bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Managing Water Quality in Developing Countries
Authors: FANO ENZO , BREWSTER MARCIA , THOMPSON TERRENCE
Published: October 2009

Over the next decade the management of water quality will be one of the outstanding issues relating to the protection and conservation of the national stock of water. In the past, particularly in countries well‐endowed with water resources, this has been considered to be a relatively negligible problem. However, the rapid growth of population in major urban centres, industrialization and the heavy dependence on chemical products in the agricultural sector are leading to a serious deterioration of water quality.

This paper reviews the nature of the pollution issue, the institutional requirements to deal with the problem in an effective and comprehensive manner and the near‐term actions which governments should take to protect their existing water resources.
Is the Intensity of Copper Use Still Declining in the USA?
Authors: HUTCHISON ROGER S. , TILTON JOHN E.
Published: October 2009

This article examines several deficiencies in the standard procedure for calculating the intensity of metal use. It then investigates the possibility that the long‐term decline in the intensity of copper use in the USA, which has persisted for more than four decades, has in recent years come to an end, even though the standard measures of intensity of use indicate a continuation of the downward trend, albeit at a slower rate. If true, the implications are significant for the copper industry worldwide, because the USA is the largest national market for copper. In addition, consumption trends in many other countries in some respects follow those in the USA. The results do provide some support for the hypothesis that intensity of copper use in the USA is no longer falling. They also indicate that the standard procedure significantly underestimates USA copper consumption and in turn intensity of use.
China's Minerals Future: 1985–2005
Authors: JOHNSON CHARLES J. , CLARK ALLEN L.
Published: October 2009

China has embarked on major economic and social changes to revitalize the Chinese economy, increase labor productivity, and improve the material standard of living of the Chinese people. This paper assumes that China will achieve its goal of a per capita income of US$800 in 2000, open‐door policies will be maintained, and nonfuel mineral commodity consumption will increase as GDP per capita increases. Projections are made of production, trade and consumption of 14 nonfuel minerals for the period 1985–2005. China is projected to increase its net imports to these 14 minerals from about US$5000 million in 1985 to about US$12000 million in constant dollars in 2005. China's investment climate will become more favorable for those multinational companies that bring with them clear comparative advantages in minerals exploration, mining and processing technologies and marketing, and are prepared to develop in‐depth Chinese expertise.
The Worldwide Availability of Fluorspar
Authors: KILGORE C. C. , PELHAM L.
Published: October 2009

This paper reviews a recent assessment of fluorspar reserves and resources for 13 market economy countries and the People's Republic of China, and how they relate to the overall availability of fluorspar on the world market. Current world production, consumption and world trade issues are discussed.

Nearly 5 million tonnes of fluorspar were produced in 1985, and approximately 60% of that enters the world export market. In recent years world trade has started to shift away from the acid, metallurgical and ceramic grades of fluorspar, as ore‐producing countries look towards higher‐value downstream products.

Total potentially recoverable fluorspar from 52 major producing mines and deposits is estimated at nearly 95 million tonnes (as of January 1985). The Republic of South Africa accounts for 31% of the reserves, with Mexico and the People's Republic of China each contributing 18%.

The average total cost and availability of fluorspar is evaluated. Approximately 75% of acid‐grade fluorspar evaluated is potentially available at or below a 1985 constant‐dollar cost of US$110 tonne−1. Nearly 94% of metallurgical grades are potentially available at costs of US$75 tonne−1 and below, and virtually all of the ceramic grades could be produced at costs below the 1985 reported market price of US$103 tonne−1.
Electric Utility Planning in Developing Countries: A Review of Issues and Analytical Methods
Authors: MEIER P. , CHATTERJEE R.
Published: October 2009

Electric utilities in many developing countries are faced with a panoply of major problems. Often operating at low reliability, in severe financial difficulty due to inadequate tariffs, and under pressure to expand the network to rural areas at the same time that they are under pressure to reduce capital outlays because of demands to reduce public‐sector spending and concerns over the ability to service foreign debt. Traditional approaches to electric utility planning have become inadequate in this new financial climate. In this paper we explore the institutional, economic, manpower and financial dimensions of the present crisis, and examine their implications for national governments, donor agencies and international financial institutions. We emphasize the need for a more balanced approach to planning models, for improved procedures to deal with uncertainties and for a more imaginative approach to non‐traditional solutions.
Trials and Tribulations of Third World Petroleum Development: Lessons and Advice for Prospective Producers
Authors: BROADMAN HARRY G. , WILSON ERNEST J.
Published: October 2009

This paper presents a variety of lessons for governments of developing countries about how to begin to operate as new oil producers in the world petroleum market. Lessons, drawn from the recent experiences of currently producing LDCs, are identified for each stage of the industry from exploration and development through procurement and supply to refining and marketing.
Ten Years After Mar del Plata
Authors: BREWSTER MARCIA , SOLANES MIGUEL
Published: October 2009

This paper describes the main conclusions of the Interregional Symposium on Improved Efficiency in Water Resources Management: Follow‐up to Mar del Plata, which was held in New York in January 1987. The group of 70 water specialists came up with suggestions for governments and international organizations to speed up water resources development in the coming decade. Major issues covered were efficiency in the management of financial resources; human resources; technology; water quality; and natural hazards, consisting of floods and droughts.
Copper Overcapacity and the Adjustment Process
Authors: MIKESELL RAYMOND F.
Published: October 2009

This article analyses overcapacity in the world copper industry during the 1980s and reviews projections of mine capacity to 1990 and 1996 by the research staffs of the World Bank, the International Wrought Copper Council, and the Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries. The process of restoring demand‐supply balance in the copper industry is analysed under alternative assumptions for rates of growth in world consumption and certain conclusions are reached on the implications for copper prices during the 1990s.
Rare‐Earth Oxide Availability in Market Economy Countries
Authors: ANSTETT T. F. , HEDRICK J. B. , JACKSON W. D.
Published: October 2009

This paper presents a review by the Bureau of Mines on the 1985 status of the rare earths industry in the Market Economy Countries (MEC). Demonstrated resources for the 38 evaluated MEC properties are estimated at 3.3 million metric tons of recoverable rare‐earth oxides. About 75% of the total is contained in producing properties, and 21% are contained in undeveloped properties; the remaining 4% are contained in past producers. Total MEC production in 1985 was estimated at 30 500 mt. Assuming demand does not increase sharply, producing properties can continue to meet overall rare earths demand through at least the end of this century.
Problems and Prospects of Meeting the Basic Energy Needs of Rural Communities in Developing Countries Through the Utilization of Wind and Solar Energy Systems
Authors: WYATT ALAN S.
Published: October 2009

The problems and prospects of solar and wind energy technologies for rural energy supply in developing countries are examined, followed by an overview of key attributes of these technologies. The application of wind and solar systems for cooking, water pumping, drying, water heating, and electric power supply are reviewed. Two detailed case studies are given, the first discussing the potential of solar and wind systems for rural water pumping in Morocco, and the second, examining the “wind farms” producing electric power in California and the potential for their use in developing countries.
Comparison of Cost Structures at Selected US and Colombian Coal Mines*
Authors: YANCIK JOSEPH J. , FRASER SAM J.
Published: October 2009

This paper summarizes a study designed to measure the differences in production costs at certain US and Colombian coal mines and to identify those factors, including mine health, safety and environmental requirements, which account for the difference. Meaningful cost‐structure comparisons required that mines with similar geology, techniques and sizes be evaluated in each country. Standard engineering estimating techniques were used to develop costs at three roughly matched pairs of mines, one from each country. Tax and labour cost differences were found to be more important factors than regulatory differences in the cost advantage of the Colombian mines in each set.
Non‐metallic Minerals and the Developing Countries: Patterns, Constraints, Initiatives
Authors: NÖTSTALLER RICHARD
Published: October 2009

This paper reviews the role of non‐metallic minerals in the economy and examines the relationship between demand patterns and the process of industrialization. As developing countries industrialize, large volumes of construction minerals (sand, gravel, crushed stone, etc.) will be required while with most other industrial minerals increasing quantities will be consumed only in the more advanced stages of economic development. In many developing countries the assurance of an adequate supply of these minerals from indigenous resources will necessitate initiatives aimed at removing constraints and barriers to mining sector development.
Impact of Technological Concepts on the Economics of Deep‐Sea Petroleum Development
Authors: CHAMPLON D. , GADON J.‐L.
Published: October 2009

This paper presents the results of a study and general thinking devoted to the development of deepwater offshore hydrocarbon potential and evaluates the technical, economic and financial constraints related to such projects. To work out development prospects in these areas requires an examination of the different technological solutions put forward and their impact on the economic aspects of these projects. The study concludes that technologies already exist which make it economically feasible to develop deepwater offshore petroleum deposits if the price of petroleum is about US$20 barrel−1.
Evolution and Reform: The Art of Transition in Energy Pricing Policy
Authors: KRAPELS EDWARD N.
Published: October 2009

This paper presents an analysis of potential methods of reform of petroleum pricing policies in developing countries. It takes as given the highly political nature of petroleum pricing in selected developing countries (including Brazil. Ecuador, Argentina, the Sudan and Republic of Korea), and identifies several models for reform.
Encouraging Natural Gas Exploration in Developing Countries
Authors: GREENWALD GERALD B.
Published: October 2009

Significant distinctions that exist between crude oil and natural gas compel that separate terms for gas be included in petroleum agreements. Fiscal terms, production shares and cost recovery are, like oil, important economic considerations in gas agreements. However, unlike oil agreements, other economic terms will also need to receive attention because gas agreements need to give explicit recognition to the process for commercializing the gas discovery.
Structural Change in the Metals Industry: A Quantitative Assessment
Authors: SOLADAY JOHN
Published: October 2009

This study examines the major changes that have occurred in the metals industry over the past 35 years. A quantitative assessment of the impact of these changes on consumption and production is provided. The study finds that the slowing down in industrial activity in the metals‐using sector, which began in the early 1970s, is the major factor behind the weak growth in metals consumption. The structural changes which have affected demand are minor in comparison. On the supply side, the dominant factor behind relatively high production is the overhang of mine capacity that had been built in aicipation of much higher metals consumption. Again, the structural factors are relatively unimportant.
The Export Potential of Colombian Coal
Authors: MEJIA OSCAR
Published: October 2009

Colombian coal‐exporting capacity is examined in terms of the country's advantageous location with regard to potential markets, coal reserves and development plans. By the year 2000 Colombia could have the capacity to export 40 million tonnes of coal per annum.
Natural zeolites
Authors: Parham Walter
Published: October 2009

Zeolites, a suite of porous, fine‐grained minerals commonly found in certain near‐surface, sedimentary rocks, have special physical and chemical properties that could make them valuable to farmers in developing countries. Zeolites have been used to improve soil fertility; develop slow‐release fertilizers; improve animal waste disposal; and improve animal health. To date most research on zeolite deposits and their various applications has been undertaken by the industrialized nations. Some zeolite deposits, however, also exist in developing countries and the likelihood of the existence of additional deposits in those countries is high. However, thorough assessment of the mineralogy, geology, and various agricultural uses is still needed. Strengthening developing countries' geological surveys in non‐metallic mineral exploration and assessment will improve the likelihood that the use of zeolites will reach their full potential in developing country agriculture.
Developing river and lake basins for sustained economic growth and social progress
Authors: Le Marquand David
Published: October 2009

It is evident that river basin development in Africa can do much to provide environmental stability to wildly erratic hydrologic and climatic cycles, to produce more food and to contribute to economic growth. The experience to date of river basin development in Africa has not proven as positive as in many developing countries. There are too many examples of ill‐conceived and ill‐suited schemes that contribute to further environmental degradation, social dislocation and hardship, and weaken already stressed national economies. The experience in Africa suggests that the real challenge for Africans to achieve environmentally self‐sustaining water resources development lies in establishing the appropriate social and environmental context for physical development to take place. Attention needs to focus on regional development, multi‐objective planning, community participation, environmental resiliency, the institutional arrangements for regional development, and the political and economic conditions within the basin states.
The African experience with river basin development
Authors: Scudder Thayer
Published: October 2009

The aim of this paper is, first, to examine the record to date for river basin development in tropical Africa; and second, to examine in more detail the role and performance of institutions in this record of African river basin development. The experience of institutions with river basin development are assessed against outcomes ‐ namely, the extent to which the resources of Africa's river basins have actually been developed in recent years and the role that institutions have played in that development.
Copper smelting and refining
Authors: Cook Michael A.L.
Published: October 2009

Detailed research by the Commodities Research Unit (CRU) reveals a wide variation in direct operating costs at copper smelters and refineries. The cost curve for smelters is almost a straight line, indicating that so far there has been no levelling of costs as there has been in the mining industry. Operating costs at smelters using reverberatory furnaces are well below costs at plants using modern technology, but this apparent paradox is shown to be a reflection of location. CRU argues that costs are an important determinant of smelter/refinery competitiveness, but that other factors such as location and tariffs are also significant. Operating margins world‐wide show enormous variations, but companies' increasing interest in their processing operations, coupled with changes in tariffs, are predicted to lead to a much more competitive market.
World phosphate supply
Authors: Fantel R. J. , Hurdelbrink R. J. , Shields D. J.
Published: October 2009

The Bureau of Mines investigated the resources, costs, capacities, market relationships, and short‐ and long‐run supply of phosphate rock and phosphoric acid. The 206 mines and deposits evaluated in 30 market economy countries (MECs) contain an estimated 35.1 billion tonnes of recoverable phosphate rock (demonstrated resource level). US resources are sufficient to satisfy both the domestic market and an export market for phosphate products well beyond 2000. Resource depletion at current producers, however, means new property development (with higher costs) will be required if US production levels are to be maintained. Existing worldwide capacity can satisfy expected demand through the early 1990s. Expansion at existing mines or low demand growth could mean no new property development is required before the late 1990s. Worldwide, almost $8 billion could be required for the development of new phosphate rock properties between now and 2000, given 3% annual growth in demand. Though profit may not be the principal motivation for development of government‐owned operations, most properties that could develop in the 1990s would require price increases of 20–50% to break even. To earn a 15% rate of return on investment, prices must rise to nearly double the $23–271 tonne US price level of 1988. Current US phosphate rock and phosphoric acid producers appear to be competitive (on a variable cost basis) with many other suppliers in major markets. New US properties will have higher variable costs than current producers; however, they are competitive with most projected new foreign development. The US phosphoric acid industry will most likely face increased competition as more of the foreign phosphate rock producers develop the capacity to process rock into phosphoric acid and other fertilizer products.
African river basin development
Authors: Perritt Richard
Published: October 2009

The international conference on The African Experience with River Basin Development challenged participants to pursue a critical discussion of the record to date on approaches to river basin development and to propose appropriate strategies for the future. During the conference, special focus was given to the institutional requirements for planning, implementing and evaluating those strategies which benefit large numbers of people through increased production, enterprise development and employment generations in an environmentally sound fashion. It was noted that serious negative environmental and socio‐economic effects have followed in the wake of African dam construction and the creation of large man‐made lakes. The conference produced a short‐list of general priorities for improving river basin development in Africa.
The multidonor approach in large river and lake basin development in Africa
Authors: Berthelot Roger
Published: October 2009

From the outset of its efforts to promote the socio‐economic development of river and lake basins in developing countries, UNDP took the position that in most cases the river basin was the appropriate geographical entity for development. However, the amount of technical Assistance required to evaluate the potentialities of a large river or lake basin is beyond the capabilities of any single donor of assistance. Similarly, the capital investment required to implement a basin development programme, ranging from US $ several hundred million to possibly US $ several thousand million, is usually beyond the capabilities of any single financial institution. On the basis of the experience gained in the development of the Mekong River and the Senegal River, UNDP advocates concerted and coordinated cooperation among donors interested in different aspects of one given large river or lake basin development, for which it coined the phrase ‘multidonor approach’.
Energy transition in South and South‐East Asia
Authors: Cavard Denise
Published: October 2009

Energy transition is the process whereby the volume and proportion of commercial energy increases so as to replace traditional fuels as the main energy source. In South and South‐East Asia the extent to which this transition has taken place varies within and between countries. In general, in the urban areas, the process is more advanced than in rural areas. It is also more advanced in the larger towns than the smaller ones and more advanced within higher income groups. In rural areas industry is a large consumer of traditional energy and many rural peoples earn their livelihoods as suppliers of traditional energy to industry. For both economic and social reasons the transition process has been slower in rural households than in urban households. This must change as for much of the rural areas of South and South‐East Asia, increasing population and increasing energy demand are creating pressures on the biomass which cannot be sustained.
Economic development and environmental protection
Authors: Warford Jeremy J.
Published: October 2009

Experience over recent years indicates that environmental problems are increasingly threatening sustained economic growth in developing countries. They are also caused by pervasive activities, and not solely due to individual, identifiable, large‐scale development projects. Although concern with individual projects remains critically important, it is therefore necessary to complement this concern with the integration of environmental management into economic planning at all levels.
Macro‐scale water scarcity requires micro‐scale approaches
Authors: Falkenmark Malin , Lundqvist Jan , Widstrand Carl
Published: October 2009

This paper shows that water scarcity is a complex problem when it affects countries with a semi‐arid climate, ie countries for which there are fluctuations between a dry season and a season when rain occurs. The paper discusses the general vulnerability of the semi‐arid zone in terms of four different types of water scarcity, the effects of which are being superimposed on each other: two are natural (type A, arid climate, type B, intermittent drought years) and two are man‐induced (type C, desiccation of the landscape driven by land degradation, and type D, population‐driven water stress). When fuelled by a rapid population increase, a risk spiral develops, manifesting itself in social and economic collapse during intermittent drought years. The paper concludes that many countries in Africa are heading for severe water scarcity ‐in fact two‐thirds of the African population will live in severely water‐stressed countries within a few decades. This severe water stress will largely be the result of unfettered population growth.
Competitiveness and prospects for the African mining industry
Authors: Bomsel Oliver
Published: October 2009

Since the 1960s the Kédia mines have been the main source of iron ore for Mauritania. In the 1970s SN1M, the Mauritanian state enterprise responsible for the mining of the country's iron ore, concerned about the eventual depletion of its reserves at Kédia, and at the urging of its European customers, undertook to develop new iron‐ore deposits at the Guelbs. The deposits at the Guelbs, however, were low‐grade magnetite ore as opposed to the high‐grade hematite ore at Kedia, and were much more costly to mine and process. The cost of the Guelbs project and its failure to meet production targets have strained the resources of SNIM to a financial and technical breaking point. The paper suggests that one solution to SNIM's difficulty may be to mothball the Guelbs project and to develop instead other deposits in the vicinity of the Guelbs.
Strategies for meeting Tanzania's future cement needs
Authors: Stewart D. F. , Muhegi B.
Published: October 2009

This paper discusses the options for the development of Tanzania's cement industry to meet the country's growing cement needs. It evaluates possible options and supports the use of dispersed small‐scale vertical kiln plants to increase the capacity for Portland cement production. It also encourages the use of alternative cementitious materials in the many applications where this is possible.
International coal prices
Authors: Giraud Pierre‐Noel
Published: October 2009

The place coal will occupy among the world's energy supplies depends on many factors, including its price trends. This paper reviews recent price trends and supports the thesis that future coal prices are independent of oil prices, and that they will fluctuate between two limits which are based on production and transport costs in the USA and Australia.
A technical and investment analysis of intermediate‐scale rice residue conversion systems
Authors: Waddle Daniel B. , Gowen Marcia M.
Published: October 2009

This paper describes the technical and economic factors affecting rice husk residue conversion to energy. A summary of the physical and chemical characteristics is provided, with an overview of the commercially available conversion systems. An analysis of two intermediate rice residue conversion systems is included to determine the most probable fuel requirements and financial/economic costs and benefits of both systems. Recommendations are presented regarding the conditions that must be present to ensure financial viability of these systems.
Moving the tin mountain
Authors: Kettle Peter G.
Published: October 2009

The recent history of the tin market has been characterized by competition between newly mined production and old surplus stocks against a background of declining demand. Because the control of surplus stocks has been unpredictable, prices have been volatile. Following the failure of the International Tin Council in 1985, mine production has fallen and demand has increased. Because mine production is quite price inelastic, continued growth in consumption may in due course result in a substantial rise in prices. Development and promotional work by tin producers could therefore bring them substantial benefits.
Water quality management for sustainable agricultural development
Authors: Kandiah A.
Published: October 2009

This paper presents an analysis of water quality management in the context of increased and sustainable agricultural production through irrigation. Irrigation practices for optimum yield and sustainability are examined as are the environmental and health aspects of irrigation farming.
The CUSO‐Togo village water supply project and lucrative micro‐projects (LMPs)
Authors: Ikpindi Zoumaro
Published: October 2009

When the Togo village water project was first conceived, it was intended to provide potable water and improve the health and sanitation practices at village level. However, a subsequent socio‐economic survey found that the village often lacked the financial resources needed to maintain and repair the water works which were to be installed. It was decided therefore to expand the programme to include assistance to the village for the establishment of community development enterprises, the profit of which would provide the funds needed to maintain the village water works. On the implementation of this programme, women became the major participants in the community development enterprises. This paper discusses the institutional structure of those community development enterprises (called ‘Lucrative Micro‐Projects’) and the role that women have played in them. The ‘Lucrative Micro‐Projects’ have been so successful that they have become a means of furthering social and economic development at the village level.
Coal and peat in the sub‐Saharan region of Africa
Authors: Weaver J. N. , Landis E. R.
Published: October 2009

Increased energy demand as a result of growth in population, trends to sedentation and urbanization, and the desire for improvement in living standards, coupled with apparent climatic changes, are reducing fuelwood availability and contributing to deforestation and desertification in the sub‐Saharan countries. In 14 of those countries, the transport, industrial, and electric power generation sectors are all dependent on imported petroleum products for their energy needs with resultant balance of trade and debt‐servicing problems. Coal and peat are essentially unused and in some cases unknown in sub‐Saharan Africa. However, they might comprise valuable alternative energy sources in some or all of the developing nations of the region. The eleven countries considered in this appraisal reportedly contain coal and peat. On the basis of regional geology, another five countries might also contain coal‐bearing rocks. If the resource potential is adequate, coal and peat might be utilized in a variety of ways including substituting for fuelwood, generating electricity, supplying process heat for local industry and increasing agricultural productivity.
Comparison of the cost effectiveness of industrial energy conservation
Authors: Jasiewicz Jan
Published: October 2009

Energy cost for industry depends largely on the kind of energy used (or energy mix) and the in‐country price of individual energy sources. The benefits of energy conservation measures may therefore not be uniform across industries and countries. A method is presented to evaluate the economics of energy conservation measures by industry. Thailand is used to illustrate how the method is applied.
Restructuring of the aluminium industry
Authors: Adams Robin G.
Published: October 2009

In the 1980s, the basic strategies of the major integrated aluminium companies have been to emphasize added investment in downstream activities at the expense of investment in smelting and raw material supply. The paper examines the rationale for such investment strategies, explores the advantages and disadvantages of downstream investment and presents projections of future demand and capacity in the industry. Overall, the industry appears to be in good shape until the mid‐1990s when demand is likely to exceed currently projected capacity.
Irrigation activities and institutions in Kenya's Lake Victoria Basin
Authors: Okidi C. O.
Published: October 2009

Irrigation activities in Kenya range from large‐scale government‐owned schemes involving thousands of acres on which farmers work for wages to small individually owned and irrigated plots of three or four acres. This paper examines the institutions and operational workings of the government schemes as well as the privately owned plots. In general the most successful irrigation schemes are those which are organized and run by individuals or by private groups with government agencies and NGOs providing technical support.
Water resources management in small island countries Cost recovery and demand management
Authors: Brewster Marcia
Published: October 2009

The concepts of cost recovery and demand management in the context of water resources for small island countries are introduced. Water pricing mechanisms which could be used to achieve the goal of cost recovery are discussed. Regulatory and economic measures, and pricing policies for limiting increases in demand (‘demand management’) are also presented. Examples from island countries are used to illustrate the policies discussed.
Refinery deregulation in developing countries
Authors: Meier Peter
Published: October 2009

For much of the 1980s refining has been unprofitable. The continued operation of small refineries in oil‐importing developing countries has therefore come under intense scrutiny, especially by the international financial institutions concerned with high levels of external debt. This paper examines the specific case of Morocco. Even though refining may be unprofitable at the world's export refineries, refining may still be part of the least‐cost solution to meeting developing country petroleum demands as a result of transport differentials. Unlike some other refineries in Africa, those of Morocco are well run, and closure is unwarranted. Rather the need is for regulatory and pricing reform, such that refiners can respond more flexibly to changes in world markets.
Energy planning and wood balances
Authors: Hosier Richard H. , Boberg Jill , Luhanga Matthew , Mwandosya Mark
Published: October 2009

Woodfuel balances are commonly used by energy planners in developing countries to determine the adequacy of woodfuel resources. Recently, critics have argued that wood balances are misleading in their simplicity, exaggerating both the severity of the woodfuel shortage and the need for planned interventions to solve that problem. This paper examines four different wood balances developed for Tanzania. While the four studies all indicate that areas with miombo woodlands are in the greatest wood surplus, the specific estimates for any given region may differ widely. Despite their shortcomings, energy planners need woodfuel balances to give an impression of the adequacy of woodfuel resources. However, if energy planning is to have any effect, these balances must represent the beginning, and not the end result, of the planning process. Planners must follow the wood‐energy balance analysis with work utilizing local people to solve local problems.
Bauxite and alumina ‐ Jamaica's reach for the future
Authors: Small The Hon Hugh
Published: October 2009

Jamaica has developed a new strategy designed to allow it to expand its bauxite and alumina production, to diversify both its markets and its sources of investment and, to move downstream into the production of aluminium and semi‐finished products. Some benefits of this new strategy are already evident, several bauxite mines are being expanded, alumina plants are being re‐opened while others are adding additional capacity, and the countries of Europe, Asia and North America are showing renewed interest in investing in Jamaica. With its new strategy, Jamaica intends to participate more fully in the world economy.
Ranking countries for minerals exploration
Authors: Johnson Charles J.
Published: October 2009

This paper presents the results of a survey of multinational mining companies pertaining to the ranking of countries for non‐fuel minerals exploration in the early 1990s. It ranks countries in order of greatest exploration interest in the early 1990s, as well as countries that have geologic potential but unacceptable investment climates. It provides a list of priority commodities for exploration, the criteria for exploration levels, critical and negotiable factors in selecting countries for exploration, and the investment climate ratings of countries where exploration is probable in the early 1990s. The results of the survey indicate that major minerals exploration activities are concentrated in a small number of countries. Political and economic reforms around the world should increase the number of countries receiving active private sector minerals exploration in the 1990s.
Institutional arrangements for managing water conflicts in lake basins
Authors: Nickum James E. , Easter K. William
Published: October 2009

Water conflicts may arise from market failures caused by (i) poor specification or transferability of water rights; (ii) incentive problems such as rent seeking, open access or free riding; or (iii) transactions costs. They may also occur because of failures in non‐market alternatives such as government management. Recent recognition of non‐market failures has led to greater consideration of market‐based approaches to conflict resolution such as tradeable permits or bargaining. It has also enriched our understanding of government‐based approaches. All approaches would appear to benefit from greater attention to promoting collective action by the users of water. For illustration we refer to the problems of lake basins, using several specific examples from Asia.
The use of economic measures for water management in France
Authors: Kaczmarek Bernard
Published: October 2009

The aim of this paper is to show some aspects of the practical use of economic measures in the fight against water pollution in France. Twenty years ago, these economic measures were first implemented, and it may be interesting to draw some lessons from the experience. First, the paper presents the principles of water quality management in France established by the Law on Water of 16 December 1964. Second, some examples of factories and local communities facing the problem of fighting water pollution are discussed. Finally, general results and some reflections conclude the paper.
United Nations mineral exploration activities in developing countries
Authors: Labonne Beatrice
Published: October 2009

The purpose of the United Nations' mineral exploration activities is to assist the developing countries in identifying, evaluating and developing their mineral resources as a means of stimulating their economic development. Since 1978, these programmes have been executed by the Natural Resources and Energy Division of the Department of Technical Co‐operation for Development (DTCD) with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) providing the bulk of the financing. In the past 30 years, more than 450 projects in some 100 developing countries have been executed at a cost estimated at US$600 million. This input has contributed to the discovery of deposits valued at billions of dollars, many of which are now being mined.
The International Lead and Zinc Study Group and the metals market
Authors: Boehnke Rolf W.
Published: October 2009

The International Lead and Zinc Study Group was founded by the United Nations in 1959. There are 32 member countries which together cover over 90% of world production and consumption of total lead and zinc. The Study Group, inter alia provides opportunities for consultation on lead and zinc, provides information regarding supply and demand, collects and disseminates statistics, studies different aspects of the world situation in lead and zinc and considers possible solutions to any special problems. This paper presents excerpts of the activities of the International Lead and Zinc Study Group in each of the above areas.
On the process of negotiating a joint venture
Authors: Fortin Paul
Published: October 2009

Using a joint venture negotiation as an example, the negotiation process is examined from a very practical point of view. The background, the objectives and the planning and strategy for a negotiation are examined and suggestions are offered on the ‘dos and don'ts’ to follow during the negotiation process.
SOJUZKARTA offers geodesy and cartography services
Authors: Piskulin V. A.
Published: October 2009

SOJUZKARTA is the official Soviet foreign trade association that sells geodesy and cartography services to international markets. The organization inter alia provides remote sensing photographs, undertakes natural resource cadastresurveys, provides remote sensing for the exploration for oil, gas, ore and other natural deposits, provides consultancy and training services and prepares topographic maps. Many of these services are provided to developing countries and this paper gives several examples of the use of its services by such countries.
Petroleum taxation in West Africa
Authors: Padilla Victor Rodriguez
Published: October 2009

The petroleum tax systems of nine West African countries are compared and analysed for their effectiveness in capturing the maximum amount of oil revenues. As a general rule, those countries which are major oil‐exporting countries have the highest tax rates whereas those which are oil‐importing countries have the lowest. The tax systems have changed over time, reflecting inter alia, changing national attitudes towards foreign investment, the price of oil and domestic needs. One conclusion reached is that many of the tax systems in place today are regressive in that the tax rates are fixed and are not adjusted to the profitability or non‐profitability of the oil field.
Mineral development prospects of the Indochina area
Authors: Clark Allen L. , Dorian James P. , Hudders Wayne A.
Published: October 2009

Reform is under way in several nations within the Indochina area to stimulate economic growth and foreign investment. Though once forbidden, participation by foreign companies in mining exploration and development activities in Myanmar, Kampuchea, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam is now being solicited by the respective governments. This paper presents a preliminary evaluation of mineral and energy resources in the region and outlines possible development scenarios based on economic policies, financial and infrastructural constraints and industry interest. The investment climates for resource‐related projects are assessed qualitatively by country. Clearly, the long‐term development potential of mineral and energy resources in the Indochina area is large, and the potential gains outweigh any of today's problems.
Investment policies in the base metal mining industries and their impact on price cycles
Authors: Stobart Christopher
Published: October 2009

Investment in increased capacity of the major metal producers is examined in the light of changing metal prices and the business cycle. Historically, as metal prices rise, the producers have invested in new mine capacity. This process results in increased production which often comes on stream just as the business cycle is beginning to wane. During the present business cycle the investment pattern of the major mining companies appears to have broken with this historical pattern in that investment strategies are less directed toward increasing capacity.
Mining investment promotion
Authors: Andrews Craig B.
Published: October 2009

Attitudes in developing countries with respect to private investment in natural resources have changed substantially in recent years. Countries must now compete for such investment by ensuring that policies pertaining to state participation, financing, marketing and taxation of mining ventures provide the investor with returns that are commensurate with the risks taken. Governments must also be prepared to help the investor compete on world markets through lower capital and operating costs. This entails granting exemptions of customs, excise and value added taxes as well as providing for policies on taxation, government participation, industrial relations, safety and environment, and procurement and personnel that are in line with international mining industry standards. Efforts to promote mining sector investment through the strengthening of technical ministries, preparation of basic geological and project information, investment symposia and an international mining council can be helpful in bringing opportunities to the attention of the investment community. But, these efforts can only succeed if the policy changes now being put into place continue to evolve and contribute to an atmosphere in which entrepreneurship and private investment can flourish.
Aquacultural development in tropical Asia
Authors: Bailey Conner , Skladany Mike
Published: October 2009

Differences between inland and coastal aquacultural production systems in Asia are discussed in terms of market orientation, resource allocation and property rights, and scale of operations. The production of shrimp grown in coastal brackish water ponds has featured prominently in aquacultural development programmes in Asia. Emphasis placed on capital‐intensive shrimp production for export, however, has distracted attention from the potential of inland freshwater aquaculture to generate employment opportunities for rural people and food production for domestic consumers. The paper concludes with a discussion of an alternative policy direction for promoting aquacultural development on a socially sound basis, recognizing the need to balance equity and human nutrition with profitability and foreign exchange earnings.
The worldwide availability of cobalt
Authors: Willard D. G. , Bleiwas D. I.
Published: October 2009

The US Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines has evaluated the potential resource and annual availability of cobalt from 27 deposits or districts in 11 market economy countries. More than 90% of primary cobalt production from market economy countries, mainly by‐product output from copper and nickel operations, was analysed. The producing operations evaluated in this study were expected to produce about 19 000 t of cobalt in 1989, significantly less than the available capacity of 31 000 t. Approximately 1200 000 t of cobalt is potentially recoverable at the demonstrated resource level. Very large additional resources exist, especially in laterite deposits, but are at the inferred level.
The Global Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for the 1990s
Authors: Beyer Martin G.
Published: October 2009

The Global Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for the 1990s was an outstanding opportunity for participants from 102 developing countries along with over 60 External Support Agencies (ESA) to assess the experiences of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade 1981–1990 (IDWSSD) and to reach a consensus on strategies and approaches for complete and effective coverage of water supply and sanitation. The resulting New Delhi Statement summarizing the conclusions and recommendations of the Global Consultation was presented to the General Assembly in autumn 1990. As one of the positive results, the New Delhi Consultation agreed that the UN Agencies and other bodies should continue the coordination work of the Steering Committee for Water Supply and Sanitation. It also provided a basis for the restructuring and consolidation of the new Collaborative Council for Water Supply and Sanitation, which will form a continuous consultative body for all UN agencies, NGOs, other external support agencies and developing countries concerned with the water sector.
Electric load management in developing countries
Authors: Sabadell Alberto J. , Streicher Alain
Published: October 2009

Energy planners in developing countries have traditionally sought to meet their nations' growing electricity demands by adding more generation and transmission capacity. But as the foreign investment situation became critical in the 1980s, private investment and system efficiency improvement programmes began to garner interest. One of the most promising system efficiency improvement options is load management, which uses a variety of techniques to utilize the electricity system's existing capacity more efficiently. However, to date, only three countries have seriously considered implementing large load management programmes: Pakistan, Peru and Costa Rica. This paper describes a 1987‐89 load control demonstration programme in Costa Rica, sponsored by the US Agency for International Development (AID), in which participating industries were able to reduce their peak demand by 14%.