues. Kant’s evocation of Horace links the Preface with Kant’s “What Is Enlightenment?” and its motto sapere aude. It must be read alongside Hume’s attack on priestcraft in the Enquiry and in “Of the Rise and Progress of the Arts and Sciences.”
Afterword
Authors: Anderson Abraham
Published: March 2020

The proposal that Hume woke Kant by challenging the principle of sufficient reason lets us understand why Kant saw Hume as an opponent of speculative theodicy, since speculative theodicy was grounded in that principle. It thereby also allows us to understand Kant’s turn to Rousseau, who “saved Providence,” and the turn from speculative to practical metaphysics that characterizes Kant’s critical philosophy. The difficulty people have had in understanding Kant’s account of how Hume roused him has to do with the fact that they wish to avoid his transcendental idealism, since that account implies that Hume woke him by putting him on the path to transcendental idealism. To understand the Critique, we must understand it as the “execution” of Hume’s problem understood as the problem of metaphysics.
C. S. Lewis and the Christian Worldview
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

C. S. Lewis is one of the most influential and beloved Christian writers of the past century, and interest in him grows as books about his fantasy, fiction, and biography continue to appear. Although Lewis’s personal journey was a deeply philosophical search for the most adequate worldview, the few extant books about his Christian philosophy focus on specific topics rather than his worldview as a whole. In this book, Michael Peterson develops a comprehensive, coherent framework for understanding Lewis’s Christian worldview—from his arguments from reason, morality, and desire to his ideas about Incarnation, Trinity, and Atonement. All worldviews address fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, human nature, morality, and meaning. Peterson therefore examines Lewis’s Christian approach to these same questions in interaction with other worldviews. Accenting that the intellectual strength and existential relevance of Lewis’s works rest on his philosophical acumen as well as his Christian orthodoxy—which he famously called “mere Christianity”—Peterson skillfully shows how Lewis’s Christian thought engages a variety of important issues raised by believers and nonbelievers alike, including: the problem of evil and suffering, the problem of religious diversity, the problem of meaning, the relation of prayer and providence, the relation of science and religion, and the nature of humanity. Just as Lewis was gifted in communicating philosophical ideas and arguments in an accessible style, Peterson has artfully crafted a major contribution to Lewis scholarship which will interest specialists and benefit the general reader.
Introduction
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

The Introduction establishes the importance of Lewis, particularly the fact that his life journey was driven by the quest for the most adequate philosophical worldview. The criterion of adequacy pertained not only to the intellectual strength but also to the existential liveability of each worldview he considered—from atheistic materialism, through various forms of idealism and pantheism, to theism and ultimately Christian theism. The Introduction prepares the reader to see that Lewis’s perspective involved his own biographical details and intellectual predilections but also that it was a wide, expansive conduit for classical ecumenical orthodoxy—which he famously called “mere Christianity.” The Introduction particularly explains that most of the existing books about Lewis are either about his “biography” or his “literature” and that books about his “philosophy” are topical and do not offer a comprehensive treatment of his worldview—a point that uniquely positions this book among the scholarly works on Lewis.
Lewis’s Intellectual Framework
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

Chapter 1 defines a worldview as a unified, coherent understanding of reality and includes the image of an “intellectual framework” for interpreting the key phenomena of life and the world. The chapter then unfolds to explain that Lewis’s approach to worldview thinking was shaped by a handful of key factors—such as his philosophical training, academic background, and literary skill—which he masterfully put into the service of crafting an adequate worldview, a process that eventually focused on classical orthodox Christianity. One important emphasis is that Lewis’s Christian worldview cannot be reduced to Lewis’s own creation but is rather his way of packaging a transcending and enduring point of view—that is, the philosophia perennis. Lewis’s attraction to Platonism and Neoplatonism in connection to Christianity is also critically engaged. The unfolding discussion further reflects on Lewis’s sense of being sought by a God who seeks relationship, which set the stage for his “reluctant conversion.” After becoming a Christian, the culmination of a twenty-year intellectual search, Lewis felt that his greatest contribution and source of fulfillment—indeed, his calling—would be writing and addressing the key issues of his day as well as enduring philosophical, theological, and humanistic topics.
Worldview Engagement
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

This chapter presents the idea of a “worldview” as a comprehensive explanation of the important phenomena of life and the world—such as mind, morality, and personhood—and it is expanded into a discussion of various major historical worldviews. There are alternative explanations of reality—actually, different worldviews competing in the intellectual marketplace of ideas. Given his early loss of faith, Lewis embarked on a journey, both philosophical and personal, to find the most adequate worldview—beginning with atheistic materialism, moving through various forms of idealism (sometimes lapsing into pantheism and cosmic dualism), and then coming to basic theism (belief in an omnipotent and moral creator), before accepting Christianity. The intellectual part of his journey was marked by key books and close friends who helped Lewis along the way. The personal part of the journey was characterized by Lewis’s deep need to find an explanation for his longing for joy and meaning, which he found in Christian faith.
Joy and the Meaning of Life
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

Much of Lewis’s prolonged process of sorting through worldviews stemmed from his discovery about each worldview he held: that it was not liveable, could not be put into practice, and did not explain his deep need for joy, meaning, and fulfilment—which the book labels “transcendent desire.” As Lewis progressed through several worldviews, holding and then relinquishing each one in turn, he moved closer to what he later called the Source of Joy, namely, God. Reminiscent of Augustine’s theme of the “restless heart,” which projects the human telos/end/purpose as relationship with God, Lewis pursued Joy as his primary goal. The question of whether Lewis’s conversion was essentially personal and existential, or whether it contained a reasoned argument, or both, is discussed around the topic of an “argument from joy.” The chapter also seeks to reconcile the “argued dialectic” and the “lived dialectic” of Lewis’s search leading to Christian conversion. Essentially, he reasoned to the truth of theism and became a theist without quite seeing that the theistic God is the Christian God in whom infinite Joy, Love, and Peace reside.
Mind, Miracle, and Nature
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

Lewis as a theist (and Christian theist) was the sworn opponent of philosophical naturalism and materialism as worldviews. In his book Miracles, Lewis launches a philosophical attack on naturalism in a special way: he attacks its assumption that physical or material nature is all there is and runs by unbroken laws. He uses the technical Humean definition that a “miracle” would then be a “violation of the laws of nature” and goes on to show that rational thought (which must be free to decide on truth and not determined by physical processes to believe what it believes) is technically a miracle. Probably Lewis’s most important contribution to the field of philosophy is what we call his “argument from reason,” which maintains that naturalism cannot explain the logical reasoning process and that the very existence of this process strongly points to theism. We discuss the Lewis-Anscombe debate over the relation of naturalism and human reason, which spurred Lewis to revise his earlier argument. Prior to this debate, Lewis charged naturalists with committing a self-contradiction by claiming to hold his or her position by reasoning because naturalism implies that all events (including thoughts) are determined by law rather than freedom to discern logic. The Anscombe encounter led Lewis to say instead that there is a “cardinal difficulty,” which the naturalist cannot overcome.
Moral Law and the Structure of Personal Reality
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

Completing Lewis’s famous triad of arguments for theism (along with the argument from joy and the argument from reason) is the “argument from morality,” which begins Mere Christianity and appears elsewhere in Lewis’s writings. Lewis takes the important evidence of moral consciousness and moral judgments that pervade the human race as evidence for a moral theistic being, God. That is, theism philosophically explains the existence of morality better than competing worldviews explain it. Furthermore, Lewis (in implicit Aristotelian fashion) links being moral to the meaning and telos of our humanity. He also shows that the fundamental principles of morality—the “Tao,” as he calls it for his purposes—are universal and objective, while their expression varies across cultures and traditions. This entails that there is essential agreement on values across cultures—say, on the value of life, truth-telling and lying, and so forth. These moral values are not created subjectively or culturally; instead they are reflections of a perfect universal morality to which we simply feel ourselves to be related.
The Social God and the Relational Creation
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

Although Lewis’s emphasis on the Incarnation is well known, his emphasis on the doctrine of the Trinity is less well known because it is less concrete, more subtle, and expressed in his creative imagery. The theme of God as “the Great Dance”—borrowed from Gregory of Nazianzus—is communicated through an image of dynamism and movement rather than a static, inert object. To imagine the Trinitarian God as the Great Dance is to say that the inner life of God is social and relational, seeking to draw the rest of creation into that Dance which has been going on in God forever. The idea of the social Trinity is a backdrop for seeing human redemption not so much in juridical and legal terms but in terms of the Self-Giving, Self-Living Life at the heart of reality seeking to live and grow in our lives. How, then, could those who participate in that Life of unending beatitude not experience and reflect joy, love, and peace?
Pain, Suffering, and Death
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

Lewis’s affirmation of Christian theism—based on its greater explanatory power in regard to the phenomena of rational thought, morality, and the existential need for joy and meaning—faces its toughest test in the problem of evil and suffering. This chapter reviews Lewis’s general philosophical responses to the problem of pain and suffering, noting their insights and critiquing their inadequacies, and placing his work in the larger context of contemporary philosophical discussions of the problem of evil. Interestingly, when Lewis met and fell in love with Joy Gresham, he experienced personally those pangs of pain and loss that he had previously dealt with only theoretically. Joy’s suffering and death by cancer caused Lewis to question his old answers and even to question God. He journals the troubled thoughts and feelings of his grief in a frank and honest way that gives permission to all who grieve to express their feelings and not be intimidated by supposedly proper answers. His “grief observed” ultimately works through to an even stronger faith than his original faith in which joy did not encounter suffering, concluding that suffering cannot be erased but can actually be subsumed by joy. An item of particular interest is the Lewis–Van Osdall correspondence (recently discovered, never before published) in which Lewis identifies with Van Osdall’s loss of his only son in a fatal car crash.
Salvation and Persons Outside the Faith
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

Besides the problem of suffering and evil, and the problem of scientism, Lewis knew that the problem of religious diversity is another seemingly negative factor in the formulation of a coherent Christian worldview. Simply stated, the problem concerns how an omnipotent, wholly good God could have created a world in which many different religions arise and vie for the allegiance of countless millions of people. Is it rational to think that only one of these religions is completely true? It is fascinating how Lewis navigated this issue. Rejecting his early belief that all religions are myths in the sense of being falsehoods, deceptions, and frauds, Lewis explains that all religions are expressions of the God-implanted search for the divine. In fact, the pervasive pattern of the repetitively dying-and-rising god (annually in ahistorical fertility religions) becomes a kind of foreshadowing of the singular event of Jesus as the God-man dying in the midst of human history. Lewis’s analysis of salvation in light of world religions is based on the implicit argument that God’s perfect wisdom, justice, and love are fulfilled in God’s ability to discern and judge each person’s heart, desire, and life trajectory, regardless of mistaken beliefs about God himself.
Prayer and Providence
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

The nature and role of prayer in Christian life have long been items of discussion, and (like the problem of pain and suffering) they admit no easy, formulaic answers. This chapter engages Lewis’s extensive writings on prayer in general as well as the different aspects of prayer, such as praise and confession. With characteristic frankness, Lewis also tackles the difficult problem of petitionary prayer—including the perplexity created by two New Testament models of prayer—petitions on the condition that they are God’s will and petitions in faith that they will be granted. Acknowledging that he does not have the faith that assures an answer (and observing that almost no Christians really seem to have that kind of faith either), Lewis says that the Christian must engage in the first type of prayer. Lewis also discusses the role of prayer in a relational universe in which a relational God seeks relationship with us—partly to make the point that prayer is not just petition and partly to make the point that relationship with God in prayer helps transform us. Another topic regarding Lewis and prayer is the nature of divine providence if God is timeless and knows timelessly what needs to occur—why pray?
Epilogue
Authors: Peterson Michael L.
Published: March 2020

The Epilogue reflects on Lewis’s influence since his death and confidently predicts that his appeal and importance will remain strong in the third millennium. Readers are attracted to Lewis’s writings because of his literary gifts, winsome personality, and fascinating life story, but his positive, inviting presentation of Christian orthodoxy, in ever so many venues, is very much a part of the attraction as well. Classical orthodoxy was at the heart of Lewis’s understanding of the Christian worldview, which he considered to be the philosophia perennis, the perennial philosophy. For Lewis, this philosophical framework both explains the major phenomena of life and the world and answers the tough questions posed to it. In presenting the Christian worldview, Lewis particularly accents the orthodox doctrines of Trinity and Incarnation, giving them a significance beyond mere perfunctory assent. What is more, Lewis’s long search for truth, spanning two decades of his life, prepared him extremely well for critiquing other worldviews and explaining the credibility of the Christian worldview. Clearly, his ability to articulate the existential side of his search provides a point of personal contact with readers.
What Is Individual in Communicating
Authors: Arundale Robert B.
Published: March 2020

Prior chapters emphasize what is social in human communicating, yet what is social is linked in a yin/yang dialectic with what is individual. Chapter 4 examines what is individual in Communicating & Relating’s account of conjoint co-constituting. Two new assumptive commitments emphasize what is individual in human communicating, as bases for sketching prior psycholinguistic research on both comprehending and producing utterances, and for clarifying Communicating & Relating’s conceptualizations of meaning, action, and context. That background enables framing the Sequential Interpreting Processes and the Recipient Design Processes, from the perspective of the participants, as the individual, psychological processes integral with conjoint co-constituting. Both sets of processes are apparent in examining an episode of everyday talk and conduct.
The Dragon and the Snakes
Authors: Kilcullen David
Published: March 2020

This chapter lays out the book’s overall thesis: that in the quarter century of western military dominance since the Cold War, adversaries have learned to defeat the west’s military model as pioneered during the 1991 Gulf War. The chapter recounts James Woolsey’s “dragon and snakes” testimony of February 1993, then provides a survey of major developments among nonstate actors such as terrorist groups and state adversaries including Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea. The chapter introduces the concept of liminal strategies, where adversaries (recognizing their inability to compete directly with western militaries) ride the edge of detectability, sidestepping our conventional military strength while doing just enough to achieve their goals without provoking a direct military retaliation.
Woolsey’s Snakes
Authors: Kilcullen David
Published: March 2020

This chapter applies the evolutionary concepts explained in Chapter 2 to a series of case studies of nonstate adversaries. It explores how specific nonstate adversaries have adapted and evolved since 1993; these include Al Qaeda, Islamic State, Al Qaeda’s Syrian affiliate Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, and the Lebanese Shi’a group Hezbollah. The chapter shows that each of these irregular armed groups, despite differences of ideology, origin, operating environment and structure, are all responding in their own ways to a fitness landscape created by Western dominance of a particular, narrow, technology-centric form of warfare. Their patterns of adaptation indicate the ways in which evolutionary processes identified in the previous chapter have played out in practice.
Liminal Warfare
Authors: Kilcullen David
Published: March 2020

This chapter discusses Russian evolution and adaptation since the Cold War, surveys the post-Soviet military evolution of Russian forces, offers case studies of the Norwegian-Russian border and the Russo-Georgian War of 2008, introduces and analyzes the concept of liminal warfare as practiced by Russia, and discusses the “Gerasimov doctrine,”, reflexive control, and Russian political warfare methods, including those allegedly used during the 2016 US presidential election. It argues that, in recovering from its post-Cold War eclipse of the 1990s, the Russian Federation engaged in a process of adaptation under pressure, developing significantly more capable conventional and nuclear forces (especially after the Five-Day War of 2008 in Georgia) but also evolving a form of warfare, liminal maneuver, designed to offset US conventional dominance.
Conceptual Envelopment
Authors: Kilcullen David
Published: March 2020

This chapter discusses China’s evolution and adaptation since the Cold War, surveys the evolution of Chinese forces, offers case studies of the Sino-Vietnamese War and the South China Sea, introduces and analyzes the concept of conceptual envelopment as it relates to China, discusses the transformative effect of China’s emergence as a global oceanic and maritime power, and explores the concept of unrestricted warfare and China’s Three Warfares doctrine. It argues that, in the quarter century since 1993, China has learned by watching the West struggle in the post-Cold War era, and has taken advantage of Western preoccupation with terrorism since 2001. The 1991 Gulf War, the 1996 Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, and the 1999 bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade prompted strategists in Beijing to shift from a peacetime, concept-led adaptation process to a wartime, reactive approach that treats the United States as a “pacing threat.”
Simplified Crowd Simulation in Virtual Heritage Sites
Authors: Sequeira Luís Miguel
Published: March 2020

For the past two decades, historians and archaeologists have reconstructed heritage sites using computer-generated graphics in three dimensions, a technique known as “virtual archaeology.” Early research focused merely on displaying models of the architecture or of archaeological artifacts, but with the emergence of virtual worlds, researchers and the public can “immerse” themselves in the reconstructed environment and experience the equivalent of a guided tour. User-generated content has allowed historians to now go a step further and modify the models, by formulating hypotheses and testing them interactively, creating a “virtual laboratory of archaeology.” In this chapter, a solution is offered whereby historians are able to manipulate the parameters of a crowd simulation without the need of learning conventional computer programming. This conceptual framework is loosely based on strategy computer games, which also allow players to simulate relatively complex crowds by visually placing markers on the ground. It extends the concept of the virtual laboratory of archaeology beyond the architectural representation of heritage sites by placing the tools of crowd simulation in the hands of historians.
Unreal Projects
Authors: Campagnol Gabriela , Caffey Stephen , Clayton Mark J. , Glowacki Kevin , Klein Nancy , Kang Julian , Booth Geoffrey
Published: March 2020

The technology of immersive visualization has progressed to where it can be employed to deliver experiences of environments that are otherwise difficult or impossible to encounter today. The chapter describes the work of an interdisciplinary team that used digital models of places remote in distance and/or time to enable students in core curriculum classes in the history and theory of architecture to enrich their understanding of said sites. Building information modeling (BIM) software enables the quick modeling of 3D architectural and urban spaces, combined with the ability to embed non-graphic metadata to enhance the visualization. The chapter describes a BIM CAVE developed at Texas A&M University and head-mounted 3D displays that enable small groups of students to navigate through the simulated world of visualizations. Titled Unreal Projects, the effort made by the group offers the potential for greater understanding of the spatial and visual qualities of environments than can be experienced through traditional analog and 2D media. These can become high-impact tools for teaching and learning about historical, contemporary, and future environments.
The Linguistic Variables
Authors: Stanford James N.
Published: March 2020

This chapter outlines each of the linguistic variables studied in this New England English project, including r-lessness, START/PALM-fronting, “broad-a” BATH, NORTH/FORCE distinctions, MARY/MARRY/MERRY distinctions, LOT/THOUGHT distinctions, nasal short-a, and other traditional regional features. Each variable is discussed in terms of prior work, with a focus on results of the 1930s Linguistic Atlas of New England and the 2006 Atlas of North American English. The chapter includes maps of prior work that are used as a comparison for the results of the current study.
The Rigveda
Authors: Jamison Stephanie , Brereton Joel
Published: March 2020

The Ṛgveda is a monumental text in both world religion and world literature; yet it is comparatively little known outside a small band of specialists. The oldest Sanskrit text, composed in the latter half of the second millennium bce, it stands as the foundational text of what will later be called Hinduism. The text consists of over a thousand hymns dedicated to various divinities, composed in sophisticated and often enigmatic poetry. Its range is large—encompassing profound meditations on cosmic enigmas, exuberant tributes to the wonders of the world, ardent praise of the gods and their works, moving and sometimes painful expressions of personal devotion, and penetrating reflections on the ability of mortals to approach and affect the divine and cosmic realms through sacrifice and praise. This guide introduces the text to a wider audience. It provides an overview of the text, its structure, and the process of its composition and collection; treats its purpose and how this purpose is reflected in the contents and structure of the text; gives a sense of the text by quoting verses and complete hymns; situates it in the religious practices of its time; and considers its use and reception in later periods, which saw profound changes in religious practices and beliefs. It will also introduce the literary qualities of the text and the poets’ belief in the role of their poetry in making sense of, and indeed creating, cosmic order and function by pressing the boundaries of language itself.
Historical Context
Authors: Brereton Joel P. , Jamison Stephanie W.
Published: March 2020

This chapter discusses the prehistory of the Indo-Aryan peoples ancestral to those who composed the Ṛgveda. On the basis of shared linguistic and cultural evidence it defends the view that these peoples migrated into northwest South Asia, splitting off from the larger group of Indo-Iranians, a branch of Indo-European, who migrated south and east from the steppes. In particular it takes up the shared heritage of Old Indo-Aryan (Vedic) and Old Iranian (Avestan) language, literature, and religion, specifically comparing the poetry and ritual practices of the Ṛgveda with those found in Avestan, particularly the hymns, called Gāthās (songs), attributed to Zarathustra. It also examines the soma/haoma cult that dominated the ritual practice of both Vedic and Avestan elite populations.
Dating and Authorship
Authors: Brereton Joel P. , Jamison Stephanie W.
Published: March 2020

This chapter investigates the vexed problem of the dating of the Ṛgveda, which is complicated by the oral nature of the text: because it was composed within an oral tradition, which valued the use and reuse of traditional verbal formulations, it is hard to pinpoint the date when a particular poetic work was crystallized; and because it was transmitted only orally for several millennia, there are no datable manuscripts or inscriptions that can fix the earliest date of composition. The chapter also treats the question of authorship: on the basis of poem-internal evidence as well as on the later index to the Ṛgveda, we can conclude that the thousand or so hymns were composed by a large number of named individual poets, who belong to named poetic lineages or families over several generations.
Social and Political Context
Authors: Brereton Joel P. , Jamison Stephanie W.
Published: March 2020

`This chapter describes the way of life of the peoples depicted in the Ṛgveda: mobile pastoralists organized into small family-based groups, which could unite against a common enemy or for a common project, but otherwise existed in relative independence, though they all belonged, and were aware that they belonged, to the larger culturally defined group of Indo-Aryans called Ārya. There is some evidence for social stratification, which in the late R̥gveda acquires the shape of the later four-varṇa system, but there is nothing like the strict caste system of later India. The groups were led by kings (rā́jan-), but what kingship meant is hard to determine. The roles of warrior and priest are crucially important in the Ṛgvedic hymns, but it is not clear whether these were exclusive roles. Due to the nature of our evidence, it is difficult to discern much about the life of non-elite males or of women.
The Way We Are
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

If we are to make informed guesses about the future of love and sex, we need to take an unblinkered look at where we were in the past and where we are today. Maybe then our crystal ball will be less opaque. This chapter starts with the way things are today. The chapter discusses the universality of passionate love and the impact of culture on passionate love. Definitions of passionate love and companionate love, and other definitions of love are provided, along with scales measuring passionate and companionate love. The chapter also discusses cultural differences in arranged marriage and marriage for love, providing examples of each.
The Globalization of Western Love via the Internet
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

This chapter discusses the history of passionate love in the West and how it is transforming global identities, not replacing them. The Internet offers new platforms where people can experience love and relationships within local contexts. While Western romantic love is often seen as the ideal and perhaps even as a symbol of modernity itself, billions of people throughout history and across the world experience and express love in different ways. There is not yet a global village for love. Instead, there is a world filled with millions of villages. But the movement is as much toward that homogeneous global village modeled in the West as it is toward variability. Stay tuned for the outcome, as it is yet unknown.
Going, Going, Gone
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

Marriage markets have existed since ancient times. Parents in traditional cultures routinely negotiate for the best deal possible. This fact is so taken for granted that when queried about “markets,” parents attempting to arrange such pairings have trouble even understanding the question. How could it be otherwise? In the West, for much of the past two centuries, young Romeos and Juliets have insisted they will marry for love. Is it possible that we are now coming full circle? People on websites are often eminently practical, using blatant metaphors of the marketplace. Advice books talk about selling yourself and creating your brand. They advise men and women to shop around, to realize there are always trade-offs, to do a cost-benefit analysis, and not to settle for damaged goods. Or they advise that it is wise to invest in a relationship before your market value plummets, and try to position yourself to optimize your romantic options, to be aware that there are opportunity costs in committing to the wrong partner. This chapter discusses market considerations in love.
Sexual Behaviors
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

In the 21st century we find that sexual motives—beyond procreation, power, love, and pleasure—have multiplied exponentially. Couples (and others) are having sex for revenge, for exercise, to decrease the chance of or to resolve fights, for practice, for stress reduction, for hurt and for hate, as a rite of passage, to get a job, for status, for that part in the movie, to counter boredom, for money, for duty, for erotic discovery, for research, for couples therapy, and for so many more reasons. What this may add up to as we look into the future is that sexual activity will continue to be demystified. As the motives multiply, as the platforms on which sex can be activated and grow larger, for example, on the Web or on pornographic websites or with sex dolls, robots, avatars, and operating systems, both guilt and magic may find their force withering. This chapter discusses various types of contemporary sexual activity and motives and the research on both.
The Hookup Culture
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

This chapter reviews current theorizing regarding the impact of cultural, social, and gender factors on young people’s attitudes toward casual sex, one-night stands, hookups, and the like. The chapter also looks at the impact of these variables on the frequency of young people’s sexual fantasies and their desire and willingness to engage in casual sexual activity. Currently, cultural psychologists, feminists, and evolutionary psychologists are engaged in a great debate as to why men and women differ in their enthusiasm for casual sex. Is it because men are more sexual beings, or is it because women who engage in casual sex face more stigma and dangers? As the sexes become more equal in opportunities, will existing gender differences disappear?
From Monogamy to Swingers and Polyamory
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

This chapter utilizes a scientific lens to discuss contemporary literature on non-monogamous relationships, from swingers, to polyamorous couples, to open marriages, and everything in between. It also addresses the degree to which such relationships are experienced as infidelity. Analyzing current demographic trends and psychological research, the chapter discusses the impact of these nontraditional sexual partnerships on partners’ sense of jealousy, happiness, and overall relationship satisfaction. The chapter seeks to answer the question of whether are we programmed for monogamy or if it is merely a social construction.
Pornography
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

This chapter discusses how developing technology has enabled people to have increasingly realistic virtual sexual encounters and whether these technological advances are actually bringing us closer together or driving us further apart. One is left to wonder that if sexual alternatives such as sex robots and online sex become more and more accessible, many individuals may simply come to prefer this nontraditionally partnered form of sex to the old-fashioned way. The chapter explores whether or not futurists will be correct in their prediction that, by 2050, human-on-robot sex will be more common than human-on-human sex and, if so, if this is necessarily good or bad.
Sex Dolls and Robots
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

The process and experience of finding a romantic and sexual mate has been an ongoing source of confusion and frustration for many. While some individuals find it difficult to find a mate who shares their same romantic and sexual preferences, others struggle to find a mate altogether. In fact, as sexual alternatives such as sex robots and online sex become more and more accessible, many individuals may simply come to prefer this nontraditionally partnered form of sex. This preference may already be occurring—futurists predict that by 2050 human-on-robot sex will be more common than human-on-human sex. One is left to ponder, what does this mean for the future of human connection and reproduction? What kind of robot personality will be desired when anyone can have anything they want, for a price? This chapter seeks to answer these questions while demystifying the intersection between technology, sex, and the future of human partnerships.
The End of the Affair
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

Today, most people are fairly optimistic about the fate of love. They believe their current love affairs will last forever. Yet, the odds are against a youthful romance deepening into a long and satisfying marriage. This chapter discusses how long passionate love lasts and factors that can play a role in its stability. It reviews the suffering that people sometimes experience after a breakup, including both emotional and physical manifestations and health consequences. The chapter discusses gender differences in dealing with loss, and provides a scale for measuring degrees of loneliness. Some suggestions for starting over in relationships are also offered.
The Future of Love and Sex
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Purvis Jeanette
Published: March 2020

Yale historian Robin Winks once observed that writing history is “like nailing jelly to the wall.” But, he added, “someone must keep trying.” Trying to describe sweeping historical trends and then to predict future trends is even more difficult. This chapter considers futurists’ predictions as to the social, economic, and behavioral advances we might expect in the next 50 years. The predictions are divided into three categories: technological transformations, economic and practical changes, and cultural alterations in general attitudes. The future of love and sex is discussed in the context of these changes, along with trends in globalization. Since we tend to think technology may be the major driver of change in history, the chapter starts there.
Prokofiev and the Russian Tradition
Authors: Raku Marina , McAllister Rita , Cornish Gabrielle
Published: March 2020

Defining the music of Prokofiev in terms of the Russian tradition, or what “Russianism” means in relation to the composer, is complex. The young Prokofiev rebelled against his musical background; he spent nearly twenty years abroad, then returned to a changed Russia, where he was to remain something of an outsider. Yet Russia as a country and as a concept was fundamental to his creativity—both the St. Petersburg nationalism of the Kuchka and the wider Romanticism of Chaikovsky. They informed his wide palette of styles, as did the composers and writers of the Silver Age. With these and with elements of both folk song and the Russian Romance, Prokofiev had a lifelong dialogue, helping to define his unique national identity.