bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Absolute Numbers
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

The concepts of suicide and statistics are from one angle as remote as two concepts can be. One embodies subjectivity, saying ‘that is what l think of the world’; the other, objectivity, saying ‘that is how the world is.’ Yet in the last century, academically, the two have become all but inseparable. Three reasons suggest themselves. One is self-defence. Statistics anaesthetize. A subject intrinsically unapproachable becomes, once the victim is part of a percentage, not merely accessible but intellectually bracing, a positive pastime. Read suicide statistics all day, and we must pinch ourselves to remember that each item reflects a tragedy literally immeasurable, a universe perishing in unspeakable, unapproachable agony.
Overview
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

In 1776, which is where we start, the great Asian civilizations were vegetating, even decaying. They had reached the condition with which ey were quite consciously satisfied and from which they did not wish to move. Indeed, their governments strenuously resisted any influences which they thought might upset their priceless equilibrium. The Chinese still regarded their country as the hub of the world, the ‘central kingdom’, and rebuffed the efforts of outside powers like Britain to intrude upon them. Tokugawa Japan had sealed itself off from overseas. The Ottoman Empire slumbered, as did, in fact, all the states of Islam. The Mughal Empire was no more and the Indian subcontinent was in turmoil and decay. The only advances, such as they were, lay in military technology-the use of firearms-and even this was borrowed from the West.
China: The Golden Century of the Ch’ing, 1680-1780
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

ook Three, Chapter Four of this History left China convulsed, the central government paralysed by the life- and-death struggle between Mandarinate and eunuchs, and the capital itself under threat from popular rebellion from the south and from the formidable Jiirchen (later ‘Manchu’) proto-state which was poised to pierce the Wall at a point only 200 miles to its north-east. It is not proposed in this chapter to dwell on the subsequent Manchu, or as it called itself, Ching (‘pure’) regime in the same detail as that devoted to earlier phases of Chinese government. What is presented here is, rather, an updating; and this for the simplest of reasons: the early Ch’ing polity is, basically, the Ming updated and-above all-made to work.
The Indian Experience and the Mughal Empire, 1526-1712
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

Some historians choose to take Indian civilization as commencing with the riverine cultures of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (2500 BC); others with the Aryan invasions (c.1500 BC). Either way the fact remains that it is thousands of years old. Furthermore, Hindu religion, its unifying and unique characteristic, is the oldest continuous religious tradition in the world, such that Hindus are still using some of the hymns of the Rig Veda, of c.1500 BC.
The Apogee of Absolute Monarchy: Europe, c.1770-1780
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

discretion’. The Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns and Swift’s Battle of the Books were over and the moderns had won. Europe felt equal, if not indeed superior, to the ancient Graeco-Roman world, which had intimi dated and dwarfed it till then. Four great, interconnecting developments were in movement, developments which seemed to be putting the seal on that drive to absolute monarchy that had begun in the sixteenth century.
The American Revolution
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

(T he transcendent importance of the American Revolution is that it “.L demonstrated for ever that quality of the Western European govern ment we have called ‘law-boundedness’. Here is a government which draws its powers from and can only act within a framework of fundamental law theConstitution-which is itself interpreted by judges in the ordinary courts of the country. Could law-boundedness go further, could it receive a more striking affirmation? It is notable too that while its government is elected on a wide popular franchise, its f’Ower to act is lost in a maze of channels which dilute it and slow it down:1 the celebrated ‘checks and balances’ in the system do not abolish explicit expressions of the popular will but restrain it. In this way the United States stands as the paradigm of what we have been calling the ‘liberal democracy’.
The Constitutionalization of the Absolute Monarchies of Europe, 1815-1871
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

(T he American, and more significantly, the French Revolutions worked a “.L change in the ordering of society and in consequence drastically altered the typology of polities we have been following till now. For as a result of the secularization and democratization of society after 1776, and particularly after 1789, two hitherto great Orders, each capable (in principle) of ruling a state on its own, namely the Clergy and the Nobility, ceased to be viable ruling strata. Consequently the two pure types-Clergy polities and Nobi lity polities-totally disappeared. By the same token so did all their hybrids. Of our previous ten types we are left with only three. These are the Pure Palace, the Pure Forum, and the Palace/Forum. Given the degree of democratization in the world, the Pure Palace type persists only in some principalities of the Third World, such as Saudi Arabia.
Industrialization
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

(T he industrial and technological revolution which began around 1770 “.L and is still in full flood today ushered in an entirely new phase of world history. It ‘made a far more drastic break with the past than anything since the invention of the wheel’.1 ‘From then on, the world was no longer the same . . . no revolution has been as dramatically revolutionary as the industrial revolution-except perhaps the Neolithic revolution.
Peasants, Real and Ideal: Venetsianov and his School
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

The first two chapters have concentrated on the cultural context within which Russian genre painters worked. Changes in the system of patronage affected the visual material available to artists, and the consumption of their own art. The complex tapestry of artistic, social, and political discourse examined in the periodical press, on the other hand, indicates the key intellectual debates with which a genre painter might have been familiar, what sort of exposure he might hope to gain, and the critical approbation or vituperation which his work might stimulate. The focus will now shift to the painting itself.
Conclusion
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

This study of Russian genre painting in the period 1820 to 1870 reveals a subtle but complex interplay between two distinct sets of polarities: in the first place, that between European influences and national themes and traditions; and, of equal importance, the development of a realist treatment in painting, as opposed to the idealization of Academic art. The balance between these various concerns was constantly shifting, and none of the artists in this study aligned himself with one school of thought or practice to the exclusion of its opposite.
Liberals or Libertines? Staff, Students, and Government Policy at the University of Padua, 1814—1835
Authors: Laven David
Published: November 2023

In modern Europe the fate of universities following sudden changes in regime has usually been determined as part of the broader question of how far new governments have sought to accommodate or discard the institutions, practices and personnel of their predecessors. Yet within this context education has often retained a special significance because of the opportunities it offers for the development among the citizenry of values and opinions useful to the state. By the early nineteenth century universities had taken on a particular importance because of the role they played in many countries in the education of future public servants. In many states a rigorous control of universities was associated with a loyal and efficient administration. Establishing such control was perceived as a good means of securing future stability as well as easing the transition from one regime to another by limiting the intellectual legacy of the previous system.
University and Multinational Society in the Habsburg Monarchy: Students from Slovene Countries at the University of Graz, 1884—1914
Authors: Heppner Harald
Published: November 2023

This article will consider an aspect of the theme of ‘University and Society’ which has rarely been investigated: the national origins of students in a multinational state. States composed of several ethnic groups develop in different ways from those which are ethnically homogeneous, not least because their basis is more complex. They are obliged to have regard to their ethnic heterogeneity. One such multinational state was the Habsburg Monarchy, populated by Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ukrainians, Rumanians, Serbians, Croatians, Slovenians, Italians, and others. There the relation between university and society had a national dimension.
Curricular and Structural Developments at the Hebrew University, 1928—1948
Authors: Iram Yaacov
Published: November 2023

The idea of establishing a Jewish University in Palestine was proposed systematically from 1882. However, the corner-stone for the Hebrew University in Jerusalem was laid in 1918, and it opened formally in 1925. The Hebrew University played a unique role in contemporary Jewish history. It was intended to fulfil a threefold purpose: I) to help generate Jewish national revival at the turn of the nineteenth century by providing a centre for research in Judaic studies and in the arts and sciences; 2) to respond to practical needs of an emerging Jewish community in Palestine; and 3) to make provisions of higher learning for Jewish students whose admission to universities in some European countries was restricted by a notorious numerus clausus.
Parliamentary Debate, Economic Vulnerability, and British Naval Expansion, 1860—1905
Authors: Ranft Bryan
Published: November 2023

We are now passing through a period of transition, which, by changing the Navy in its scientific and mechanical character, will affect it as a political power. When wooden walls are entirely withdrawn from the seas … and when steam more completely supersedes sails, the practice oflong voyages up and down great tracts of ocean in distant regions of the world will fall necessarily into disuse. The fleets and squadrons, which under the pretence of guarding colonies and protecting commerce, are maintained at a vast expense in every ocean, will no more swell the Estimates of each succeeding year. What benefit this ubiquitous display of force confers on the country it is difficult to conceive. We may expect that it will break down through the absolute inability of any country to maintain it when ships are inordinately expensive to build and to move; and that then, the European navies will take the form of a few powerful vessels constructed for the defence of the coasts of the peoples who maintain them. (The Times, Wed. 22 Feb. 1865.)
‘Hidden in the Rock’: American Military Perceptions of Great Britain 1919—1940
Authors: Gooch John
Published: November 2023

In January 1941, preparing for the forthcoming Anglo-American staff conference which would mark the first stage in the lengthy and complicated process of allied military collaboration in wartime, the Joint Army-Navy Planning Committee warned the American chiefs of staff to be on their guard. The proposals London would lay on the table ‘will probably have been drawn up with chief regard for support of the British Commonwealth. Never absent from British minds are their postwar interests, commercial and military. We should likewise safeguard our own eventual interests’, they counselled Scepticism about Britain’s underlying objectives increased when, that August, Roosevelt and Churchill brought their military planners together secretly at Argentia Bay in Newfoundland and the Americans were briefed on British strategy.
Problems of Command in Limited Warfare: Thoughts from korea and Vietnam
Authors: O’neill Robert
Published: November 2023

This century has seen the two greatest wars of human history. The fi.rst was characterized by failure and futility at the cost of staggering human casualties. The second, while still containing elements of futility, saw military force used with telling effect from the campaign in Poland through to the amphibious drive on Japan through the Pacific. The successes of the Axis Powers proved transitory but largely through superior operational techniques and forces trained and organized for their use, they gained in five spectacular campaigns between mid-1940 and mid-1942 vastly more territory in Europe, Africa, and Asia than the Central Powers had been able to conquer in four years of desperate effort in 1914—18.
In Appreciation of Michael Howard: Remarks Offered at the Modern History Faculty Farewell Dinner 29 June 1989
Authors: O’neill Robert
Published: November 2023

The word perestroika has already become a cliche but if we look at what Michael Howard has done for the study of the history of war over the past forty years it is the most appropriate term to employ today. In essence what Howard has done is to have raised the standing of the whole field of enquiry and expanded the thinking of most of those who can make a serious claim to know something about warfare and its impact in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Central Government
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

By 1360 the principal agencies of government were normally located within the Palace of Westminster, the administrative capital of the realm. This reﬂected the king’s usual proximity to London, for government remained dependent on, and responsive to, the king’s authority. It also reﬂected the huge accumulation of records by the executive ofﬁces and their need for continuous accessibility. Enrolment was the normal method: the chancery enrolled all royal charters and letters under the great seal; the exchequer enrolled its receipts and expenditure, accounts, and memorandums; each of the courts of law had a roll of the pleas it heard; and parliament kept a roll of its proceedings. Enrolment constituted a public legal record, available for either ofﬁcial or private reference. For the business transacted in these ofﬁces of state was in equal measure that of the king and his subjects. Government was the interaction of their interests, and its impetus came as often from below as from above. The physical setting emphasized this, for Westminster Hall was open and accessible to all who had business there: petitioners, litigants, those rendering accounts and seeking payment, and all who hoped to ‘nobble’ ofﬁcials to seek a favour or make an excuse—a busy, noisy, chaotic place.
The Nobility
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

The late medieval nobility enjoyed a position of political, social, economic, and military dominance unmatched in any later age. While the king was the head of the body politic, the lords formed the shoulders and backbone, and acted as arms for its defence. Their ﬁdelity to the Crown validated their own rule over lesser subjects, thus constituting a hierarchy of authority on which the social order rested. Bishop John Stafford likened them to mountains towering above the hills and undifferentiated plains of the lower classes.2 Their status as a hereditary elite rested upon their lineage and lands, which furnished them with huge wealth and extensive lordship. As military leaders they epitomized the chivalric ideal of valour, prowess, and courtesy. In all these respects they provided the role model for a society of which they were the unquestioned leaders.
Ruling England, 1413–1461
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

Historians have come to see the crises in social and political relations from c.1371 to c.1406 as expressions of a more liberated and assertive society, produced by the better equilibrium between population and resources. But to contemporary moralists, from Langland to Gower, the demands of labourers for freedom and money, the political aspirations of men of middling degree, and the factious quarrels of the nobility were symptoms of the pride and greed which threatened to subvert the social hierarchy. At the head of society, protecting and controlling it, stood the Church and the Crown; yet they too had been engulfed by disorder. The Church was rent by schism, threatened by heresy, and corrupted by wealth; kingship had descended into tyranny and its sacral legitimacy had been violated by usurpation. Nevertheless, Gower, who voiced this sense of crisis, directed his call for moral regeneration to the king, for ‘the king and his people are like the head and the body. Where the head is infirm the body is inﬁrm. Where a virtuous king does not rule, the people are unsound and lack good morals.’
The Instigation of the Devil
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

The increasing rigour with which the law was enforced and the growing emphasis on the spiritual significance of the crime intensified both the folkloric and religious bases for popular horror of suicide. The coroner’s inquest and burial of the corpse were rituals of interpretation. They identified a death as a suicide and dramatized the jury’s verdict to the whole neighbourhood. The rites of desecration were collective expressions of the community’s conviction that self-murder was a heinous crime. Their ritual symbolism branded suicides as pariahs, excluding them from the churchyard, and condemning them to an eternal journey that had no destination. Historians and anthropologists have in recent years taught us to be sensitive to symbolic actions like the ritual burials of suicides. For they are keys to understanding how men and women in the past understood the social and metaphysical basis of the world in which they lived. From this perspective, it is plain that although ordinary people accepted the clerical elite’s view that self murder was a satanic sin, they also retained other, older beliefs about its supernatural significance. For the rites of desecration focused on the spiritual consequences of suicide.
A Theory of Wealth Distribution and Accumulation
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

This volume provides the micro-foundations of a macroeconomic theory of income distribution and of the accumulation and distribution of wealth. Baranzini surveys current literature on the subject, before going on to make his own contribution by presenting a new model. He examines the laws which regulate the accumulation of inter-generational wealth and life-cycle savings of families or dynasties, both in a deterministic and stochastic context. The mechanisms which may lead to the generation and coexistence of different socio-economic classes are also studied.
Phraseology and the Learner’s Dictionary
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

At one point in the Preface to the first edition of the Concise Oxford Dictionary, its compilers, H. W. and F. G. Fowler, referred to the difficulties posed for the writer or speaker of English by the commonest words, which were, they said, (1) entangled with other words in so many alliances and antipathies during their perpetual knocking about the world that the idiomatic use of them is far from easy. (Fowler and Fowler 1911: v) Here, in a memorable phrase, they identified a major obstacle to normal, native-like use of the language, and foreshadowed the intense theoretical and descriptive interest in collocations and idioms shown by later generations of dictionary-makers — though chiefly, it has to be said, by makers of dictionaries for foreign learners.
The Role of the Computer in Learner Lexicography
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

Without doubt, the most important single development in learner lexicography from the mid-197os onwards has been the steadily increasing involvement of the computer at all stages of the dictionary-making process, from data gathering and analysis at one end, to compilation, production, and revision at the other. The first use of computers in learner lexicography dates from the early 1970s, and specifically from the compilation ofALD 3(1974). This was the first edition of any MLD to include a computerized stage, one which made it possible to turn the text into a printed book, but which did not reflect — as it had not involved— the use of the computer in the data-gathering, analytical, or editorial stages of production (Meijs 1992).
Focus on the Dictionary User
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

In the early history of the monolingual learner’s dictionary, three design features in particular came to dominate the plans conceived by lexicographers-though in fact no dictionary published at the time incorporated them all. These were: definitions based on a controlled defining vocabulary that the foreign student could be expected to understand; detailed information about function words, ‘heavy-duty’ lexical words, and verb-patterns (the latter in a specially ‘coded’ form); and coverage of a great number and variety of word-combinations (idioms, collocations, and formulae). If they had been brought together in a single work, those features would have ensured that the decoding and encoding needs of the learner were equally fulfilled, since while the first favours the user wishing to understand the foreign language and the second — grammatical information — s designed to meet the needs of the learner wishing to write in the L2, the third supports activity of both kinds. However, there can be little doubt that both philosophically and in practice Palmer and Hornby favoured the encoding function. At the practical level, as we saw earlier, Palmer’sGEWoverwhelmingly, and Hornby’sISEDto a considerable extent, laid stress on support for the writer and translator. The many years of research devoted to core vocabulary items, and their patterns and uses, were eventually to bear fruit in dictionary information for encoding rather than decoding (Cowie 1983b, 1984).
Switch-Reference and Discourse Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I shall be concerned with switch-reference and discourse anaphora. I shall first take a look at switch-reference. As an ‘in-between’ category, switch-reference seems to provide a natural ‘bridge’ between pure intrasentential anaphora and pure discourse anaphora. I shall first review the phenomenology of switch-reference in Section 5.1.1. Next, in Section 5.1.2, I shall first make a comparison between switch-reference and other reference tracking systems and then compare and contrast switch-reference and logophoricity. Finally, in Section 5.1.3, I shall first discuss a syntactic and a semantic, and then sketch a pragmatic approach to switch-reference. In the second part of this chapter, I shall turn my attention to discourse anaphora. I shall start with the problem of anaphoric distribution in Section 5.2.1. I shall then survey, in Sections 5.2.2-5.2.4, a number of influential approaches to discourse anaphora, focusing on the topic continuity analysis developed by Giv6n (1983), the hierarchical account represented by Fox (1987), and the cognitive model offered by Chafe (1976), Tomlin and Pu (1991), and Gundel, Hedberg, and Zacharski (1993). Finally, I shall develop a neo-Gricean pragmatic analysis of discourse anaphora in Section 5.2.5.
The UMB Intelligent ICE Markup Assistant
Authors: Blachman Edward M , Meyer Charles F , Morris Robert A
Published: November 2023

We have developed an editor, the UMB Intelligent ICE Markup Assistant (UMB/ IMA), that greatly eases the task of adding ICE markup to samples of written or (especially) spoken English. The editor brings to ICE ease-of-use innovations developed in other areas of computer application, particularly in ‘What You See Is What You Get’ (WYSIWYG) document editing. There are many such interactive programs familiar to scholars and desktop publishers, and there is a sense in which these programs can be considered markup systems. Certainly the documents they create can be expressed in markup languages for interchange and other purposes; yet these editors allow users to create and edit those documents without ever having to see or understand the intricacies of the interchange markup. With the UMB/ IMA, a sample’s markup can be seen and edited via a presentation that is easier to understand than ICE markup, yet with constraints and filters that make the effort completely compatible with the SEU Markup Assistant (see Chapter 6) and ICE in general. Finally, we know that linguists deal with many varieties of markup, so we strove to build a system whose concepts could be applied not only to ICE but also to other markup schemes. From the outside, a markup system is not very different from any other kind of editor: it requires import and export facilities (or Open and Save, if you prefer), as well as support in the user interface for making new objects, and for selecting and manipulating existing objects. It is at the next level of detail that markup concerns enter into the picture-determining the objects to be made and selected, finding the places where a judicious amount of programming can ease the job of adding markup, and determining the appropriate import and export facilities.
ICE Annotation Tools
Authors: Quinn Akiva , Porter Nick
Published: November 2023

A key aspect of the International Corpus of English (ICE) is the detailed linguistic annotation it contains. Providing annotations for textual features, word classes, syntactic categories, and functions allows comparisons to be conducted along many axes. Transforming a raw input file into a properly annotated text can involve much work, so software tools have been developed to keep this effort to a minimum. This paper describes three programs produced by the Survey of English Usage for machine-assisted annotation. The Markup Assistant automates the insertion of textual markup, generating ICE markup symbols at a single key press and ensuring that markup symbols are closed. The ICE Tag Selection System automates the selection from the alternative word-class tags generated by an automatic word-class tagger. The ICE Syntactic Marking System automates the addition of syntactic markers to texts prior to parsing by an automatic parser. The ICE Syntactic Tree annotator complements automatic parsing by providing a graphical environment for the manual editing of syntactic analyses.
ICE and Teaching
Authors: Kirk John M
Published: November 2023

The British component of the International Corpus of English (hereafter ICE-GB) makes available a new, machine-readable resource to teachers of native-speaker students and foreign learners. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate possible uses of ICE-GB in both of these teaching contexts. Although ICE-GB is intended to form the basis of authoritative descriptions of British English for years to come, the material lends itself for teaching and for assessment work in its copious supply of fresh data from across a wide range of spoken and written registers. As far as mother-tongue teaching is concerned, ICE-GB enables students to learn about the structure of English, to develop a descriptive and theoretical vocabulary, and to cultivate a methodology for dealing analytically with, and writing effectively about, language. Following Kirk (1994a), this paper considers the likely use of ICE-GB in terms of three central characteristics of the student approach to language study which I have developed at the Queen’s University of Belfast: data, model of analysis, and the analysis itself, which correspond to higher-level issues in corpus linguistic methodology in general, and which receive special emphasis in my course.
Aspects of Meaning: P1 and its Markers
Authors: Müller Nicole
Published: November 2023

The previous chapters have established patterns of usage for various constructions involving a non-subject PL Here, we shall explore aspects of the semantics underlying the selection of the markers of PL The discussion follows on from the theoretical framework sketched in Chapter 1: it is assumed that prepositions are polysemous lexical items, and that prepositions, as well as participants in situations, can be described in terms of prototype categories. Furthermore, it is assumed that, usually, a spatial sense can be identified as a prototypical use of a preposition, and that agentive uses can be described as extensions of more concrete, usually spatial senses.

One of the features shared by many earlier studies of prepositions and case forms in Welsh and Irish (discussed below) is the attempt, whether made explicit or not, to establish a diachronic hierarchy, in other words, to distinguish earlier from later uses of, for example, a preposition, or a syntactic construction-an approach that usually also implies the assumption that later uses can be etymologically linked with earlier ones. While there can be no doubt that the uses of lexical categories change over time, and that certain senses of a preposition may go back in time less far than others, while others may die out, this is not a concern that is central to this book-although the texts analysed do not represent a synchronic slice of the Welsh and Irish language use, respectively, and therefore diachronic factors are potentially encapsulated in our material.
Summary and Concluding Remarks
Authors: Müller Nicole
Published: November 2023

The investigation in this book has pursued aspects of the marking of P1 in early Welsh and Irish, and of the way in which agentive constructions are employed in their contexts. It has emerged from the Welsh material that prepositional P1 marking in VN constructions is very consistent in the use of o ‘from’; VN constructions other than vN+o  P1  , are of marginal occurrence only. The semantic specification of o as P1 marker was analysed as that of the source of energy of a process, more specifically an action. This is supported by the character of CAUSE and INST marked by o: in causal function, o specifies an influence that results in the situation described by the clause; the CAUSE can be interpreted as the source from which the situation develops. In instrumental (or modal) function, o only rarely marks a concrete instrument or tool controlled by an AG, but more often marks the abstract manner, or, with a concrete complement, the material or substance out of which something is made or develops. In addition, o can also denote the IAG, or ‘giver’, with VNs such as caffael ‘get’ or bot (in possessive construction) ‘be’/’have’. This is, however, rare, compared to the use of gan ‘with’ or y gan ‘from (with)’ in this function.
Corpus and Computer
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

I take it as axiomatic that effective and robust descriptions of any kind of lexical item must be based on evidence, not intuition, and that corpora provide evidence of a suitable type and quality. At the heart of the study described in this book lies a database of several thousand FEIs, recording their features and characteristics as demonstrated in corpus data. This chapter briefly discusses the database, corpus, and some related computational issues. The following chapters set out the results of the research, and correlations to be drawn.
Lexical and Grammatical Form
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

It is not at all surprising that the vocabulary of FEIs has a distribution that is different from that of the lexicon in general. A frequency list of the constituent words of database FEIs differs markedly from that for OHPC. This is, of course, not comparing like with like, but it gives some indication of words (and so concepts, images, and structures) which feature strongly in FEIs, or occur relatively more often in FEIs than in freely formed text. Just over 4,000 types or forms, unlemmatized, constitute the vocabulary of database FEIs, including variations. This is a remarkably small number, given that even a moderate-sized English dictionary includes 20-30,000 lemmas. Whole areas of the vocabulary—whole semantic fields—simply do not occur in FEIs.
Evaluation and Interactional Perspectives
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

This chapter looks at FEIs in relation to interaction and the interpersonal component of discourse (Halliday 1978: 128ff.; Halliday and Hasan 1989: 20 and passim; Morley 1985: 44-81). The selection and use of FEis is not simply a matter of the lexical realization of meaning, but part of the ongoing dynamic interaction between speaker/writer and hearer/reader within the discoursal context. Moreover, many FEis may be seen as culture-bound stereotypes, indexing (in Hallidayan terms) language through experience.
Afterword
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

Three main conclusions can be drawn from this account of English FEIs. First, further corpus-based studies are needed in order to make the picture of FEIs more accurate and complete. Second, existing models and descriptions need to be revised in the light of emerging corpus evidence, in particular with respect to form and variation. Third, the significance of the roles of FEIs in discourse should not be underestimated.
CALL in context II: an interdisciplinary perspective
Authors: Levy Michael
Published: November 2023

CALL is a relatively new, interdisciplinary field of study that has been subject to the influence of a number of other fields and disciplines. In addition to the fields of computing and language teaching/learning, which one would expect to have an impact on CALL, real or potential influences in the development of the field have included elements of psychology, artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, instructional technology and design, and human-computer interaction studies (see Table 3.1). Many of these disciplines are relatively new in themselves, having developed very significantly since World War II; they each have their own perspective and frame of reference, they often overlap and interrelate, and the extent to which any one should influence the development of CALL has not been determined.
Introduction
Authors: Cornish Francis
Published: November 2023

This book is an attempt to place (discourse) anaphora firmly within a cognitive psychological processing framework, ‘rescuing’ its study from the familiar kind of armchair theorizing based on constructed data controlled by the linguist acting as his or her own native informant. Such a method of analysis has been all too common over the last twenty years, whether in linguistics, philosophy, artificial intelligence, or even in psychology-the well-worn two-sentence text format in which examples are constructed being something of a hallmark of such studies. Symptomatic of this methodology is the use of the asterisk rather than the crosshatch to indicate the ill-formedness of given two-sentence examples putatively linked via anaphora. Such a usage is highly revealing, for it reflects the view that anaphora, for analysts who proceed in this way, is essentially a formal-syntactic phenomenon wholly or mainly describable and explicable in terms of the language system. Thus discourse anaphora is often treated as if it were an inter sentence level occurrence subject to the criterion of grammaticality.’ See Reichler Beguelin (1988; 1993), Wiese (1983), Valentin (1985), Cornish (1986a), and Bourstin (1996) for arguments against a sentence-syntactic account of (pronominal) anaphora.
Semantic-pragmatic determinants of anaphoric value
Authors: Cornish Francis
Published: November 2023

We have seen in Chapter 2 (in§§ 2.3, 2.4.1, and 2.4.2 in particular) that the ‘antecedent’, in the traditional conception, in actual fact plays a relatively limited role in the setting up and interpretation of anaphoric relations and in the construction of discourse from text and context. Indeed, its co-presence with a given anaphor in a text is not in fact necessary at all, as the phenomenon of’situationaJ anaphora’ (often termed ‘exophora’1) dearly shows. Under the present approach, exophora, rather than ‘endophora’ (where the anaphor is said to refer within, rather than outside of a text, in terms of an appropriate antecedent expression), is the paradigm instance of anaphora as a discourse-based phenomenon (see Chapter 4). In fact, the distinction often made between these two alleged subtypes of anaphora is irrelevant within this framework, since in both types of instance the anaphor in question finds its referent as well as context-determined sense from within a conceptual representation of prior discourse rather than uniquely from either the text or the situational context of the anaphor-containing utterance.
Exophora, saliency, and discourse memory
Authors: Cornish Francis
Published: November 2023

So-called ‘antecedentless’ anaphors have tended to be conceived of as illustrated in examples such as (4.1) (see Hankamer and Sag 1976; Tasmowski-de Ryck and Verluyten 1982): (4.1) [A and B turn a corner on the pavement, and suddenly find themselves face to face with a rather large dog] A to B: Do you think it’s friendly? {adapted from Yule 1979: ex. I) Three characteristics of the occurrence and mode of interpretation of it in (4.1) are first, that there is no co-occurring textual expression which might serve as its antecedent (in terms of which it might receive its full sense and reference), second, that its referent is present in the situational context of the utterance itself, and third, that it is salient within that context (the speaker assuming that this is the case for his/her interlocutor). The second characteristic-the presence of the referent within the situational context-is indeed elevated into a criterion for the very existence of exophora, or pragmatically controlled anaphora, by Tasmowski-de Ryck and Verluyten (1982: 332). A further feature is that the anaphor occurs in the spoken form with low pitch and without stress or any accompanying gesture (see Yule 1979; Kleiber 1994b: ch. 5), indicating that its referent is assumed to enjoy ‘focus’ status in the addressee’s consciousness.
Conclusion
Authors: Cornish Francis
Published: November 2023

Discourse anaphors do not operate by ‘pointing’ backwards (or forwards, in the case of ‘cataphors’) to a co-occurring segment of the co-text, and causing its sense and denotation as well as its relevant morphosyntactic features (animacy, gender) to be transferred to them as a result. As we have amply seen in the foregoing, this is not an adequate theoretical account of how anaphoric reference functions, as indeed many have argued-including myself. But it is even less adequate as an account of how anaphoric and other indexical expressions are actually processed by users in real time and in real contexts of utterance.
Nominal Interpretation And Case-Marking
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, some aspects of the lattice-theoretic framework found in Krifka (1989, 1992) were introduced. However, we have yet to examine the ways in which nominal arguments are related to their predicates in that system. In this chapter, I will be concentrating on the problem of nominal interpretation in our SGaelic constructions in particular, but also in natural language more generally. In the next section, I will assess the Krifka (1989, 1992) framework in dealing with these issues. I will show that the notion of quantized vs. non-quantized in the object domain does not accurately characterise the difference in nominal interpretation found in these constructions, despite its initial plausibility.
The External Argument
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we look more closely at the nature of the external argument position. There will be two kinds of distinctions made here: the first concerns the difference between eventive and stative subjects; the second is the distinction between stage level and individual level subjects (Kratzer 1989; Diesing 1988). although this latter distinction will be given a somewhat different semantic representation than is traditionally assumed.
Introduction
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk
Published: November 2023

In a survey of diachronic semantics published some twenty years ago, Winfred Lehmann (1976) suggested that future progress in the study of meaning changes would have to come primarily from a systematic application of the descriptive model provided by componential analysis. But although such feature-based approaches were indeed developed in the context of various componential models of semantic structure, by authors such as Voyles (1973), Fritz (1974), Werth (1974), Lipka (1985), and Kleparski (1986), the main developments in historical semantics were to lie elsewhere.
Prototypicality in a Classification of Lexical Change
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk
Published: November 2023

IF prototype-based features do indeed (as demonstrated in the previous chapter) characterize the process of semantic change, an obvious next question to ask involves the relationship between prototypicality and the more traditional analyses of changes of meaning. As these traditional analyses commonly take the form of a classification of semantic changes, the question that will detain us in this chapter boils down to the following: what is the position of prototypicality in a classification of lexical changes? The question will be approached from a functional angle. It will be suggested that prototypicality, as a principle organizing the semasiological structure of lexical items, plays an important functional role in the language, and should therefore be properly incorporated into a functionally orientated classification of lexical changes.
Introduction
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne
Published: November 2023

The main aim of this book is to explore the implications for linguistic theory of a case study in bilingual acquisition. We construe linguistic theory broadly to include language acquisition theory (cf. Radford 1981: 1). Some of the implications will be for language acquisition theory in general, while others will be for theories of bilingual acquisition in particular. General theoretical questions to be discussed in this book include whether phono logical distinctions can be acquired on acoustic evidence alone; whether lexical acquisition involves an avoidance of synonymy; whether all words in early two word utterances can necessarily be assigned to lexical categories; and how early children are able to make appropriate language choices. Specific implications for bilingual acquisition, on the other hand, include the question of: whether a bilin gual child has one or two linguistic systems from the very beginning; what cri teria should be used in identifying one versus two systems; and what the most important determinants of language choice are for the developing bilingual.
Methodology of Data Collection and Transcription
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne
Published: November 2023

In an overview of research on child bilingualism, Lindholm (1980) distinguishes between studies that use naturalistic methodology and those that use experimental methodology. Among naturalistic studies she mentions three types: intensive lon gitudinal case studies of one child, studies of several children over a shorter period of time, and ‘informative but somewhat impressionistic studies of children with the limited data gathered by the parents or friends’ (Lindholm 1980: 217). Our study is of the first naturalistic type, though it has experimental aspects, to be described in Section 2.2.2. As a case study, we would argue that its positive fea tures outweigh its limitations, both of which have been discussed in Section 1.3. Details of the subject of the case, M, her linguistic environment, and language input have also been described in Section 1.4. In this chapter we shall provide a detailed description of our procedures for data collection so that our results will easily lend themselves to comparison with other studies of bilingual development.
Some Aspects of Phonological Acquisition
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we address the question of how one can determine whether a developing bilingual has one phonological system or two, and consider the con tribution of previous studies to answering this question, mostly at the level of segmental phonology. We illustrate the difficulties involved by analysing the invent ory of segments in English and Spanish acquired by M. We then report on an acoustic analysis of the child’s acquisition of the voicing contrast in both English and Spanish (initially reported in Deuchar and Clark 1996), and aim to throw new light on the process whereby the child acquires a contrast that has different phonetic realizations in the two languages. It is important to realize from the out set that, while there are many unanswered questions about the relation between perception and production in phonology, our concern in this chapter is with pro duction data.
Conclusion and Implications
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne
Published: November 2023

In this book we have tried to present the findings of our case study in terms of what theoretical implications they might have. In this chapter we shall summar ize those findings and their possible theoretical implications, drawing them together. In Section 1.3 we discussed the case-study approach and its positive aspects, following arguments by Platt (1988).
Formal Systems for Complexity and Control of Inference: A Reprise and Some Hints
Authors: Joshi Aravind , Weinstein Scott
Published: November 2023

In this short chapter we have gone over some of our earlier work on centering, which was motivated by the desire to construct formal systems for studying some aspects of complexity of inference in discourse, at least those concerning the local structure of discourse. We have also made some suggestions for further research in this direction.
Ranking Forward-Looking Centers
Authors: Cote Sharon
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the most important single element of centering theory is the idea that the entities realized in an utterance can be ranked according to the likelihood that they will be the center of the subsequent utterance. The ordered set of features for a language which determine this ranking may be called the ‘Cf template’ for that language (distinguishing it from a ‘Cf list’ which may refer to the ranking of discourse entities in a particular utterance based on these features). Ultimately, centering theory will work as a model of local coherence for a particular language only if we select the appropriate features in that language for the Cf template.
Centering as a Psychological Resource for Achieving Joint Reference in Spontaneous Discourse
Authors: Brennan Susan E
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents a psycholinguistic perspective on centering as a resource by which speakers and addressees can coordinate their attention moment by moment, as they refer to things. First I will describe some relevant findings about comprehension and production that bear on centering as a processing theory. Then I will present new data from a corpus of dialogs about basketball games (Brennan 1995) in order to address unresolved issues concerning discourse segmentation, utterances with multiple pronouns. and centering attention across utterances by multiple speakers. Finally, I propose that centering needs to take into account the activation and decay of discourse entities over time in order lo be a plausible processing theory.