bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
First insights into past biodiversity of giraffes based on mitochondrial sequences from museum specimens – Corrigendum
Authors: Petzold Alice , Magnant Anne-Sophie , Edderai David , Chardonnet Bertrand , Rigoulet Jacques , Saint-Jalme Michel , Hassanin Alexandre
Published: September 2020

The present corrigendum corrects errors that occurred in: Petzold A., Magnant A.-S., Edderai D., Chardonnet B., Rigoulet J., Saint-Jalme M. & Hassanin A. 2020. First insights into past biodiversity of giraffes based on mitochondrial sequences from museum specimens. European Journal of Taxonomy 703: 1–33. https://doi.org/10.5852/ejt.2020.703
Introduction
Authors: Wright Laura
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains how the author came to study house names and summarises the findings of the book: that house- names are ancient, that there is plentiful data, that house-names express historical social information, that they have held steady over recorded history with occasional addition of new categories. The history of the house-name Sunnyside is sketched out: it had a historic regional distribution reflecting the Nordic land-division practice of solskifte and crossed languages spoken in the region, so that traditional Scottish names in Green such as Greens of Bogbuie express Scottish Gaelic grian ‘sun’ rather than the English word green.
London’s First Sunnysiders
Authors: Wright Laura
Published: September 2020

This chapter identifies the first 27 Londoners to live in a Sunnyside, from 1859-1872, after which the name increased rapidly. Their biographies are given, and the methods used are identification of social networks and communities of practice. Religious nonconformism turned out to be key, as the first four London Sunnysiders were a Swedenborgian, a Sandemanian, a Plymouth Brother, and an unidentified dissenter married to a Wesleyan Methodist. Early London Sunnysiders were wealthy, successful, socially-embedded businessmen, owning their own companies and employing others. The earliest London Sunnysiders had overlapping social networks via their professions (the paper and print industries), their livery companies, their charitable activities, their Nonconformist churches, and family ties. They had a raised likelihood of Scottishness, either by descent or by connection. Early London Sunnysides were large detached suburban houses, newly-built, near to railway-stations.
‘Macabre and Hilarious’: The Emotional Life of the Civilian Gas Mask in France during and after the First World War
Authors: Grayzel Susan R.
Published: September 2020

The anticipation and fear of what chemical weapons might do to a civilian population haunted the interwar imaginary in the aftermath of the introduction and widespread use of poison gas on the battlefields of the First World War. In no place, perhaps, was this more apparent than France, one of the few nations whose civilian and combatant populations bore direct witness to this innovative weaponry. One object—the gas mask—emerged to mitigate the physical effects of gas warfare. It would come to play a crucial role in the calculated management of the destabilising emotions of anxiety and fear that accompanied the deployment of chemical arms, but its emotional life extended beyond its intended aims. This chapter combines the material and emotional history of total war by using a single object to uncover more fully the dislocation and devastation wrought by modern, industrial war. It does so by analysing key aspects of the life of the civilian gas mask from its first appearance in France during the First World War to its symbolic power in interwar civil defence and war resistance.
Picturing Barthes: The Photographic Construction of Authorship
Authors: Yacavone Kathrin
Published: September 2020

Despite his infamous thesis of the ‘death of the author’ in the 1960s, in the last decade of his life, Roland Barthes developed a conception of authorship that brings together textual and biographical realities, coining the terms biographème and biographologue to describe the relation between the author’s life and work. This was accompanied by a renewed and related interest in photography, as evidenced by his illustrated Roland Barthes par Roland Barthes (1975) and La Chambre claire (1980). Taking this conjunction of authorship and photography as its starting point, this chapter juxtaposes Barthes’s understandings of the author with the evolving photographic iconography of his own authorial persona. It shows that theoretical reflection on authorship was already closely linked with photography and the visual representation of the writer figure in the early Michelet par lui-même (1954), before exploring how this relationship becomes more pronounced and self-reflexive in the 1970s. Analysis of photographic portraits of Barthes, focused on their iconography and style, reveals that the role photography has played in Barthes’s posthumous reception has followed its own dynamics, related to, yet transcending, his highly intentional photographic self-construction.
Barthes and the Lessons of Ancient Philosophy
Authors: O’Meara Lucy
Published: September 2020

Roland Barthes was a classicist by training; his work frequently alludes to the classical literary canon and the ancient art of rhetoric. This chapter argues that ancient Greco-Roman philosophy permits insights into Barthes’s very late work, particularly when we understand ancient philosophy not as an academic discipline, but as a mode of thought which prioritises an art of living. This chapter will focus on Barthes’s posthumously published Collège de France lecture notes (1977–80) and on other posthumous diary material, arguing that this work can be seen as part of a tradition of thought which has its roots in the ethics and care of the self proposed by ancient Greco-Roman philosophical thought. The chapter uses the work of the historian of ancient philosophy, Pierre Hadot, to set Barthes’s teaching in dialogue with Stoic and Epicurean thought, and subsequently refers to Stanley Cavell’s work on ‘moral perfectionism’ to demonstrate how Barthes’s final lecture courses, and the associated Vita Nova project, can be seen as efforts by Barthes to transform his ‘intelligibility’. Barthes’s late moral perfectionism, and the individualism of his teaching, corresponds to the ancient philosophical ethical imperative to think one’s way of life differently and thereby to transform one’s self.
Barthes’s Ordinary Writing
Authors: Samoyault Tiphaine
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents a picture of Barthes that for two reasons has not been written about before: first, it comes from the archive the author was able to explore whilst preparing a biography of Barthes; second, it derives from a part of Barthes’s writing he kept separate from the rest. This part is called ‘ordinary’ because it corresponds to those modest gestures of writing we all share: writing letters, postcards, to-do lists, notes, messages, or shopping lists. In Barthes, it is a kind of writing cut off from the rest, but that silently accompanies literary or intellectual production. His early habit of methodically recording his academic research on fiches develops into the production of the enormous self-archive he maintained all his life, a repository of things seen, read, and heard, of thoughts and projects, of impressions of places and people, of quotations he liked, or of bedside scribbles. This fichier is a malleable form absorbing all forms of ordinary writing, a kind of hypertextual document allowing flexibility for infinite redistribution, and the chapter concludes with discussion of Barthes’s diary-writing practice and its relation to the tenacious reworking of notes, plans, and fiches for the projected ‘novel’ he called Vita nova.
From a Compact City into a Metropolis
Authors: Plotch Philip Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses how the creation of an urban transportation system transformed New York City. After private railroad companies built tracks for elevated railroads (Els) above the city's streets in the 1870s, the city's population spread out and grew rapidly from Lower Manhattan. To continue growing, however, the city had to build electric-powered rail lines, underground, that would travel faster and further and would accommodate even more people than the Els. Thus, the City of New York paid the construction costs for its first subway and in 1900 entered into a long-term lease with the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) to build and operate it. In 1913, the City of New York entered into contracts with two companies—the IRT and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT)—to build more lines in Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx. However, in the early twentieth century, New York's politicians took a shortsighted approach to the transit system. Instead of raising fares, they raised false expectations that New Yorkers could have high-quality subway service with low fares. The repercussions would last for generations. The chapter then looks at the establishment of the Office of Transit Construction Commissioner, the construction of a city-owned and city-operated “Independent” (IND) subway system, and the planning for a Second Avenue subway.
An Empty Promise
Authors: Plotch Philip Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines how parks commissioner Robert Moses had been a powerful player in Fiorello La Guardia's administration and a dominant force under William O'Dwyer. Moses simultaneously held multiple public-sector positions that gave him enormous power over public works projects in the New York metropolitan area. During the four years and eight months of the O'Dwyer administration, O'Dwyer and Moses convinced New Yorkers, the media, and even state legislators that the city would soon begin building a Second Avenue subway. However, New York City was in a precarious financial situation. Not only was New York City getting less federal aid, but it was also reaching the maximum amount of money it could borrow, a level defined in the New York State constitution. To generate support for raising fares and building the new subway, O'Dwyer's team lied, claiming the Second Avenue subway would be self-sufficient and that the fare increase would create a financially sustainable and growing subway system. In 1950 and 1951, the state legislature authorized a constitutional amendment that would allow the city to borrow an additional $500 million over and beyond its constitutional debt limit. After the amendment passed, city officials knew that the city could not afford to proceed with the Second Avenue subway. By 1953, the city's business leaders and their allies in the state capital had lost faith in the city's ability to manage the transit system.
Construction Begins and Construction Ends
Authors: Plotch Philip Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter details the beginning of the construction of the Second Avenue subway. In October of 1972, Governor Nelson Rockefeller and Mayor John Lindsay presided over the Second Avenue subway's groundbreaking ceremony at Second Avenue and 103rd Street. However, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) chair, William Ronan, was dishonest about both the timeline and the funding of the construction. While Ronan raised false expectations about the city's contribution, the governor misled people about the federal government's contribution. By 1973, the financial health of both the MTA and the city had become so dire that not only was the Second Avenue subway's future in jeopardy, but so was Ronan's entire expansion program. Meanwhile, New York City Comptroller Abe Beame was elected New York City's new mayor. After telling David Yunich—Ronan's successor at the MTA—that he planned to reallocate funds that had been designated for the Second Avenue subway, Beame set up a transportation policy committee consisting of his deputy mayors and senior officials. Beame's six-year transit construction program would not include any more funds for the Second Avenue subway.
Saving the Subway
Authors: Plotch Philip Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes how, in the 1970s, the New York City subway system continued the downward spiral of fewer riders, budget cuts, and reduced service, which led to a loss of more riders, further budget cuts, and even worse service. Despite carrying fewer passengers, the transit system's operating costs kept increasing. David Yunich's successor at the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA), Harold Fisher, failed to address the MTA's slide, although he claimed that his programs were making public transportation travel more efficient, comfortable, and safe. By 1980, New York City's subway riders had more to complain about than ever before. New York City's subway system was not just unreliable, crowded, and filthy; it was also the most dangerous in the world. Moreover, the ongoing deterioration of the subways was threatening the city's economy. The chapter then focuses on the role of house developer Richard Ravitch as MTA chair. Ravitch had no interest in restarting the Second Avenue subway, and the project was a low priority for many of the communities it would serve. Instead, under Ravitch's leadership, the MTA took care of the abandoned tunnels below Second Avenue. More importantly for the future of the neighborhoods that the Second Avenue subway had been designed to serve, Ravitch rescued the existing subway system and the city along with it.
A Twenty-First-Century Subway
Authors: Plotch Philip Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores how the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) relied on debt to pay for 65 percent of its 2000–2004 capital program, compared to 37 percent in the previous program. When negotiating the MTA's $17.1 billion five-year capital program, Governor George Pataki and the legislative leaders agreed to place a $3.8 billion bond referendum on the November 2000 ballot. The referendum failed, but instead of eliminating funding for the Second Avenue subway, Pataki wanted the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to help pay for the new subway by selling off some of its extensive real estate holdings, most notably the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan. At the same time, the governor was turning over the reins of the MTA from Virgil Conway to a real estate developer named Peter Kalikow, who would be the first MTA chair to champion the Second Avenue subway since William Ronan in the early 1970s. In early 2001, the MTA said it would begin construction on the Second Avenue subway in 2004. On September 11, however, building a Second Avenue subway was not a priority to anyone, anywhere. Nevertheless, the aftermath of the September 11 attacks highlighted how the subway had prevented the city's economy from collapsing.
Delays Ahead
Authors: Plotch Philip Mark
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter examines the repercussions of meeting Governor Andrew Cuomo's deadline for the Second Avenue subway. A month after the subway opened in 2017, MTA Capital Construction was tracking a mind-boggling 17,260 discrepancies between items the contractor was required to address and the actual work completed. Federal officials overseeing the MTA's efforts found that such a large number of discrepancies indicated a breakdown in the contractors' quality-assurance programs and the subcontractors' quality-control programs. In a rush to meet the New Year's deadline, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) did not have enough time to follow all of its standard procedures and testing protocols. MTA officials circumvented their own process for certifying the safety of the Second Avenue subway before passenger service began. Quality, federal officials concluded, was clearly compromised to accelerate the schedule. After the line opened, fixing problems became more expensive and time consuming because trains were running all day and all night. In early 2017, subways were delayed more than seventy thousand times a month. The chapter then assesses how the Second Avenue subway became the most expensive subway in the world. It also highlights the turning points in the subway's history, which have been marked by transportation leaders who developed comprehensive plans and then built support to pursue them.
So Sue Him
Authors: Farrier Jasmine
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores a diverse set of member lawsuits, spanning the “pocket veto,” three cases related to treaty changes/withdrawals, and a case on the Affordable Care Act that was settled recently. All of these cases highlight the way that conventional partisan warfare creeps into legal battles. The member-plaintiffs in these cases are attacking opposition presidents for institutional behaviors and constitutional interpretations that they appear to forgive in their own presidents. This partisan dynamic dilutes the power and potential significance of the claim. Moreover, if federal courts are being dragged into separation of powers questions just to expand the arena of partisan combat, there is no deep reset of systemic balance of power in the constitutional order. Congressional power should mean more than defending one's own party when in the minority or in the majority under conditions of divided government.
Hyphenated Hitlerism
Authors: Kelz Robert
Published: September 2020

This chapter shows how reviews in local media emphasized Nazi tropes, such as anti-urbanism, the leader cult, mania for Aryans and Teutons, the glorification of war, and racial anti-Semitism. Though they were Nazi loyalists who enthusiastically supported Ney's ensemble, local dramatists and theatergoers also emphasized their cultural hybridity and affinity for Argentina. This estranged them from the fatherland and undercut Nazi officials' efforts to construct a transatlantic National Socialist community. Later, when the war and the Argentine regime turned against Germany, comedies formed a larger proportion of the ensemble's repertoire. Spectators at both the Free German Stage and the German Theater embraced the comedic genre to cope with the overlapping psychological and emotional duress that they incurred as emigrant populations whose nations of origin were at war.
Epilogue
Authors: Kelz Robert
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter takes a look at the German theaters of Argentina between the 1930s and the 1960s. During this time, Buenos Aires was a volatile, conflict-ridden place which allowed both antifascist and nationalist German blocs to cultivate intercultural alliances without modifying many aspects of their own political platform. Here, the chapter revisits the themes introduced in this volume by linking them to a more poignantly profiled reflection on the salient themes of this study, including inclusion and exclusion, integration, transnationalism, drama theory, theatrical energies, and, of course, competition. The central role of theater enables a reexamination of German-speaking immigrants in Argentina, emphasizing previously underexplored events and individuals while offering new perspectives on more frequently studied topics. The chapter thus depicts the impact of theater on existing narratives about Germans in Argentina, as well as the power of a focus on culture and the arts to inform and shape studies of migrant groups.
Bad Death
Authors: Pearson Trais
Published: September 2020

This chapter identifies distinct registers of different semantic projects focused on the corpse. State interventions—including vernacular forms of forensic investigation and the “verdicts” rendered by the Ministry of the Capital—conflicted with subaltern forms of care and concern for the dead. Reading against the grain of the state archive, the chapter recovers fragments of subaltern lives and voices, as well as evidence of their efforts to resist the imposition of state-mandated forms of medicolegal concern as the forensic regime of “suspicious” death overcame sociocultural concerns for “inauspicious” death. Here, the chapter is concerned primarily with the nature of this transition as documented in and through the archives. It looks at how early state interventions into the realm of death looked like, and how they related to traditional forms of concern for the dead. The chapter considers what these forms of forensic concern can tell us about the nature of authority within the Siamese bureaucracy, and what implications, if any, they had for Siamese political life.
Accidental Metaphysics
Authors: Pearson Trais
Published: September 2020

This chapter analyzes the adoption and adaptation of tacit assumptions about human identity, agency, and responsibility that underlie legal liberalism—in other words, the metaphysics of civil law. Crucial to any effort to understand the boundaries of human agency and responsibility lies the notion of the accident. Although the accident masquerades as timeless and commonsensical, it is in fact a historical and cultural artifact: ubatihet, the Thai term, is a neologism dating to the late nineteenth century. Charting its introduction through etymological and historical linguistic evidence—as well as in practice as part of municipal governance—the chapter argues that the accident functioned as one axis of a metaphysical grid for representing social life and as a means of further codifying the identity of the Siamese legal subject. In both respects, the accident must be understood as part of a conservative grammar of rule: predicated on a secular-naturalistic vision of social life, it defined the legal subject in negative terms. Attending to the accident as a historical site of cultural production, the chapter destabilizes the naturalistic posture of legal reasoning and undermines celebratory narratives of law as a humanizing force.
Conclusion
Authors: Pearson Trais
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter discusses the brief rise and fall of forensic medical authority in Siam and how it might have corresponded with the arrival of a new paradigm of state consideration for the dead. In the ensuing years, concerns over obtaining justice for Siamese subjects in the plural legal arena created by extraterritorial law gave way dramatically to a new fixation on the threat of contagious disease in an increasingly interconnected world. The chapter shows how the threat of such diseases helped the Siamese state to establish new procedures for recording every death within the capital city along with its cause. In the larger context, the chapter addresses the issue of sovereignty as foreign imperialism and Siamese political authority struggled to keep up with the complications surrounding the legal status of the dead. In doing so, the chapter reveals the Siamese capital to be a city crowded with actors and forms of agency that do not figure in normative accounts of Thai history.
The Unequal Ludopolitical Regime of Game Production
Authors: Bulut Ergin
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents the notion of ludopolitics to center economic and cultural inequalities in the game industry. People need to move beyond grasping game production as simply an economic process based on trade-offs between two supposedly equal parties. Game production is a problem of social reproduction rooted in politics. A two-part question thus follows: Who can play, and who has to work in the game industry? This question illuminates how Studio Desire's workers are alienated at work but sheds further light on how this very alienation depends on the exploitation of others in different locations and settings. The chapter also introduces ludic religiosity as a heuristic device to examine how the definition of fun and escapism in the game industry relies on a dominant white masculinity, as well as the commodification of the Other. That is, one's creative pleasure and escapism are enabled by somebody else's pain. This new broad emphasis on inequality and social reproduction allows for shifting the focus from labor to life and life's materiality.
The Production of Communicative Developers in the Affective Game Studio
Authors: Bulut Ergin
Published: September 2020

This chapter looks at the difficulties experienced by studio management in measuring the productivity of Studio Desire's workers. While no easy task, managing productivity and cultivating driven workers is not impossible, and Studio Desire's management has been able to harness the temporal, spatial, and subjective dimensions of both the workplace and the labor process to maintain productivity. They are well aware that value in the game industry is best realized by investing in the developers' bodies and enhancing their imaginative capacities. The chapter then considers the logic behind turning the workplace into a playground and the attempt to cultivate communicative laborers. The broader argument is that capital cannot afford to forego investing in the well-being of video game developers for whom strictly defined work schedules and work spaces are no longer feasible.
Game Testers as Precarious Second-Class Citizens
Authors: Bulut Ergin
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on another group of marginalized actors in the game industry: game testers. As a means of getting one's foot in the industry, video game testing constitutes an arena of “cruel optimism.” Video game testing is a decidedly temporary position appealing mostly to young people with fewer occupational skills than the core creatives. Testers endure extreme precarity in hopes of garnering the symbolic capital they gain in the industry, a permanent position, or new job in one of development's other disciplines, such as design, art, or programming. The chapter coins the term “degradation of fun” to illuminate the process through which the joy derived from testing is diminished due to precarity, instrumentalized play, and surveillance in the workplace.
The Imperative of Intervention
Authors: Phillips Sarah G.
Published: September 2020

This chapter sets the scene for Somaliland’s place within debates about the utility of northern intervention against violence and poverty in various southern contexts. It explores the way that the dominant discourse about state fragility frames the quality of domestic governance institutions in the Global South as both cause of, and solution to, the prevalence of conflict and poverty. In so doing, it brackets out alternative—nondomestic and noninstitutional—ways of understanding peace and development in the Global South. These exclusions also frame international intervention as self-evidently useful in making the world more peaceful and prosperous. The chapter argues that this dramatically overstates the impact that development or state-building interventions have because they constitute a small part of the means by which power and resources move between north and south.
Somaliland’s Relative Isolation
Authors: Phillips Sarah G.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores how Somaliland’s independence discourse assigns meaning to the region’s relative isolation within the international system. To that end, the chapter first provides some background about the kinds of intervention that Somalia has experienced. It then considers the effects of the independence discourse and international isolation on Somaliland’s economy, even as it delves into Somaliland’s pre-independence economic insulation. Here, the unusual nature of Somaliland’s relative exclusion from international economic and political structures is reified as a pillar of its ability to establish peace. The absence of intervention during Somaliland’s early years energizes a powerful discourse about Somalilanders’ exceptionalism, the self-reliance of its people, and the ownership of its institutions.
The United States and Chilean Politics in the Cold War
Authors: Hurtado-Torres Sebastián
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the relationship between Eduardo Frei's Revolution in Liberty and the United States. For the United States foreign policy apparatus, the Christian Democratic Party of Chile appeared to be a model partner in the realization of the goals of the Alliance for Progress, the Latin American policy conceived by President John F. Kennedy and continued, though without the same level of enthusiasm and hope, by his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson. In its original conception, Kennedy's Latin American policy had ambitious economic, social, and political goals. The channeling of aid from the United States to Latin American countries in the 1960s sought to reflect the interplay between those aims, even if the implementation of the Alliance for Progress sorely lacked in consistency and constancy. In the case of Chile and Eduardo Frei's Revolution in Liberty, the exceptionally generous provision of aid by the United States went hand in hand with a deep involvement of agents of U.S. foreign policy, especially the political staff of the embassy in Santiago, in the day-to-day functioning of Chilean politics—welcomed and, in many cases, invited by local actors.
The U.S. Embassy in Santiago and the Presidential Election of 1964
Authors: Hurtado-Torres Sebastián
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the role of the U.S. embassy in Santiago in the Chilean presidential election of 1964. One of the leading candidates in the race, Salvador Allende, was an avowed Marxist and the standard-bearer of the Popular Action Front (FRAP), a coalition of Socialists and Communists formed in 1958. Allende's main contender was Eduardo Frei Montalva, the undisputed leader of the Christian Democratic Party. For the United States, an Allende victory in the presidential election would entail a huge setback in the Western Hemisphere. Thus, the United States supported the candidacy of Eduardo Frei, whose project seemed an excellent alternative to the revolutionary path proposed by the Marxist Left and a good representation of the goals and values of the Alliance for Progress. The U.S. ambassador in Chile, Charles Cole, and more so the political staff of the embassy in Santiago, played an important role in shaping the race and advising the main chiefs of Eduardo Frei's political campaign, and even Frei himself, in the course of 1964. The mostly untold story of the U.S. embassy's involvement in the 1964 presidential race is an excellent example of the way in which U.S. foreign policy was carried out on the ground and, in many situations, in the open.
The United States and the Last Two Years of the Frei Administration
Authors: Hurtado-Torres Sebastián
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the congressional election of 1969, which took place in a landscape substantially different from that of 1965. Most political forces had endured transformative changes that led to the birth of new organizations, further internal polarization, or outright fragmentation. The Christian Democratic Party had suffered a predictable decrease in its popularity after four and a half years in government, during which many promises had been delivered on but no truly revolutionary change had been implemented. As shown by the internal fights of 1967–1968 and the attitude of its most likely presidential candidate for 1970, Radomiro Tomic, the Christian Democratic Party had lost the unity of purpose that had accounted for so much of its electoral success a few years earlier. Nevertheless, Eduardo Frei's personal popularity and the party's electoral following still allowed the Christian Democratic Party to stand as the strongest party in Chilean politics. The Radical Party had also been weakened by internal divisions; since 1967, the party had moved decisively, although not without conflict, to the left. Meanwhile, one of the most important Socialist leaders, Raúl Ampuero, created a new political movement in 1968, the Popular Socialist Union (USOPO), generously funded by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The only party that had not endured any transformative crisis or substantial change in the years after the election of 1964 was the best organized and most united of all, the Communist Party.
The Influence of the United States in Chilean Politics
Authors: Hurtado-Torres Sebastián
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter reflects on the influence of the United States in Chilean politics. Since the dynamics of Chilean politics replicated very closely the ideological divide of the global Cold War, the overarching goal of the U.S. strategy toward Chile between 1964 and 1970 was to keep the Marxist Left from taking power. Arguably, the most important part of that strategy was the considerable support provided to the reformist political project of the Christian Democratic Party, as it constituted a viable alternative to the growing appeal of the revolutionary Left and offered a path toward economic and social modernization that coincided with the ideological outlook of the Johnson administration's foreign policy. Despite an imbalance of power, the U.S. foreign policy apparatus did not determine the motivations or intentions of the Chilean political actors with which it established relationships, nor did it shape the political debates on which the U.S. interests in Chile could be at stake. The United States established itself as a relevant and even powerful informal actor in Chilean politics but only as an ally of forces whose interests and goals, though convergent with U.S. interests, were independent.
The Pen
Authors: Göpfert Mirco
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains that when the gendarmes had established the facts, they produced a new story—the bureaucratic narrative of the case file. These reports tell the “true story” and make the events, including those involved, legible in the truest sense. By looking closely at the writing process, the chapter shows that bureaucratic work has—beyond institutional, material, and social constraints—plenty to do with aesthetics. This acknowledgement helps fill the gap often perceived between official norms and informal practices, between legal and pragmatic reasoning. Aesthetics of form, style, and content are not mere decor on the legal or pragmatic function of documents; bureaucratic aesthetics embrace them all simultaneously. It is thus no contradiction that bureaucratic aesthetics are at once personal and impersonal, predictable and unpredictable, legal documentation and poetry; it connects people, domains, and worlds through translation while making their separation blatantly obvious. It is the aesthetic of the frontier. The chapter also looks at the procès-verbal, a document which states a breach of a law and the measures taken in response by gendarmes.
Repair Work
Authors: Göpfert Mirco
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses how the gendarmes consider the criminal law as profoundly unjust. The Nigerien penal code (Code Pénal) and code of criminal procedure (Code de Procédure Pénale) both originate from the colonial era and still contain largely unadapted elements of it. According to the gendarmes, these outdated and “foreign” laws were largely inappropriate for policing the life worlds of the people they confronted. From the paradigmatic and law-centered perspective, the gendarmes' arrangements appear as the discretion-led, under-enforcement of the law. The chapter then suggests a perspective that is more sensitive to those actors' views and practices and takes seriously local concepts of law enforcement, dispute settlement, and the search for justice, in this case: gyara, repair work. Seen in that light, the gendarmes repaired a law that they deemed unjust. Not its application, but the law itself was deficient. What was at stake in such instances was the nature of the law and the state itself. The gendarmes had the power to declare the state of exception and act outside the law in defense of law, but they also had the power to declare an “exception to the state.”
Platonism vs. Naturalism
Authors: Gerson Lloyd P.
Published: September 2020

This chapter distinguishes between Platonism and Naturalism. Plato's Platonism rests upon the foundation of his rejection of many, though not all, of the doctrines of his major predecessors. These include materialism, mechanism, nominalism, relativism, and skepticism. Plato rejects all these views with arguments, sometimes very elaborate and sometimes quite concise. All these negative arguments make up the foundation of Platonism. Meanwhile, the central pillar of the positive construct on the basis of this foundation is clear and unambiguous. It is an “unhypothetical first principle of all” called in Republic “the Idea of the Good” and, according to Aristotle's testimony, identified by Plato with “the One.” However, many contemporary philosophers embrace an opposing position, widely labeled “Naturalism.” Strikingly, many of the arguments for this position are arguments against elements of Platonism. The chapter then looks at attempts to seek a rapprochement between Platonism and Naturalism.
Plato’s Critique of Naturalism
Authors: Gerson Lloyd P.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses Plato's critique of Naturalism. A metaphysics of the natural world as conceived of by Naturalists is quite different from a metaphysics of the natural world conceived of by Platonists. For Naturalists, topics like identity, existence, cause, and time, all have to be approached as principles exclusively for knowledge of entities in a three or four-dimensional framework. By contrast, Plato assumes and Aristotle argues that identity is equivocally applied not just to artifacts and to things that exist in nature, but also to that which is immaterial. Plato's designation of the subject matter of philosophy as, roughly, “the intelligible world,” obviously excludes an extension of the term “philosophy” to that which is non-intelligible. But the sensible world, as Plato says in Republic, participates in the intelligible world in some way. Accordingly, insofar as it does, it belongs to the subject matter of philosophy. The difference between the natural scientist and the philosopher on this account is, as Plato says, that the former “hypothesizes” its foundations, while the latter grounds these in the “unhypothetical first principle.” The chapter then studies Socrates' “autobiography” in Phaedo, as well as the subject matter of philosophy in Republic, Theaetetus, and Sophist.
The Centrality of the Idea of the Good in the Platonic System (2)
Authors: Gerson Lloyd P.
Published: September 2020

This chapter investigates the centrality of the Idea of the Good for Plato's ethics. It is certainly a remarkable fact that just as the Idea of the Good has little presence in the bulk of Anglo-American scholarship on Plato's metaphysics, so it has little presence in accounts of Plato's ethics. The chapter demonstrates that any account of Platonic ethics is seriously deficient if the superordinate Idea of the Good is not the main focus and if the Good is not identified as the absolutely simple first principle of all, the One. There may be a number of reasons for the lack of interest in the Idea of the Good among students of Plato. At least one of these is that it is supposed that Aristotle's critique of the Form of the Good in his Nicomachean Ethics is decisive. The chapter then considers the knowledge of the Forms of the Virtues, and looks at goodness as integrative unity. It also studies the connection between eros and the Good, which is made explicitly by Plotinus in one of the most remarkable passages in his Enneads.
Proclus and Trouble in Paradise
Authors: Gerson Lloyd P.
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the contributions of Proclus to the completion of the Platonic project. Proclus, living some two hundred years after Plotinus, extended the systematization of Platonism. Moreover, it is Proclus, in part through Pseudo-Dionysius, and in part through the Liber de Causis, who served as the gateway to Platonism for the next millennium. Proclus was at once full of admiration for Plotinus as an exegete of Plato and also frequently critical of him. As seen in both Plato and Plotinus, the fundamental systematic law of Platonism is expressed as “remaining,” “procession,” and “reversion.” In his Elements of Theology, Proclus connects the procession with the distinction between cause and condition in Phaedo and cause and accessory to the cause in Timaeus. The chapter then details the analytic prowess Proclus shows in discovering a deep problem in the systematic construction of Platonism. This is a problem that Proclus's student, Damascius, exploits in a remarkable way.
Notes from the North Cascades Environmental Learning Center
Authors: Farnsworth John Seibert
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents the author's field notes from the North Cascades Environmental Learning Center. The center was built as mitigation for the environmental harm caused by the hydroelectric dam when the dam was relicensed in 1989. It was a unique idea, to mitigate environmental damage with environmental education by building a world-class field campus. The idea was supported by the National Park Service, the Forest Service, local tribes, the North Cascades Conservation Council, and the city of Seattle, which owns the hydroelectric project. The chapter then focuses on Diablo dam. The author's residency there was termed a “creative residency,” and was scheduled to last a month. During his residency, the author was able to spot a lot of birds, including white-winged scoters.
Introduction
Authors: Scott Amanda L.
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of a serora, or a devout laywoman entrusted with caring for a parish church or shrine in the early modern Basque Country and Navarre. As common as seroras were in early modern northern Iberia, their prominence and geographic reach was limited to monolingual Basque-speaking lands and their bilingual neighboring areas. They of course shared many things in common with other devout and semireligious women active in the late medieval and early modern periods; however, the seroras represent a powerful variation that accorded Basque women far more social prominence, economic independence, and religious status and responsibility than any of their counterparts. The vocation was always reserved solely for women and was considered functionally separate from any role the lower male clergy might assume. In this capacity, the seroras may be one of the earliest examples of a specifically female livelihood with a salary that did not imitate or replicate male labor and that took place outside the home. Seroras complemented, and certainly facilitated, male religious work, but the two operated in tandem and were not considered interchangeable. In this light, the seroras push one to reconsider assumptions that early modern Catholic reform was categorically repressive and restrictive for women.
Local Religion and Tridentine Reform in the Early Modern Basque Country
Authors: Scott Amanda L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides a brief synopsis of the presence of Navarrese delegates at the Council of Trent, then moves on to an overview of the Diocese of Pamplona's most important Tridentine era synod meeting and a representative sampling of reform episodes as they played out on the ground. To understand the inconsistencies in enforcement concerning the seroras, reforms concerning the seroras must be left in their original context. Mirroring the diocese's attention to clerical misbehavior, the chapter thus approaches reform of the seroras through the lens of male reform, and especially pastoral residency. The diocese's concentration on professionalizing the lower clergy and directing lay devotion into appropriate channels reveals much about the diocese's unstated policy against interfering with the seroras: that is, the diocese identified reforming the lower clergy as the key to a successful reform program, and everything else was secondary. Other aspects of local religious life that did not mesh with official Tridentine reform ideals were allowed to slide to make way for more urgent reforms. In this context, the diocese judged that licensing the seroras was the easiest way to control the vocation, allowing ecclesiastical authorities to turn their eye to more pressing matters such as wandering abbots, violent hermits, and “repulsive” parish priests.
“Nothing More Certain Than Death”
Authors: Scott Amanda L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the kinds of material and emotional expression that shaped Basque notarial documents, drawing from testaments made by seroras as well as testaments that left goods or pious donations to seroras. It also assesses the reasons seroras did or did not write testaments and the kinds of relationships and networks that were forged through pious bequests among seroras and their communities. To a large extent, testaments followed set patterns and addressed similar issues across testators. Nonetheless, there was considerable room for flexibility and creativity. Ultimately, each testament was an abbreviated and compressed statement about what the testator had valued, the friendships she had cultivated, and an attempt to extend and preserve beyond death the social and economic networks she had built during life.
The Virgin, the Witch, and the Widow
Authors: Scott Amanda L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter identifies the challenges to the seroras' existence. When communities vied to define or limit their responsibilities and curb the seroras' influence, they often framed their complaints in gendered terms, expressing uneasiness with a vocation that tested the limits of power afforded to women. The simplest of these attacks expressed basic fears about allowing women such a degree of autonomy, while the more complex ones mixed fantasy with reality, drawing liberally from what actually went on in the seroría as well as what was only rumored. The chapter then studies three of the most common types of gendered fears surrounding the seroría, one of which is witchcraft. The flexibility and freedom of the seroría raised questions regarding what women were doing in the seroría, as well as the suspicion that they could be using the seroría for nefarious sexual purposes.
Conflict and Community in the Seventeenth Century
Authors: Scott Amanda L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter reflects on the conflicts between seroras and their communities. Seroras, like their male colleagues, were parts of their communities through and through, and often little separated emotionally, physically, or economically from the people they served. Proximity easily gave birth to tension and conflict, and as members of their communities, seroras and priests often responded passionately and intensely. These visible contraventions to a reformed, peaceful, and professional clergy drew the attention of the bishop; consequently, criminal cases handled by the Diocese of Pamplona are skewed toward breaches of both legal obligation and social expectations, including episodes of violence. How parishioners reported, reacted to, and participated in conflict with their seroras underscores the ease with which the ideals of reform were consumed and deployed by local communities and for local purposes. Seroras occupied a central place within local religious life; yet the vocation was not static, nor was it immune to challenge. In the postreform years, conflict involving seroras and their communities provided a crucial opportunity for localities to engage with the practical aspects of implementing religious reform, mold it according to their own preferences, or reject it altogether.