bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Frege’s Representational Notion of Signs
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

Frege presented his theory of signs in a series of essays, the most important of which is entitled “Über Sinn und Bedeutung.” Its English title is “On Sense and Reference.” I will introduce the basic thoughts of Fregean sign theory by means of this essay, referring to his other writings at points where further explanation seems necessary. Frege was primarily a mathematician and logician, and only secondarily a philosopher of language. His thoughts on language were motivated essentially by his aspiration to formulate the fundamentals of mathematics and logic clearly and rigorously. Evidently it was not common among the mathematicians of his time to differentiate clearly between “form” and “content,” for example (Frege 1966a: 21), specifying whether a number sign meant the numeral (that is, the written character) or what the numeral stands for (the number). As Frege writes, this can lead to “numerals being taken to be numbers, the proper objects of our discussion; and then, I admit, 7 and 2 +5 would indeed be different. But such a conception is untenable, for we cannot speak of any arithmetical properties of numbers whatsoever without going back to what the signs stand for” (Frege 1966a: 21). In other words, it is absolutely necessary to distinguish between “form and content, sign and thing signified” (Frege 1966a: 21). Yet the distinction of form and content frequently does not suffice for the adequate interpretation of a sentence. Frege makes this clear with the example of statements of equality of the form a=b: “Is it [equality] a relation.
Wittgenstein’s Instrumental Notion of Signs
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

To say of a linguistic sign that it has meaning is to say that it is connected to an idea. The speaker’s idea gets packed up for shipping (encoded) in the linguistic sign and unpacked (decoded) by the addressee after the sign is received. This is how addressees come into possession of the ideas that correspond to the linguistic signs they receive. The meaning of a sign is thus the idea with which it is connected. So runs, approximately, the common-sense theory of meaning. “The characteristic traditional theory of signs was a theory of representation (Stellvertretertheorie): the sign represents (vertritt) something that could also be given independently of the use of this or some other sign, namely in representation (Vorstellung)”(Tugendhat 1982: 376). Generally speaking, such a view might be called an “ideational” theory of meaning. With the help of a few leading questions and comments, I would like to point out the problems involved with such theories. A detailed description and critique of such theories is provided by Tugendhat (1982).
Basic Techniques of Interpretation
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

Considered in their communicative aspect, signs are, as we have seen, an aid for inferring something not directly perceptible from something that is. This is as seen from the perspective of their interpreter. From the perspective of the speaker (in the widest sense of the word), signs are a pattern for the production of perceptible things, things given to the interpreters to bring them to infer the way in which the speaker intends to influence them. The ability to interpret is primary. The ability to communicate makes systematic use of the ability to interpret. The communicating person exploits the interpretive ability of the addressee for his or her, the speaker’s, own gain.’ Interpretation is (among other things) making inferences on the basis of systematic, or supposedly systematic, connections. In deciding to call meaning that which makes the interpretation of signs possible, we do nothing other than call meaning exactly that which serves the interpreters as the basis for their inferences. Thus we will view meaning as the systematic connections by virtue of which signs are interpretable.
Inferential Procedures
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

Communication is a risky business. How can I make sure that you will interpret my sentences in the way in which I mean them? How can I make sure that I have understood your utterances in the sense in which you mean them? One answer might be that it is like a game of chess. “To have a meaning is to have a place in a language game” (Rorty 1989: 18). Chess has rules. I know them, and so do you. I interpret your moves, and you interpret mine, on the basis of our knowledge of the rules. But that’s not how it works in the game of communication. Here, the chess analogy fails. Why is it inadequate? The answer is that the rules of chess apply strictly and timelessly, as it were; furthermore, they are codified. They exist as formulated rules, and in this sense, one can say that the rules of chess exist independently of whether you and I or anyone else knows them. It is somewhat different with the rules of a language. They do not apply strictly, they are not codified, they do not apply for all “players” in the same way, and many of them are subject to permanent historic change. Thus it is misleading, in a way, to say that there are rules of use for words like tea and but-rules that you and I both know. The rules do not exist outside and independently of those who follow them. For those who follow them are also the ones who produce, perpetuate and sometimes change them, through use or partial violation. (Incidentally, though, rules do not necessarily have to be broken in order to change. It suffices when, in the course of time, peripheral uses become central.) I am not able to speak German because I know the rules of German; rather, to be able to speak German is to know the rules.
Arbitrariness versus Motivatedness
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

“In the language of humans, all tones are arbitrarily articulated.” Johann Peter Süβmilch knew this as early as the mid-eighteenth century (1766: 15).1 But languages also often have onomatopoeic words. Cuckoo is an example. One could make a game of it: which animal says gakol in Korean? Exactly the animal that Germans think says quak! In Englishspeaking countries people claim that it says ribbit. What do gäkol, quak and ribbit have in common? Each is held to be an imitation of the sound that frogs make when they croak.2 The words cuckoo and ribbit are symbols in the English language. As we concluded in Chapter 8, symbols are arbitrary. And as we have seen, arbitrariness is often raised to the defining aspect of the symbol. But are onomatopoeic symbols arbitrary, too? In order to answer this question, we must examine the concept of arbitrariness more closely. The issue of arbitrariness was first discussed by Plato in the dialogue Cratylus, as presented in Chapter 3. The question around which the dialogue revolves is whether names have “a truth or correctness in them, which is the same by nature for all,” or whether their correctness is based only on that “which men agree to use” (Plato 383b-d). To put it differently, is the criterion for the correctness of words the essence of the things they designate, or is it convention? According to Plato’s theory, a thing has its own naturally correct name if the name resembles the thing or represents the thing’s essence.
Iconification and Symbolification
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

New linguistic signs need some kind of transparency in order to be interpretable at all. “In the beginning was the Word”, perhaps, but that word cannot have been unmotivated. There are various ways of communicating transparently. In this chapter, I will show how symbols emerge. My strategy will be to start with symptoms and to show, step by step, how the transitions from symptoms to icons and from icons to symbols are able to occur. Symptoms are the most primitive kind of signs. They are not there to be used, but are simply put to use. It is their actual use that makes them into symptoms. Blood test results, moving blades of grass, and yawns are examples of possible symptoms. The results of blood tests can be interpreted by a doctor as a symptom of disease (or of health); moving blades of grass can be interpreted as a symptom of wind; yawning can be a symptom of fatigue. The ability to use things and events as symptoms is not restricted to humans. In my experience, dogs in Spain can be chased away by bending down to the ground and making a movement as though to pick up a stone. Spanish dogs evidently interpret this motion as the start of a throwing a stone, and run away. This sort of interpretive ability plays an important part in the evolution of animal communication, as Robert Brandon and Norbert Hornstein write (1986). The signs of animal communication often arise through so-called ritualizations.
Metaphorization, Metonymization and Lexicalization
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

The ability to communicate consists in (among other things) exploiting the interpretive ability of the addressee for one’s own ends. Up to this point, we have acquainted ourselves with three forms of the exploitative use of interpretive ability: (1) I know that you are capable of making causal inferences. I stage a symptom and try in this way to bring you to infer what the symptom is supposed to be a symptom of. (2) I know that you are capable of making associative inferences. I give you a perceptible expression (a sound, a gesture, a representation, etc.) and try in this way to bring you to an associative inference of what I want you to recognize. (3) I know that you are capable of making causal and associative inferences. I give you a representation of a symptom (a simulation, for example), and try in this way to bring you to (a) make a causal inference as to what the represented symptom is supposed to be a symptom of, and (b) make an associative inference as to what I might be trying to get you to recognize with it.
Literal and Metaphorical Sense
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

“The metaphorical use of a word changes its meaning. The literal meaning is transferred to the metaphorical one.” This theory is as widespread as it is inadequate. I will try to show why it cannot be correct.* Let us consider an example. If I were to read the sentence, The face of his new car smiled at him contentedly, I would, under normal circumstances, interpret it as a metaphorical utterance. What does it mean to interpret an utterance as metaphorical? We discussed this question in detail in the last chapter. It means that two interpretive techniques must be used in succession: one must know the rules of use of the employed words, including syntax, and then, on the basis of one’s knowledge of the sentence meaning, associatively infer what it could mean to relate the idea of a contentedly smiling face to a car. However, in order to do this, the words face, smiled, etc. must be understood with their normal meanings. If the interpreter assumed that, in this sentence, face “really” means grille, the metaphor would be destroyed. For the metaphoricity of the utterance consists precisely in the invitation to see the car as having a contentedly smiling face. For this, it must be assumed that the words face, smiled, etc. have their normal meaning. “[I]n a genuine metaphorical utterance it is only because the expressions have not changed their meaning that there is a metaphorical expression at all” (Searle 1979: mo). The awareness of the metaphoricity of the meaning of the utterance requires awareness of the normal meaning of the sentence.
Costs and Benefits of the Metaphorical Technique
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

In the long run, all signs become symbols, as we have seen. With sufficiently frequent occurrence, sense once created with pragmatic means becomes semanticized, that is, rule based. The process of semanticization is a one-way street. It is true that, under certain conditions, the possibility exists to “re-literalize’‘ metaphors ad hoc, such as in the headline “Don’t Get Scalped” for an article dealing with balding treatments (Men’s Health, July/August 1997, p. 82). But I know of no case in which a reliteralization itself has become lexicalized. If the evolutionary trend necessarily moves towards semanticization and lexicalization,’ the question arises as to why we haven’t been communicating exclusively with lexicalized symbols for a long time already. The rash answer is that new situations demand ever new, creative, linguistic means, such as the aforementioned Green Berets as the designation for a certain kind of military company. But what seems plausible at first glance proves upon closer examination to be an overgeneralization. We could just as well have called this military group a US Army Special Force.
Thomas Spence: His Life and Works
Authors: Beal Joan C
Published: November 2023

Thomas Spence was born on 21 June 1750 on the Quayside, then one of the poorest areas of Newcastle upon Tyne. His father was a Scot who had settled in Newcastle some eleven years previously, and who had followed the occupations of netmaker and shoemaker, later becoming a hardware dealer. Whatever he earned at these occupations would not have gone far, as there were besides Thomas eighteen other children to support. This places Spence, almost uniquely amongst eighteenth-century orthoepists and grammarians, firmly in the lower classes. Little is known about such formal education as Spence might have received: Ashraf (1983: 12) notes that he ‘began his working life at his father’ trade of netmaking at the age of ten after some schooling”. We do, however, know from Spence’s own account in The Important Trial of Thomas Spenre that his father had his own method of educating his sons. ‘My father used to make my brothers and me read the Bible to him while working in his business, and at the end of every chapter, encouraged us to give our opinions on what we had just read. By these means I acquired an early habit of reflecting on every occurrence which passed before me, as well as on what I read’ (Spence 1803: 65; quoted from Waters 1917: 65).
English Dictionaries 800-1700
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

Between the beginnings of European lexicography and 1700, many glossaries and dictionaries were arranged not according to the alphabet, but in a topical order which followed the influential paradigms of theology, philosophy, and natural history at that time. Together with related text genres like treatises on terminology, didactic dialogues, and thesauri, they constitute the topical (or onomasiological) tradition which is an important lexicographical tradition in its own right. This book discusses the tradition's principles and origins, and by way of illustration draws upon early glossaries, treatises for the learning of foreign languages, and didactic dialogues. Later comprehensive works are presented as detailed in-depth studies. Professor Hüllen demonstrates that the English tradition is embedded in a complex Continental tradition whose important representatives, such as Adrianus Junius and Comenius, had a great influence on the English scene.
The onomasiological approach
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

The history of science is, above all, the history of ideas. Ideas are the result of ex-perience and reflection. Since they have been preserved and handed down to us in (manuscripts and) books, the history of science is always also a history of books. Moreover, depending on the specific nature of each scientific discipline, its history is additionally marked by relevant facts.1 The history of physics, for example, is a history of documented ideas plus a history of experiments, including a history of tools and technical devices; the history of geography is a history of documented ideas plus a history of travelling experience, including a history of vehicles.
Hermeneumata, Latin-English glosses, and nominales
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

Glosses and compilations of glosses, that is, glossaries, are the result of comments on texts in order to make them intelligible. Intelligibility is hampered most by words which are old and which have fallen into disuse, or which are only under stood in particular regions. Intelligibility is also hamperd by homonyms formally identical words with several meanings. Glosses explain such rare words to language users who are not accustomed to them, and they decide which of two (or more) meanings apply in a given text. Explaining words with the help of words presupposes synonymity in natural languages, that is, the fact that meanings and senses can be expressed in more than one way. The awareness of this fact stands at the beginning of classical, and this means of European, thinking about language (Schmitter 1991). Glossography is, thus, part of reception theory and of explication de texte (Hunt 1991, vol. I, 3). As with lexicography in general, there is no glossography without glosses, although there has been a production of glosses and glossaries for a long time without glossographic reflections. It is the historiographers who must endeavour to supply them with their hindsight.
The case of Johannes Amos Comenius
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the outstanding mark of foreign language teaching between the last third of the fifteenth century and 1700 is its European internationalism. Grammar was thought of in the framework of a unified set of traditional terms in every linguis tic region (country).The methods of arrangement and, thus, the semantic struc ture of onomasiological glossaries and dictionaries remained the same, although more and more European languages were involved. The unity of the Continent, which had linguistically been guaranteed for seven centuries by the one language of intellectuals, Latin, did not break apart when more and more vernaculars rose to prominence. Rather, Europe became a multilingual unity as it had been a Latin unity before.
Puzzle of Fit
Authors: Kirby Simon
Published: November 2023

A striking feature of the natural world is the existence of organisms whose occurrence is improbable simply by virtue of their complexity. Matter seems to arrange itself into highly organized bundles whenever life intervenes. The examples of this improbable order extend to the artefacts of life as well as to living things themselves: for example, the buildings, roads, and pavements that make up towns and, more abstractly, the cultural patterns that give rise to these artefacts. All these things are improbable in the sense that they inhabit a small, organized area in the much larger space of logical possibility.
The Limits of Functional Adaptation
Authors: Kirby Simon
Published: November 2023

In the previous two chapters I have argued that various universals, both parametric and hierarchical can be explained by examining the way in which processing complexity affects the transmission of language through the arena of use. Computer simulations of language as a complex adaptive system have been useful in demonstrating the validity of this approach, as well as highlighting the limitations of previous explanations for hierarchies. The overall goal has been to solve the problem of linkage by enriching the structure of the arena of use proposed by Hurford (1990).
Innateness and Function in Linguistics
Authors: Kirby Simon
Published: November 2023

It is widely believed by linguists that the human ability to acquire language is at least in some part innately given, and that UG in the Chomskyan sense is embodied in this ability. Indeed, this assumption has been implicit in much of the discussion in this book so far. The previous chapter showed that such an innate LAD is required in combination with a theory of linguistic selection in order fully to understand the fit of universals to processing pressures. Recent research has begun to look at the possibility of examining the origins of the features of this innate faculty themselves, arguing that these too may have their roots in essentially functional pressures. This final chapter reviews some of this recent literature and examines whether it poses a competing theory of the origin of universals.
Persuasive Rhetoric in Linguistics: A Stylistic Study of Some Features of the Language of Noam Chomsky
Authors: Hoey Michael
Published: November 2023

Hoey’s chapter is a detailed examination of selected passages from Chomsky’s writing, focusing on Chomsky’s use of evaluative words and phrases. Hoey’s argument is that Chomsky pre-empts criticism of his ideas through a clever use of evaluation, in particular by evaluating negatively any reader whose assumptions about language and about the discipline of linguistics differ from Chomsky’s own. Moreover, Hoey argues, Chomsky’s evaluations are so embedded in the structure of the clause and of the discourse that they are difficult to challenge.
Automated Lexical Resources in Europe: A Survey
Authors: Armstrong-Warwick Susan
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the types of information found in existing computerized dictionaries, concentrating on those of a fair size and coverage, and to report on major projects that are currently under way in western Europe. An underlying assumption is that these dictionaries are potential resources for (re)use in large-scale natural language processing (NLP) applications. Sample entries from projects with ‘toy’ dictionaries are only included to illustrate the ongoing investigation of new types of information and different ways of structuring the lexical material.
Lexicon Acquisition for NLP: A Consumer Report
Authors: Nirenburg Sergei
Published: November 2023

Current natural language processing systems typically operate in a ‘demo’ mode—they sometimes feature sizeable grammars but seldom sizeable lexicons containing information about meaning. This difficulty of going beyond toy systems is one of the main bottlenecks of artificial intelligence in general. Scaling up the dictionaries (and other knowledge bases) of a knowledge-based system is, however, essential for the overall success of the field. There are several ways in which the indispensable massive knowledge acquisition program can in principle be conducted. One can envisage developing a machine learning system for automatic acquisition of vast quantities of knowledge through experimentation on a (sub)world.
A Lexical Workstation: From Textual Data to Structured Database
Authors: Calzolari Nicoletta , Picchi Eugenio
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to describe some of the tools which have been developed (or are being developed) in Pisa within several projects, and which can be conceived as different modules of a ‘lexicographic workstation’. The present integrated system is mainly based on two prototypes: a textual database system (DBI for ‘Data Base Testuale’: see Picchi 1983 and 1991) and a lexical database system (LDB: see Calzolari 1988).
A Practical Dictionary of German Usage
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

One of the most difficult tasks confronting the English speaker learning German is that of finding exactly the right German word to translate an English work in a particular context. Many common English words have several, sometimes a bewildering number of German equivalents. Thus it is all too easy to find yourself saying the equivalent of Have you extinguished the rubbish? instead of Have you put out the rubbish? Bilingual dictionaries list equivalents, but give little or no information about their use. The articles in this practical dictionary are much longer than those to be found in a bilingual dictionary, and the number of words treated is fewer, with a concentration on those which cause particular difficulties for speakers of English. The complexity of the relationship between English words and their German equivalents is attributable to two factors. Firstly, frequently used English words often have more than one meaning, and each of the English meanings may be expressed by more than one German word. Such words will be at least partial synonyms, but the field of meaning is likely to be divided up in a way that is different from English. Each article in the book starts by separating out the different meanings of an English word, and then explains the meaning and use of the German equivalents for each, with numerous examples. The book will be an essential reference work for advanced learners and for teachers of German at all levels, offering a uniquely detailed insight into the structure of word meaning in German as well as practical advice on usage.
B
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

bad, evil, wicked adjs. The main equivalents are schlecht and schlimm. Bose and iibel are usually stronger. Schwer sometimes corresponds to bad[ly]. Order of meanings. 1. Bad= ‘of unacceptably low quality’. 2. Bad= ‘unpleasant, harmful, undesirable’. 3. Bad = ‘morally unacceptable, evil, wicked’. 4. Bad as an intensifier. 5. Other uses. 6. Badly. Bad and poor describe something of defective or inferior quality, what fails to come up to an acceptable standard, and are applied to aspects of the natural world, bad soil, bad light, bad weather, to natural products, a bad crop, bad timber, to things produced by human effort, a bad film, a bad painting, a bad translation, and to people performing work or tasks, a bad teacher or ca1J’)enter. The equivalent is schlecht, which expresses these senses both as an adj. and as an adv.
J
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Join = ‘to connect two thgs. so that they become physically united’. Verbinden is a general term which like join covers different ways of holding things together. Man verbindet zwei Bretter mit Leim/mit Schrauben. Ich habe die Bindfadenenden verbunden. Die Driihte werden durch Lotung miteinander verbunden. The thing effecting the join can be the subj. Schrauben verbinden die Teile der Maschine. However, as in E. there are specific terms which are probably more common. Man verknotet die Bindfadenenden or knotet sie zusammen, ties them together.
O
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Object to s.o. or sth. means ‘to express opposition to or dislike or disapproval of him/her/it’. Protest about/against s.o. or sth. is ‘to say or show publicly that one objects to that pers. or thg.’object/protest! when nothing follows can sometimes be Ich mu& doch sehr bitten! which expresses indignation and a protest against, for example, an unjust accusation or unacceptable behaviour. Bitten has this sense only in this expression. Nothing can be added. When what is objected to is stated, I object to such a tone of voice/to people smoking in my office, sich etw. verbitten, ‘to demand emphatically that something cease or not happen’, is the usual v.
V
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

In vain, for nothing, vain. Three G. words, umsonst, vergebens, and vergeblich, express the sense ‘to no effect or purpose’. Umsonst is probably the most common and means ‘without achieving the result which was expected’.For nothing, free, gratis. Umsonst also means ‘for nothing’ or ‘at no cost, although payment is normally expected’. Er hat die Arbeit umsonst gemacht, er hat nichts dafilr verlangt. The chief word in this sense is kostenlos, free of charge. Einige Patienten behandelt der Arzt kostenlos. Alternatives are gratis and frei.
Introduction
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

At some time or another, many readers of this volume have shaken their heads in amazement at overhearing speakers who were carrying out a conversation in two languages, apparently freely drawing from both linguistic systems at will. Some readers themselves produce such conversations regularly. Such naturally occurring conversations on everyday topics are the subject of this study. These conversations are frequent all over the world wherever the participants are bilinguals, from Puerto Rican secretaries rapidly alternating Spanish and English while strolling on lunch-break on the sidewalks of New York City, to Kikuyu market vendors in Nairobi, Kenya, judiciously adding phrases in Luo to their Swahili while wooing a Luo-speaking customer, to university professors in Tamil Nadu, India, interchanging English and Tamil when relating what happened at a recent academic conference.
The Search for Structural Constraints on Codeswitching
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

Most research on CS in the 1970s and 1980s was fuelled by the recognition that CS properly should be considered as a type of skilled performance with social motivations (cf. Gumperz, 1982; Heller, 1988; Myers-Scotton, 1993). However, it soon occurred to researchers that quite another aspect of CS also might not be an accidental matter: where in an utterance a speaker might switch might well not be simply a whim of individual speakers or even a matter of habit for a specific speech community. This chapter surveys earlier answers to the constraints question: what are the limits on where the speaker may codeswitch within a sentence, and what motivates these limits? (Note that only intrasentential CS is relevant to the constraints question, as it has been addressed to date.)
Background for the Matrix Language-Frame Model: Production Models and Identifying the Matrix Language
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

This chapter has two purposes. First, it develops independent motivation for the major arguments of the Matrix Language-Frame model to be presented in Chapters 4 and 5. Such motivation comes from psycholinguistic research on several fronts, but especially from research on speech errors as it relates to language production models. Additional motivation comes from studies of patients with certain types of aphasia. Both these sources show a difference in the way closed-class and open-class morphemes (i.e. system versus content morphemes) are accessed in monolingual speech production. Finally, other psycholinguistic studies on bilingual speech offer further motivation for the MLF model. Second, the chapter contains another preliminary to the MLF model: the identification of the matrix language (ML) as opposed to the embedded language (EL) in CS utterances is discussed. The sociolinguistic and dynamic nature of the ML is also addressed.
Regulating Two at Once, I: The Matrix Language-Frame Model
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

This chapter and the following one present my current version of a frame-based model of CS. It is called the Matrix Language-Frame (MLF) model. This name highlights its two crucial aspects: (l) CS is envisioned as taking place within the constraints of a conceptual frame; (2) the frame is largely set by semantic and morphosyntactic procedures dictated by only one of the two (or more) languages participating in CS, the Matrix Language (ML). The other language is called the Embedded Language (EL). In some interactions in some communities, CS may involve more than two languages; while there may be more than one EL in such cases, there is always only one ML. How the frame of ML+ EL constituents is structured is the main topic of this chapter. A detailed treatment is offered of what is called the ML Hypothesis and its two principles, the Morpheme-Order Principle and the System Morpheme Principle. These principles provide structural descriptions of ML+ EL constituents. However, this discussion will not be entirely completed until Chapter 5.
Codeswitching and Deep Grammatical Borrowing
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals especially with borrowing which goes beyond lexical items. I will suggest that CS is an important mechanism in at least some cases of structural borrowing, as well as in some cases of language shift and related contact phenomena. First, I will discuss in some detail one such case: spoken in East Africa, Cushitic-origin Ma’a is sometimes called a ‘mixed language’ because it shows deep Bantu incursions. Next, I will present a set of seven scenarios showing the possible role of CS in such cases, including that of Ma’a. It is not my claim that, if CS is present, any of these scenarios necessarily will unfold. My major hypothesis, however, is that a ‘turnover’ of the ML in CS can set into motion processes leading to one language’s borrowing of structural features from another. In a ‘turnover’ of the ML, the former EL becomes the ML, and the former ML becomes the EL.
Conclusions
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

The goal of this volume has been to offer an account of how knowledge of multiple languages is represented and accessed during intrasentential CS, the use of two or more languages in the same sentence. In what may be considered a companion volume (Myers-Scotton, 1993), I discuss how the knowledge of multiple languages is exploited for socio-pragmatic purposes; that is, I consider the socio-psychological motivations for CS. Here I summarize the structural-constraints model, the MLF model, the main subject of this volume. I go on to suggest some ways in which the socio-psychological motivations and community norms for CS intersect with structural constraints.
The Syntax of the Experiencer Verbs in Old English
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we will look at the syntax of the verbs introduced in the pre ceding chapter. In particular, we will be looking at the evidence concerning the grammatical role of the preposed non-nominative Experiencers of Types I, N, and S. As noted in the introduction, intensive investigation into the syntactic properties of different sorts of NPs have led most practitioners of modern syntactic theories to abandon the traditional assumption of a simple relationship between grammatical relations and case marking. Before proceeding to an investigation of the syntax of OE experiencer verbs, I will briefly summarize the reasons which have led to widespread agreement1 about the existence of non-nominative subjects in a related language, modern Icelandic.
Movement in Language
Authors: Richards Norvin
Published: November 2023

This book is the most comprehensive, integrated explanatory account yet published of the properties of question formations and their variation across languages. It makes an important contribution to the current debate over whether syntax should be understood derivationally, arguing that the best model of language is one in which sentences are constructed in a series of operations that precede or follow each other in time. The central problem it addresses is the nature of the difference between (a) languages in which all wh-words move overtly to a clause-initial position (exemplified by Bulgarian); (b) languages in which one wh-phrase moves per clause but all others remain in situ (exemplified by English); and (c) languages in which there is no overt movement at all (exemplified by Japanese). Professor Richards focuses on the nature of syntactic movement in order to see what this reveals about the syntactic derivation. He considers the nature of interactions between movement operations and investigates the behaviour of multiple overt wh-movement, scrambling, cliticization, and object shift. His general conclusions about the relationship between movement and multiple specifiers follow straightforwardly from basic principles of Shortest Move and Shortest Attract. He develops a PF-imposed well-formedness condition on movement chains (essentially, a requirement that a single member of the chain be unambiguously identified as the copy to be pronounced), which allows for the development of theories of anti-agreement, the that-trace effect, and the conditions on participial agreement in Romance, among other phenomena. He defends the claim that well-formed dependencies can improve the status of ill-formed dependencies created later in the derivation, illustrating the explanatory power, under certain structural conditions, of his Principle of Minimal Compliance. He uses data on the locality of wh-movement to argue that the Principle of Minimal Compliance is responsible for a number of the apparent distinctions between overt and covert movement. This book will interest syntacticians at graduate level and above as well as linguistic theorists concerned with the syntax-semantics interface.
Optimality Theory:the Basics
Authors: Mcmahon April
Published: November 2023

If the health of an academic discipline is measured in terms of the liveliness of its controversies, then current phonological theory is clearly in good shape. Perhaps the most contentious area at present involves the formal objects of which a phonological model may be composed: specifically, we have a debate over rules and constraints. In traditional generative models, following from Chomsky and Halle (1968), the basic tool of analysis is the phonological rule. Phonologists write a rule in response to some aspect of phonological behaviour in a particular language, or indeed dialect; thus, in German, the instruction ‘devoice word-final stops’ would account for the well-known alternation between [d] and [t] or [b] and [p]. This rule is given in a slightly more formal version in example (1.1.) below: note that nothing hangs on the particular formalism adopted, which is extremely old-fashioned in theoretical terms, but will suffice for exemplification.
A Note on ξas ‘ss’ [š:] and a ruki-Rule m Ancient Greek
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

There are in Ancient Greek a few hints of a ruki-development (that is, the change of [s] to [š]—in Sanskrit, to [ş]—when preceded by k, r, i, and u). Till now, the change has been thought to have been limited to a few other indo-European language families. The evidence presented here has chiefly to do with otherwise unaccountable switchings of Greek σ σ with ξ and the fact that the examples occur in ruki-environments.
Cognitive-Conceptual Structure and Linguistic Encoding: Language Universals and Typology in the UNITYP Framework
Authors: Seiler Hansjakob
Published: November 2023

UNITYP is the name of our research group and stands for ߢLanguage Universals Researchߣ (henceforth abbreviated as LUR) ߢand Language Typologyߣ (henceforth abbreviated as LTYP).1 The groupߣs headquarters is the Institute of Linguistics at the University of Cologne, Germany. Activities started in 1972 on a voluntary basis with this writer as the principal investigator, together with a few members of the Institute. It has received funding from the German Research Council (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) since 1973. It began as an individual project, had developed into a ߢUnitߣ (For schergruppe) by 1978, and is still operating. I welcome this opportunity to express-in the name of the entire group-our feelings of deep gratitude and indebtedness to the Deutsche Forschungs gemeinschaft for its unfailingly generous support through all these years.
I kicked at the bomb, which exploded, and wakened you up.
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

Some languages have a strict division of verbs into transitive—those that take A (transitive subject) and O (transitive object) core syntactic relations—and intransitive—those that have just one core syntactic relation, S (intransitive subject). A few languages even employ morphological marking so that there can never be any doubt as to whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, e.g. if a verb in Fijian shows a transitive suffix then it must have an object; if it lacks this suffix there will be no direct object.

Transitivity is a much more fluid matter in English. There are, it is true, a number of verbs that are strictly transitive, e.g. like, promote, recognise, inform, and a few that are strictly intransitive, e.g. arrive, chat, matter. But many verbs in English may be used either transitively or intransitively.
The plate, which had been eaten off, was owned by my aunt.
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

A passive sentence in English is not an automatic transformation of an active one. It is an alternative realisation of the relation between a transitive verb and its object, and involves an intransitive construction with a subject (corresponding to the transitive object), a copula-like verb be or get, and a participial form of the verb. Thus, corresponding to A man took away the mad dog we get the passive The mad dog was taken away. A passive clause may include an NP, introduced with by, corresponding to the transitive subject (e.g. by a man), but it does so only relatively seldom (in formal, written English, more than 80 per cent of passives are agentless, and the figure is undoubtedly higher for colloquial, spoken styles).
Social and Linguistic Background
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we shall be looking at ways in which the particular social and linguistic characteristics of Bergen and its rural hinterland may affect the linguistic behaviour of people who move from that hinterland to the city.
The Linguistic Variables
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: November 2023

In the first chapter, it was argued that the types of linguistic strategy adopted by a migrant group depend to a great extent on the nature of the differences between the language of the migrant group and that of the host community. Where the two language varieties in contact are mutually intelligible and syntagmatically similar (as they are in the case discussed in this book), the minimal strategy on the part of the migrants seems to involve the introduction (with varying frequencies) of morpho-lexical elements from the host language, these elements being phonologically adapted to the migrants’ language. Evidence for this was taken from the linguistic behaviour of Swedes in Norway, as reported by Nordenstam (1979). Some of the speakers in that study, which in many ways parallels the present one, adopted morpho-lexical elements, while other, more ‘Norwegianized’ speakers additionally showed varying degrees of adaptation to Norwegian on the phonological and suprasegmental levels.
More Recent Developments: More on Substrate, Superstrate, and Independent Development
Authors: Crowley Terry
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter tracked some of the more significant grammatical developments in Bislama from the early years of the sandalwood and sea-slug trades from the 1840s to the 1860s, right through to the emergence of an essentially modern Bislama, by about the 1930s. Bislama has, of course, continued to change since then, and some significant changes are currently in progress right now in the 1980s. In this chapter, I will describe some of these more recent structural developments, attempting again to uncover some of the motivating factors behind them.
Evolutionary Perspectives on Diachronic Syntax
Authors: Briscoe Ted
Published: November 2023

The main purpose of this chapter is to argue the merits of ‘population thinking’ in gaining insight into linguistic and, in particular, syntactic change. Population level thinking and modelling can shed new light on many issues in the study of language acquisition and language change, and leads directly to a precise and useful characterization of E-language, something which is lacking in current generative linguistics. Moreover, this way of thinking is fully compatible with the major insights of the latter, and integrates them into a framework in which language variation and change are inherent and inevitable, rather than peripheral and/or accidental, properties of language. I will argue that (E-)languages are best modelled as particular kinds of dynamical systems; namely, complex adaptive systems (where these terms are used in technical senses made precise below).
Adjuncts and the Syntax of Subjects in Old and Middle English
Authors: Haeberli Eric
Published: November 2023

Old English shows characteristic properties of a Verb Second (V2) language. However, certain phenomena can be found in Old English which suggest that V2 in this language cannot be dealt with in terms of analyses that have been pro posed for the Modem Germanic V2 languages. Different alternative analyses have therefore been explored in the recent literature which account for the distinct properties of Old English. Although there seems to be a general consensus on the central points, the different analyses vary with respect to several issues. In this chapter, some of these issues will be addressed and it will be argued that important evidence can be obtained from a comparative analysis of Old English, later stages in the history of English, and the Modem Germanic languages with respect to phenomena concerning the distribution of adjuncts and subjects. In addition, it will be shown not only that the comparative evidence used provides information for the analysis of Old English, but also that the Old English data contribute to a more detailed understanding of a general Germanic word-order phenomenon.
The ‘Withering Away’ of Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine
Published: November 2023

Is a socialist jurisprudence possible? Many thinkers on the Left, especially Marxists, would answer no. Left-wing thought has long been committed to the view that law will ‘wither away’ under socialism, that political and legal institutions will cease to exist with the emergence and development of socialist society. This thesis was developed by Marx and Engels, and has been upheld by Western and Soviet thinkers in the Marxist tradition. Its legacy has been that thinkers on the Left tend to limit their interests to the role of law in reinforcing capitalist exploitation, or, less typically, its potential for yielding short-term gains for the exploited. Thus Marxists have been unable to make any further contributions to legal theory. They do not consider the role law might play in a post-capitalist society, and a socialist jurisprudence is virtually non-existent. This chapter examines the withering away thesis in order to understand the nature of the obstacles to a socialist contribution to legal theory.
Conclusion
Authors: Sypnowich Christine
Published: November 2023

This book has argued that socialist political theory must not forsake law. It has shown that law is not an unavoidable evil, designed to secure order in societies flawed by egoism and inequality, but an enriching feature of any society, especially the ideal community to which socialism aspires. Even where there is shared ownership of social resources, pervasive equality, and a thriving democratic culture, there remains a place for law. I do not mean that law is simply a desirable extra in such a society, the moral ‘icing’ on the practical ‘cake’ of socialism. Law is not merely congenial to socialism. It is an essential pre-condition of its attainment. Whether or not a socialist society is stable and effective will depend on the stability and effectiveness of its legal institutions.
The Human Rights Committee
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc
Published: November 2023

The Human Rights Committee is charged with the task of monitoring the implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Since its inception it has arguably become the most important independent international human rights body in the world. Through the consideration of State Reports, from over half of the world community, and the examination of communications submitted by individuals (under the Optional Protocol to the Covenant), the Human Rights Committee seeks to establish a universal human rights jurisprudence. This book analyses the institutional characteristics of the Human Rights Committee, how it has developed its practices and procedures under the Covenant and the Optional Protocol, and analyses the jurisprudence of the Committee under selected key articles of the Covenant.
The System of Periodic Reporting
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc
Published: November 2023

3.1 Periodic reporting is the most widespread and established implementation technique for the international implementation of human rights. The obligation to submit reports is the only obligation which States parties to the ICCPR assume, ipso facto, on ratification or accession. The national reports submitted are considered and examined by the Human Rights Committee (HRC), the independent body of experts established under article 28 of the ICCPR. This chapter analyses the reporting procedure as it has developed in the practice of the HRC.