bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A cleaner production of diosgenin from Dioscorea Zingiberensis Wright biotransformed by Lactobacillus casei
Authors: Chen He , Wang Zhuo , Shu Guowei
Published: November 2017

The effect of 24 probiotics on disogenin production had been conducted in our preliminary work. Consequently, Lactobacillus casei was selected as the fermentation strain with high potential in biotransformation and effects of main parameters on biotransformation were verified through single factor variable experiments. The fermentation conditions were optimized using response surface methodology, which would be helpful to enhance biotransformation efficiency and achieve a high-valued utilization of DZW in diosgenin production. Single factor variable experiments indicated that biotransformation was highly depend on temperature. The conversion rate of saponin reached to (22.1 ± 0.6) %, (15.5 ± 0.3) % and (17.0 ± 0.4) % under each optimal condition of 43°C, 24 hours and 4% inoculum size respectively. According to results of single factor variable experiments, fermentation conditions were optimized through response surface methodology. The 32.4% of conversion rate and 3.95 µg/mL of diosgenin concentration were predicted to be optimal value under the condition of 42°C, 27 hours, 3% inoculum size. The verification results were (32.8 ± 0.9)% of conversion rate and (4.01±0.02) µg/mL of diosgenin concentration under the same conditions, which were close to the predicted values. The conversion rate increased by 41.9% compared to the initial value. Feasibility of converting saponin to diosgenin through probiotics by biotransformation was verified in this paper and the results could be the reference for a cleaner production of diosgenin.
Mammalian Atg9 contributes to the post‐Golgi transport of lysosomal hydrolases by interacting with adaptor protein‐1
Authors: Jia Shu , Wang Yusha , You Zhiyuan , Liu Bo , Gao Jinfeng , Liu Wei
Published: November 2017

Accumulating evidence has indicated a role for autophagy‐related (Atgs) proteins in cell regulation which is independent of their autophagic activities. As the only known transmembrane protein essential for autophagy, Atg9 cycles between the trans‐Golgi network (TGN) and endosomes. Here, we report a function for mammalian Atg9 (mAtg9) in the transport of lysosomal hydrolases which impacts the lysosomal degradation capacity. Depletion of mAtg9 inhibits the degradation of epidermal growth factor receptor and the maturation of cathepsin D and cathepsin L. mAtg9 interacts with adaptor protein‐1 (AP1) and the cation‐independent mannose‐6‐phosphate receptor, facilitating AP1 polymerization and the transport of cathepsin D from the TGN. These results suggest that mAtg9 may serve as a coreceptor of lysosomal hydrolases for their TGN export by cycling between the TGN and endosomes.
High‐Resolution Dynamical Downscaling Ensemble Projections of Future Extreme Temperature Distributions for the United States
Authors: Zobel Zachary , Wang Jiali , Wuebbles Donald J. , Kotamarthi V. Rao
Published: November 2017

The aim of this study is to examine projections of extreme temperatures over the continental United States (CONUS) for the 21st century using an ensemble of high spatial resolution dynamically downscaled model simulations with different boundary conditions. The downscaling uses the Weather Research and Forecast model at a spatial resolution of 12 km along with outputs from three different Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 global climate models that provide boundary conditions under two different future greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration trajectories. The results from two decadal‐length time slices (2045–2054 and 2085–2094) are compared with a historical decade (1995–2004). Probability density functions of daily maximum/minimum temperatures are analyzed over seven climatologically cohesive regions of the CONUS. The impacts of different boundary conditions as well as future GHG concentrations on extreme events such as heat waves and days with temperature higher than 95°F are also investigated. The results show that the intensity of extreme warm temperature in future summer is significantly increased, while the frequency of extreme cold temperature in future winter decreases. The distribution of summer daily maximum temperature experiences a significant warm‐side shift and increased variability, while the distribution of winter daily minimum temperature is projected to have a less significant warm‐side shift with decreased variability. Using “business‐as‐usual” scenario, 5‐day heat waves are projected to occur at least 5–10 times per year in most CONUS and ≥95°F days will increase by 1–2 months by the end of the century.
Mantle Flow as a Trigger for Subduction Initiation: A Missing Element of the Wilson Cycle Concept
Authors: Baes M. , Sobolev S.V.
Published: November 2017

The classical Wilson Cycle concept, describing repeated opening and closing of ocean basins, hypothesizes spontaneous conversion of passive continental margins into subduction zones. This process, however, is impeded by the high strength of passive margins, and it has never occurred in Cenozoic times. Here using thermomechanical models, we show that additional forcing, provided by mantle flow, which is induced by neighboring subduction zones and midmantle slab remnants, can convert a passive margin into a subduction zone. Models suggest that this is a long‐term process, thus explaining the lack of Cenozoic examples. We speculate that new subduction zones may form in the next few tens of millions of years along the Argentine passive margin and the U.S. East Coast. Mantle suction force can similarly trigger subduction initiation along large oceanic fracture zones. We propose that new subduction zones will preferentially originate where subduction zones were active in the past, thus explaining the remarkable colocation of subduction zones during at least the last 400 Myr.
Density Structures, Dynamics, and Seasonal and Solar Cycle Modulations of Saturn's Inner Plasma Disk
Authors: Holmberg M. K. G. , Shebanits O. , Wahlund J.‐E. , Morooka M. W. , Vigren E. , André N. , Garnier P. , Persoon A. M. , Génot V. , Gilbert L. K.
Published: November 2017

We present statistical results from the Cassini Radio and Plasma Wave Science (RPWS) Langmuir probe measurements recorded during the time interval from orbit 3 (1 February 2005) to 237 (29 June 2016). A new and improved data analysis method to obtain ion density from the Cassini LP measurements is used to study the asymmetries and modulations found in the inner plasma disk of Saturn, between 2.5 and 12 Saturn radii (1 RS=60,268 km). The structure of Saturn's plasma disk is mapped, and the plasma density peak, nmax, is shown to be located at ∼4.6 RS and not at the main neutral source region at 3.95 RS. The shift in the location of nmax is due to that the hot electron impact ionization rate peaks at ∼4.6 RS. Cassini RPWS plasma disk measurements show a solar cycle modulation. However, estimates of the change in ion density due to varying EUV flux is not large enough to describe the detected dependency, which implies that an additional mechanism, still unknown, is also affecting the plasma density in the studied region. We also present a dayside/nightside ion density asymmetry, with nightside densities up to a factor of 2 larger than on the dayside. The largest density difference is found in the radial region 4 to 5 RS. The dynamic variation in ion density increases toward Saturn, indicating an internal origin of the large density variability in the plasma disk rather than being caused by an external source origin in the outer magnetosphere.
Ion Friction and Quantification of the Geomagnetic Influence on Gravity Wave Propagation and Dissipation in the Thermosphere‐Ionosphere
Authors: Medvedev Alexander S. , Yiğit Erdal , Hartogh Paul
Published: November 2017

Motions of neutrals and ions in the thermosphere‐ionosphere (TI) do not, generally, coincide due to the presence of the geomagnetic field and associated electromagnetic forces affecting plasma. Collisions of ions with gravity wave (GW)‐induced motions of neutrals impose damping on the latter. We derive a practical formula for the vertical damping rate of GW harmonics that accounts for the geometry of the geomagnetic field and the direction of GW propagation. The formula can be used in parameterizations of GW effects developed for general circulation models extending from the lower atmosphere into the mesosphere and thermosphere. Vertical damping of GW harmonics by ion‐neutral interactions in the TI depends on the geometry of the geomagnetic field but not the strength of the latter. The ion damping of harmonics propagating in the meridional direction (in the geomagnetic coordinates) maximizes over the poles and reduces to zero over the equator. Waves propagating in the zonal direction are uniformly affected by ions at all latitudes. Accounting for the anisotropy produces changes in the GW drag in the F region of more than 100 m s−1 d−1, cooling/heating rates of more than 15 K d−1, and in GW temperature variance of disturbances by more than 5 K.
The Influence of Sediment Isostatic Adjustment on Sea Level Change and Land Motion Along the U.S. Gulf Coast
Authors: Kuchar Joseph , Milne Glenn , Wolstencroft Martin , Love Ryan , Tarasov Lev , Hijma Marc
Published: November 2017

Sea level rise presents a hazard for coastal populations, and the Mississippi Delta (MD) is a region particularly at risk due to the high rates of land subsidence. We apply a gravitationally self‐consistent model of glacial and sediment isostatic adjustment (SIA) along with a realistic sediment load reconstruction in this region for the first time to determine isostatic contributions to relative sea level (RSL) and land motion. We determine optimal model parameters (Earth rheology and ice history) using a new high‐quality compaction‐free sea level indicator database. Using the optimal model parameters, we show that SIA can lower predicted RSL in the MD area by several meters over the Holocene and so should be taken into account when modeling these data. We compare modeled contemporary rates of vertical land motion with those inferred using GPS. This comparison indicates that isostatic processes can explain the majority of the observed vertical land motion north of latitude 30.7°N, where subsidence rates average about 1 mm/yr; however, subsidence south of this latitude shows large data‐model discrepancies of greater than 3 mm/yr, indicating the importance of nonisostatic processes. This discrepancy extends to contemporary RSL change, where we find that the SIA contribution in the Delta is on the order of 10−1 mm/yr. We provide estimates of the isostatic contributions to 20th and 21st century sea level rates at Gulf Coast Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level tide gauge locations as well as vertical and horizontal land motion at GPS station locations near the MD.
Quasi‐3‐D Seismic Reflection Imaging and Wide‐Angle Velocity Structure of Nearly Amagmatic Oceanic Lithosphere at the Ultraslow‐Spreading Southwest Indian Ridge
Authors: Momoh Ekeabino , Cannat Mathilde , Watremez Louise , Leroy Sylvie , Singh Satish C.
Published: November 2017

We present results from 3‐D processing of 2‐D seismic data shot along 100 m spaced profiles in a 1.8 km wide by 24 km long box during the SISMOSMOOTH 2014 cruise. The study is aimed at understanding the oceanic crust formed at an end‐member mid‐ocean ridge environment of nearly zero melt supply. Three distinct packages of reflectors are imaged: (1) south facing reflectors, which we propose correspond to the damage zone induced by the active axial detachment fault: reflectors in the damage zone have dips up to 60° and are visible down to 5 km below the seafloor; (2) series of north dipping reflectors in the hanging wall of the detachment fault: these reflectors may correspond to damage zone inherited from a previous, north dipping detachment fault, or small offset recent faults, conjugate from the active detachment fault, that served as conduits for isolated magmatic dykes; and (3) discontinuous but coherent flat‐lying reflectors at shallow depths (<1.5 km below the seafloor), and at depths between 4 and 5 km below the seafloor. Comparing these deeper flat‐lying reflectors with the wide‐angle velocity model obtained from ocean‐bottom seismometers data next to the 3‐D box shows that they correspond to parts of the model with P wave velocity of 6.5–8 km/s, suggesting that they occur in the transition between lower crust and upper mantle. The 4–5 km layer with crustal P wave velocities is interpreted as primarily due to serpentinization and fracturation of the exhumed mantle‐derived peridotites in the footwall of active and past detachment faults.
A Theoretical Model of Drumlin Formation Based on Observations at Múlajökull, Iceland
Authors: Iverson N. R. , McCracken R. G. , Zoet L. K. , Benediktsson Í. Ö. , Schomacker A. , Johnson M. D. , Woodard J.
Published: November 2017

The drumlin field at the surge‐type glacier, Múlajökull, provides an unusual opportunity to build a model of drumlin formation based on field observations in a modern drumlin‐forming environment. These observations indicate that surges deposit till layers that drape the glacier forefield, conform to drumlin surfaces, and are deposited in shear. Observations also indicate that erosion helps create drumlin relief, effective stresses in subglacial till are highest between drumlins, and during quiescent flow, crevasses on the glacier surface overlie drumlins while subglacial channels occupy intervening swales. In the model, we consider gentle undulations on the bed bounded by subglacial channels at low water pressure. During quiescent flow, slip of temperate ice across these undulations and basal water flow toward bounding channels create an effective stress distribution that maximizes till entrainment in ice on the heads and flanks of drumlins. Crevasses amplify this effect but are not necessary for it. During surges, effective stresses are uniformly low, and the bed shears pervasively. Vigorous basal melting during surges releases debris from ice and deposits it on the bed, with deposition augmented by transport in the deforming bed. As surge cycles progress, drumlins migrate downglacier and grow at increasing rates, due to positive feedbacks that depend on drumlin height. Drumlin growth can be accompanied by either net aggradation or erosion of the bed, and drumlin heights and stratigraphy generally correspond with observations. This model highlights that drumlin growth can reflect instabilities other than those of bed shear instability models, which require heuristic till transport assumptions.
Effects of Climatic Conditions and Management Practices on Agricultural Carbon and Water Budgets in the Inland Pacific Northwest USA
Authors: Chi Jinshu , Waldo Sarah , Pressley Shelley N. , Russell Eric S. , O'Keeffe Patrick T. , Pan William L. , Huggins David R. , Stöckle Claudio O. , Brooks Erin S. , Lamb Brian K.
Published: November 2017

Cropland is an important land cover influencing global carbon and water cycles. Variability of agricultural carbon and water fluxes depends on crop species, management practices, soil characteristics, and climatic conditions. In the context of climate change, it is critical to quantify the long‐term effects of these environmental drivers and farming activities on carbon and water dynamics. Twenty site‐years of carbon and water fluxes covering a large precipitation gradient and a variety of crop species and management practices were measured in the inland Pacific Northwest using the eddy covariance method. The rain‐fed fields were net carbon sinks, while the irrigated site was close to carbon neutral during the winter wheat crop years. Sites growing spring crops were either carbon sinks, sources, or neutral, varying with crops, rainfall zones, and tillage practices. Fluxes were more sensitive to variability in precipitation than temperature: annual carbon and water fluxes increased with the increasing precipitation while only respiration increased with temperature in the high‐rainfall area. Compared to a nearby rain‐fed site, irrigation improved winter wheat production but resulted in large losses of carbon and water to the atmosphere. Compared to conventional tillage, no‐till had significantly lower respiration but resulted in slightly lower yields and water use efficiency over 4 years. Under future climate change, it is expected that more carbon fixation by crops and evapotranspiration would occur in a warmer and wetter environment.
Family, The
Authors: Mack Kristin Y.
Published: November 2017

Researchers have a long‐standing interest in the relationship between families and delinquency. Early studies in this area tended to focus on the influence of broken homes on juvenile delinquency, whereas more recent research considers the impact of a much wider range of family factors. A general overview of the literature is provided, with an emphasis on the debate between the relative importance of family structure versus family function in the development of delinquent behaviors among juveniles. Specific areas for future research are also suggested.
Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children
Authors: Kennedy M. Alexis
Published: November 2017

Commercial sexual exploitation of children is the abuse of persons under the age of 18 years through prostitution, pornography, or other paid sexual activities. Vulnerable youth surviving through illegal activity are criminalized despite the acknowledgment that they are victims. Children being exploited engage in high‐risk health behaviors and experience both physical and emotional harm.
Conduct Disorder
Authors: Jones Shayne
Published: November 2017

Conduct disorder is an officially defined psychological/psychiatric disorder that can be applied to children and adolescents who engage in antisocial behavior. There are specific criteria used to diagnose this disorder, and much is known about its prevalence and course. Conduct disorder and delinquency overlap substantially, but there are some differences that should be taken into consideration. Those diagnosed with conduct disorder are a heterogeneous group, but there are ways of identifying subtypes that offer insights from which researchers and practitioners can benefit.
Gender Disparities, Juvenile Justice Processing
Authors: Freiburger Tina L.
Published: November 2017

The Juvenile Justice Delinquency Prevention (JJDP) Act of 1974 attempted to abolish disparate treatment of juveniles in the juvenile justice system by providing equal treatment and increased programming for female and status offenders. Although these efforts have been shown to decrease the representation of girls, current studies find that disparities still exist for some girls. In fact, girls are often found to receive harsh punishments for behaviors that are not punished when engaged in by boys. The disparity also appears to be largest for minority girls and Black girls in particular. The literature suggests that the difference in the treatment of girls and boys is the result of court officials attempting to protect the sexuality of girls.
Bullying
Authors: Perez Nicholas M. , Hahn Fox Bryanna
Published: November 2017

Bullying is a serious social problem with far‐reaching consequences that impact many aspects of the criminal justice system. Efforts to prevent bullying through various prevention and intervention programs have shown positive effects in reducing both bullying and victimization. These results vary, though, by the design and components of the bullying prevention program implemented, and the type of study used to evaluate the program. For instance, the intensity and length of a bullying prevention program have been found to impact how successful the program is. Programs containing various elements, such as parent and teacher training, also have differing outcomes on bullying, and the method of evaluation (e.g., randomized controlled trial) may also elicit varying results on program effectiveness. Through the extensive review and understanding of the most effective bullying prevention program components and evaluation methods, and the impact of these programs, we can develop evidence‐based recommendations to improve current programs and design more effective and beneficial bullying prevention programs in the future.
Corrections, Juvenile
Authors: Sellers Brian G.
Published: November 2017

The juvenile justice system is charged with utilizing appropriate correctional responses to youth who are adjudicated delinquent in juvenile court in order to reduce recidivism and rehabilitate wayward adolescents. There are several dispositional alternatives that may be applied to delinquent youth, which range from probation supervision in the community to secure confinement in a juvenile correctional facility. Evidence‐based research has found that juvenile correctional programs that promote rehabilitative and restorative approaches are better at reducing recidivism than punitive or deterrence‐based programs. Thus, research suggests that the best approaches to juvenile corrections do the following: (1) target high‐risk juveniles; (2) utilize therapeutic approaches to changing behavior by focusing on constructive personal development; (3) match programs to the criminogenic needs and problem areas of the juvenile offenders; and (4) implement the appropriate tailored programs with trained and qualified staff who monitor their delivery and outcomes.
D
usky
v
.
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Franz Andrew
Published: November 2017

Dusky v. United States
, 362 U.S. 402 (1960), is a US Supreme Court case about competency to stand trial. The case stands for the proposition that “due process does not permit the trial of persons who do not possess a rational and factual understanding of the proceedings, and who lack the ability to cooperate with their attorneys with a reasonable degree of rational understanding.” Dusky suffered from long‐term mental health issues. He was charged in a federal case with transporting a kidnap victim, a girl, across state lines. At his first trial, Dusky unsuccessfully tried to claim incompetency to stand trial, and was then convicted over his insanity defense and sentenced to 45 years. This conviction was affirmed by the Circuit Court of Appeals. The Supreme Court then reversed and remanded to the trial court for an appropriate competency hearing, setting forth briefly the now famous standard of review. Competency matters have since arisen in the Supreme Court a number of times, and the
Dusky
standard has repeatedly been reaffirmed and expanded.
SouthAfrica
Authors: Skelton Ann
Published: November 2017

South Africa's Child Justice Act of 2008 introduced a new system for the management of child offenders. The minimum age of criminal responsibility is 10 years, with a presumption that children below 14 years of age lack criminal capacity, although this can be rebutted by the State. The law has a strong focus on diverting children to programs and minimizing detention. There are alternatives to arrest, and every child is assessed by a probation officer before appearing at a preliminary inquiry. There are several opportunities for diversion, both at the pretrial stage and after the trial has commenced. All children who are not diverted are tried in the child justice court, which provides special protections, and every child is legally represented at trial. The law allows for automatic review, appeals, and expungement of records for certain crimes. The implementation of the law is still in the early stages, but a decrease in the number of children being detained is clearly evident.
Ex parte Crouse
Authors: Sanborn Joseph B.
Published: November 2017

Ex parte Crouseis a Pennsylvania Supreme Court decision from 1839. Although it is known as a major appellate case that upheld the operation of the nineteenth‐century houses of refuge,Crousewas more important in what it established for the future juvenile justice system in the twentieth century.Crousewould end up providing three critical precedents for juvenile justice.
Spain
Authors: Gutiérrez Raquel Bartolomé , Molina Esther Fernández , Alberola Cristina Rechea
Published: November 2017

Because of the political situation in Spain during most of the twentieth century, it was not until 2000 that the country had a juvenile justice regulation. The 2000 Juvenile Crime Act (JCA) had adecriminalizationanddeinstitutionalizationapproach, and assumed a dual model that took into account the principles of developmental criminology. Although the trend in juvenile delinquency cases has decreased slightly in recent years in Spain, the level of intervention grew during the same period through reforms of the law. However, these reforms turned out to be more symbolic than applied. The welfare professionals implement the intervention programs imposed by the judges, but most of the intervention programs do not refer to theories or rehabilitation models, hence it is very difficult to evaluate them. Anyhow, the sparse country data available on recidivism are optimistic. Hence it can be said that rehabilitation of juvenile offenders in Spain is in transition.
Insanity Defense
Authors: Vitacco Michael J. , Ragatz Laurie L.
Published: November 2017

Conducting forensic evaluations with youth poses unique challenges, and these challenges are especially evident when considering the insanity defense. This entry evaluates legal issues, clinical sciences, and distinctive challenges for considering claims of nonresponsibility in youth. Through a mixture of case studies and clinical science, it is posited that adolescents should have greater access to the insanity defense, especially if it leads to increased access to mental health treatment.
Containment Theory
Authors: Hauhart Robert C.
Published: November 2017

Containment theory is a form of control theory proposed by Walter Reckless in the 1940s–1960s. The theory contends that a series of external social factors and internal qualities effectively insulate certain individuals from criminal involvement even when ecological variables induce others to engage in crime. Although initially promising, the theory was criticized by some criminologists for various weaknesses. However, the theory has been subjected to very few empirical tests and therefore the relative strengths of its various propositions have never been properly established.
Mental Health Courts
Authors: Heretick Donna M. L.
Published: November 2017

As many as 70% of youth who enter the juvenile justice system meet the diagnostic criteria for mental health disorders. Juvenile mental health courts (JMHCs) are specialized diversion programs that offer multidisciplinary partnerships among juvenile justice, mental health professionals, and other community resources to stabilize the youth and family, support compliance with mental healthcare, and reduce recidivism.
Blended Sentencing
Authors: Garland Brett
Published: November 2017

Blended sentencing was developed in the 1990s to provide an intermediate response between handling serious and persistent juvenile offenders in the traditional juvenile court versus waiver to adult court. This type of sentencing can be initiated through either the juvenile or adult systems and most commonly involves a youth receiving a juvenile disposition with an adult sanction suspended provided that a set of conditions are satisfactorily met. States vary in offense and minimum age requirements for blended sentencing, although criminal due process protections typically apply when cases are processed through a juvenile court. Blended sentencing is often regarded as a “last chance” option for seriously delinquent youth who are on the verge of transfer to adult court. The effectiveness of blended sentencing depends on the impact of the threat of a criminal sanction which has yet to be demonstrated.
Zero Tolerance
Authors: Karanxha Zorka
Published: November 2017

Zero tolerance policies mandate the application of predetermined consequences, most often severe and punitive in nature, that are intended to be applied regardless of the gravity of behavior, mitigating circumstances, or situational context. These policies were instituted in American schools nationwide in the mid‐1990s, and have since been at the center of a heated debate concerning crime in schools. Initially, schools implemented zero tolerance policies to comply with federal laws designed to eliminate the presence of guns in schools. Many schools chose to expand their policies to include any object that could be considered a weapon, drugs, and other misbehavior. These policies have been criticized for their nondiscretionary, “one size fits all” nature, disproportionate punishment of students of color, their ineffectiveness and their injustice. Advocates and critics alike suggest the need for flexibility within the policies, and others argue that the policies should be abolished entirely.
Prenatal and Perinatal Risk Factors for Delinquency
Authors: Barnes J. C. , TenEyck Michael
Published: November 2017

Research has shown that pre‐ and perinatal birth complications may impact the development of the child's physical, emotional, and behavioral outcomes. In this entry, we explore the link between pre‐ and perinatal risk factors and the child's development of delinquent behavior during the first and second decades of the life course. We cover the latest research that reveals a link between the child's delinquent behavior and various events that occur prior to or around the timing of birth. Specific attention is given to birth complications and exposure to lead. We also explore how pre‐ and perinatal risk factors might work synergistically with other risk factors in the development of behavior.
Terryv.Ohio
Authors: Williams La Verne McQuiller
Published: November 2017

In the landmark decisionTerry v. Ohio(392 U.S. 1 [1968]), the US Supreme Court held that in accordance with the Fourth Amendment prohibitions against unreasonable searches and seizures, the police may stop and frisk a suspect if they have reasonable suspicion to believe that a crime has been or is about to be committed, and a reasonable belief that the suspect may be armed and dangerous.
Police
Authors: Johnson Thomas C.
Published: November 2017

American police can trace their roots back to ninth‐century England. Early American policing began as night watches and evolved into agencies modeled on the professional London Metropolitan Police Department. Police departments became the principal law enforcement agencies in the North and East while sheriff's departments evolved with police departments in the South and West. In western territories, the US marshal assisted sheriffs and town marshals with law enforcement. Despite the evolution of police agencies, police officers treated juveniles the same as adults for much of the early history of US policing. As policing became more formalized, it progressed into four eras: the Political Era, the Reform/Professional Model, the Community Policing Era, and the Homeland Security era. Each of these eras affected how police officers interacted with juveniles. Policing types also evolved from the municipal police and sheriffs agencies to include state police and investigative, federal, private/company, and special police agencies. Further, private citizens have been integral to supporting the police with many states passing laws that allow private citizens to make citizen's arrests. Public, municipal police agencies are most likely to have specialized juvenile units that work to address juvenile issues.
Social Class
Authors: White Rob
Published: November 2017

This entry describes the importance of social class as a key determinant of youth offending. It begins by establishing that class basically refers to the allocation of social resources and how employment is crucial to contemporary class situation. It then elaborates on how marginalization is linked to both crime and the response of criminal justice systems to particular individuals, groups, and communities.
Get Tough
Authors: Schlossman Michael B.
Published: November 2017

“Get tough” is a phrase that began to be used widely in the 1980s and 1990s to describe new criminal justice policies geared toward punishment and generally not concerned with rehabilitation. Scholars disagree about the timing, content, scale, and long‐term effects of juvenile justice policy reforms initiated in the “get‐tough” era. Beginning in the late 1970s and 1980s, politicians went out of their way to show how tough they were on crime, and they led a backlash against the deinstitutionalization‐era reforms of the previous decade. In the 1990s, concerns about youth “superpredators” led most states to pass legislation making it easier to transfer youth to adult court. While the effect of the get‐tough movement on the juvenile court system has sometimes been overstated, over the past 30 years there has been a gradual and partial chiseling away at the justice system's goal of doing the least harm to delinquent youth.
Sexual Abuse
Authors: McDonald Courtney
Published: November 2017

Child sexual abuse is a significant public health problem with long‐term social and health consequences. Children in the United States are at greater risk of sexual maltreatment than adults. Girls are more likely to be victimized than boys and perpetrators tend to be male acquaintances or relatives. Child sexual abuse may lead to an array of maladaptive behaviors, including juvenile delinquency. Sexual abuse cases often go unprosecuted as most incidents are not reported to authorities. However, perpetrators face harsh penalties if convicted of sexual offenses. In additional to criminal justice responses to sexual abuse, communities have made significant efforts to prevent and intervene in cases of maltreatment. New forms of sexual abuse will continue to emerge as technology evolves.
Strain Theories
Authors: Sealock Miriam D.
Published: November 2017

One of the most critical things for scholars of criminal justice and criminology to try to understand is the question of why – that is, why do people engage in deviance in general and crime and delinquency specifically? In examining this question, social scientists have proposed a number of different theories over the years to try to explain the differences between those who are law‐abiding and those who are involved in crime. Among these are the strain theories. Some of these theories focus on social structure and others on individual differences, but what they have in common is a focus on the discomfort that results when we are aware that our current status is not consistent with our expectations or ideals.
Deterrence and Rational Choice Theory
Authors: Wortley Richard , Sidebottom Aiden
Published: November 2017

Simply put, rational choice theory assumes that when faced with a set of alternatives, individuals will prefer that which is expected to produce the most favorable outcome. Aspects of rational choice can be found in numerous criminological perspectives. In this entry we explore the relationship between rational choice theory and deterrence. Two ways in which rational choice theory has been applied in the service of deterrence are considered. First, deterrence at a macro‐level via the apparatus of the criminal justice system and the imposition of formal sanctions is examined. Second, deterrence at the micro‐level through the manipulation of the immediate environment in ways that influence the decision making of prospective offenders is examined.
Intake
Authors: Henderson Julie A. , McCafferty James T.
Published: November 2017

Intake is an informal, preliminary screening meeting between the juvenile, his or her parents or legal guardians, and a court representative. The purpose of the meeting is to review the charges or criminal complaint in order to make an informed decision about how to proceed with the case in the juvenile justice system. Typical outcomes include dismissal for lack of evidence, formal adjudication in court, or informal adjustment.
Alternative Schools
Authors: Denton Amanda N. , Connor David Patrick
Published: November 2017

Alternative schools may be thought of as specialized settings that focus on students who have needs which often cannot be met by conventional methods or are deemed unfit for participation in traditional educational environments. In the context of juvenile justice, alternative schools commonly act as delinquency prevention and reduction curriculums, where students at risk of school failure or withdrawal for various reasons are extracted from traditional public schools and introduced to more intimate educational settings that may be more accommodating and supportive. The rationale behind this intervention is that poor school performance and a lack of attachment to one's school are associated with negative outcomes, including delinquency. Today, time spent inside alternative educational settings is becoming a commonplace requisite for countless wayward youth who get caught up in the juvenile justice system.
Status Offenses
Authors: Jones Tonisha R.
Published: November 2017

The question of what to do with youth who commit status offenses has long confounded juvenile justice professionals. The juvenile justice system's response to status offenders over time has been as varied as it has been controversial. Today, questions abound concerning whether status offenses should fall under the jurisdiction of the juvenile court, whether such jurisdiction should be limited, or whether status offenses should be decriminalized altogether. Although there is considerable variation in how states respond to status offending behavior, in recent years a new movement has emerged at the national level, with juvenile justice reformers calling for better responses to status offenders for more effective and positive outcomes for youth and their families. This entry defines status offenses and provides current status offense statistics. It then discusses past and present juvenile justice system approaches to status offending.
Mental Illness and Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Underwood Lee A. , Washington Aryssa
Published: November 2017

Within the past decade, there has been an increased reliance on the juvenile justice system to meet the needs of juvenile offenders with severe mental illness or other specialized concerns. This tendency may be due to the similar presentations of the mentally ill adolescent in the mental health system and that of the adolescent offender in the justice system. Historically, the juvenile justice system has not provided standardized and evidence‐based mental health services; however, there are endeavors underway to examine the critical components of treatment and some practice of implementing promising programs for youth involved in the juvenile justice system. The authors provide an overview of the prevalence of mental illness in juvenile offenders, and a brief review of major programs to address the mental health needs among youth involved in the juvenile justice system.
Conflict Theory
Authors: Grant Erin P.
Published: November 2017

Conflict criminology seeks to explain criminal behavior through the lens of the social inequality that exists in a multicultural society. According to this perspective, actions hold no value of delinquent or nondelinquent until they have been deemed as such by group(s) currently in power. Society's most powerful individuals use a variety of mechanisms, including the legal and criminal justice systems, to control those who are not. Media and other mainstream mechanisms are used to communicate these rules and values of this group, ensuring the understanding that there are consequences to going against the status quo. When the powerful break their own rules, the consequences are often minor, whereas those who sit at a lower status are labeled criminal. Until the age of 18 years, juveniles have no power and are inherently a minority group, struggling against rules set in place by an adult‐run system.
G
ermany
Authors: Dünkel Frieder , Heinz Wolfgang
Published: November 2017

Juvenile delinquency in Germany shows similar patterns of episodic and petty offences, mainly property offences. After an increase since the early 1990s, a strong decline has recently been observed. This is true for self‐reported as well as police registered juvenile crime. The youth justice system has maintained a moderate sanctioning practice by giving diversion, mediation, and other community sanctions priority resulting in youth imprisonment as a real last resort. Community‐based crime prevention strategies seem to have been successful over the last 20 years.
Attachment Theory
Authors: Grady Melissa D.
Published: November 2017

Attachment theory is a theory of human development that focuses on the early relationship experiences of children with their primary caregivers. The theory posits that these early relational experiences are critical in helping children to develop personality structures and interpersonal patterns that contribute to a variety of capacities, including the ability to regulate affect and maintain self‐esteem. The origins of attachment theory can be traced back to child psychiatrist John Bowlby and his work with children who were involved in criminal behaviors. Bowlby later partnered with psychologist Mary Salter Ainsworth, who helped Bowlby to examine systematically and scientifically the role that caregiving relationships had in children's development. Attachment theory is now used to understand a range of children's and adults' challenges, including mental health issues and criminal justice involvement. This entry provides an overview of attachment theory and how it is being used to understand individuals involved with the juvenile justice system.
Children In Need of Services (
CHINS
)
Authors: Anbalagan Emaya , Soulier Matthew
Published: November 2017

Children In Need of Services (CHINS) legally identifies youth under the age of 18 years in some states who have committed noncriminal but socially offensive acts. Whereas adults would not be held accountable for similar behaviors, children's misconduct is targeted for intervention because these deeds are considered predelinquent and sufficiently disruptive toward society order. Adults, including guardians and law enforcement, can file CHINS petitions in juvenile courts on behalf of misbehaved children. Example behaviors include truancy, curfew violations, possession of alcohol or controlled substances, and general unruliness. Such misconduct is also sometimes classified as a status offense. CHINS petitions represent a less formal legal response to behaviors that often overlap with status offenders. Youth who are seen before a judge due to a CHINS petition can receive increased supervision, community‐based programs, family support, mental health treatment, and, rarely, out‐of‐home placement or detention. These interventions are intended to decrease the likelihood of future more severe delinquent behaviors and associated punitive measures. The use of CHINS also reduces the stigma and ramifications from a status offense whose proceedings can be more similar to those used for delinquents.
Death Penalty for Juveniles
Authors: Brooker Dale J.
Published: November 2017

The juvenile death penalty in the United States has a history dating back to the Colonial Period. It was a penalty reserved for the most serious of offenses. From a sociohistorical perspective, the juvenile death penalty highlights the struggle that society has had with punishing juveniles as adults. From a legal perspective, the juvenile death penalty has challenged the US Supreme Court to balance the need for justice with the principles of an evolving society. From an international perspective, the juvenile death penalty, although rare, still exists in the world and has yet to be fully abolished. The twenty‐first century has seen the abolition of the death penalty for juveniles in the United States, yet there remains the debate as to how best to sentence young offenders who commit serious crime.
Developmental Theories
Authors: Miller Holly Ventura
Published: November 2017

Developmental theories of crime and delinquency view human development across the life course with a particular focus on individuals' progress within social roles and transitions that are age graded. Developmental perspectives study within‐person changes over time as opposed to between‐group variations (e.g., between race or class) more common to sociological criminology. Developmental research utilizes longitudinal data with repeated measures to assess within‐individual changes in offending over time, thereby allowing the identification oftrajectoriesorpathwaysin behavior. These approaches have identified important dimensions in offending careers, including onset, aggravation, and desistance, while also describing the short‐term changes in social roles within long‐term trajectories, referred to astransitions. This entry provides an overview of current leading developmental theories in criminology. Each theory is described and a summary of the extant literature related to the perspective is offered.
Neutralization/Drift Theory
Authors: Nicholson Jason , Higgins George E.
Published: November 2017

Gresham Sykes and David Matza contended that offenders applied the techniques of neutralization to reduce the guilt of committing crime. These neutralizations included denial of responsibility, denial of harm, denial of victim, appeal to higher loyalties, and condemnation of the condemners. The neutralization theory has gained much empirical support and has held a prominent position in criminology.
In re Winship
Authors: Brown Elizabeth
Published: November 2017

During the “due process revolution,” the US Supreme Court reviewed a series of cases that considered whether juvenile court proceedings were subject to constitutional protections, and the Fourteenth Amendment guarantee of “due process.”In re Winship(397 U.S. 358 [1970]) is one of the cases of the “due process revolution” in the juvenile court. In this case, the Supreme Court considered the burden of evidence standard that must be present in juvenile proceedings when those proceedings result in stigma and confinement.
Community Policing
Authors: Zozaya Melisa
Published: November 2017

This entry discusses community policing, also known as community‐oriented policing. Community policing is explained and its origins are explored, and the relationship between community policing and juveniles is touched upon. Community policing emerged during the community era dating back to the 1980s when police agencies had to seek help from citizens in their communities as they found that they were not able to reduce crime without the communities' inputs. Community policing does not have guidelines for how it should be applied, hence the implementation of community policing is left to the different police agencies. Police agencies have adopted different kinds of tactics to implement community policing and these actions can be seen throughout history through many different programs. Certain community programs have been specifically developed for police agencies to deal with youth with the cooperation of other professionals and programs.
Legislative Waiver
Authors: Hughes Christopher S.
Published: November 2017

Legislative waiver is a special type of law that excludes certain offenses or offenders from the jurisdiction of juvenile court. Legislative waiver laws require the juvenile be waived, or transferred, to criminal court thereby bypassing the juvenile court system. Legislative waiver laws remove the discretion inherent in judicial and prosecutorial waivers. Legislative waiver takes the specific form of a statutory exclusion or mandatory waiver. Currently, 38 states have some form of legislative waiver for juvenile offenders.
Juvenile Justice Alternatives Initiative
Authors: Moore Sara , Hobbs Anne
Published: November 2017

Significant juvenile reform in recent decades has led to an increase in alternatives to the juvenile justice system. Alternatives to the juvenile justice systems are community‐based programs or services offered to juveniles in lieu of formal court processing. Since the 1960s a variety of alternatives have developed including juvenile diversion, community‐based programming, and alternatives to detention, which often include electronic monitoring, tracking, and reporting centers. The overarching goal of alternatives is to avoid a juvenile's unnecessary entanglement in the system.