bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Causal Primacy and Comparative Fault
Authors: Johnson Joel T. , Ogawa Keith H. , Delforge Ann , Early Diane
Published: March 2007

This study examined the effect of the relative position of two events in a causal chain on the perceived legal responsibility of parties to a lawsuit. Subjects read two legal controversies. Each involved an injury that had occurred because two different parties, one associated with Event A and one associated with Event B, had each been negligent. With the facts otherwise held constant, the relative position of the two events in the causal chain producing the outcome was varied. In one scenario, either a demonstration (Event A),prompted a libelous newspaper article (Event B), leading to financial and emotional harm to the plaintiff, or the article prompted the demonstration. In the second scenario, a dog jumped a fence either before or after being teased by a boy, who was subsequently bitten by the dog. Results indicated that the relative negligence, liability, and financial responsibility attributed to the party associated with an event were greater when that event was the prior cause.
To be Noticed Favorably
Authors: Baumgardner Ann H. , Kaufman Cynthia M. , Cranford James A.
Published: March 2007

William James, in The Principles of Psychology, proposed three primary facets of the empirical self. the material self (material possessions); the spiritual self, or self as knower; and the social self, as seen by others. This article draws parallels and distinctions between the spiritual self/social self dichotomy introduced by James and the current-day private self/public self dichotomy. It then reviews recent evidence for, and theoretical processes of, the affective components of the private self and public self. A model of self-presentation, suggesting that self-presentation behavior is often systematically aimed toward the regulation of self-affect, is discussed Evidence in support of this model is introduced—namely, that individuals who have negative self-regard use social relations and their "social selves" to enhance their self-concepts.
Hindsight and Causality
Authors: Wasserman David , Lempert Richard O. , Hastie Reid
Published: March 2007

When people know how an event turned out, they are usually unable to reproduce the judgments they would have made without outcome knowledge. Furthermore, they are unaware of their inability to recapture their pre-outcome state of mind. This tendency to overestimate what they would have known without the outcome knowledge is called "hindsight." An experiment explored the moderating effects of the type of cause to which the outcome was attributed on the magnitude of the hindsight effect. When the outcome was attributed to unforeseeable "chance" factors, such as an unexpected storm or an earthquake, the hindsight effect was virtually eliminated. When no causal attribution was provided or when a plausible "deterministic" cause (human skill or lack of skill) was cited, subjects' judgments showed sizable hindsight effects. These. findings are interpreted as supporting Fischhoff's "creeping determinism" hypothesis and as providing evidence that the hindsight effect is a by-product of adaptive learning from feedback.
An Empirical Comparison of Meta-Analytic and Traditional Reviews
Authors: Beaman Arthur L.
Published: March 2007

The quality of traditional reviews was compared with that of meta-analytic reviews. Articles were coded to provide information on several aspects of the review process. These included selection of primary studies, representation of the results from the primary studies, and interpretation of results. Reviews were sampled for the periods 1981-1983 and 1987-1988, allowing comparison between the two types of reviews within each sample and a comparison between samples. The data provided useful information related to whether one review process was superior to the other. Overall meta-analyses fared very well and appear to be the preferable method.
Controversy and Cumulation: Meta-Analysis and Research on Interpersonal Expectancy Effects
Authors: Harris Monica J.
Published: March 2007

Meta-analysis has had a major impact on theory and research on interpersonal expectancy effects. This article describes the initial controversy surrounding expectancy effects and how meta-analysis was used to resolve it. The contribution of meta-analysis to theory on expectancy effects is then illustrated with descriptions of meta-analyses of the bases of teacher expectancies, the relationship between length of acquaintance and expectancy effects, mediation of expectancy effects, and personality moderators of expectancy effects. Future areas that could be investigated with meta-analysis are described. Lastly, the question of how research on expectancy effects has influenced the development of meta-analysis is considered.
Trait Judgments about the Self: Evidence from the Encoding Specificity Paradigm
Authors: Klein Stanley B. , Loftus Judith , Plog Amy E.
Published: March 2007

How do people decide whether a trait is self-descriptive? According to the computational view, judging a trait for self-descriptiveness is accomplished by retrieving trait-relevant autobiographical episodes from memory and computing the similarity of the trait to the information retrieved. By contrast, the trait summary view argues that trait judgments are made by referring directly to abstract, summary knowledge of one's traits in memory. In previous work using a priming paradigm, the authors obtained support for the trait summary view. This article discusses a potential limitation of that paradigm and reports results from a new paradigm that is not subject to the same concerns. The findings converge with those of previous studies on the conclusion that trait self-descriptiveness judgments do not require the retrieval of trait-relevant autobiographical memories.
Effects of Technicality and Access to Trial Transcripts on Verdicts and Information Processing in a Civil Trial
Authors: Bourgeois Martin J. , Horowitz Irwin A. , Forster Lee Lynne
Published: March 2007

Two studies assessed the effects of evidence technicality on judgments and evidence processing in a civil trial. In Study 1, 48 jury-eligible adults heard a medical malpractice case that was either high or low in technicality of evidence and were or were not given access to a verbatim trial transcript while reaching a verdict. The evidence of the trial favored the defendant. However, jurors unable to process systematically were expected to employ a readily available counterfactual heuristic and to decide for the plaintiff. In Study 2, 64 college students heard the same trial either high or low in technicality and with or without closing arguments that blocked the use of the counterfactual heuristic. In both studies, low evidence technicality led jurors to process the evidence systematically and to decide for the defendant. Access to transcripts and blocking of counterfactual reasoning led to increases in decisions for the defendant under high evidence complexity.
Basic Research and Practical Problems: The Promise of a "Functional" Personality and Social Psychology
Authors: Snyder Mark
Published: March 2007

In this article, based on the 1992 presidential address to the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, the author illustrates how research in personality and social psychology can address problems that confront society. To do so, he draws on a program of research on volunteerism. Every year; millions of people volunteer to devote much time and energy to helping others by volunteering, for example, to provide companionship to the elderly, tutoring to the illiterate, or health care to the sick. Guided by a functional approach to motivation, the author and his colleagues are engaged in a coordinated program of basic and applied investigations, conducted in the field and the laboratory, to examine personal and social motivations that give rise to the sustained, ongoing helping relationships of volunteerism. Then, applying lessons learned from building such bridges between basic research and practical problems, the author examines the practical and theoretical promises of a functionally orient approach to personality, motivation, and social behavior
Can Explanatory Style be Scored from TAT Protocols?
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Ulrey Lisa M.
Published: March 2007

Explanatory style is a cognitive personality variable reflecting how people habitually explain the causes of bad events that involve themselves. Usually measured with a questionnaire, it can also be scored from verbal material such as interviews and essays. Unexplored to date is whether explanatory style can be assessed from stories written in response to pictures. College students (N = 108) completed the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDJ) and responded to four Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) pictures chosen to elicit negative themes. Causal explanations were identified in the TAT protocols and reliably rated along the attributional dimensions of stability and globality. These ratings were consistent within subjects, and they correlated with the BDI. They correlated with globality as measured by the EASQ but not with stability.
Beauty or the Beast? The Effects of Appearance, Personality, and Issue Information on Evaluations of Political Candidates
Authors: Budesheim Thomas Lee , DePaola Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Two studies investigated the effects of image and issue information on evaluations of political candidates. The extent to which voters base their evaluations on stereotypic image information (i.e., candidates' physical attractiveness) and nonstereotypic image information (i.e., individuating personality descriptions of the candidates) was examined. Also of interest were the factors that lead to image-based, as opposed to issue-based, evaluations of the candidates. Results demonstrated that (a) physical appearance influenced evaluations even when individuating personality information was provided, (b) subjects' evaluations were less influenced by their agreement with the candidates' issue positions when image information was presented than when it was not, and (c) subjects' evaluations were less influenced by issue agreement when a candidate's image was evaluatively mixed than when it was evaluatively consistent.
Collective Errors and Errors about the Collective
Authors: Miller Dale T. , Prentice Deborah A.
Published: March 2007

This article focuses on the circumstances in which individuals mistakenly assume that their beliefs, perceptions, and feelings differ from those of their peers. Pluralistic ignorance, as this phenomenon is called, yields numerous significant consequences for the self (e.g., illusory feelings of deviance) and for the collective (e.g., the perpetuation of unpopular social norms). It also illustrates several important ways in which the self and the collective influence each other. The authors propose that pluralistic ignorance has its roots in collectively shared misconceptions about the relative power of different motives. Specifically, it occurs when widely shared but erroneous social representations of human motivation lead people to view the motive guiding their behavior as one that would not exert a comparable influence on the behavior of others.
Psychological Antecedents of Flow in Recreational Sport
Authors: Stein Gary L. , Kimiecik Jay C. , Daniels Joe , Jackson Susan A.
Published: March 2007

Three studies investigated three potential psychological antecedents of flow in sport-goals, competence, and confidence. These studies examined tennis players competing in a weekend tournament, basketball players in college activity classes, and golf regulars. The first study had the participants rate flow characteristics, whereas the second and third studies used the experience sampling method to measure flow. In a learning environment (basketball activity classes), students inflow experienced greater enjoyment, satisfaction, concentration, and control than their counterparts in boredom, apathy, or anxiety. In a competitive environment (tennis tournament and golf), athletes inflow or boredom states had a better quality of experience than individuals in apathy or anxiety states. These results suggest that contextual differences influence why an athlete perceives a situation as optimal. The psychological antecedents of flow for sport participants remain unidentified, as neither goals, competence, nor confidence predicted the flow experience.
An Attributional Analysis of Reactions to Negative Emotions
Authors: Karasawa Kaori
Published: March 2007

Three studies examined observers' attributions and reactions to negative emotional displays, as well as expressers' expectations about others' reactions. Study I found that one's own negative emotions were attributed to situations more than to dispositions, but others' emotions were attributed equally to situations and dispositions. Study 2 revealed that the observers' affective reactions, assignment of responsibility, and intent to support and reject the other, as well as expressers' expectations of these variables, were more negative when emotions were attributed to the expressers' dispositions than when attributed to the situation. Study 3 investigated the discrepancy between expressers' expectations and observers' reactions, and found that observers directed more intense reactions, both positive and negative, than expressers expected. Discussion considers methodological issues and the implications for social support and distressful interpersonal processes.
Relationship between Self-Typicality and the In-Group Subtypes Effect
Authors: Wallace David S. , Lord Charles G. , Ramsey Shawna L.
Published: March 2007

According to previous research, members of a social category draw a greater number of subtype distinctions within their own category than nonmembers do. But do category members themselves differ in the number of in-group subtype distinctions that they draw? In Study 1, students who considered themselves relatively typical of their fraternity or sorority listed a greater number of subtypes for their own than for other fraternities or sororities; students who considered themselves relatively atypical did not. In Study 2, athletes listed a greater number of subtypes for their own sports team if they were considered relatively typical by both themselves and teammates than if they were considered relatively typical only by themselves, only by teammates, or by neither. Possible explanations for the "in-group subtypes effect" are discussed.
A Dual Processing Approach to Stereotype Change
Authors: Johnston Lucy , Coolen Petra
Published: March 2007

The reported research considered the applicability of a dual process framework to stereotype change. Three experiments manipulated task involvement, source credibility, and message quality and measured stereotype change. Under conditions of high involvement, stereotype change was effected only by message cues. In low-involvement conditions, there was an additive effect of source and message cues. This credibility effect was due to an enhancement of the impact of stereotype-disconfirming information when presented by a highly credible source. These findings show differential processing of stereotype-disconfirming information under hig4 and low involvement, consistent with the dual process approach. Processing time, recall, and thought listing also showed differential processing of the counter stereotypical message under high-and low-involvement conditions. Results are discussed in terms of the models of persuasion, and implications for traditional stereotype change research are considered.
Need State and the Illusion of Control
Authors: Biner Paul M. , Angle Shannon T. , Park James H. , Mellinger Anthony E. , Barber Brian C.
Published: March 2007

Two investigations tested the hypothesis that the need for a randomly determined outcome influences the degree of perceived skill involved in attaining the outcome, which, in turn, influences the confidence in attaining the outcome. In Study 1, food-deprived or food-satiated subjects expected to have a good or poor chance of winning a food incentive in a drawing. Compared to food-satiated subjects, food-deprived subjects thought the drawing involved more skill, and they were more confident about winning. In Study 2, state lottery players reported their incomes, how much skill they thought playing the lottery involved, and how confident they were about winning Path analyses showed that income negatively affected skill ratings, and skill ratings positively affected confidence-in-winning ratings. Results were replicated using comparable questions about a lottery-sponsored rub-off card game. Results are discussed in terms of Langer's propositions regarding the illusion of control.
Distinguishing Optimism from Denial: Optimistic Beliefs Predict Attention to Health Threats
Authors: Aspinwall Lisa G. , Brunhart Susanne M.
Published: March 2007

Research has yielded conflicting views of the adaptiveness of optimistic beliefs in confronting negative events and information. To test whether optimism functions like denial, the authors examined the prospective relation of optimistic beliefs to attention to threatening health information presented by computer in a college student sample (N= 57). Optimistic beliefs about one's health predicted greater attention to risk information than to neutral or benefit information and greater levels of recall overall, especially when the information was self-relevant. Results concerning attention to risk information were similar, but weaker, for dispositional optimism. Implications for theoretical treatments of optimistic beliefs are discussed.
Women as Men and People: Effects of Gender-Marked Language
Authors: McConnell Allen R. , Fazio Russell H.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the implications of gender-marked language. It was hypothesized that man-suffix occupation titles (e.g., chairman) would lead perceivers to interpret a social target's personality as more masculine than no-suffix occupation titles (e.g., chair) and that person-suffix occupation titles (e.g., chairperson) would lead perceivers to interpret a social target's personality as less masculine than no-suffix occupation titles. Experiment 1 supported these predictions. Moreover, the effect was stronger for participants who reported more traditional gender role beliefs. Experiment 2 replicated this effect and showed that repeated exposure to occupation title suffixes (i.e., priming), coupled with the knowledge that the occupation title was chosen by the target (i.e., implicit personality effects), mediated the findings. In addition to explaining some of the cognitive underpinnings of sexist language, these results speak to conditions when priming will influence social perception.
Are Perceptions of Emotion in the Eye of the Beholder? A Social Relations Analysis of Judgments of Embarrassment
Authors: Marcus David K. , Wilson Jeffrey R. , Miller Rowland S.
Published: March 2007

College women watched each other perform an embarrassing or innocuous task in a study of emotion recognition using the social relations model. In groups of 5, 120 women judged the embarrassment and inferred the embarrassability of each of the other group members. The participants also reported the empathic embarrassment they felt while watching each of the other group members. There was considerable consensus among observers of strong embarrassment, but perception of weaker embarrassment was more idiosyncratic. The level of a performer's trait embarrassability was apparent to observers of the innocuous task, and, across both conditions, embarrassable observers assumed that others were embarrassable. Empathic embarrassment for others was clearly subjective, depending more on who was watching than on who was being watched.
Envy and Schadenfreude
Authors: Smith Richard H. , Turner Terence J. , Garonzik Ron , Leach Colin W. , Urch-Druskat Vanessa , Weston Christine M.
Published: March 2007

To test the hypothesis that Schadenfreude, pleasure at the suffering of others, will result when an envied person experiences a misfortune, envy was created in subjects by asking them to watch a videotaped interview of a student who was made to appear either superior or average. An epilogue informed subjects that the student had suffered a recent setback. The envy created in subjects was found to enhance the likelihood that they would feel Schadenfreude on learning of this setback. In addition, dispositional envy predicted subjects' envy of the student, and this envy also mediated subsequent Schadenfreude. These results strongly support linking envy with Schadenfreude.
An In-Group Becomes Part of the Self: Response Time Evidence
Authors: Smith Eliot R. , Henry Susan
Published: March 2007

Social identity theory holds that social group memberships become part of the psychological self; affecting thoughts, feelings, and behavior. However, tests of this hypothesis to date have mainly involved judgmental dependent measures. A method adapted from Aron and associates can provide more direct evidence. Subjects made speeded self-descriptiveness judgments for a variety of traits. Responses were slower and involved more errors for traits on which the individual believed he or she mismatched an in-group, compared with matching traits. Matches or mismatches between the self and a salient out-group had no effect. This evidence suggests that cognitive representations of the self and an in-group are directly linked, to the point where reports about the self are facilitated for traits on which the self and in-group are perceived as similar, and inhibited for dissimilar traits.
Asking Nicely? The Effects of Mood on Responding to More or Less Polite Requests
Authors: Forgas Joseph P.
Published: March 2007

Receiving requests presents people with complex strategic choices. How does mood influence reactions to more or less polite requests? Based on the affect infusion model (AIM), it was predicted and found that (a) reactions to requests show a significant mood-congruent bias that (b) is greater for impolite requests that recruit more substantive processing. In an unobtrusive procedure, library readers saw pictures or text eliciting positive or negative moods. Their subsequent responses to more or less polite unobtrusive requests showed that negative mood produced more critical reactions and less compliance than did positive mood, and this effect was accentuated for impolite, unconventional requests. Superior memory for impolite requests confirmed the more substantive processing of these messages. The results support the AIM and confirm that different processing strategies mediate mood effects on language use. The implications of the findings for interpersonal behavior and for contemporary theories of affect and cognition are considered.
Perceptions of and by Lonely People in Initial Social Interaction
Authors: Christensen P. Niels , Kashy Deborah A.
Published: March 2007

The Social Relations Model was used to examine the relationship between loneliness and interpersonal perception in initial social interactions. Unacquainted students interacted in groups of four same-gender members. Following the interaction, all group members rated themselves and others on 10 personal characteristics, such as physical attractiveness, social skills, and anxiety. Members also judged how they thought other group members saw them on the same 10 variables (metaperceptions). Results indicated that lonelier people viewed others somewhat more positively, themselves more negatively, and thought others viewed them more negatively. Lonelier people, however, were generally not seen differentially by others, except they were seen as friendlier
Motivated Cognitive Processing and Attitude Change
Authors: Lundgren Sharon R. , Prislin Radmila
Published: March 2007

Two experiments investigated cognitive processing and attitudes under different motivations. In Experiment 1, 63 participants had either strong nondirectional (accuracy) or directional (defensive, impression) motives. Accuracy motivation resulted in extensive objective processing. Defensive motivation resulted in extensive biased processing. Impression motivation resulted in extensive processing that was directional in some measures but balanced in other measures. Cognitive processing mediated the effects of motivation on attitudes, which were stable across measurements. In Experiment 2, 44 participants processed under two combined strong motivations. Accuracy was successfully combined with directional motivation in both processing and attitudes. It reduced bias when combined with impression motivation but not when combined with defensive motivation. Two opposing directional motivations were difficult to combine, and participants eventually abandoned extensive processing.
Gender Differences in Motives for Regulating Emotions
Authors: Timmers Monique , Fischer Agneta H. , Manstead Antony S. R.
Published: March 2007

The present study was designed to test the assumption that gender differences in emotion expression are based on differences in the motives held by men and women in social interactions. Three hundred and fourteen students participated in this study by completing a questionnaire. Each questionnaire contained two vignettes that varied with respect to type of emotion (anger, disappointment, fear or sadness), sex of target, and object-target relationship. Dependent variables included measures of emotion expression and of motives for regulating one's emotions. The results support the general hypothesis that women are more concerned with relationships and less reluctant to express powerless emotions, whereas men are more motivated to stay in control and tend to express emotions that reflect their power.
A Joint Maximum Likelihood Estimation Procedure for the Hyperbolic Cosine Model for Single-Stimulus Responses
Authors: Luo Guanzhong
Published: March 2007

Joint maximum likelihood estimation (JMLE) for the hyperbolic cosine model (Andrich & Luo, 1993) is extended to the situation in which the units of items are allowed to vary. Four issues were considered in developing this JMLE procedure: (1) the indeterminacy caused by the unit parameter of each item, (2) a necessary constraint to eliminate this indeterminacy, (3) the initial estimates of the unit and location parameters of the items, and (4) a practical correction procedure to account for inconsistency in parameter estimates. Four estimation cycles were designed to address these issues. Results from two sets of simulation studies (ideal and non-ideal situations) indicated that the algorithm yielded reasonably accurate recovery of the parameters.
Knowledge of Results and the Proportion of Positive Feedback on Tests of Ability
Authors: Prestwood J. Stephen
Published: March 2007

Students were administered one of three conventional or one of three stradaptive vocabulary tests with or without knowledge of results (KR). The three tests of each type differed in the expected proportion of correct responses to the test items and thus in the expected proportion of positive feedback. Results indicated that the mean maxi mum-likelihood estimates of individuals' abilities varied as a joint function of KR-provision and test difficulty. Students receiving KR scored highest on the most-difficult test and lowest on the least-dif ficult test; students receiving no KR scored highest on the least-difficult test and did most poorly on the most-difficult test. Although the students per ceived the differences in test difficulty, there were no effects on mean student anxiety or motivation scores attributable to difficulty or proportion of positive feedback alone. Regardless of the propor tion of positive feedback, students reacted very favorably to receiving KR, and its provision in creased the mean level of reported motivation.
Group Dependence of Some Reliability Indices for Mastery Tests
Authors: Divgi D.R.
Published: March 2007

Reliability indices for mastery tests depend not only on true-score variance but also on mean and cutoff scores. This dependence was examined in the case of three decision-theoretic indices: (1) the co efficient of agreement; (2) kappa; and (3) the pro portion of correct decisions. The binomial error model was assumed, with a two-parameter beta dis tribution for true scores. The reliability indices were computed at five values of the mean, four values of KR-21, and four cutoff scores. Results show that the dependence of kappa on mean and cutoff scores is opposite to that of the proportion of correct de cisions, which is linearly related to average thresh old loss. Moreover, kappa can be very small when most examinees are classified correctly. Thus, ob jections against the classical reliability coefficient apply even more strongly to kappa.
Item Homogeneity Defined by Multivariate Symmetry
Authors: Lienert Gustav A. , Raatz Ulrich
Published: March 2007

The concept of item homogeneity, implying that items have equal difficulties and equal intercorrela tions, is defined by multivariate axial symmetry. A nonparametric test for J-item homogeneity is pro posed and illustrated by a numerical example.
Developing a Common Metric in Item Response Theory
Authors: Stocking Martha L. , Lord Frederic M.
Published: March 2007

A common problem arises when independent esti mates of item parameters from two separate data sets must be expressed in the same metric. This problem is frequently confronted in studies of horizontal and ver tical equating and in studies of item bias. This paper discusses a number of methods for finding the appro priate transformation from one metric to another met ric and presents a new method. Data are given com paring this new method with a current method, and recommendations are made.
Item Profile Analysis for Tests Developed According to a Table of Specifications
Authors: Kolen Michael J. , Jarjoura David
Published: March 2007

An approach to analyzing items is described that emphasizes the heterogeneous nature of many achieve ment and professional certification tests. The approach focuses on the categories of a table of specifications, which often serves as a blueprint for constructing such tests. The approach is characterized by profile compar isons of observed and expected correlations of item scores with category scores. A multivariate generaliza bility theory model provides the foundation for the ap proach, and the concept of a profile of expected corre lations is derived from the model. Data from a professional certification testing program are used for illustration and an attempt is made to provide links with test development issues and generalizability the ory.
A Minimum Chi-Square Method for Developing a Common Metric in Item Response Theory
Authors: Divgi D.R.
Published: March 2007

The θ scale in item response theory has arbitrary unit and origin. When a group of items is calibrated twice, estimates from one calibration must be trans formed to the metric of the other. A new method is presented for doing so. It is simpler than an earlier method based on test characteristic curves, and makes more complete use of available information.
The Discriminating Power of Items That Measure More Than One Dimension
Authors: Reckase Mark D. , McKinley Robert L.
Published: March 2007

Determining a correct response to many test items frequently requires more than one ability. This paper describes the characteristics of items of this type by proposing generalizations of the item response theory concepts of discrimination and information. The conceptual framework for these statistics is presented, and the formulas for the statistics are derived for the multidimensional extension of the two-parameter logistic model. Use of the statistics is demonstrated for a form of the ACT Mathematics Usage Test.
Reliability of Measurement and Power of Significance Tests Based on Differences
Authors: Zimmerman Donald W. , Williams Richard H. , Zumbo Bruno D.
Published: March 2007

The power of significance tests based on differ ence scores is indirectly influenced by the reliability of the measures from which differences are obtained. Reliability depends on the relative magnitude of true score and error score variance, but statistical power is a function of the absolute magnitude of these components. Explicit power calculations reaffirm the paradox put forward by Overall & Woodward (1975, 1976)—that significance tests of differences can be powerful even if the reliability of the difference scores is 0. This anomaly arises because power is a function of observed score variance but is not a function of reliability unless either true score variance or error score variance is constant. Provided that sample size, significance level, directionality, and the alternative hypothesis associated with a significance test remain the same, power always increases when population variance decreases, independently of reliability.
The Distribution of Indexes of Person Fit within the Computerized Adaptive Testing Environment
Authors: Nering Michael L.
Published: March 2007

The extent to which a trait estimate (6) represents the underlying latent trait of interest can be estimated by using indexes of person fit. Several statistical methods for indexing person fit have been proposed to identify nonmodel-fitting response vectors, including the lz (Drasgow, Levine, & Williams, 1985) and ECI4z (Tatsuoka, 1984) indexes (see Nering, 1996). These two person-fit indexes have generally been found to follow a standard normal distribution for conventionally administered tests (Birenbaum, 1985, 1986; Drasgow, Levine, & McLaughlin, 1987, 1991). The present investigation found that within the context of computerized adaptive testing (CAT) these indexes tended not to follow a standard normal distribution. As the item pool became less discriminating, as the CAT termination criterion became less stringent and as the number of items in the pool decreased, the distributions of lz and ECI4z approached a standard normal distribution. It was determined that under these conditions the kz and ECI4z distributions approached standard normal distributions because more items were being administered. However, even when over 50 items were administered in a CAT the indexes of person fit were distributed in a fashion that was different from what was expected.
Solving Infeasibility Problems in Computerized Test Assembly
Authors: Timminga Ellen
Published: March 2007

Linear programming techniques have been used successfully in a variety of test assembly problems. It is, however, possible that no test can be found meeting all the constraints in the linear programming model. The problem of diagnosing and repairing infeasible linear programming models is discussed. It is demonstrated that it is possible to localize the causes of infeasibility.
Measuring Organizational Slack: A Note on the Convergence and Divergence of Alternative Operational Definitions
Authors: Marino Kenneth E. , Lange David R.
Published: March 2007

Four different approaches for operationalizing organization slack through secondary financial data have been proposed (Bourgeois, 1981; Dimick & Murray, 1978; Marino & Lange, 1982; Wolf, 1971). In this paper these measures are organized into two types of oper ations: relative and absolute; and each is applied to a common group of firms. The relative measures agree to a significant degree on the classification of firms into high and low slack groups. The absolute measures do not, however, converge. Intertype comparisons (relative vs. absolute) indicate that the proposed operations do discriminate between these two aspects of the slack construct.
Adaptive Self-regulation: A Process View of Managerial Effectiveness
Authors: Tsui Anne S. , Ashford Susan J.
Published: March 2007

This article describes a set of processes involved in attaining managerial effectiveness. These processes are components of an adaptive self-regulation framework. They involve the active management of constituencies' role expectations and performance opinions through standard-setting, discrepancy-detection, and discrepancy-reduction. These processes serve to enhance constituents' opinions of the manager's effectiveness. Several social and contextual factors that either facilitate or inhibit managers' self-regulation efforts are identified and hypotheses to guide future empirical research are offered.
Testing Moderator Variable Hypotheses Meta-Analytically
Authors: Aguinis Herman , Pierce Charles A.
Published: March 2007

We propose and illustrate a three-step procedure for testing moderator variable hypotheses meta-analytically. The procedure is based on Hedges and Olkin's (1985) meta-analytic approach, yet it incorporates study-level corrections for methodological and statistical artifacts that are typically advocated and used within psychometric approaches to meta-analysis (e.g., Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). The three- step procedure entails: (a) correcting study-level effect size estimates for across-study variability due to methodological and statistical arti facts, (b) testing the overall homogeneity of study-level effect size esti mates after the artifactual sources of variance have been removed, and (c) testing the effects of hypothesized moderator variables.
The Influence of Eligibility on Employees' Reactions to Voluntary Workforce Reductions
Authors: DeWitt Rocki-Lee , Trevino Linda Klebe , Mollica Kelly A.
Published: March 2007

This study examined employees' reactions to a voluntary sever ance program (VSP). Results generally supported a model that links perceptions of justice-based attributes (adequacy of outplacement help; consistency, objectivity, and ethicality of procedures) with affective commitment and intentions to leave. We also considered the main and moderating effects of a particular voluntary severance outcome, eligi bility. Eligibility was associated with both commitment and turnover intentions, and moderated the effect of perceived adequacy of outplace ment help on turnover intentions, as well as the effect of perceived procedural fairness on commitment. Control variables representing demographics (age), perceived fairness of a previous early retirement program, and anticipation of future layoffs also significantly influenced both outcomes. Implications for future research and for management are discussed.
Urban Encroachment on Prime Agricultural Land in the United States
Authors: Vining Daniel R. , Plaut Thomas , Bieri Kenneth
Published: March 2007

A recent paper by Hart (1976) demonstrates that the amount of rural land lost to urbanization in the United States is very small relative to the total supply of this land. This paper investigates the possibility that while the amount of land lost to urbanization is small, it may be predominantly land that is ideal for agriculture, or prime farmland, which unlike rural land in general is highly limited in supply. To explore this possibility, answers to three questions are sought: (1) is prime farmland in the U.S. located predominantly in the vicinity of urban areas; (2) are the areas of high population growth predomi nantly the areas with high concentrations of the good soils, and (3) what is the rate of loss of prime farmland to urbanization?
Population Dispersal from Major Metropolitan Regions: An International Comparison
Authors: Vining Daniel R. , Kontuly Thomas
Published: March 2007

Of the eighteen countries studied in this paper, eleven (Japan, Sweden, Norway, Italy, Denmark, New Zealand, Belgium, France, West Germany, East Germany, and The Netherlands) show either a reversal in the direction of net population flow from their sparsely populated, peripheral regions to their densely populated core regions or a drastic reduction in the level of this net flow. In the first seven of these eleven countries, this reversal or reduction became evident only in the 1970s; in the last four, its onset was recorded m the 1960s. Six countries (Hungary, Spain, Finland, Poland, South Korea, and Taiwan) have yet to show an attenuation in the movement of persons into their most densely populated regions. Some possibly unreliable British data likewise fail to reveal a slackening in the "drift south" of the British population. Three additional discoveries described in this paper are the following: (1) Migration continues strong into the capital regions of the three Eastern European countries studied here (Poland, Hungary, and East Germany). However, the low natural increase of these regions has blunted their expansion. (2) Though domestic migration into the capital regions of France, Sweden, and Norway has declined dramatically, foreign immigration into these regions remains at a high level. (3) Net domestic migration into the core regions of Sweden, Japan, and Italy, countries separated by vast distances, fluctuate from year to year in a remarkably similar manner.
Operation Bootstrap, Industrial Autonomy, and a Parallel Economy for Puerto Rico
Authors: Goldsmith William W. , Vietorisz Thomas
Published: March 2007

Puerto Rico's Operation Bootstrap began to stagnate around 1970, leaving high unemployment. Structural weakness of the economy will continue to inhibit growth, and the historical strategy appears unlikely to succeed. This paper proposes a policy for the development of autonomous exports and import substitution entailing moderate structural reorganization of the economy. However, this policy, in line with international development experience, is frought with difficulty. Therefore, the development of a parallel economy is proposed in order to reduce unemployment, increase productivity, and encourage a restructuring of the economy.
Urban Encroachment on Prime Agricultural Land: A Case Study
Authors: Dillman B. L. , Cousins Charles F.
Published: March 2007

Current concern about the nonfarm development of prime agricultural land is related to land settlement patterns in which urban development and prime farmland coincide. Historical development and location theory, along with recent research, indicate that the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) in the United States contain a disproportionate share of the nation's prime land. A detailed analysis of one SMSA with uneven topography and limited quantities of prime land presents convincing evidence that development within the SMSA tends to occur on the prime lands. High estimated development costs for second-best sites and low capitalized land values in farm use are likely explanations.
International Cooperation in Border Regions: An Overview and Research Agenda
Authors: Hansen Niles
Published: March 2007

This paper examines critically various theoretical and conceptual approaches to the analysis of interactions between neighboring border regions. As an important indicator of the degree of rapprochement between nations, the nature and significance of evolving transboundary cooperation in Western Europe and along the U.S.-Mexico border are considered. Despite barriers raised by national governments, such cooperation has been extensive at the regional and local levels. Suggestions are made for research that would contribute to a better under-standing of the processes that foster transboundary cooperation.
Multiregional Estimation of Gross Internal Migration Flows
Authors: Foot David K. , Milne William J.
Published: March 2007

A multiregional model of gross internal migration flows is presented in this article. The interdependence of economic factors across all regions is recognized by imposing a non-stochastic adding-up constraint that requires total immigration to equal total outmigration in each time period. An iterated system estimation technique is used to obtain asymptotically consistent and efficient parameter estimates. The model is estimated for gross migration flows among the Canadian provinces over the period 1962-86 and then is used to examine the likelihood of a wash-out effect in net migration models. The results indicate that previous approaches that use net migration equations may not always be empirically justified.
Modeling Integrated Development Investments in Rural Areas: An Indonesian Illustration
Authors: Leinbach Thomas R. , Cromley Robert G.
Published: March 2007

Rural development continues to receive the attention of Third World governments and development agencies. Despite substantial funding, progress remains slow, partly as a result of the lack of sound planning. Too frequently, programs are duplicative, and the need for a systems approach is not recognized. This article demonstrates the utility of a goal programming method for coordinating investments in rural areas. The method recognizes the importance of a hierarchy of service centers through which public goods may be delivered. A rural setting in Indonesia is used to show how the approach can be implemented.
Identifying Vulnerable Industries and Regions: The Proposed European Single Market and Portuguese Manufacturing
Authors: Pereira Pedro Telhado , Seabra Maria do Carmo
Published: March 2007

This article presents a simple methodology for assessing the vulnerability of industries and regions in an environment of increasing wages. The analysis was motivated by the proposed European Single Market Act and the effects it will likely have on Portugal. The methodology shows that the most vulnerable industries are those with high labor intensity and low wages, a result that contrasts sharply with other studies. Due to the geographical concentration of these vulnerable industries, the regional consequences of European Community integration on Portuguese manufacturing will be considerable.
Modeling the Regional Impact of Natural Disaster and Recovery: A General Framework and an Application to Hurricane Andrew
Authors: West Carol T. , Lenze David G.
Published: March 2007

Two common features of natural disasters are intense regional impact and the call immediately after the event to estimate the economic impact of recovery and reconstruction. The broad purpose of this paper is to help fill the gap in the regional science literature that addresses this issue. Initially, the impact estimation problem is presented conceptually. Using a general regional model schematic, direct disaster impacts on exogenous variables, endogenous variables, and model linkages are identified. Next, the conceptual problem is adapted for practical application. This translation has two aspects: (1) modifying the direct impacts for a specific model (common variants from the schematic are considered) and (2) estimating those impacts from available data. One component of the latter identifies primary sources of information typically available at the time of a natural disaster and indicates how secondary data may be used to complement, cross-check, and expand those data. A second component identifies areas of no information or high uncertainty and discusses treatment of that information gap in empirical analysis. A final section applies the research to the problem of estimating the impact of Hurricane Andrew on the economy of Florida.
Reasonableness Versus Rationality in the Construction and Justification of Science Policy Decisions: The Case of the Cambridge Experimentation Review Board
Authors: Waddell Craig
Published: March 2007

This article examines the role of the Cambridge Experimentation Review Board (CERB) in the seven-month moratorium (July 1976-February 1977) on recombinant DNA research in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The article focuses on CERB's 23 November 1976 debate, which was the turning point in the committee's proceedings. Although CERB members were implicitly charged with making rational decisions, they were inevitably influenced by biases and emotions. In the process of justifying their decisions, however, they were almost exclusively concerned with appeals to reason. This article argues that appeals to emotion and authority are essential and inevitable components of reasonable (though not rational) decision making. It further argues that legitimizing these appeals in the process of justification will make such appeals more accessible to criticism during the process of construction and, thereby, will help us to define which appeals to emotion and authority are appropriate and which are inappropriate in any given context.