bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Demonic Demographics
Authors: Hough Susan Elizabeth , Bilham Roger G.
Published: November 2020

Between 100 B.C. and about A.D. 1600, global populations doubled from around 300 million to more than 600 million people. The second doubling in world population was very much faster. It occurred between 1600 and 1800, when improvements in medicine and living conditions resulted in a dramatic reduction in mortality rates. The third doubling in world population, from 1.2 billion to 2.5 billion was faster still, in the 150 years following 1800—in spite of the occurrence of two world wars. The fourth doubling occurred in less than 40 years, bringing global population in 1990 to more than 5 billion. Although the rate of population increase has slowed, a fifth, and perhaps final, doubling of population in the next 50 years is projected by the United Nations, bringing projected world populations in 2050 to somewhere between 7.6 and 10.6 billion. In the past 200 years, then, we have increased the number of people on our planet by a factor of 10. We might conclude from this that whatever the impact of earthquakes on human history, it may be very different from what we may expect in our future. Neither the rates nor the distributions of large earthquakes have changed appreciably in millions of years, but the risk has grown simply because the sizes of the targets are now so much greater than ever before. Of particular note for the present discussion, the recent tenfold increase in human populations has occurred largely in cities. During the Middle Ages the rural population outnumbered the urban population by about 100 to 1, a ratio that reflected the high risk of communicable disease in cities. Cities were essentially places for the excess rural population to move to, and to die young. Advances in medicine upset the natural mortality of cities that had checked their growth, and urban populations have grown steadily since 1600.
Devalued Germans
Authors: Bauder Harald
Published: November 2020

Despite the privilege of German citizenship, Spätaussiedler experience difficulties in the German labor market. Unemployment tends to be high, and many of those who are employed fill positions in the secondary segment of the labor market. A problem for many Spätaussiedler is that their former occupations do not exist or are not in demand in Germany. Tractor operators, technicians in the oil industry, and coal miners from the former Soviet Union have difficulty finding employment in their fields, particularly in Berlin. Other Spätaussiedler still work in their general field, but below their original qualifications. Of these, many are denied work in their former occupations because their foreign occupational and educational credentials are not recognized by German authorities and employers. Government efforts to streamline the transferability of foreign credentials have concentrated on countries within the European Union (Schneider 1995); however, Spätaussiedler from the territory of the former Soviet Union do not benefit from these efforts. Although, as German citizens, they are legally entitled to credential assessment, exclusionary practices in the credential assessment and recognition process still make it difficult for Spätaussiedler to obtain work in the upper labor market segment. These immigrants fall victim to a double standard that values domestic and foreign credentials differently. The nonrecognition of foreign credentials as a mechanism of labor devaluation is not unusual in countries that receive large numbers of immigrants, as illustrated in chapter 5 in the case of immigrants in Vancouver. In Germany, Spätaussiedler present an interesting group because they enjoy citizenship rights and privileges unavailable to other immigrant groups. They receive full legal labor market access, economic integration assistance, the right to credential assessment, privileged treatment by labor market institutions, and, unlike foreigners and naturalized migrants, they are able to use their foreign qualifications to establish small businesses and offer vocational apprenticeships. In some instances, Spätaussiedler even receive preferential treatment relative to other Germans, for example, when applying for small business loans (Juris 2003, BFVG §14). In light of these privileges, labor devaluation through legal exclusion is apparently not an issue for Spätaussiedler.
Some Characterization Techniques Useful for Polysiloxanes
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

The general approach used in choosing a polymer suitable for a particular application is: . . . Polymerization ↔ Structure ↔ Properties ↔ Application . . . For example, if one wants a polymer for fire-resistant fabrics, then a polymer with good high-temperature properties is required, which implies aromatic structures, which suggest condensation polymerizations. More relevant here, however, would be that a polymer remains elastomeric at low temperatures. This requirement evokes a polymer with high flexibility (low glass transition temperature), which indicates use of the polymerization techniques used with the polysiloxanes. An example of a relevant optical property is the birefringence of a deformed polymer network. This strain-induced birefringence can be used to characterize segmental orientation, and both Gaussian and non-Gaussian elasticity. Infrared dichroism has also been helpful in this regard. In the case of the crystallizable polysiloxane elastomers, orientation is of critical importance with regard to strain-induced crystallization and the tremendous reinforcement it provides. Segmental orientation has also been characterized by fluorescence polarization, deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and polarized infrared spectroscopy. Infrared spectroscopy has been used to characterize the structures of silica-filled polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Other optical and spectroscopic techniques are also important, including positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy, spectroscopic ellipsometry, confocal Raman spectroscopy, and photoluminescence spectroscopy. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy has been made tunable using gold nanorods and strain control on elastomeric PDMS substrates. A great deal of information is now being obtained on filler dispersion and other aspects of elastomer structure and morphology through the use of scanning probe microscopy, which consists of several approaches. One approach is that of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), in which an extremely sharp metal tip on a cantilever is passed along the surface while measuring the electric current flowing through quantum mechanical tunneling. Monitoring the current then permits maintaining the probe at a fixed height above the surface. Display of probe height as a function of surface coordinates then gives the desired topographic map. One limitation of this approach is the requirement that the sample be electrically conductive. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), on the other hand, does not require a conducting Surface.
Surfaces
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

Because of the great importance of the surface properties of the polysiloxanes, this topic is treated separately in this chapter. Hydrophobic polysiloxanes having simple aliphatic or aromatic side groups have surfaces that show essentially no attraction to water. In fact, polysiloxanes can serve as water repellants. This property is very useful for applications such as protective coatings on historical monuments and for controlling the surfaces of other polymers, sensors, and quantum dots. Hydrophobic surfaces can be readily regenerated if the surface becomes damaged. Regeneration occurs by rearrangements of the polysiloxane chains so that the hydrophobic methyl groups are once again covering the surface. The flexibility of the siloxane chain backbone facilitates this process. It is also possible to prepare hydrophobic films using methyl-modified siloxane melting gels. Glass surfaces or wool fibers can be coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to make them more hydrophobic. In some cases, it is necessary to modify a polysiloxane surface to make it hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Hydrophobization is one aspect of the general topic of modifying and managing the properties of polymer surfaces. An important example involves soft contact lenses that contain PDMS, which is often used because of its very high permeability to oxygen, which is required for metabolic processes within the eye. Such lenses do not feel comfortable however because they do not float properly on the aqueous tears that coat the eye. There are a number of ways to modify the surfaces. There is even a way to make “unreactive” silicones react with inorganic surfaces. In some applications it is useful to have hydrophilicity in the bulk of the polymer instead of just at the surface. One way of doing this is by simultaneously end linking hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains and hydrophobic PDMS chains. Another way is to make a PDMS network with a trifunctional organosilane R’Si(OR) end linker that contains a hydrophilic R’ side chain, such as a polyoxide. Treating only the surfaces is another possibility, for example, by adding hydrophilic brushes by vapor deposition/hydrolysis cycles. Such hydrophilic polysiloxanes can also serve as surfactants.
Elastomeric Networks
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

Gelation is the cross-linking process that leads to the network structures required for rubberlike elasticity. In some cases, gelation can be reversible. There have been numerous studies involving theory and simulations exploring gelation and the mechanical properties of the resulting networks. Cross linking with free radicals is still quite common. Radiation has often been used to carry out the cross linking, as have new techniques known as “click” chemistry. Hydrosilylation is also popular. Networks have even been designed with movable cross links. Finally, reactive groups can be placed at the chain ends or within the chains themselves. Related studies have involved polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based organogelators, web-to-pillar transitions of gels, and silica aerogels. There has also been interest in polysiloxanes in interpenetrating hydrogels with high oxygen permeabilities and viscoelastic magnetic gels. Organic-inorganic hybrids with relatively low melting temperatures also exist, some of which can be made to be self-healing. Gels are also formed in swelling experiments, which are useful for equilibrium experiments to characterize network structures. One of the recent topics in this area involves stimuli-responsive gels, under the descriptive title of “self-walking gels” “wormlike motion of gels,” and “peristaltic motion of gels.” The earliest studies of networks formed in solution were undertaken to investigate some subtle aspects of the elastic free energy expression— whether or not an additional term in the logarithm of the volume was required. Other studies focused on the properties of networks in general. As can be gathered from chapter 4, it is difficult to obtain information on the topology of a network. Some studies have therefore taken an indirect approach. Networks were prepared in a way as to simplify their topologies, and their properties were measured and interpreted in terms of reduced degrees of network-chain entanglement. The two techniques employed involved separating the chains prior to cross linking by either dissolution or stretching. After cross linking, the solvent is removed or the stretching force is relaxed, and the network is studied (unswollen) with regard to its stress-strain properties, typically in elongation.
Morphology Evolution in Immiscible Polymer Blends during Compounding
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Polymer researchers have had a long-standing interest in understanding the evolution of blend morphology when two (or more) incompatible homopolymers or copolymers are melt blended in mixing equipment. In industry, melt blending is conducted using either an internal (batch) mixer (e.g., a Banbury mixer or a Brabender mixer) or a continuous mixer (e.g., a twin-screw extruder or a Buss kneader). There are many factors that control the evolution of blend morphology during compounding, the five primary ones being (1) blend composition, (2) rheological properties (e.g., viscosity ratio) of the constituent components, (3) mixing temperature, which in turn affects the rheological properties of the constituent components, (4) the duration of mixing in a batch mixer or residence time in a continuous mixer, and (5) rotor speed in a batch mixer or screw speed in a continuous mixer (i.e., local shear rate or shear stress). When two immiscible polymers are compounded in mixing equipment, two types of blend morphology are often observed: dispersed morphology and co-continuous morphology. Numerous investigators have reported on blend morphology of immiscible polymers, and there are too many papers to cite them all here. Some investigators (Han 1976, 1981; Han and Kim 1975; Han and Yu 1972; Nelson et al. 1977; van Oene 1978) examined blend morphology to explain the seemingly very complicated rheological behavior of two-phase polymer blends, and others (Favis and Therrien 1991; He et al. 1997; Ho et al. 1990; Miles and Zurek 1988; Scott and Macosko 1995; Shih 1995; Sundararaj et al. 1992, 1996) investigated blend morphology as affected by processing conditions. Today, it is fairly well understood from experimental studies under what conditions a dispersed morphology or a co-continuous morphology may be formed, and whether a co-continuous morphology is stable, giving rise to an equilibrium morphology, or whether it is an unstable intermediate morphology that eventually is transformed into a dispersed morphology (Lee and Han 1999a, 1999b, 2000). Let us consider the morphology evolution in an immiscible blend consisting of two semicrystalline polymers, A and B, in a compounding machine, and let us assume that the melting point (Tm,A) of polymer A is lower than the melting point (Tm,B) of polymer B.
Reaction Injection Molding
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Reaction injection molding (RIM) is a thermoset processing operation during which the incoming feedstream(s) undergo cure reactions that give rise to a three-dimensional network structure (Becker 1979; Macosko 1989). Different from the operation of injection molding thermoplastic polymers presented in Chapter 8, in RIM operation the component(s) must cure rapidly (say, within 90 seconds) and a finished product is removed in 1−10 minutes, depending on the chemical systems, the part thickness, and the capabilities of the processing machine. The chief advantages of RIM over the injection molding of thermoplastic polymers are: (1) large parts can be produced at low energy consumption, (2) large parts with varying cross sections with or without inserts can be produced without the problem of sink marks, and (3) lightweight parts, owing to the microcellular structure, can be produced. However, the predominant industrial applications are in the automotive industry; for instance, in the production of automobile fascia. In the 1970s and 1980s, very intensive research activities were reported on a better understanding of the RIM operation. Thermosets must meet with some stringent requirements for RIM operation. These are: (1) viscosities must be fairly low at processing temperature, so that a rapid injection of the feedstreams can be realized; (2) the feedstreams must have sufficient compatibility for efficient mixing by the static impingement mixing technique; (3) cure reaction must be sufficiently fast, such that a finished product can be removed in a very short time after injection is completed; (4) a finished product must have sufficient stiffness and resiliency at elevated temperatures; and (5) a finished product must be released easily from the mold surface, etc. It is then clear that not many thermosets meet these requirements. It has been found that urethanes, with proper chemistry of the components, meet with the requirements. For this reason, urethanes have been the most widely used resin for RIM, although other thermosets (e.g., epoxy) have also been used to some extent.
Pultrusion of Thermoset/Fiber Composites
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Pultrusion of thermoset/fiber composites generally consists of pulling continuous rovings and/or continuous glass mats through a resin bath or impregnator and then into preforming fixtures, where the section is partially shaped and excess resin and/or air are removed. Finally, the preformed profiles are pulled through heated dies, where the section is cured continuously (Batch 1989; Meyer 1985; Price 1979; Richard 1986). The pultrusion process is one of the most cost-effective continuous processing techniques for producing thermoset composite materials. The laminating resin may be an unsaturated polyester resin, a vinyl ester resin, or an epoxy resin, but the majority of pultruded thermoset products currently use unsaturated polyester resins. The reason for this is that epoxy resins require high heat inputs and have relatively slow gelation, although some effort has been spent on development of new epoxy resin systems that can be pultruded at speeds comparable with unsaturated polyester resin systems (e.g., 0.6–0.9 m/min). Han and coworkers (Han et al. 1986, Han and Chin 1988) formulated and then solved numerically, via the finite difference method, a system of equations describing the cure kinetics of a thermoset resin and the heat transfer between the resin and the die wall, in order to model the pultrusion process for thermoset/fiber composites. Subsequently, other investigators (Batch and Macosko 1993; Chachad et al. 1995; Gorthala et al. 1994a, 1994b; Ma et al. 1986) reported similar studies. Experimental studies (Batch and Macosko 1993; Chachad et al. 1995; Ma et al. 1986; Price 1979; Price and Cupschalk 1984; Roux et al. 1998) on the pultrusion process for thermoset/fiber composites have also been reported. Some research groups (Aström and Pipes 1993; Larock et al. 1989; Ma and Chen 1991; Ruan and Liu 1994) have investigated the pultrusion process of fiber-reinforced thermoplastic polymers. While there are some similarities between the pultrusion of thermoset/fiber composites and fiber-reinforced thermoplastic polymers, the most important difference between the two lies in that the former involves chemical reactions during processing, whereas the latter does not.
Fundamental Techniques
Authors: Li Jie Jack , Limberakis Chris , Pflum Derek A.
Published: November 2020

What we do in a modern organic chemistry laboratory is serious business. While it can provide social benefit, basic scientific discoveries, and intellectual satisfaction, chemical experiment is not just fun, it can also be very hazardous, some experiments inherently so. Complacency is often observed by veterans and novices alike. One often forgets that chemistry is a potentially dangerous enterprise; a cavalier attitude often results in disastrous consequences. Therefore, extreme caution should be exercised at all time, especially when one handles large-scale reactions that are exothermic or when dealing with toxic chemicals. If a chemical splashes into your eyes, it could do serious and sometimes permanent damage to your vision. The most common forms of eye protection include safety glasses (with sideshields), goggles, and face shields. Prescription eye glasses are acceptable provided that the lenses are impact resistant and they are equipped with side shields. While at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Professor K. Barry Sharpless, the 2001 chemistry Nobel laureate, experienced an event that forever changed his life. Professor Sharpless normally wore his safety glasses, but one evening in 1970 he was examining a sealed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) tube without safety glasses. Unfortunately for Professor Sharpless, the tube exploded, spraying glass fragments into one of his eyes. The damage was so severe that he lost functional vision in the injured eye. Professor Sharpless’s own words summarize the importance of eye protection, “The lesson to be learned from my experience is straightforward: there’s simply never an adequate excuse for not wearing safety glasses in the laboratory at all times” (Scripps Research Institutes’ Environmental Health and Safety Department Safety Gram, 2000 (2nd quarter), www.scripps.edu/researchservices/ehs/ News/safetygram/). Laboratory gloves are an essential part of safe laboratory practice and must be worn while handling chemicals. Despite practicing good safety techniques, tragedy may still strike.
Functional Group Manipulations
Authors: Li Jie Jack , Limberakis Chris , Pflum Derek A.
Published: November 2020

CBr4–Ph3P is very straightforward and widely used. Workup and purification can be messy at times because of the by-product, Ph3PO. To a mixture of the alcohol (0.800 g, 3.36 mmol) and carbon tetrabromide (1.337 g, 4.03 mmol) in CH2Cl2 at 0 ºC was added a solution of PPh3 (1.319 g, 5.03 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (3 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1 h, concentrated under reduced pressure, and purified by column chromatography to afford the bromide (0.941 g, 93% yield). Reference: Hu, T.-S.; Yu, Q.; Wu, Y.-L.; Wu, Y. J. Org. Chem. 2001, 66, 853–861. A two-step sequence consisting of mesylate formation followed by treatment with LiBr can also be used. This procedure involves two steps, but workup and purification are very straightforward. The bromide can be carried out to the next step without further purification in many cases. To a solution of 5-hydroxymethyl-1-methylcyclopentene (3.8 g, 34 mmol) in CH2 Cl2 (50 mL) at 0 ºC was added triethylamine (5.2 mL, 37 mmol) followed by methanesulfonyl chloride (2.9 mL, 37 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 0 ºC for 5 h and then water was added. The organic layer was separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with ether. The combined organic extracts were dried over MgSO4 and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to give 6.4 g (98%) of (2-methylcyclopent-2- enyl)methyl methanesulfonate, which was used in the next step without further purification. A solution containing the mesylate (6.4 g, 34 mmol) in acetone (70 mL) was treated with lithium bromide (8.89 g, 102 mmol). The mixture was heated at reflux for 6 h, cooled to room temperature, diluted with water, extracted with ether, and the combined ethereal extracts were dried over MgSO4. Removal of the solvent under reduced pressure gave 4.6 g (78%) of 5-bromomethyl-1-methylcyclopentene, which was used in the next step without further purification.
Stalking: Perspectives on Victims and Management
Authors: Newman Alan W. , Appelbaum Kenneth L.
Published: November 2020

The potential of being stalked is a frightening prospect, in part because of the widespread media attention to the phenomenon, principally highlighting cases in which significant harm toward the victim has occurred. Victims may have little knowledge of how to manage a stalking situation. Civil and criminal remedies may provide some relief, but ultimately victims must manage their own safety in a way that they see as best for their particular situation. In assisting and assessing victims, the issue of false victimization must also be considered. This chapter will explore issues related to the effects of being stalked and methods of management for victims. Although much of the attention to stalking seen in the legal, clinical, and research literature has been related to stalkers and the act of stalking, there has also been a burgeoning interest in examining stalking victims. This allows for a greater opportunity to understand stalking behaviors, and their effects on others, from a perspective vastly different from that of the perpetrator. Moreover, it has become increasingly recognized that stalking creates very negative psychological (and at times physical) harm to victims. Understanding the phenomenology of victimization and victimology can help clinicians work from a foundation when they are faced with treating a person who may be a victim of stalking. Furthermore, although risk assessment and risk management of stalkers are discussed elsewhere in this book (see chapters 3 and 4), it is imperative that there be a mechanism to manage risk from the perspective of the victim. Stalking represents a dyadic tension, and approaches to mitigating risk must be done with recognition of the impact of stalking on the victim. As we discussed in our GAP Committee on Psychiatry and the Law, important questions typically posed by a stalking victim include queries into whether the stalking will cease and whether the victim will be harmed. More nuanced aspects of victim assessment and management include an examination of day-to-day approaches in dealing with stalking behavior.
Celebrity and Presidential Targets
Authors: Phillips Robert T. M.
Published: November 2020

Celebrities have become targets of potentially violent stalkers who instill fear by their relentless pursuit and, in some reported cases, threatened risk of violence. Celebrity stalking may evolve to planned, often violent attacks on intentionally selected targets. The causes of these incidents are complex, and frequently involve delusional obsessions concerning a contrived relationship between the target and stalker. Similar dynamics can be at play for presidential stalkers. Becoming the focus of someone’s delusional obsession is a risk for anyone living in the public eye. Planned attacks by stalkers, however, are not confined to internationally prominent public officials and celebrities. Some of the same themes emerge on a more local level when public figures become the object of pursuit. Celebrity and presidential stalkers often do not neatly fit any of the typologies that have evolved to codify our understanding of the motivation and special characteristics of stalking. Clinicians are often unaware of a “zone of risk” that extends beyond the delusional love object and can lead to the injury of others in addition to the attempted or accomplished homicide of a celebrity or presidential target. Most people can resist the temptation to intrude on a celebrity’s privacy—celebrity stalkers do not. This chapter explores celebrity status, as seen by the public and in the mind of the would-be assailant, as a unique factor in stalking cases that raises issues of clinical relevance and unique typologies. Special attention is given to the behaviors and motivations of individuals who have stalked the presidents of the United States. Many celebrities become targets of stalkers who relentlessly pursue and frighten them and who, in some cases, threaten violence. Though each case of celebrity stalking is unique and complex, such incidents frequently involve delusional obsessions concerning the contrived relationship between the stalker and victim. Stalking is not confined solely to well-known figures, of course. However, it is the very nature of celebrity—the status and the visibility—that attracts the benign (if voyeuristic) attention of an adoring public and the ominous interest of the stalker. Obsessional following of celebrities is not a new phenomenon in the United States.
Anesthetics
Authors: Li Jie Jack
Published: November 2020

The easiest pain to bear is someone else’s. In the preanesthesia era, the prospect of surgery was so terrifying that it was not uncommon for a tough-hearted man to commit suicide rather than go through that unbearable, excruciating agony. It is hard to believe t hat t here was a time when nothing was effective to a lleviate surgical pain. The patients were simply strapped down and that was it. As a consequence, speed was the most important attribute of a surgeon in those days. A great English surgeon, Robert Liston at the University College Hospital, once boasted that he had amputated a leg in 29 seconds, along with a testicle of his patient and a finger of his assistant. The operation rooms were often strategically located at the tops of towers in the hospitals to keep fearful screams from being heard. During wartime, surgeries were even worse than battlefield injuries, because during the fight soldiers were temporarily “hypnotized” and became oblivious to pain. Before anesthesia, surgeons resorted to whatever means were available to deaden the pain oft heir patients during operations. The three most popular methods were alcohol, ice, and narcotics. Legend has it that a surgeon first conceived the idea of operating during a patient’s alcoholic coma when he noticed that a drunkard had had parts of his face chewed away by a hog but was not aware of it during a drunken stupor. Chinese surgeon Bian Què (401–310 B.C.) was reported to have operated on a patient’s brain using herbal extracts to render him unconscious more than 2,000 years ago. Hua Tuo (115–205 A.D.) made his patients take an effervescing powder (possibly cannabis) in wine that produced numbness and insensibility before surgical operations. Cold deadens pain by slowing the rate impulse conduction by nerve fiber. Some surgeons used ice to numb limbs before amputations. This method was invented by Baron Dominique Jean Larrey (1766–1842), surgeon of Napoleon’s Grande Armée.
Does the Constitution Follow the Flag?
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2020

The Bush Administration has notoriously argued that detainees at Guantanamo do not enjoy constitutional rights because they are held outside American borders. But where do rules about territorial legal limits such as this one come from? Why does geography make a difference for what legal rules apply? Most people intuitively understand that location affects constitutional rights, but the legal and political basis for territorial jurisdiction is poorly understood. In this novel and accessible treatment of territoriality in American law and foreign policy, Kal Raustiala begins by tracing the history of the subject from its origins in post-revolutionary America to the Indian wars and overseas imperialism of the 19th century. He then takes the reader through the Cold War and the globalization era before closing with a powerful explanation of America's attempt to increase its extraterritorial power in the post-9/11 world. As American power has grown, our understanding of extraterritorial legal rights has expanded too, and Raustiala illuminates why America's assumptions about sovereignty and territory have changed. Throughout, he focuses on how the legal limits of territorial sovereignty have diminished to accommodate the expanding American empire, and addresses how such limits ought to look in the wake of Iraq, Afghanistan, and the war on terror. A timely and engaging narrative, Does the Constitution Follow the Flag? will change how we think about American territory, American law, and-ultimately-the changing nature of American power.
Territory and the Republic
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2020

The American Revolution birthed a new nation that, although small and weak, would eventually come to dominate world politics. The events of 1776 foreshadowed a range of future rebellions by peoples who chafed under imperialism and sought ultimately to control their own political destiny. In North America, as in the many independence movements since, the rebels aimed to do so by claiming and defending a distinct territory and declaring themselves a new state. The American Revolution was unusual, however, in that the new United States did not simply occupy territory that had been previously ruled by an existing Westphalian sovereign. The United States was instead surrounded by a vast expanse of land largely ungoverned (in the view of Europeans) by any other political entity. The nation began as thirteen colonies on the Atlantic coast, but over the next two centuries it enlarged its territory dramatically through a combination of conquest, purchase, and treaty. This story is central to American history, and the “extraordinary geographic expansion of the United States is critical to understanding the rise of the nation as a world power and global empire.” This chapter explores how the concept of territoriality was manifested and interpreted in early American law. The founding generation “was intensely interested in the geographic extent of the American polity.” How was this intense interest manifested? In what ways were established ideas about Westphalian territoriality reflected in the new Constitution? What legal questions did geographic expansion raise? In short, this chapter explores how eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century Americans understood and interpreted the links between sovereignty and soil. For several reasons the United States is particularly interesting in this regard. Federalism entails a central distinction between state and federal territory. For most of American history federal territory was substantial in size and, in large part due to conflicts over slavery, highly charged politically. How, if at all, constitutional protections differed in the states versus the territories was a question that would over time foment dramatic debate. The United States also contains many Indian tribes.
The Top 10 Concerns about Recovery Encountered in System Transformation
Authors: Davidson Larry , Rowe Michael , Tondora Janis , O'Connell Maria J. , Lawless Martha Staeheli
Published: November 2020

The second chapter begins with descriptions of some of the many ways in which people with serious mental illness are key agents in their own recovery. In these descriptions, we fi nd that the cornerstones of recovery are both the hope that a better life is possible and the desire the person has to pursue such a better life once this hope has taken root. For an individual, both hope and action appear to be required to make recovery a reality. As we begin to understand more fully the role of systems of care and of the practitioners within those systems in facilitating recovery, we suggest that achieving, in the words of the New Freedom Commission report, “profound change—not at the margins of a system, but at its very core” also will require both hopeful attitudes and concerted efforts. While the remaining chapters in this volume will deal more explicitly with the kinds of concerted efforts required to achieve transformation, this chapter focuses primarily on attitudes toward recovery and the kinds of concerns systems and practitioners have raised (to date) as they have gone about the process of understanding and implementing recovery principles in practice. It has been our experience, however, that the federal mandate to transform systems of care to promote recovery has left many policy makers, program managers, practitioners, and even the recovery community itself under increasing pressure to move to a recovery orientation without fi rst examining the concerns of stakeholders within those systems about this new notion of recovery and its implications. As a result, we are all at risk of overlaying recovery rhetoric on top of existing systems of care, failing to effect any real or substantial—not to mention revolutionary—changes due to our urgency to just “get it done.” In this chapter, we pause to consider some of the more common concerns we have encountered in attempting to introduce and implement care based on the vision of recovery that we have articulated thus far. Addressing these concerns, we believe, is a necessary fi rst step in changing the attitudes that underlie current practices in the process of replacing these attitudes with the more hopeful, empowering, and respectful attitudes demanded, and deserved, by people in recovery.
Practice Standards for Recovery-Oriented Care
Authors: Davidson Larry , Rowe Michael , Tondora Janis , O'Connell Maria J. , Lawless Martha Staeheli
Published: November 2020

What does a recovery-oriented system of care look like in practice? As we suggested in the preceding chapters, the primary aim of recovery-oriented care is to offer people with serious mental illness a range of effective and culturally responsive interventions from which they may choose those services and supports they find useful in promoting or protecting their own recovery. In addition to diagnosing and reducing symptoms and deficits, a recovery-oriented system of care also identifies and builds on each individual’s assets and areas of health and competence to support that person in achieving a sense of mastery over his or her condition while regaining a meaningful, constructive sense of membership in the broader community (Davidson et al., 2007). While the goal of recovery-oriented care may appear, in this way, to be relatively clear and straightforward, the ways in which care can be used to promote recovery are neither so clear nor so straightforward—neither, unfortunately, are the ways in which care, as currently configured, may impede or undermine recovery. The following practice standards are offered as a beginning roadmap of this territory, bringing together what we think we know at this point about how care can best promote and sustain recovery, and how care may need to be transformed to no longer impede it. These standards are drawn from over two years of conversations with practitioners, people in recovery, families, and program managers and are informed by the current professional literature on recovery and recovery-oriented practice. These standards focus primarily on the concrete work of practitioners and provider agencies so as to provide practical and useful direction to individuals and collectives that are committed to implementing recovery-oriented care. We recognize, however, that many of the practices described will require a broader commitment of agency leadership to significant and ongoing administrative restructuring. In the future, we also anticipate that systems will want to add domains to the ones we propose here, in such areas as prevention, early intervention, cultural competence, and the assessment and monitoring of outcomes.
The Psychiatric Examination of the Neurologic Patient
Authors: Lyketsos Constantine G.
Published: November 2020

A well-conducted psychiatric evaluation is central to the care of neurologic patients with psychiatric disorders. The evaluation is aimed at defining the psychiatric condition in the context of the patient’s past psychiatric history and current neurologic disease. The information derived from the evaluation is used to develop a formulation, establish a diagnosis, and form a basis for treatment planning. This chapter discusses the psychiatric evaluation of the neurologic patient in detail. It includes examination techniques and questions as well as practical approaches to conducting an assessment of the patient’s cognitive state. Along the way, common psychiatric symptoms encountered in neurologic patients are defined and differentiated from related symptoms. The chapter concludes by illustrating how to generate a formulation and differential diagnosis. The psychiatric evaluation consists of three parts: the history; the mental status examination (MSE); and the formulation, including the differential diagnosis. The history, which is essential to defining the problem, is taken from the patient and from one or more informants. The importance of taking a history from an informant is underscored in the context of neurologic disease because patients may be forgetful, lack insight, or have language and other cognitive problems that may limit their ability to provide a good history. History-taking begins with defining the psychiatric chief complaint and then obtaining the family and personal history. Starting in this way, rather than with the chief complaint followed by the history of present illness (HPI), makes it easier to see that the psychiatric symptoms may have been caused by, or influenced by, factors other than the neurologic disease—factors that can include psychiatric disorders as such, aspects of patients’ personalities, and responses patients have to the circumstances of their lives. Table 1–1 provides an outline of important elements of the psychiatric history for neurologic patients and can be used as a checklist in clinical practice. Defining the psychiatric chief complaint is the physician’s first task. ‘‘Psychiatric chief complaint’’ in this context refers to the occurrence of cognitive, affective, behavioral, or perceptual phenomena that are brought to the physician’s attention by the patient, a family member or other informant, or by the physician’s own observation.
Epilepsy
Authors: Marsh Laura
Published: November 2020

As many as 50% of patients with epilepsy have psychiatric syndromes, with mood, anxiety, and psychotic disturbances being the most common. Recognition and treatment of neuropsychiatric disturbances in individuals with epilepsy is influenced by the complexity of the epilepsies, which are a heterogeneous group of chronic conditions. Epileptic syndromes are classified according to seizure type and differ in their respective diagnostic criteria, epidemiology, etiologies, medical and surgical treatments, and associated psychiatric conditions. This chapter focuses on interictal psychiatric disturbances. Periictal and ictal psychiatric phenomena are addressed in the discussions of the differential diagnosis for the various interictal phenomena and in other reviews (Trimble, 1991; Schwartz and Marsh, 2000; Marsh and Rao, 2002). The prevalence of epilepsy ranges from 0.4% to 1%, with variation attributed to actual differences in the frequency of epilepsy among population subgroups as well as varying definitions of seizures and of epilepsy (Hauser and Rocca, 1996). The idiopathic generalized epilepsies comprise nearly one-third of all epilepsies and are primarily genetic in origin ( Jallon and Latour, 2005). Partial seizures are the most common seizure type and localization-related or focal epilepsy, especially of temporal lobe origin, is the most common epilepsy syndrome (Keranen, Sillanpaa, and Riekkinen, 1988). The incidence of epilepsy in industrialized countries is highest in the first year of life; it then remains stable until it peaks again after the age of 60 years, when epilepsy is associated with vascular and neurodegenerative conditions. In older adults, however, seizure presentations can be subtle and the diagnosis of epilepsy is frequently missed. Epilepsy is more common in men than women. Multiple factors contribute to higher rates of psychiatric illness in patients with epilepsy. Whether epilepsy itself increases the risk of psychiatric disturbance is unclear; it is important to understand the type and severity of the patient’s epilepsy syndrome, the ictal and peri-ictal features of the seizure, and the relationship of these to the occurrence of the psychiatric phenomena. It is also important to identify whether the patient has any of the special vulnerabilities that influence the risk of psychiatric dysfunction such as the presence of brain injury (eg, from head injury, a congenital neurodevelopmental disorder); use of medications to treat seizures or other conditions that have the potential for adverse psychoactive effects (eg, phenobarbital, benzodiazepines); untoward environmental and psychosocial circumstances; global versus selective cognitive impairments; and temperamental (ie, personality) traits that limit adaptability (Reynolds, 1981).
Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Steinberg Martin
Published: November 2020

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a progressive degenerative dementia, causes suffering for millions of patients as well as their caregivers. Among the elderly, the prevalence of AD increases dramatically with age: it is about 5% to 7% in people 65 years of age and older and rises to 40% to 50% in those older than 90 years of age (Rabins, Lyketsos, and Steele, 1999). AD typically affects short-term memory first; over time, impairment in language, praxis, recognition, and executive function occur. In the late stages, patients become completely dependent on others. In addition to this cognitive and physical burden, psychiatric signs and symptoms are nearly universal. These psychiatric phenomena, which include depression, delusions, hallucinations, apathy, and aggression, affect as many as 90% of patients with dementia over the course of their illness (Steinberg et al., 2003). Psychiatric phenomena often present differently in patients with AD than in the population without dementia. Uncertainty remains regarding how to best classify many of these phenomena. For example, delusions can be described as occurring in isolation, or as part of a psychotic syndrome, with associated features such as irritability and agitation. Delusions can also occur as part of a depressive syndrome or delirium. Little research is currently available to guide treatment. Nevertheless, many syndromes can be accurately diagnosed and can respond to a variety of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic treatments. Depressive phenomena are common in AD. Estimates for the prevalence of major depression in patients with AD are 20% to 25%, (Lyketsos et al., 2003). Due to their dementia, patients with AD are often poor historians. They may not be aware of Depressive phenomena or able to recall them, and their aphasia may make describing symptoms difficult. Therefore, information from a reliable caregiver is crucial for making a proper diagnosis. Depressive disorders in AD are often somewhat different from those occurring in the absence of dementia. In particular, patients with AD may not endorse hopelessness, suicidal thoughts, or worthlessness (Zubenko et al., 2003). Patients with AD, however, express symptoms such as anxiety, anhedonia, irritability, lack of motivation, and agitation (Rosenberg et al., 2005).
Antidepressants
Authors: Lipsey John R.
Published: November 2020

Antidepressant drug therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for major depression and is usually successful (Rosenbaum et al., 2005). Fifty percent of patients respond to the first antidepressant used, and 75% respond to one of the first three agents chosen if these agents represent different antidepressant classes. Insufficient dosage and duration of therapy are the most common causes of treatment failure. The required duration for a full therapeutic trial of any antidepressant is 6 to 8 weeks, but some patients require 10 to 12 weeks to achieve maximum benefit. Every patient being treated pharmacologically for depression should be educated about the course of recovery. Even if an antidepressant is ultimately successful, improvement in the first week or two may be minimal and involve primarily improved sleep or diminished anxiety. When more substantial improvements begin later, they may vary greatly on a day-to-day basis, and patients should be forewarned that the early course of recovery may be punctuated by unexpected brief dips in mood. Patients may also find that their energy, appetite, activity level, and social engagement improve before they notice a positive change in their moods. Thus, they look much improved to their friends and families before they feel better. Eventually, however, the full range of depressive symptoms resolves, and this improvement is sustained. During the course of antidepressant treatment, all patients must be asked about new or recurrent suicidal ideas, and their families should be told to report any evidence of self-harming actions or thoughts. Suicidal ideas, perhaps held in check by lack of energy to carry them out, may potentially develop into suicidal impulses or actions if a patient’s energy improves while severely depressed mood or hopelessness persist. Five classes of antidepressants will be described below: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), the serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) venlafaxine, the alpha2-adrenergic antagonist mirtazapine, the norepinephrinedopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI) bupropion, and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). There is little evidence that any individual antidepressant (or antidepressant class) is generally superior to another, so the sequence of drug selection is determined primarily by tolerability and safety considerations. The SSRIs are commonly used in the initial treatment of major depression.