bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Crown Position and Light Exposure Classification—An Alternative to Field-Assigned Crown Class
Authors: Bechtold William A.
Published: August 2019

Crown class, an ordinal tree-level mensuration attribute used extensively by foresters, is difficult to assign in the field because definitions of individual classes are confounded by ambiguous references to the position of the tree in the canopy and amount of light received by its crown. When crown class is decomposed into its two elements—crown position and crown light exposure—field assignments are more repeatable, and crown class can be assigned by algorithm with the same degree of accuracy that it can be estimated in the field. Replacing traditional crown class with the two proposed alternative variables yields more specific information about each tree. Crown position and crown light exposure add information potentially useful for modeling and other applications. North. J. Appl. For. 20(4): 154Â160.
Timber Supply Projections for Northern New England and New York: Integrating a Market Perspective
Authors: Sendak Paul E. , Abt Robert C. , Turner Robert J.
Published: August 2019

The North East State Foresters Association (NEFA) commissioned a study that resulted in the publication of a report titled, “A Forest Resource Model of the States of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.” In this article we used the integrated NEFA computer simulation framework to go beyond the reported results and further explore the effects on the forest resource in terms of timber harvest, inventory, and price under various market and demand assumptions. Five scenarios were run through the integrated SRTS-ATLAS model to project long-run effects on timber inventory (growing stock) and price. Besides reflecting differing assumptions about demand and supply, these scenarios defined different markets, thus affecting how the wood harvest was allowed to move across the region in response to demand. Regionally, at the end of the 50 yr projection period, cubic-foot growth and harvest were approximately in balance in the Reference Case, the scenario that we felt was most likely. Initial inventory on all timberland was 66.7 billion ft3. By 2050, inventory volume increased 13% to 75.4 billion ft3. Net growth declined over the 50 yr period from 35.3 to 32.1 ft3 ac-1 yr-1, while harvest increased from 26.6 to 31.9 ft3 ac-1 yr-1. Regional real price increased approximately 1.1% yr-1 over the period. Changes in the resource situation in one state affect the situation in the other states. There is a mutual dependence in markets that policy makers need to recognize. The integration of a market module into the NEFA modeling process added the interplay of market forces and improved upon the policy information available from the model.
Impacts of Long-Term Diameter-Limit Harvesting on Residual Stands of Red Spruce in Maine
Authors: Sokol Kerry A. , Greenwood Michael S. , Livingston William H.
Published: August 2019

Diameter-limit harvesting has long been suspected as a dysgenic forestry practice, but a conclusive, practical demonstration of the effects of this selection technique on residual tree performance is lacking. To determine the effects of repeated diameter-limit harvesting on the phenotypes of residual trees, we compared radial growth patterns of residual red spruce trees (with ages greater than 100 years) after diameter-limit harvests with those of residual trees in stands subjected to positive selection harvesting. After nearly 50 years of repeated harvesting, residual trees in the diameter-limit stands were nearly 40% smaller and had grown 32% slower than residual trees in positive selection stands. Furthermore, diameter-limit residuals were initially smaller and remained significantly smaller than positive selection residuals throughout their lifespan, despite major release events. After release, the diameter-limit trees responded with increased growth rates, but the increase was relatively small. Growth rates were consistently and significantly lower for diameter-limit residuals until the final 20 yr when growth rates in each treatment converged. Our results indicate that red spruce stands subjected to repeated diameter-limit harvesting will develop progressively less valuable growing stock with limited growth potential.
GIS Protocols in Mapping Ecological Landtypes for the Hoosier National Forest
Authors: Shao Guofan , Parker Geroge R. , Zhalnin Andrey V. , Merchant Patrick , Albright Deb
Published: August 2019

GIS protocols were developed to map ecological landtypes (ELTs) containing dry slopes, mesic slopes, dry ridges, mesic ridges, and bottomlands for the Hoosier National Forest, Indiana, United States. The mapping techniques included separating hills from valleys, dividing hills into north- and south-facing slopes, differentiating narrow from wide ridges, and noise removal with raster and vector methods. This article examined ELT mapping with both 30- and 10-m resolution data. This article also compared different GIS operations involved in ELT mapping. The accuracy of the ELT map created was assessed on the ground, and accuracy could reach 100% if boundary-location and small-area errors were excluded. The GIS protocols involved in this study were effective and have broad implications for mapping ELTs in other geographic areas. For larger areas, more automated GIS procedures will be necessary. North. J. Appl. For. North. J. Appl. For. 21(4):180–186.
Who Will Log in Maine's North Woods? A Cross-Cultural Study of Occupational Choice and Prestige
Authors: Egan Andrew , Taggart Deryth
Published: August 2019

Two distinct populations of loggers work in Maine's border counties with Quebec: Maine resident and Quebec resident woodsworkers. This study compared the sense of occupational choice and prestige held by these workers, as well as their sociodemographic attributes. Significant differences in age, education, and logging experience were found between these two populations. In addition, Maine resident loggers appeared to exhibit less resignation to woods work than their Quebec counterparts. However, Quebec resident loggers indicated that their profession was held in higher esteem among the public than did loggers from Maine. Over two-thirds of respondents from both populations would not encourage a son/daughter to be a logger, despite considerable familial attachment to logging. Results may have implications for logging labor supply, labor recruitment efforts, and logging mechanization in a region heavily dependent on the forest products industry. North. J. Appl. For. 21(4):200–208.
Forest Blowdown Prediction: A Correlation of Remotely Sensed Contributing Factors
Authors: McMaster Kevin J.
Published: August 2019

On July 15, 1995, a severe windstorm in northern New York affected thousands of acres of forest. A heterogeneous impact by the high winds was captured by two Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images taken prior to and following the event. This article uses landscape position, vegetation cover, and edaphic conditions of the damaged areas in an attempt to quantify and explain the differential impact by the wind on the forest. Using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technologies, significantly correlated variables of six site factors were used to predict damaged areas for a 50-square-mile study site. However, the predicted areas had an overall accuracy of only 60%, with a kappa coefficient of 0.22, indicating that the storm impact was too complex to be reliably predicted using the available site variables. North. J. Appl. For. 22(1):48–53.
Performance of Green Ash Seed Sources at Four Locations in the Great Plains Region
Authors: Geyer Wayne A. , Lynch Keith D. , Row John , Schaeffer Peter , Bagley Walter
Published: August 2019

Green ash trees from 10 seed sources were planted in a test in 1961 in four states of the Great Plains Region. After more than 20 years, height growth indicates a strong interaction between seed source and plantation location. Larger trees were from southerly sources within about three degrees of latitude of the plantation site. Beyond those limits, cold injury may result. Height and dbh age-age correlations were highly significant at 8 and 20+ years. Height and dbh correlated negatively with a decrease in latitude. North. J. Appl. For. 22(1):54–58.
Assessment of Factors Contributing to Residual Tree Damage from Mechanized Harvesting in Northern Hardwoods
Authors: Seablom Thomas J. , Reed David D.
Published: August 2019

Seven northern hardwood stands were evaluated for damage after mechanized harvesting. Four different harvesting systems were evaluated: harvester and grapple skidder, processor and forwarder, chainsaw and cable skidder, and chainsaw and forwarder. There was not an excessive amount of damage occurring to any of the residual stands, and there was an adequate number of residual trees per acre in all diameter classes to meet residual stand structure goals. The majority of the damage that did occur was to the bole portion of the tree and to the 2–8-in. dbh size classes. There was no strong relationship between amount of damage occurring to residual trees and the number of residual trees per acre, residual basal area per acre, or distance to skid trail. These results indicate that mechanized harvesting can be used in northern hardwoods without causing excessive damage to the residual stand. Recommendations are to continue with current silvicultural prescriptions and to increase forester-operator communication to minimize residual tree damage.North. J. Appl. For. 22(2):124–131.
Comparison of Fixed Diameter-Limit and Selection Cutting in Northern Conifers
Authors: Kenefic Laura S. , Sendak Paul E. , Brissette John C.
Published: August 2019

Diameter-limit cutting is a common type of harvest in which all merchantable trees above specific size thresholds are removed. Despite a long history of application, controlled experiments of these harvests are rare and the cumulative effects of repeated diameter-limit cuts are largely unknown. The Penobscot Experimental Forest in Maine is the location of a long-term USDA Forest Service experiment in which both fixed diameter-limit and selection cutting have been applied at 20-year intervals since the early 1950s. After three entries, present value of gross harvest revenue was greater in the fixed diameter-limit than selection treatments. However, sawtimber volume and growth, total and merchantable volume, regeneration stem density, and inventory value all were lower in the fixed diameter-limit than selection stands. Accumulated value (harvest plus residual) and species composition did not differ between treatments. Within-treatment analysis revealed desirable directional changes in cull percentage and species composition in the selection but not diameter-limit cut stands, suggesting trends that may result in greater future treatment disparity. These data confirm the degrading effects of fixed diameter-limit relative to selection cutting, and reveal that greater short-term value removals are offset by lower residual stand volume and value. North. J. Appl. For. 22(2):77–84.
Prescribing Fire in Eastern Oak Forests: Is Time Running Out?
Authors: Abrams Marc D.
Published: August 2019

Before European settlement, vast areas of the eastern US deciduous forest were dominated by oak species. Evidence indicates that periodic understory fire was an important ecological factor in the historical development of oak forests. During European settlement of the late 19th and early 20th century, much of the eastern United States was impacted by land-clearing, extensive timber harvesting, severe fires, the chestnut blight, and then fire suppression and intensive deer browsing. These activities had the greatest negative impact on the once-dominant white oak, while temporarily promoting the expansion of other oaks such as red oak and chestnut oak. More recently, however, recruitment of all the dominant upland oaks waned on all but the most xeric sites. Mixed-mesophytic and later successional hardwood species, such as red maple, sugar maple, black birch, beech, black gum and black cherry, are aggressively replacing oak. The leaf litter of these replacement species is less flammable and more rapidly mineralized than that of the upland oaks, reinforcing the lack of fire. The trend toward increases in nonoak tree species will continue in fire-suppressed forests, rendering them less combustible for forest managers who wish to restore natural fires regimes. This situation greatly differs from the western United States, where fire suppression during the 20th century has made a variety of conifer-dominated forests more prone to stand-replacing fire.North. J. Appl. For. 22(3):190 –196.
Stock Quality Assessment of a Somatic Interior Spruce Seedlot
Authors: Grossnickle Steven C. , Folk Raymund
Published: August 2019

Somatic embryogenesis is a form of vegetative propagation that uses tissue culture procedures to rapidly multiply elite genotypes of a selected tree species. Somatic embryogenesis technology still is considered novel by the forest industry for use within forest regeneration programs. In this article, a stock quality testing approach was used to compare a somatic seedlot to comparable zygotic seedlots. The somatic seedlot was comprised of interior spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss × Picea engelmannii Parry ex. Engelm.) crosses (PG × PG), white spruce (P. glauca (Moench) Voss) crosses (ENA × ENA), or a mixture thereof (PG × ENA or ENA × PG). This somatic seedlot was compared to zygotic orchard-collected seedlots that shared partial parentage with the somatic seedlot. Seedlings produced from all seedlots were container-grown under standard nursery cultural procedures. Height and rootcollar diameter were measured on all seedlots. Shoot growth potential (i.e., length of new leader elongation) and root growth capacity were measured under controlled environment conditions. Mean height and diameter of the somatic and zygotic seedlots fell within a similar range that met operational grading criteria for a plantable seedling. The somatic and zygotic seedlots also had similar shoot and root growth capability. Comparable stock quality assessment performance between the somatic and zygotic seedlots indicated that somatic embryogenesis is a viable vegetative propagation technology for producing seedlings suitable for reforestation programs. North. J. Appl. For. 22(3):197–202.
Connecticut's Tree Wardens: A Survey of Current Practices, Continuing Education, and Voluntary Certification
Authors: Ricard Robert M.
Published: August 2019

Since 1918, Connecticut state law has required the appointment of a tree warden who assumes responsibility for public trees in that municipality. A major, if not the primary, responsibility of municipal government is public safety and yet local government is also charged with protecting and enhancing the economic, social, and environmental well-being of the community. As a result, the tree warden has to balance public safety and conservation. This is only possible when tree wardens are well trained. However, state statutes do not require a tree warden to posses any relevant qualifications or to participate in continuing education. Following a 1991 needs assessment, several educational initiatives were started to increase tree warden knowledge. To increase tree warden participation, two approaches were considered. One was to amend existing state law to mandate training. A second was to encourage participation in educational programs through voluntary certification. The second approach was taken when a Tree Warden School and Tree Warden Certification Program was initiated in 1998. Results from a statewide needs assessment found that tree wardens participated in more continuing education opportunities in 2001 than they did in 1991, with a large percentage becoming Connecticut Certified Tree Wardens.
Concepts about Forests and Water
Authors: Stuart Gordon W. , Edwards Pamela J.
Published: August 2019

Six concepts concerning forests, forestry, and water resources are discussed: (1) the role of the forest canopy in erosion control; (2) the impact of disturbance on soils; (3) the variability of natural water quality; (4) the impact of harvesting on water quality; (5) the role of extreme experiments; and (6) the effectiveness of forestry best management practices (BMP). The literature shows that the forest floor, not the canopy, protects soils from erosion. Harvesting can be conducted in ways that limit compaction and essentially confine overland flow to areas of exposed mineral soil on roads, trails, and log landings. Overland flow from these areas can be controlled and converted to subsurface flow before it reaches streams and lakes. Thus, effects to watershed hydrology are small. Undisturbed watersheds tend to have better quality water than highly disturbed watersheds, but the undisturbed character of a catchment does not assure high-quality water. Undisturbed forests vary greatly in sediment and chemical exports that are controlled by variables such as streamflow, soils, geology, air pollution, and land use history. Conversely, timber harvesting does not necessarily have measurable or biologically meaningful negative effects on water quality. Forestry BMP have proven effective in controlling adverse changes to in-stream sediment and water chemistry. Many studies that have reported large changes in water quality often represent extreme treatments not associated with typical forest operations, or they have not employed BMP. Properly and adequately used forestry BMP protect watershed resources while allowing the removal of wood products.
Tree Cavity Resources for Dependent Cavity-Using Wildlife in West Virginia Forests
Authors: Kahler Harry A. , Anderson James T.
Published: August 2019

We assessed and compared tree cavity resources for dependent wildlife among various forest cover types of West Virginia. The study was conducted in the Greenbrier and Potomac Ranger Districts of the Monongahela National Forest (MNF). From the fall of 1999 through the spring of 2001, 25 50-m radius study plots were established in each of a Society of American Foresters (SAF) central hardwood, northern hardwood, and subalpine forest cover type. Cavity tree abundance significantly differed among the three forest cover types (P < 0.0001), with the highest cavity tree abundance in the central hardwood type (x¯ = 16.4; SE = 5.3), followed by the northern hardwood type (x¯ = 12.7; SE = 6.8), and lastly the subalpine type (x¯ = 7.2; SE = 3.6). Relative cavity likelihood was highest for black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), followed by American beech (Fagus grandifolia), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and chestnut oak (Quercus prinus). American beech cavity numbers currently may be influenced by increased mortality from recent outbreaks of beech bark disease, initiated by the beech scale insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga). Management of red spruce (Picea rubens) forests should consider numbers of nearby large hardwoods to provide cavity resources for dependent wildlife.
Interference to Hardwood Regeneration in Northeastern North America: Controlling Effects of American Beech, Striped Maple, and Hobblebush
Authors: Nyland Ralph D. , Bashant Amy L. , Bohn Kimberly K. , Verostek Jane M.
Published: August 2019

When American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.), striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum L.), and hobblebush (Viburnum alnifolium Marsh.) become dense in the understory they interfere with regeneration of other species. This review identifies threshold levels that causeproblems in regenerating desirable hardwoods in northeastern North America, and summarizes methods for controlling the interference in conjunction with a reproduction method cutting. It also forwards some ideas about management based on information in published sources.
Snag Longevity in Managed Northern Hardwoods
Authors: Yamasaki Mariko , Leak William B.
Published: August 2019

Little information on standing snag and coarse woody debris longevity exists for New England forest types. Forest managers thus lack the information on changes over time of the habitat components influenced by the decay process. We examined the fate of 568 snags that occurred on a long-termhardwood growth study on the Bartlett Experimental Forest, NH. Approximately one-third of the oldest dense hardwood sawtimber snags were still standing 20 to 25 years after death and 17% were still visible on the ground. Seventeen percent of the older moderately dense hardwood sawtimbersnags were standing 15 to 20 years after death, 50% were still visible on the ground, and 33% had decomposed. Pole-sized snags appear to stand for shorter times than sawtimber and large sawtimber snags. Percentage of decomposed poles increased steadily throughout the time periods.These results can be most useful in predicting future wildlife habitat conditions in managed stands, as well as providing better rates of decomposition information when modeling coarse woody debris.
A Comparison of Prism Plots and Modified Point-Distance Sampling to Calculate Tree Stem Density and Basal Area
Authors: Thompson Ian D. , Ortiz Darcy A. , Jastrebski Christopher , Corbett Daniel
Published: August 2019

Two common methods of measuring forest stand woody stem attributes include prism plots for basal area and modified point-distance for stem density. The data from each method can be used for the other calculation; that is, prism data can provide stem density, and point-distance datacan provide estimated basal area. We examined data from the same 10 stands using the two techniques to determine whether the results for each calculation were comparable and/or consistent. There was a significant correlation between the estimated tree (defined as stems >10 cm) basal areas,and between tree stem densities, derived from the two methods (P < 0.01). Prism plots provided significantly higher estimated tree stem densities (+23.5%; P < 0.05) compared to estimates from the point-distance technique, but there was no difference between estimated treebasal area. For all stems, that is also including stems <10 cm dbh, there was no difference between the two methods for estimated basal area or stem density. There was no correlation between total stem densities derived from the two methods. This is likely because the prism plot method(two-factor metric prism) sampled relatively few trees with small diameters, whereas the point distance technique, as used, sampled small trees independently from trees using a diameter distinction. When we removed two young stands with <50 trees/ha, there was no difference in estimatesof stem density. We concluded that, for boreal forest stands with a normal density of trees (i.e., >10 cm dbh and 900 to 3,000 stems/ha), either method would provide comparable estimates of stem density and basal area. We found no time difference in conducting surveys using either method.
Interference to Hardwood Regeneration in Northeastern North America: The Effects of Raspberries (Rubus spp.) Following Clearcutting and Shelterwood Methods
Authors: Donoso Pablo J. , Nyland Ralph D.
Published: August 2019

Rubus often becomes the most prominent vegetation within 2–3 years following heavy overstory disturbances at mesic sites within temperate forests of northeastern North America. This review draws together available literature about its dynamics and effects, focusing primarilyon raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) and blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis Porter). It covers some key ecologic functions of raspberries related to nutrient leaching, microclimate near the ground, and organic matter decomposition. It also summarizes published information about the potentialinterference with desirable tree regeneration at northern hardwood sites within the region. The review concentrates on raspberry (Rubus spp.) dynamics and effects following clearcutting, shelterwood method, and other heavy overstory disturbances. Findings indicate that raspberries commonlydevelop into a dense cover after cutting and other overstory disturbances reduce the stocking of northern hardwood stands by 40% or more. Ecologically, they shade the ground, intercept and transpire water, and reduce the rate of litter decomposition and nutrient cycling, all of whichreduce leaching from a site. On poorly drained, droughty, and shallow soils, raspberries have reportedly delayed the development of hardwood regeneration. However, by 5–7 years, rapidly developing hardwood species have normally grown through the Rubus at most other sites, andthe emerging tree community has formed a closed canopy by 10–15 years. The presence of abundant, well-developed, and well-distributed advance tree regeneration ensures prompt restocking of new hardwoods, seems to minimize the potential for interference by raspberries, and precludes anyneed to release the tree seedlings from a raspberry cover. North. J. Appl. For. 23(4):288 –296.
Thinning Response of a White Pine Stand on a Reclaimed Surface Mine in Southwestern Virginia
Authors: Casselman Chad N. , Fox Thomas R. , Burger James A.
Published: August 2019

White pine (Pinus strobus L.) is planted extensively following reclamation of surface-mined land in the eastern coalfields. Little information exists on the productive potential of forests growing on reclaimed mined land and the response of these forests to intermediate stand treatments such as thinning. A thinning study was established in a 17-year-old white pine stand growing on a reclaimed surface mine in Wise County in southwest Virginia. A random complete block design was used to evaluate the growth response 9 growing seasons after thinning, when the stand was 26 years old. Stand parameters were projected to age 30 using a stand table projection. Site index of the stand was found to be 105 ft at a base age of 50 years. Thinning increased the diameter growth of the residual trees to 0.3 in. year−1 compared with 0.2 in. year−1 for the unthinned treatment; however, at age 26, there was no difference in volume or value per acre. When projected to age 30, the unthinned treatment had a volume of 6,530 ft3 ac−1 but was only worth $3,564 ac−1, whereas the thinned treatment was projected to have 6,654 ft3 ac−1, which was worth $4,559 ac−1 due to a larger percentage of the volume in sawtimber size classes. These results indicate that commercial forestry is a viable alternative for reclamation of surface-mined lands and that stands growing on reclaimed mined land can respond well to intermediate stand treatments.
Development of Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus L.) Regeneration under a Reserve Shelterwood after Intermediate Removals and Windthrow
Authors: Krueger Jerome A. , Zenner Eric K. , Puettmann Klaus J.
Published: August 2019

We followed the growth response of naturally regenerated 12-year-old white pine for 4 years after a shelterwood removal cut in a mixed red and white pine stand having an overstory that was significantly reduced by windthrow at the beginning of our study. Postrelease overstory density was reduced to levels (4.5 m2 ha) that did not significantly influence any regeneration growth parameter while understory woody competitors taller than sample trees negatively influenced growth. Analyses revealed differential response to release based on prerelease growth rates with slower-growing trees responding fastest. Release shock persisted for the fastest prerelease growers up to 4 years after harvest.
Cavity Trees, Snags, and Selection Cutting: A Northern Hardwood Case Study
Authors: Kenefic Laura S. , Nyland Ralph D.
Published: August 2019

Although traditional application of the selection system includes a focus on high-value trees that may reduce cavities and snags, few studies have quantified those habitat features in managed uneven-aged stands. We examined the effects of single-tree selection cutting on cavity trees and snags in a northern hardwood stand immediately prior to the second cutting. Marking followed guidelines proposed by Arbogast, C., Jr. (1957. Marking guides for northern hardwoods under selection system. US For. Serv. Res. Pap. 56, Lake States Forest Experiment Station. 20 p.), with the objective of improving stand quality for timber production while maintaining a balanced diameter distribution. The stand contained seven species of cavity trees and snags; sugar maple and American beech were most common, the latter comprising 20% of snags and 26% of cavity trees despite its relatively minor (7%) contribution to stand basal area. We found that 92% of cavity trees were live, underscoring the value of living trees as sources of cavities. Precut cavity tree density (25.2 live cavity trees per hectare) was more than twice that found in other studies of selection stands, although density of snags (11.0 snags per hectare) was comparable or lower. More than 50% of sampled cavity trees were designated for removal in the second selection cut, reducing projected postcut density to 11.0 live cavity trees per hectare, a density similar to that found in other studies. Postcut density of large cavity trees (3.3 live trees >45 cm dbh per hectare) exceeded published guidelines for northern hardwoods (0.25 to 2.5 live cavity trees >45 cm dbh per hectare). We speculate that the relatively high maximum diameter (61 cm dbh) and long cutting cycle (20 years) used to define the target stand structure may have contributed to the number of cavity trees observed. Nevertheless, selection cutting as applied in this study will likely reduce cavity abundance unless retention of trees with decay is explicitly incorporated into the management strategy.
Visual Simulations of Forest Wildlife Habitat Structure, Change, and Landscape Context in New England
Authors: DeGraaf Richard M. , Lester Anna M. , Yamasaki Mariko , Leak William B.
Published: August 2019

Visualization is a powerful tool for depicting projections of forest structure and landscape conditions, for communicating habitat management practices, and for providing a landscape context to private landowners and to those concerned with public land management. Recent advances in visualization technology, especially in graphics quality, ease of use, and relative ease of learning, make it readily usable by natural resource managers. Concerns about the appearance of even-aged practices, which have the greatest potential to enhance wildlife diversity, have constrained forest management. We developed realistic visual simulations to display the outcomes of forest management practices used to create and maintain a range of wildlife habitat conditions in New England, and to project future landscape appearance for periods up to 100 years. We describe the simulation process so that it can be used elsewhere. Realistic visual images can be a useful tool to clearly display habitat management alternatives for landowners and participants in public land management and to improve communication about the long-term appearance of the landscape as periodic treatments are applied.
Forestry Consulting Fees and Services in West Virginia
Authors: Nelli Dheeraj , McGill David W. , Arano Kathryn G. , Grushecky Shawn T.
Published: August 2019

Consulting foresters in West Virginia were surveyed in the summer of 2005 to document their firms' organizational characteristics, services offered, and fees charged and to examine how firm characteristics may influence the average fees charged for the services. The questionnaire mailed to 127 foresters resulted in a 56% response rate. The most common fee structure is payment by the hour with exceptions for timber-sale administration, where fees were reported most commonly as a percentage of timber-sale revenues, and for forest stewardship plan preparation that is charged on a per acre basis. Timber-sale administration was the most frequently offered service, with an average fee of 12% of the sale revenues. Average hourly fees charged for all services ranged from $30 to 70/hour. The two primary challenges currently reported by West Virginia consulting foresters are the cost of doing business and competition. Firm characteristics such as number of foresters employed, availability of liability insurance, number of clients, type of ownership, and years in business significantly influenced the amount charged for certain forestry services.
A Typology of Family Forest Owners in North Central Indiana
Authors: Ross-Davis Amy , Broussard Shorna
Published: August 2019

Patterns of forest cover across the United States partly reflect the diverse and dynamic ownership motivations and management behaviors of family forest owners. The objectives of this study were to (i) identify distinct types of landowners with regard to ownership motivations and other ownership characteristics and (ii) compare these types of landowners in terms of (a) use of specific forest management practices, (b) information seeking, (c) familiarity with and participation in private forest conservation programs, and (d) ownership and sociodemographic characteristics. A two-step cluster analysis of responses to a mail questionnaire distributed to family forest owners in north central Indiana revealed three distinct types of landowners. Forest managers attributed importance to diverse values with regard to owning their forest. New forest owners owned their properties for the least amount of time and attributed importance to all ownership motivations with the exception of producing timber. Passive forest owners owned the smallest forested acreages and attributed importance to none of the ownership motivations operationalized in this research with the exception of enjoying scenery. Results are discussed in terms of typologies previously described in the literature and the implications of the relationships among landowner types with regard to management.
Low-Density Management of White Pine Crop Trees: A Primer and Early Research Results
Authors: Seymour Robert S.
Published: August 2019

Growing white pines at low density after pruning appears to offer many advantages over more conventional silvicultural systems. This article describes how to design and implement a low-density thinning schedule using published relationships between crown architecture and stemwood growth; empirically, appropriate crown development can be maintained by keeping Wilson's spacing/height ratio between 0.4 (before thinning) and 0.5 (residual stand). Short-term results from a replicated thinning study in east central Maine show that diameter growth of heavily released crop trees was 2.8 times that of similar trees in the unthinned controls and 1.6 times that of similar trees in plots thinned to the B line on the pine stocking guide. Despite the important differences in tree development between thinning methods, total stemwood volume growth per acre of the low-density treatment was only 5% less (and not statistically different) than the B-line treatment. Gross stemwood growth was strongly and linearly related to four parameters of stand density; no evidence of an optimum density zone (the Langsaeter hypothesis) was found. The traditional B line on the white pine stocking guide is shown to have little relevance to either low-density or high-production thinning schedules and should be replaced by a more flexible, less prescriptive approach.
Effect of Shade on Growth of Seedling American Chestnut Trees
Authors: Anagnostakis Sandra L.
Published: August 2019

American chestnut seedlings were grown for three seasons in full sun or under a shade tent (65% shade) that was put in place each spring and removed each fall. Seedlings grown in the shade were larger, and fewer died from winter injury.
Origin of Small Understory Beech in New York Northern Hardwood Stands
Authors: Nyland Ralph D.
Published: August 2019

I sampled understory beech with heights that were 4 ft tall or less to determine their origin in 22 northern hardwood stands in New York. The proportion of seedling-origin beech ranged from 5 to 75% across sites. However, in 20 stands, the majority of beech (58–91%) with heights of 2–4 ft tall had a root sucker origin. Coupled with other information from published sources, findings suggest four possibilities about beech regeneration: (1) seed production and/or early seedling survival may have a clonal linkage, with some genotypes producing little viable seed, or with few seedlings surviving after germination; (2) a prevalence of root suckers among the taller understory beech suggests their higher potential for long-term survival and development and limited shifts in the genetic makeup of that species within a stand; (3) at some level of stocking, taller understory beech root suckers may interfere with survival and development of seedling regeneration; and (4) because the taller understory beech has a root sucker origin at most sites, root suckers may just develop more rapidly than seedlings.
Base–age Invariant Polymorphic Height Growth and Site Index Equations for Peatland Black Spruce Stands
Authors: Newton Peter F.
Published: August 2019

The goal of this study was to develop base–age invariant polymorphic height growth and site index equations for peatland black spruce (Picea mariana [Mill.]; BSP) stands situated within the western portion of the Northern Clay section of the Canadian Boreal Forest region. Procedurally, equation parameters were estimated via ordinary least squares analysis using 291 mean dominant height − mean stand age (Hd − As) data pairs derived from 42 permanent sample plots (PSPs). The predictive ability of the resultant height growth equation was evaluated by examining mean absolute and relative errors and associated 95% prediction intervals over 5-, 15-, 25-, 35-, and 45-year projection periods. Furthermore, using an independent data set consisting of 129 Hd − As data pairs derived from 24 PSP, the new height growth equation was compared with two preexisting equations. Overall, the results indicated that the predictions derived from the new equation were unbiased irrespective of error type or projection period length and that the new equation exhibited greater predictive accuracy and was more consistent with expected dominant height development patterns than the preexisting equations. Consequently, the new equations are recommended for use when describing height growth patterns or quantifying site quality within peatland black spruce stands.
Effects of Preceding Stand Age on Nutrient Availability in Postharvest Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana) Stands
Authors: Thompson Trent G. , Rothstein David E.
Published: August 2019

Because of the long time periods involved, empirical data on the effects of preceding stand age on nutrient availability in the succeeding stand are scarce. We took advantage of a unique management situation in the jack pine forests of northern Lower Michigan to assess the effects of preceding stand age (24‐76 years) on postharvest soil nutrient availability. We found that potentially mineralizable nitrogen (N) and extractable phosphorus (P) increased with increasing age of the preceding stand. In contrast, we observed no response of total organic carbon (C) and N or extractable base cations to preceding stand age. Together, our results demonstrate that harvesting these forests at younger ages results in decreased availability of N and P immediately following harvest.
Characteristics of New York's Logging Businesses and Logging Business Owners
Authors: Egan Andrew
Published: August 2019

Despite the importance of the forest products industry to New York's manufacturing sector, concerns about reductions in logging capacity, and attention given to logging communities in other states, there has been a lack of systematically gathered data about the state's logging community. A mailed survey, informed by focus groups, key informant interviews, and previous research, was used to solicit information from logging business owners on issues such as occupational choice and prestige, familial attachment, logger training, and barriers to maintaining their logging businesses. Most New York logging business owners cited positive aspects of their work as reasons for becoming loggers, but they sensed both a lack of occupational prestige associated with logging and a lack of understanding among the general public of the logging profession and its contributions to theeconomy. There were some significant differences between loggers who worked in the Adirondack region and those from the rest of the state, especially related to the effects of forest ownership changes on their businesses. As with similar studies of the logging communities in other states in the northeast, this study provides background information on loggers and logging businesses in New York that may be useful to the state's forest products industry, department of labor, logger training entities, and legislature. In addition, this research represents a reference point from which future studies of the state's logging workforce may be more clearly understood, providing an opportunity to track changes in this important forestry-sector workforce over time.
Public Perceptions of the Logging Profession in Maine and Implications for Logger Recruitment
Authors: Egan Andrew , Taggart Deryth
Published: August 2019

Despite the importance of the forest products industry to Maine's economy, there have been persistent concerns about a shortage of qualified woodsworkers. Several studies have cited the low occupational prestige associated with the logging profession as central to the problems of recruiting new loggers and logging business owners. A phone survey was used to clarify the Maine public's perceptions of logging and the logging profession. Results were compared with perspectives from loggers in the state who were surveyed by mail the previous year. Although most Maine citizens surveyed agreed that logging was a skilled profession and acknowledged its importance to the state's economy, for example, analyses revealed stark gender differences among the state's public in their acceptance of logging as a profession. Respondent education and place of residence also helped to explain some responses, such as whether a survey participant would encourage a son or daughter to pursue logging as a career. At the same time, less than one-quarter of Maine loggers surveyed would recommend logging as a career to a son or daughter. Results may have implications for the recruitment of new workers into the logging workforce.
Social versus Biophysical Availability of Wood in the Northern United States
Authors: Butler Brett J. , Ma Zhao , Kittredge David B. , Catanzaro Paul
Published: August 2019

The availability of wood, be it harvested for sawlogs, pulpwood, biomass, or other products, is constrained by social and biophysical factors. Knowing the difference between social and biophysical availability is important for understanding what can realistically be extracted. This study focuses on the wood located in family forests across the northern United States. Family forest owners control 54% of the 7,685 million dry tons of wood in the region. To estimate availability, we begin with the total resource and then apply constraints related to slope, drainage, site productivity, tree size, size of forest holdings, distance to roads, harvesting restrictions, population pressures, and ownership attitudes. These constraints reduce wood availability significantly, by nearly two-thirds according to our calculations. The vast majority of this reduction is due to social factors, in particular owner attitudes. The greatest state-level reductions in wood availability are in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, all of which have estimated reductions of more than 75%.
Allometric Equations for the Aboveground Biomass of Selected Common Eastern Hardwood Understory Species
Authors: Dickinson Yvette L. , Zenner Eric K.
Published: August 2019

Allometric equations were formulated for predicting the aboveground biomass of six groups of forest understory species (Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.], blueberry [Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton, Vaccinium corymbosum L., and Vaccinium pallidum Aiton], hawthorn [Crataegus spp.], honeysuckle [Lonicera spp.], multiflora rose [Rosa multiflora Thunb.], and viburnum [Viburnum acerifolium L. and Viburnum dentatum L.]) common to Eastern hardwoods using basal diameter and/or height. As measured by fit index, basal diameter or height alone explained between 51 and 93% of the variation in oven-dry weight; this increased to 75‐96% when both basal diameter and height were used as predictors. Data were collected at four sites throughout Pennsylvania, but an evaluation of the importance of site as a blocking factor found site not to be statistically significant; therefore, the equations presented here may be used in a variety of forested sites within the greater mid-Atlantic region.
Influence of Sulfometuron Methyl on American Chestnut Seedling Growth and Leaf Function
Authors: Robertson Nathan D. , Davis Anthony S.
Published: August 2019

The expected production, dissemination, and planting of blight-resistant hybrid chestnut seedlings calls for anticipatory studies to establish optimal management practices. To test phytotoxic potential of a site preparation herbicide, seedling growth and physiological function were measured for potted American chestnut (Castanea dentata [Marsh.] Borkh.). Six concentrations (0.0, 0.026, 0.053, 0.105, 0.158, and 0.210 kg active ingredient [ai] ha−1) of sulfometuron methyl (Oust) were applied to pots in April 2008, which were planted with 1 + 0 seedlings in May, and grown until November 2008. Changes in height, rootcollar diameter, and root volume and length were measured. A portable photosynthesis system was used to measure net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration. Seedlings treated with label-recommended doses (0.105‐0.210 kg [ai] ha−1) showed growth and leaf function suppression, including 55, 71, and 82% reductions in height growth, root volume, and net photosynthesis, respectively. These results indicate that a strong need exists for field trials, with various dose regimes, to be conducted to refine an application rate that minimizes phytotoxic damage while still providing suitable control of competition vegetation.
Maximum and Largest Crown Width Equations for 15 Tree Species in Maine
Authors: Russell Matthew B. , Weiskittel Aaron R.
Published: August 2019

An extensive statewide data set for seven conifer and eight hardwood species commonly occurring in Maine was used in the development of maximum and largest crown width equations. To establish the characteristics of open-grown trees, quantile regression was used to estimate the biological maximum crown width for a species at a given diameter. To predict crown widths of trees in forested settings, a constrained nonlinear equation was used, using the predicted maximum crown width, tree diameter, and crown ratio. The models performed well across the wide range of stand conditions present in the data set and improved predictions over the currently used crown width equations for most species (reduction of mean absolute error ranged from 1 to 23%). In general, predictions of largest crown width were not greatly improved with the inclusion of crown ratio, and there was a high amount of unexplained variation for shade-tolerant hardwood species, such as American beech (Fagus grandifolia) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum). The equations presented herein can be used in examining tree crown profiles, computing measurements of stand density, and investigating canopy dynamics for species common to the forests of Maine.