bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Persuasion About/Without International LawThe Case of Cybersecurity Norms
Authors: Ratner Steven
Published: January 2022

International law on cybersecurity is characterized by at best a thin consensus on the existence of rules, their meaning, and the desirability and content of new rules. This legal landscape results in a unique pattern of argumentation and persuasion by states and non-state actors both in advocating for a regulatory scheme for cyber activity and in reacting to malicious cyber acts. By examining argumentation in the absence of a generally agreed legal framework, this chapter seeks to provide new insights into the motivations for and effects of international legal argumentation in shaping debates and behavior. After describing the legal landscape on cybersecurity, it analyzes the process of persuasion used by states in proposing legal rules and responding to cyberattacks. It endorses a multilevel framework that addresses states’ choices to invoke law, how they do so, and the results in the normative universe of cybersecurity. This framework is then applied to key non-state actors arguing about current or future international law. It concludes by drawing out the larger implications of the cybersecurity example for understanding the role of legal rules in international discourse.
Mass Atrocity Crimes and Human Rights Discourse at the UN Security Council
Authors: Stagno-Ugarte Bruno
Published: January 2022

This chapter analyzes the use, abuse, or nonuse of legal discourse by key actors within the UN Security Council. Focusing on the crimes enshrined in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the chapter looks at how legal discourse is used within the Council to argue whether such crimes are happening, whether such discourse successfully advances—or not—specific action by the Council to address these crimes, and how political considerations can generate the uneven invocation and application of legal terms and norms. Its three country-specific case studies (Myanmar, Syria, Yemen) point to self-serving double standards that, in addition to weakening overall coherence and adherence to international norms, are self-defeating for the Council in raising questions about its impartiality, accuracy, and efficacy in addressing atrocity crimes.
The Sanctions Regime of the African Union in Response to Unconstitutional Changes of Government
Authors: Negm Namira
Published: January 2022

The African Union (AU) has established a unique sanctions regime to be utilized in cases of unconstitutional changes of government (UCGs) in an effort to give effect to the rule of law and enforce it without resorting to the courtroom. The AU and its predecessor, the Organization of African Unity (OAU), adopted a set of legal instruments to deal with a UCG. The first instrument was the Lomé Declaration, which provides for a number of sanctions to be imposed by the OAU on the unlawful government. Further consolidating this position, the AU, through the Constitutive Act and the Protocol establishing the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, laid out stages of sanctions to be imposed on the state in which the UCG occurred. These stages, although often the subject of legal argumentation, still leave room for political considerations. This chapter will discuss the legal basis and the different stages of the AU sanctions that can be imposed in incidents of UCGs and examine some cases where states faced sanctions and had to take steps for them to be lifted.
Law and Science in Environmental Governance
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth
Published: January 2022

The source of authority and the precise working of international law are highly contested among scholars of international law and international relations. Many agree, however, that legal argumentation takes a distinct form: signaling authority in global politics and leading to a less open display of power. Yet legal argumentation might not be so unique. In the field of environmental governance and environmental law, a similar debate exists about the quality and effects of scientific argumentation. Moreover, the logics of legal and scientific argumentation are oftentimes intertwined in the institutional structure of environmental regimes. This chapter analyzes the dispute around a moratorium on commercial whaling in the context of the International Whaling Commission. Which type of argumentation did states prefer in this multilateral context to contest the moratorium, and with what kind of effects? The chapter shows that in this highly politicized context, legal and scientific argumentation dominates but normative argumentation is surprisingly widespread. Moreover, different types of arguments are used by challengers for different ends and the institutional settings influence how these arguments can be dealt with.
The Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations
Authors: Mathias Stephen , Perez Nicolas
Published: January 2022

The legal argumentation developed by the United Nations in relation to its privileges and immunities is almost exclusively developed outside the courtroom. Drawing examples in relation to the privileges and immunities applicable to the Organization itself, as well as to its officials, personnel, and contractors, this chapter distinguishes between the legal arguments developed by the United Nations to remind member states of their international obligations and the ones put forward to convince them of the need to adjust the existing legal framework. This chapter identifies the principle of necessity expressed in Article 105 of the Charter of the United Nations and the related Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations as the two constants behind the legal argumentation developed by the Organization.
Evangelical America at the Brink of Crisis
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

In 1870 most Americans assumed their nation was “Christian,” and the dominant form of Christian was evangelical Protestant. Evangelicals were committed to soul-changing and Bible-based Christianity. They also hoped to continue to shape the nation, as in campaigns for social reform, Sabbatarianism, or prohibition of alcohol. Their outlooks also helped shape the schools and colleges. Common Sense Philosophy was still prominent. The recent advent of Darwinism helped precipitate an intellectual crisis. These issues were debated at the Evangelical Alliance meeting of 1873. In the debates over such issues, one can see the impending division of evangelical Protestantism into a progressive liberal faction and a more conservative faction that anticipated later fundamentalism.
D. L. Moody and a New American Evangelism
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Dwight L. Moody was a Horatio Alger figure who started as a shoe salesman, became active in the evangelical YMCA, and eventually became America’s most famous evangelist and built an empire of related organizations. Moody preached a basic Gospel message emphasizing the prime importance of the salvation of individual souls. He also was influenced by holiness traditions and emphasized personal piety and purity. His outlook reflected the American individualism of the time. He was a premillennialist and saw the culture as getting worse, which was an incentive for evangelism and missions. Though Moody himself was irenic, some of his younger colleagues played major roles in shaping the late fundamentalist movement.
Dispensationalism and the Baconian Ideal
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

The dispensational scheme of biblical interpretation reflected the Baconian ideal. In the earlier nineteenth century, many American religious thinkers celebrated the tradition of Francis Bacon, which looked for inductive facts. That was also compatible with the heritage of “common sense” philosophy. Dispensationalists, such as Arthur T. Pierson, Reuben Torrey, or C. I. Scofield, editor of the Scofield Bible that became a fundamentalist norm, adopted such outlooks for interpreting the Bible. They saw the Bible as a set of “facts.” It was also “inerrant.” It just needed a “common sense” set of tools to provide an interpretive scheme that was the key to solving some puzzles. With those, any ordinary reader could trust his or her interpretations.
“The Great Reversal”
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

“The Great Reversal” is a term that has been used for the shift when socially progressive views were prominent in American evangelicalism to when they became rare. In the mid-nineteenth century, Charles Finney’s postmillennialism and anti-slavery views illustrate evangelical social reform. Jonathan Blanchard, founder of Wheaton College in Illinois, held similar views. As late as 1900, James M. Gray preached a progressive social reform sermon, even though later when he was president of Moody Bible Institute his political views were conservative. The broadest explanation for “The Great Reversal” is that after about 1900 the “Social Gospel” became associated with liberal theology. Most later fundamentalists, in rejecting liberal theology, rejected liberal social teachings as well.
Holiness and Fundamentalism
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores the varieties of early twentieth-century holiness teachings as they related to emerging fundamentalism. The Pentecostal movement, marked by the Azusa St. Revivals of 1906, grew from earlier holiness movements. Most emerging fundamentalist leaders rejected Pentecostalism in favor of Keswick holiness. Originating in England, Keswick teachings differed slightly from the Methodist holiness teachings. Reuben A. Torrey, a leading Keswick teacher and fundamentalist, attacked Pentecostalism. Keswick teachings became widespread through The Sunday School Times, edited by Charles Trumbull. Keswick teachings were also influential in inspiring foreign missions. B. B. Warfield of Princeton Theological Seminary criticized Keswick from a conservative Calvinist perspective.
Fundamentalism and the Cultural Crisis: 1919–1920
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Fundamentalism took shape as a distinct movement in the midst of the cultural crisis following World War I. The “Red Scare” and fear of Bolshevism was one factor. Fears of doctrinal changes in churches and changing social mores were allied to these concerns. While the concerns confirmed premillennial pessimism, they also led to a rise in emphasis on restoring America’s Christian character. Presbyterians were especially strong in expressing such concern. In 1920 Curtis Lee Laws, editor of the Watchman-Examiner, in mobilizing conservatives in the Northern Baptist Convention called their party “fundamentalists.” Fundamentalists such as William B. Riley increasingly emphasized that the future of America civilization was at stake. A prototypical fundamentalist Baptist activist was John Roach Straton, a pastor in New York City. Straton campaigned strongly for moral reform in the city. His characterizations of America wavered between seeing it as Babylon or the New Israel.
The Fundamentalist Offensive on Two Fronts: 1920–1921
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Fundamentalists fought on two fronts: doctrinal battles in major northern denominations, and battles, especially against biological evolution, in the larger culture. The liberal Protestant formation of the idealist Interchurch World Movement also created alarms among conservatives. The denominational doctrinal battles had begun especially on the mission fields just after World War I. Foreign missions were a central concern for evangelicals, and concern about modernism on the mission fields helped make fundamentalism an interdenominational movement. Curtis Lee Laws in the Northern Baptist Convention expressed many such concerns as he mobilized the fundamentalist party. William Jennings Bryan became prominent in the movement when he entered the crusade against teaching biological evolution in public schools. That also highlighted fundamentalist concerns to restore Christian civilization in America.
Fundamentalism as an Intellectual Phenomenon
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

As Clarence Darrow argued at the Scopes trial, fundamentalism has often been portrayed as simply anti-science and anti-intellectual. Yet many fundamentalists professed to highly value reason and science. It is helpful to see the issue as an instance of “paradigm conflict,” as has been described by Thomas Kuhn. Fundamentalists typically held on to a “common sense” or “Baconian” idea of rationality and truth. Rational inquiry, they believed, could find unchanging truths. Modern thought, such as Darwinism, was built around change. J. Gresham Machen provides an example of trust in common-sense understanding of unchanging facts. Charles Blanchard offered a similar approach. In Blanchard’s view, modern thought was moving toward a sort of collective insanity in denying common sense principles of truth and morality. Evangelist Billy Sunday expressed such views in a more truly anti-intellectual way.
The International Drug Control Regime
Authors: Hallam Christopher , Bewley-Taylor David
Published: January 2022

Chapter 3 presents more recent tensions around the policy direction that the so-called Vienna consensus entailed. The chapter explores the specific set of interwoven and interrelated themes that have challenged the International Drug Control Regime. It explains the regulatory architecture of the International Drug Control Regime, including the main stakeholders in the system and their interests, as well as the broader trends in the architecture. It argues that there are political differences among the various stakeholders that increasingly fracture the regime: while some states push for some type of reform, others resist change. The chapter concludes that there will be a turning point that is likely to either fragment or reconfigure the system.
The Crescent Three States
Authors: Robins Philip
Published: January 2022

Chapter 8 discusses the International Drug Control Regime in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran where, toward the end of the twentieth century, the illicit use of drugs started to spread widely. The chapter argues that, despite the centrality of Afghanistan to the world’s opiate market, it is only since 1979 and the Soviet invasion that it has had to confront multiple drug-related policy issues. Consequently, Afghanistan remains comparatively inexperienced in implementing drug policies. It shows that, as is the case with other countries coming to the International Drug Control Regime challenge relatively late, the Crescent states rely much more on hard power than soft power solutions. The countries’ assertions of national preoccupations in areas like judicial conduct reflect the region’s highly distinct set of social mores and cultural values.
The Golden Triangle
Authors: Chouvy Pierre-Arnaud
Published: January 2022

Chapter 9 explores the effectiveness (or lack thereof) of repressive policies in Southeast Asia, particularly Myanmar and Laos of the so-called Golden Triangle. It provides a detailed history as well as political and geographical discussion about the illicit drug trade, its decline, and resilience in the region. The chapter argues that opium production remains a significant challenge to sustainable development. Accordingly, forced eradication has proven to be ineffective. Furthermore, the chapter argues, the drug control community largely overlooks the fact that most drug control policies have been inadequate and counterproductive, leading to enormous human, societal, and economic costs in the region.
Rethinking Drug Policy Metrics to Move Beyond the War on Drugs
Authors: Muggah Robert , Aguirre Katherine
Published: January 2022

Chapter 14 integrates critical views from across the domains of criminal justice, human rights, health, and development to suggest new drug policy metrics. It reveals how traditional drug policy indicators that reinforce the securitized War on Drugs discourse have justified and sustained the International Drug Control Regime since the 1960s. Rather than proving the International Drug Control Regime’s success, such traditional indicators have exposed how severe the policy has been, for example by counting the number of people incarcerated for drug-related crimes, without showing its impact. The chapter thus proposes alternative goals, targets, and indicators to overcome the current limbo situation, better track the effects of a progressive drug policy, and shift to a more holistic drug policy paradigm.
Local Parties and Their Leaders
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 2 situates local party organizations within the broader party organization and addresses how the efforts of these local elites’ may have consequences that go beyond the seemingly small-time nature of their operations. It examines who heads these local organizations and how they ended up in their positions. The survey results reported in this chapter paint a picture of local party chairs as individuals who are deeply involved with politics and whose background characteristics more closely track those of elected officials than those of the broader public. This pattern is, perhaps, unsurprising given that about one-third of the chairs who responded to the national survey have held or currently hold elected office. Party chairs tend to be older, whiter, wealthier, and more educated than the voters in their areas, which is to be expected given the demands of their—uncompensated—jobs.
Money, Commitment, and Community Ties
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 7 considers some of the attributes that chairs view as contributing to a candidate's electability. The attributes chairs cited most focused on three characteristics. First, many chairs indicated candidates must have tenacity and a demonstrated commitment to what they are getting into. Second, chairs cited the importance of long-standing commitments to the community. The experimental findings corroborated these views. Specifically, chairs (and voters) viewed candidates with military or political experience—background characteristics that demonstrate a candidate’s ability to commit to a grueling process—as substantially more likely to be able to win over voters in their area. Voters and chairs were also far more likely to select a candidate who had lived in the area for decades than a candidate who was a relative newcomer. Finally, chairs indicated that successful candidates must be able to raise the funds needed to mount a serious campaign.
Small Power
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 11 reviews the findings reported throughout the book. It also discusses some limitations of the evidence presented. Finally, it suggests promising avenues for future research.
Defenders of Japan Present and Future
Authors: Mulloy Garren
Published: January 2022

Contemporary Japanese defense involves greater integration of civilian and military aspects and interdependence of domestic, regional, and global aspects than in previous periods. This chapter identifies how the Japan Self-Defense Forces adapted, in material ways, but also in recruitment, training, culture, and civil cooperation, with capabilities adapting to emergent challenges, particularly from China and North Korea. Civil-military and US-Japan alliance cooperation reached ultimate fulfilment in the aftermath of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami, when the Forces demonstrated their extensive disaster relief and civil support skills honed through decades of domestic and overseas missions, as well as the inherent value of US alliance training and international engagement for Japan’s national and human security. The importance of building international relations was evident as Abe Shinzo sought to buttress Japan’s alliance with new partnerships and cooperative mechanisms, including the Quad and Free and Open Indo-Pacific, within which the Forces were expected to play prominent symbolic and functional roles. The irony is that the Forces reconfigured with more mobile, agile, and amphibious capabilities, for increased international roles as Japan’s peacekeeping and other overseas missions were withering, regional security challenges re-focusing resources and efforts towards near and national defense.
The Science of War
Authors: Golovin Nikolai Nikolayevich
Published: January 2022

Lieutenant General Nikolai Nikolayevich Golovin (1875–1944) is considered one of the leaders of the Russian émigrés in the interwar period. During this time, he published extensively, focusing on military history, strategy and military science. Considered by present-day Russian strategists as a distinguished Russian military scientist, Golovin mainly focused on the meaning of what had happened during World War I for the science of war, trying to develop this science further. This chapter is based on the translation of selected chapters from his Nauka o voyne: O sotsiologicheskom izuchenii voyny [The Science of War: On Sociological Research into War], in which he tries to justify and promote his idea that an analysis of war should be the examination of war as a phenomenon of social life, and not only an analysis of ways to wage wars.
Navigating Forever War
Authors: Jackson Ashley
Published: January 2022

Chapter 4 examines civilian experiences of negotiating with the Taliban. The chapter is framed, like Chapter 3, through the lens of negotiation, focusing first on civilian interests, primarily protection and benefits. It then looks at civilian leverage, exploring civilian use of persuasion, threats, incentives and social capital.
What Is Constitutionalism?
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan
Published: January 2022

This chapter offers a “thin” definition of constitutionalism, as involving majority rule (usually free and fair elections and sometimes other methods of reliably determining majority preferences), some entrenchment of constitutional provisions, judicial independence, and politicians and political parties as vehicles for organizing public expression on policy matters. It argues that a thin definition is more suitable for our comparative inquiry because thicker definitions incorporate requirements that are reasonably contested among constitutional democrats themselves. On the question of entrenchment, the chapter argues against the view that removing existing entrenched veto gates is always an anti-constitutional development. Similarly, the chapter argues that there are many modes of guaranteeing judicial independence, and a shift from one to another mode is not always anti-constitutional. The chapter rests upon a general proposition that there are frequently many reasonable alternative specifications of constitutional fundamentals, which counsels against treating the replacement of one specification by another as anti-constitutional. It concludes by emphasizing the importance of constitutional culture as a guardrail against democratic decline, and stresses that developing institutions to foster such a culture is quite difficult.
The Schola Italica and the Rito Filosofico Italiano (1910–1914)
Authors: Giudice Christian
Published: January 2022

Chapter 4 introduces the figure of Amedeo Rocco Armentano, who would become Reghini’s teacher in all things occult. After a brief history of Italian Freemasonry, Reghini’s affiliation to Florentine lodges is documented as representing the main cause for the occultist’s anti-clericalism, nationalism, and irredentist sympathies. This section of the book enunciates the core tenets of Roman Traditionalism, as taught by Armentano to Reghini, and chronicles Reghini’s initiation into the occult order of the Schola Italica, or Italic School, a neo-Pagan, neo-Pythagorean coterie that Reghini will be proud to represent until the year of his death in 1946. Henrik Bogdan’s and Mircea Eliade’s theories on initiation are used to provide a theoretical framework for Reghini’s enrollment into the Schola, while the school’s main ideas and its mnemohistory are explained through the works on the invention of tradition as an epistemological strategy, developed by Eric Hobsbawm and Olav Hammer.
The Great War and “Pagan Imperialism” (1914–1920)
Authors: Giudice Christian
Published: January 2022

After a bird’s-eye view of the historical period, depicting Italy’s sociopolitical climate in the prewar years, the chapter seeks to focus on what the First Conflict meant for the members of the Schola: the reannexation of the eastern regions then under Austrian rule was considered fundamental for an occult rise of Italy as a modern superpower. The majority of the chapter is dedicated to the textual analysis of Reghini’s arguably most important article, “Imperialismo Pagano” (Pagan Imperialism), where his ideas on Pagan Rome, anti-clericalism, reactionary politics, and the magical significance of a unified Italy all coagulate into a strong portrayal of the most important ideals of Roman Traditionalism. Figures like Virgil, Dante, and Mazzini are introduced as precursors to Reghini’s “great Pagan ideal” for the rebirth of a new Italy.
The Ur Group and the End of a Dream (1923–1929)
Authors: Giudice Christian
Published: January 2022

The chapter covers the richest five years in terms of literary output by Reghini and chronicles his relations with members of the Fascist party, including a heated journalistic debate with Mussolini himself. The core of this section is formed by the analysis of the most important journals that Reghini founded and contributed to: Atanòr, Ignis, and Ur. The relationships between Reghini and other important names of the Italian occultist milieu, including Giuliano Kremmerz, Julius Evola, and Aniceto del Massa, are scrutinized, and more light is shed on the practical occult rituals performed by the Ur Group, a coterie of magicians, including Reghini, Evola, and Reghini’s disciple Giulio Parise, who practiced rites to enhance the anti-modern traits of the Fascist regime. A textual analysis of the most important contributions closes the chapter.
Silentium Post Clamores (1930–1946)
Authors: Giudice Christian
Published: January 2022

This chapter covers the final sixteen years of Reghini’s life, who, after the signing of the Lateran Accords of 1929, had been marginalized by the regime, along with his ideas for a Roman Pagan Renaissance. A historical analysis of the fifteen years, employing the use of never-before-published correspondence, sets up the scene for a textual analysis of Reghini’s last works, still heavily focused on Fascism, Pythagoreanism, and Mathematics, with an occult twist. The final years, especially, those dating 1939 to 1946, are covered thoroughly, and Reghini’s life is enlivened through the use of epistolary exchanges between the Florentine occultist and his master Armentano.
Introduction
Authors: Reitz-Joosse Bettina
Published: January 2022

Building sites are full of movement, look different every day, cause noise, dirt, and disruption. Not many people would describe a building site as beautiful. And yet, the disruptive nature of construction and its impact on all of our senses force us to respond to it. This Introduction presents the book’s theme: literary representations of building and construction in ancient Rome. It proposes that they can tell us about Roman responses to construction: what they may have been, how they were expressed, how they could be influenced and manipulated, what they meant. The Introduction then contextualises the study in terms of recent work on architecture and architectural process in ancient Rome, as well as on the relationship between Roman architecture and Latin literature. Finally, it provides a short summary of the different chapters of the book and a rationale for the order and selection of material.
Making Memories
Authors: Reitz-Joosse Bettina
Published: January 2022

This chapter deals with Roman representations of construction in three different media (epigraphic, visual, and literary) and explores which representational strategies are distinctive to one medium or common to different media. The first section deals with a range of building inscriptions, from plain to extremely elaborate, and analyses how they create a heavily stylized image of the construction process, drawing attention to the ‘madeness’ of the structure they adorn as a means of adding to its impact on the viewer. The second section deals with the representational strategies of Roman artworks which depict the process of construction (including the base of the Theodosian obelisk, the Haterii relief, the basilica Aemilia frieze, and the frieze of the Column of Trajan). The final section (‘Literary Memories’) is an analysis of literary accounts of construction: Caesar’s construction of the Rhine bridge as well as Pliny the Elder’s and Ammianus Marcellinus’s depictions of the transportation and raising of obelisks. A number of representational strategies are identified as typical of literary descriptions of construction.
Writing Cities, Founding Texts
Authors: Reitz-Joosse Bettina
Published: January 2022

This chapter opens with a brief history of architectural metaphor in Greek literature which demonstrates its versatility: it can be employed to comment on the structure, aesthetics, durability, size, or ambition of a literary work. The chapter then turns to one particular architectural image for text production which appears to represent an innovation in Roman literature—the construction of a city. The chapter discusses literary city-building in the work of Vitruvius, Manilius, Propertius, and Vergil, arguing that the specific form each author gives to city-building impacts the way in which the reader is asked to envisage and appreciate the poetic task. The authors’ mutual engagement through their competing city-foundations also allows them to stake out their literary ambitions in relation to one another. What gives the metaphor of city-building its power is the political role of city-building in the Roman Empire during the late republic and its changing cultural resonances during the early principate.
Recognizing Religious Extremism I
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar
Published: January 2022

Terror networks fueled by extremist interpretations of Islam, like the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and al-Qaeda, are, generally speaking, extreme, violent manifestations of religious fundamentalism: that is, a religious form whose adherents feel existentially threatened by powerful secular forces and/or more dominant religious out-groups. This chapter argues that underlying religious extremism is a strong fundamentalist impulse. Drawing upon, inter alia, sociology, social psychology, and evolutionary psychology, the chapter explains how not so much religion per se, but its fundamentalist permutation, possesses extremist, incendiary potentials that could, under certain conditions, turn violent. In the process, the chapter challenges prevailing arguments that the “pervasive and instrumental professions of faith” of terrorist groups are either “propaganda” or a mere rhetorical mask for political and socioeconomic grievances. In short, religion—particularly its fundamentalist form—matters.
Recognizing Extremist Islam in Singapore
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar
Published: January 2022

This chapter offers an examination of Salafabist extremism in the secular, multicultural Singaporean context, using the case of Zulfikar Mohamad Shariff as a reference point. It argues that Zulfikar is best understood as a Salafabist extremist opportunist whose ideolgical commitment to Salafi Jihadism meshed to some extent with his desire for the limelight. Employing the conceptual framework for recognizing religious extremism developed in this study, the chapter lays bare Zulfikar’s Salafabist extremism. The chapter then traces how Zulfikar’s radicalization trajectory occurred, by showing how his exposure to, and immersion in, the Salafabist ecosystem of persons, platforms, and places in both Singapore and Australia helped to shape his eventual hard Salafabist Salafi Jihadi orientation, as exemplified in his very public online support for, and glorification of, ISIS brutalities in Syria. The chapter ends by discussing attempts to identify a contextualized Singaporean Muslim Identity as a bulwark against Salafabist extremism.
Responding to Extremist Islam in Southeast Asia—The 4M Way
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar
Published: January 2022

This concluding chapter argues that the overall regional whole-of-society response must be to gradually steer vulnerable Muslim constituencies away from “rigid and fixed” Salafabist extremism toward “flexible and tolerant” Islamic values and beliefs that are both theologically authentic and compatible with the lived realities of the multicultural, globalized societies of Southeast Asia. To this end, the chapter sketches out one potentially useful grand strategy for operationalizing such a response: the 4M Way, which refers to message content, message framing, message dissemination, and message receptivity. The 4M Way seeks to attain two strategic objectives: minimally, to ensure that powerful, culturally authentic alternative narratives gain information dominance over competing Salafabist extremist storylines within each national context, while maximally, fostering among target audiences an essential “independence of mind,” the ultimate antidote to the shared Salafabist fundamentalism that renders both soft Salafabist Islamists and their hard Salafabist Salafi Jihadi cousins, equally concerning.
Introduction
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Artificial Intelligence has the potential to change warfare dramatically. That’s true of tactics, especially the weapons used in battle, but it’s also true of strategy, the larger puzzle in warfare that requires understanding and creative thinking. Plenty of observers are concerned about the implications, and some want to ban ‘killer robots’. That seems unlikely – they are too useful, and it’s too easy to evade a ban. Instead we should craft our own ‘rules for warbots’.
Deep Warbots
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Machine Learning, and especially Deep Learning, has led to startling advances in AI over the last decade. Much of this research has led by the private sector, rather than the military. Artificial neural networks are highly effective at optimizing decisions in narrow domains, like an Atari video game. That can deliver superhuman performance on some military tasks, like flying robot helicopters. But it may not be sufficient for a more flexible, human-like intelligence, of the sort required to make strategic judgments about escalation.
Minds Make Strategy
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Modern AI has utility in intelligence gathering and analysis. It is excellent at spotting correlations in masses of data, lightning fast, and has unerring memory. Yet it is poor at understanding what correlations mean, and prone to biases and catastrophic errors. Unlike humans, AI makes no attempt to understand the minds of other actors, using empathy or theory of mind. So, it can predict future developments in ‘toy universes,’ even complex ones like a poker game, but is less able to gauge intentions in less bounded situations, like strategy.
Who is Alexei Navalny?
Authors: Dollbaum Jan Matti , Lallouet Morvan , Noble Ben
Published: January 2022

This chapter introduces Alexei Navalny and the approach taken by the book. It describes his poisoning with Novichok in August 2020, followed by his recovery in Germany and return to Russia in January 2021. The chapter also provides a brief overview of Navalny’s family background, upbringing, and education. The chapter shows the problems with simplistic portrayals of Navalny, including in relation to his past statements and activities that have been described as nationalist, xenophobic, or racist. In order to help make sense of Navalny’s complexity, the chapter sets up the approach taken by the book—of tracing Navalny’s story so far along three dimensions: as an anti-corruption activist, politician, and protest leader. The chapter also discusses the importance of Navalny to understanding Russian politics more broadly, including by looking at his support base and his relationship with the authorities.
The Protester
Authors: Dollbaum Jan Matti , Lallouet Morvan , Noble Ben
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines Navalny as a protest leader. Facing increasing obstacles in his efforts to become a ‘normal politician’, Navalny turned to street action as a means to increase his support base, to build durable political structures, and to pressure the Kremlin from below. The chapter focuses on Navalny’s presidential campaign of 2017-18, documenting how Navalny and his team employed protest in a multi-stage strategy to create a political organisation with a country-wide presence. Zooming out of Moscow and moving the focus to the regions, the chapter investigates how and why people across the country decided to support Navalny, what they see in him, and how they evaluate his political positions. Based on dozens of interviews with activists and an original online survey of his core supporters, the chapter presents a detailed picture of Navalny’s movement.
Fears of Indian independence
Authors: Shankar Shobana
Published: January 2022

This chapter argues that the new Indian government under Nehru and the Indian diaspora need to change the course of their relations with Africans after 1947. Kenya’s Mau Mau emergency and anti-Indian riots in South Africa exposed African anger at land expropriation and racial segregation. As racial segregation was breaking down, tensions rose over cultural exclusion, superiority, and economic competition. The government of India wanted to combat the Indian diaspora’s exclusivity in Africa by tapping into transnationalism in Ghana and Nigeria, but they had to avoid creating new problems of perceptions of neo-imperialism within the decolonizing world. The independence era brought African-Indian entanglements that operated at different levels, with everyday tensions in multiracial settings in conflict with the political rhetoric of Bandung, Afro-Asian solidarity, and Non-Alignment growing more insistent from the 1950s.
Race as postcolonial strategy
Authors: Shankar Shobana
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the fraying of Afro-Indian alliances and the search for cultural diplomatic alternatives. In 1974, Senegalese President Léopold Senghor and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi jointly created Indo-African studies departments at the University of Dakar and Annamalai University. This project was a non-Western alternative to “area studies,” serving the imperative for postcolonial and decolonial education and the political need to improve lingering racial tensions following Idi Amin’s expulsion of Asians from Uganda and African students’ refusal of scholarships to Indian universities because of fears of racism. The idea of “Black India” in Dravidian self-assertion, begun decades earlier in India to promote independent statehood for South Indian peoples, found resonance in Senegal, in Cheikh Anta Diop’s Afrocentrism and Senghor’s négritude. The Afro-Dravidian project, building on this resonance, legitimized new subjects in postcolonial universities and popularized the notion of South India as Black.
The Zirid Dynasty
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter tells of how Granada became a major city of al-Andalus in the eleventh century as the Caliphate of Cordoba went into decline and al-Andalus divided into small city states known as taifas. The Berber warrior Zawi ibn Ziri chose the Albaicin hill, where Granada now stands, as a better defended location for the people of the nearby city of Elvira in those unstable times. For eighty years, Zirid Granada was a city of culture, home to a large Jewish community and led, for a time, by the Jewish vizier, philosopher and poet Samuel ibn Naghrila. Major infrastructure was built to supply Granada with water, including its aljibes and acequias. The history of this period is well-recorded thanks to the memoir written by the final Zirid king, Abdullah ibn Buluggin.
Mudéjars
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter tells the history of Granada in the immediate aftermath of the Reconquista. At first the Treaty of Granada appeared generous to the Moors; they would continue living as Mudejars, Muslims living under Christian rule. Yet the edict expelling all Jews from Spain, signed at the Alhambra in 1492, was an early warning sign of what was to come. The first city leaders of the Christian era, the Mendoza family and Archbishop Talavera, showed respect for the Moors and their culture, but this was not to last. When Ferdinand and Isabella returned to the city in 1499, they were horrified by how Islamic the city remained. Archbishop Cisneros set about converting the Mudejars, by force if necessary, and rebellion broke out in the Albaicin. When this spread to the mountainous Alpujarra region, the uprising was met with great brutality. As Granada entered the sixteenth century, its status as a Muslim city was at an end, its people converted, and its Arabic books condemned to be burned in the city’s squares.
A Very Christian City
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

After the expulsion of the Moriscos, work began in earnest to turn Granada into a Christian city. The former Moorish capital was gradually transformed, with buildings and plazas created in the Spanish style, along with the erection of churches and monasteries. It was also an era when the reconstructing of Granada’s history began; the discovery of mysterious lead books told of the martyrdom of Arabic-speaking, Roman-era saints and this gave rise to the cult of the Sacromonte. These discoveries were later denounced as forgeries undertaken by the last of the Moriscos in an attempt to save themselves from expulsion. Later, they would be the spur for the fraudulent archaeological digs of Juan de Flores. The early Christian period was also notable for the presence of deeply religious figures such as San Juan de Dios, San Juan de la Cruz and Fray Luis of Granada, and the city would cement its Christian image with its Corpus Christi and Semana Santa festivals.
Dreams of the Past, Visions for the Future
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter considers the changes that came over Granada in the nineteenth century both in its attitudes towards the past and in its physical appearance. The return to absolute monarchy under Ferdinand VII sparked resistance and gave Granada a martyr in the garroted heroine Mariana Pineda. A local government with new powers set out to modernize the mediaeval city, bulldozing large areas and fundamentally changing Granada’s medieval appearance. Meanwhile, with the arrival in the city of foreign artists, writers and musicians such as Washington Irving, Chateaubriand, Mikhail Glinka and David Roberts, captivated by the Alhambra and the tales of its exotic past, Granada began to cash in on the Romantic and Orientalist visions of the Alhambra. Restorations at this time fundamentally reimagined parts of the Nasrid palaces, creating the Eastern fantasies of the restorers themselves.
Women of the Somali Diaspora
Authors: Lewis Joanna
Published: January 2022

This book is about Somali mothers and daughters who came to Britain in the 1990s to escape civil war. Many had never left Somalia before, followed nomadic traditions, did not speak English, were bereaved and were suffering from PTSD.
Their stories begin with war and genocide in the north, followed by harrowing journeys via refugee camps, then their arrival and survival in London. Joanna Lewis exposes how they rapidly recovered, mobilizing their networks, social capital and professional skills. Crucial to the recovery of the now breakaway state of (former British) Somaliland, these women bore a huge burden, but inspired the next generation, with many today caught between London and a humanitarian impulse to return home.
Lewis reveals three histories. Firstly, the women's personal history, helping us to understand resilience as an individual, lived historical process that is both positive and negative, and both inter- and intra-generational. Secondly, a collective history of refugees as rebuilders, offering insight into the dynamism of the Somali diaspora. Finally, the forgotten history and hidden legacies of Britain's colonial past, which have played a key role in shaping this dramatic, sometimes upsetting, but always inspiring story: the power of women to heal the scars of war.
‘Half London, Half Home’ Generation Resilient
Authors: Lewis Joanna
Published: January 2022

This final chapter returns to the city Hargeisa, thirty years on from the start of the civil war, once the colonial capital of British Somaliland. That history and its legacy is interwoven between the testimonies of a younger generation born or brought up in London who return to Hargeisa. It chronicles the experiences of those who have stayed, those that find they cannot, or those who move between London and home. It explores the challenges they face but also the rewards many feel from staying. The desire to return to help or to give back is a strong one, with many young women committing to helping the country recover from the long term effects of civil war, trauma and the impact of political isolation.
China’s Lending to Africa
Authors: Smith Gregory
Published: January 2022

China scaled-up its lending and became the most prominent bilateral lender to Africa. China gained favor as a development partner due to its policy of non-interference and as a lender that can move faster than others. But this speed and ambivalence has also exposed it to a second shortcoming of too few questions being asked. China’s lending has attracted criticism, both from within African countries and from China’s rival global powers who have been watching it scale-up its engagement The main concerns for the west was the volume of Chinese lending and what China really wanted in return. China’s lending practices evolved as it found itself in more discussions with African countries about a greater magnitude of debt relief.
How Much Debt is Too Much?
Authors: Smith Gregory
Published: January 2022

Accurately predicting the level of debt that leaves a country unable to pay is a tough job. It is much more of an art than a science. The main challenge is that debt sustainability is country specific, with each African country able to carry different levels of debt. This is because there are various types of debt, with many different related borrowing costs. The composition of a debt stock really matters, because concessional debt with low or zero interest rates is much less of a burden than when borrowing occurs at market rates. The factors that determine the burden of the debts are not only economic but are also political and social. Efforts are also needed to improve the way debt sustainability is assessed.
Introduction
Authors: Vignal Leïla
Published: January 2022

When I saw the fall of Moubarak [the Egyptian president, toppled by the 25 January revolution of 2011] under the pressure of the demonstrators, I told myself: ‘We can make it too.’ I always thought that the history of my country was written in advance, that nothing could change. Suddenly, we were in the street, claiming our right to write it ourselves. With our own words....