bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Motivational Complexity of Choosing: A Review of Theory and Research
Authors: Patall Erika A.
Published: February 2013

Years of research have implicated a complex set of motivational causes and consequences of choice. Psychological theory has often prescribed the benefits of choosing, though limitations to this view of choice as being ubiquitously positive are apparent. In this chapter, the relation between choice and motivation is examined. Conceptualizations of choice as both an outcome of motivation and a motivational experience are described. The benefits and determinants of receiving and perceiving choice for motivation are then discussed according to various psychological theories. Next, the complex and often contradictory findings regarding the relation between choice and motivation are discussed in light of various factors (e.g., characteristics of choices, persons, and situations) that may influence those effects. Issues that have yet to be adequately addressed in the research on choice effects and the directions that future research might take are briefly discussed.
Motivation in Psychotherapy
Authors: Holtforth Martin Grosse , Michalak Johannes
Published: February 2013

Motivational issues are central to human life. Correspondingly, they are also central to the challenging endeavor of psychotherapy. Assisting patients to change involves motivational issues at various levels and at various stages of therapy. Patients might be more or less motivated to begin and to participate in the different stages of psychotherapy (therapy motivation). Besides these differences in therapy motivation, an understanding of the broader concepts of motivation in psychotherapy should mandate that motivational issues be considered in the treatment of all patients and not only in those with obvious deficits in therapy motivation: Motivational issues influence the therapeutic relationship, they should be considered in tailoring specific interventions, and they might be important factors for the onset and maintenance of psychological disorders. This chapter presents theoretical and empirical background information and illustrates therapeutic approaches for dealing with patients’ motivation. Moreover, it summarizes the implications of basic and clinical research for a motivationally informed psychotherapy.
Social cognition in non-primates
Authors: Bshary Redouan , Salwiczek Lucie H. , Wickler Wolfgang
Published: February 2013

This article suggests that broad species comparisons including non-primate species provide the (only) key to several important issues for psychologists taking an evolutionary view/approach. It discusses that the theory of evolution provides alternative concepts that generate different predictions for the cognitive abilities of animals. The article deals with the comparison of distantly related species that live in similar environments. Any similarities in their cognitive abilities would thus reveal independently evolved (analogous) traits. Both concepts are unified in the ‘ethological approach’, which has been developed largely in the 1980s. The article also discusses the logic of evolutionary theory applied to animal cognition. In conclusion, this ‘ecological approach’ predicts analogous capacities in distantly related species due to common ecology, rather than homologous capacities in closely related species due to common ancestry.
Neural pathways of social cognition
Authors: Jellema Tjeerd , Perrett David I.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews recent ideas about visual pathways and mechanisms in the brains of human and non-human primates that support social cognition. It shows how the detection of visual cues provides a basis for guiding the observer's behaviour in ways that are based on the current and likely future behaviour of others. These visual mechanisms underpin social cognition, but do not rely on understanding others' minds. They provide what one could call a ‘mechanistic’ description of others' behaviour and of social events in terms of constituent components of actions, their causes and consequences, and expected future occurrence. The article argues that the superior temporal sulcus forms the prime neural substrate for forming descriptions of the ‘mechanics’ of social events.
Evolution of stress response to social threat
Authors: Flinn Mark V.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the idea that humans evolved large brains and an extended childhood as adaptations that enable the development of social skills for coping with an increasingly complex and dynamic social and cultural environment. It then explores relations between physiological stress response and the ontogeny of social competencies. Two complementary theoretical models of hormonal stress response are considered: maladaptation to the novelty of chronic stress in social environments, and adaptive neural reorganisation. These two perspectives are interwoven in an evolutionary developmental analysis, complicated by the pleiotropic nature of the key stress hormone, cortisol. The article provides a plausible model and some new pieces for the puzzle linking stress response to the neural plasticity that enables adaptation to the dynamic human social environment.
Symmetry, attractiveness and sexual selection
Authors: Rhodes Gillian , Simmons Leigh W.
Published: February 2013

This article considers whether a human preference for symmetry is an adaptation for mate choice. If it is, then symmetry should be attractive and it should signal mate quality. The article begins with a brief introduction to sexual selection and its proposed relation to fluctuating asymmetry (FA), highlighting some important methodological issues about the measurement of symmetry. The article then considers whether symmetry is attractive to humans, using meta-analyses to determine the strength of preferences for symmetric faces and bodies and to examine the effects of potential moderator variables. It is apparent from this review that FA has not always been measured appropriately. Therefore, the article presents some new data on the relationship between human FA and mate choice to illustrate some of the appropriate steps required for discussion. It then considers whether human symmetry honestly signals mate quality and reproduction.
Competitive altruism: a theory of reputation-based cooperation in groups
Authors: Van Vugt Mark , Roberts Gilbert , Hardy Charlie
Published: February 2013

This article talks about altruism and morality. It defines altruism in terms of a design to benefit others at a cost to oneself, altruism is defined in terms of a motivation to help. It is often assumed that this motivation is conscious, although this is by no means necessary. Research suggests that humans are often not aware of why they behave as they do. Moral altruism is defined as a design to reward altruists and punish non-altruists. Moral altruists go one step further. Humans are unique in their propensity to cooperate with non-relatives, sometimes in very large groups. In other ultrasocial species, like the social insects, highly cooperative societies are based exclusively on kinship. Kin helping accounts for a substantial part of altruism in human society today.
Dual-inheritance theory: the evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution
Authors: Henrich Joseph , McElreath Richard
Published: February 2013

Humans learn, via observation of others. This article refers to this form of social learning, which may be particular to humans, as cultural learning. The combination of both the high fidelity and frequency of social learning in the lineage has generated cumulative cultural evolution, which may exist to any significant degree only in the lineage. Paleoarchaeology suggests that substantial cumulative cultural evolution has likely been occurring for at least the last 280,000 years, and is thus a key element in understanding human genetic evolution. The article's second point is illustrated by societies with partible paternity. In providing such a framework, dual-inheritance theory aims to incorporate these and other aspects of human culture under Charles Darwin's theory by focusing on three key concepts.
Modelling cultural evolution
Authors: McElreath Richard , Henrich Joseph
Published: February 2013

The key to explaining long-run change in nature, to explaining the origin of new species, of whole new types of organisms, and of life itself is to apply Charles Lyell's principle of uniformitarianism to populations. By keeping track of how the small events of everyday life change the composition of populations, one can explain great events over long time scales. Population models allow for an explanation and real causation at both levels (and more than two levels) to exist seamlessly and meaningfully in one theory. One can build models about how individuals can create population-level effects which then change individuals in powerful ways. Cultural evolutionary models are much the same as better-known genetic ones: events in the lives of individuals interact at the scale of populations to produce feedback and powerful long-term effects on behaviour. This article suggests that there are three basic steps to attaining this.
Audiovisual speech perception and word recognition
Authors: Massaro Dominic W. , Jesse Alexandra
Published: February 2013

This article gives an overview of the main research questions and findings unique to audiovisual speech perception research, and discusses what general questions about speech perception and cognition the research in this field can answer. The influence of a second perceptual source in audiovisual speech perception compared to auditory speech perception immediately necessitates the question of how the information from the different perceptual sources is used to reach the best overall decision. The article explores how our understanding of speech benefits from having the speaker's face present, and how this benefit makes transparent the nature of speech perception and word recognition. Modern communication methods such as Voice over Internet Protocol find a wide acceptance, but people are reluctant to forfeit face-to-face communication. The article also considers the role of visual speech as a language-learning tool in multimodal training, information and information processing in audiovisual speech perception, lexicon and word recognition, facial information for speech perception, and theories of audiovisual speech perception.
Eight questions about spoken word recognition
Authors: McQueen James M.
Published: February 2013

Since word recognition is at the heart of the language-comprehension process, it has also always been a central topic in psycholinguistics. This article reviews current evidence on spoken word recognition, focusing on what is assumed to be the key aspect of the process: the way in which the listener derives from a spoken utterance a satisfactory lexical parse. The assumption is that this process entails abstraction, that is, a type of decoding in which the specific acoustic realisation of any given utterance is mapped onto store knowledge about the phonological form of individual words. To begin, what information in the speech signal is used in word recognition? Where are the words in the continuous speech stream? Which words did the speaker intend? When are the phonological forms of words recognised: How are words recognised? Whither spoken word recognition? The review of uptake of fine-grained segmental and suprasegmental information made clear that the speech signal is not just a sequence of phonemes.
Eye movements and visual word recognition
Authors: Shillcock Richard
Published: February 2013

This article examines the relationship between eye movements and word recognition, moving from what we know about isolated word recognition to the reading of text. There are clear points of contact between behaviour in laboratory tasks with isolated words and word recognition in text; for instance, Schilling et al. (1998) have shown consistent word frequency effects in naming, lexical decision, and fixation times in silent reading. However, there are also major differences between these two domains. Radach and Kennedy (2004) cite “integration with work on single word recognition” as an issue for future reading research. Equally, though, research on isolated visual word recognition can benefit from a consideration of normal reading; when a word is processed in isolation, its normal context has been replaced by a “null” context. The article concentrates on some of the anatomical and computational principles governing access to the mental lexicon. First, it considers eye movements in reading isolated words and then explores how fixation in word recognition is controlled. Finally, the article discusses the issues raised by binocularity.
Word recognition in aphasia
Authors: Blumstein Sheila
Published: February 2013

This article reviews current knowledge about the nature of auditory word recognition deficits in aphasia. It assumes that the language functioning of adults with aphasia was normal prior to sustaining brain injury, and that their word recognition system was intact. As a consequence, the study of aphasia provides insight into how damage to particular areas of the brain affects speech and language processing, and thus provides a crucial step in mapping out the neural systems underlying speech and language processing. To this end, much of the discussion focuses on word recognition deficits in Broca's and Wernicke's aphasics, two clinical syndromes that have provided the basis for much of the study of the neural basis of language. Clinically, Broca's aphasics have a profound expressive impairment in the face of relatively good auditory language comprehension. This article also considers deficits in processing the sound structure of language, graded activation of the lexicon, lexical competition, influence of word recognition on speech processing, and influence of sentential context on word recognition.
Representation and processing of lexically ambiguous words
Authors: Lupker Stephen J.
Published: February 2013

This article explores the impact of ambiguity on word processing out of context, mostly in single word presentation tasks. These tasks should give us the best chance of uncovering the basic principles underlying how these words are represented in memory and how that memory representation is accessed. The article first discusses the key phenomenon and then considers attempts to model that phenomenon based on some possible ways in which ambiguous words might be represented in memory. It also focuses on more recent attempts to distinguish between different types of ambiguous words and what that research might have to say about the representation question. Moreover, the article assesses models based on multiple lexical units, models based on distributed representations, ambiguity effects in semantic tasks, the distinction between activation and selection, and eye movements. Finally, it analyses a prediction of all current models by considering data from other, neutral-context tasks before turning to the question of the impact of context.
Morphological Processes in language Comprehension
Authors: Marslen-Wilson William D.
Published: February 2013

A psycholinguistic account of human communication must explain how linguistic inputs and outputs are structured to convey the speaker's intended meaning. The concept of a “mental lexicon” plays a key role in standard conceptions of this process, referring to the learned representations that mediate between the spoken utterance (or written text) and the interpretation computed by the listener or reader. The organisation of these representations needs to reflect, broadly speaking, two kinds of linguistic information being communicated: semantic information, about meanings in the world; and a wide range of syntactic information, specifying grammatical relations, tense, aspect, and so forth. These different kinds of linguistic information are associated with specific lexical entities—words and morphemes—which are assembled together, in different ways in different languages, to convey the necessary mix of semantic and syntactic cues to intended meaning as the speech input is heard over time (or as a written text is read). This article discusses morphological processes in language comprehension, focusing on inflectional morphology and derivational morphology. It also considers morphological decomposition and lexical representation.
Connectionist models of reading
Authors: Seidenberg Mark S.
Published: February 2013

Connectionist computational models have been extensively used in the study of reading: how children learn to read, skilled reading, and reading impairments (dyslexia). The models are computer programs that simulate detailed aspects of behaviour. This article provides an overview of connectionist models of reading, with an emphasis on the “triangle” framework. The term “connectionism” refers to a broad, varied set of ideas, loosely connected by an emphasis on the notion that complexity, at different grain sizes or scales ranging from neurons to overt behaviour, emerges from the aggregate behaviour of large networks of simple processing units. This article focuses on the parallel distributed processing variety developed by Rumelhart, McClelland, and Hinton (1986). First, it describes basic elements of connectionist models of reading: task orientation, distributed representations, learning, hidden units, and experience. The article then looks at how models are used to establish causal effects, along with quasiregularity and division of labor.
Language and action: creating sensible combinations of ideas
Authors: Glenberg Arthur M.
Published: February 2013

Could two topics be less related than language and action? Both historical and contemporary philosophers have argued that language is separate from perception and action, that it is a higher faculty, or that it is what separates human from animal. The data, however, present an overwhelming case in favor of an intimate relation between language and action. Much of the data and theory derive from considerations of embodied cognition, and so this article begins with a brief overview of that notion. It then considers the relation between language and action from the perspectives of neuroscience, cognitive development, and behavioural research. The article concludes with a theoretical rationale for the relation: the mechanism of action planning is the mechanism that allows us to sensibly combine meanings across words and sentences.
The problem of speech patterns in time
Authors: Port Robert F.
Published: February 2013

One of the ways in which spoken languages differ from each other is in the temporal patterning of speech. These temporal patterns can be examined on several time scales, from very local (subsegmental and segmental) to global. The global patterns lasting from a quarter second to a second or so are most noticeable when we listen to speech in any language but our own. We may also become aware of rhythmic patterns in our own language when we hear it spoken by someone whose native language is something else. Presumably there is some kind of pattern in the timing of speech gestures that accounts for our perception of rhythmic differences between languages. This article examines the problem of speech patterns in time, two conceptual frames for temporal patterns in speech (symbol strings and cycles), global timing constraints (“stress-timed” vs. “syllable-timed” languages), regular “mora timing” in Japanese, harmonic timing effect, modelling rhythm with dynamical systems, and phrase edge timing phenomena.
Concept formation and language development: count nouns and object kinds
Authors: Xu Fei
Published: February 2013

What is the role of language in concept formation in infancy? More specifically, does learning count nouns play a causal role in infants' acquisition of object kind concepts? The relationship between language development and concept formation is an old question that has intrigued psycholinguists, philosophers, and psychologists for decades. Recent years have witnessed a surge of interest in this area. Many domains of conceptual representations and the corresponding linguistic representations have been investigated. At the syntactic level, researchers have explored the role of morphsyntax in spatial representations as well as the understanding of false belief. At the lexical level, they have explored how words of various grammatical classes may impact on spatial category formation, number representations, and representations of objects and substances. This article focuses on a universal aspect of language: representations of count nouns that refer to object kinds. It discusses count nouns and categorization, individuation, and inductive inference.
Learning to parse and its implications for language acquisition
Authors: Trueswell John C. , Gleitman Lila R.
Published: February 2013

This article describes what is known about the adult end-state, namely, that the adult listener recovers the syntactic structure of an utterance in real-time via interactive probabilistic parsing procedures. It examines evidence indicating that similar mechanisms are at work quite early during language learning, such that infants and toddlers attempt to parse the speech stream probabilistically. In the case of learning, though, the parsing is in aid of discovering relevant lower-level linguistic formatives such as syllables and words. Experimental observations about child sentence-processing abilities are still quite sparse, owing in large part to the difficulty in applying adult experimental procedures to child participants; reaction time, reading, and linguistic judgement methods have all have been attempted with children. The article discusses real-time sentence processing in adults, experimental exploration of child sentence processing, eye movements during listening and the kindergarten-path effect, verb biases in syntactic ambiguity resolution, prosody and lexical biases in child parsing, parsing development in a head-final language, and the place of comprehension in a theory of language acquisition.
Thinking across the boundaries: psycholinguistic perspectives
Authors: Garrett Merrill
Published: February 2013

This article claims that two things will bulk large in the historical scene. One is the importation of brain and biology into cognitive science in general and psycholinguistics in particular. The other is more subtle, but equally significant: the embedding of language in more general theories of mind. There is a reawakening of interest in the evolutionary underpinnings of language and other characteristically human features of cognition; an interest obviously confounded with the increased emphasis on the neuroscience of language and cognition. One might roughly describe the changes in practices and attitudes toward psycholinguistic problems in terms of three periods: 1955–1970: shaking the shackles of behaviorism and establishing the field; 1970–1990: exploring the fundamental problems and finding new directions; 1990s–: building cognitive science and investing in new methods. The article also looks at the state of current research and some probable future directions in several areas, including lexical processing, speech perception, developmental psycholinguistics, parsing, connectionism, cross-linguistic emphasis, language production, bilingualism, and the neuropathologies and biology of language.
Case in Decline
Authors: Barðdal Jóhanna , Kulikov Leonid
Published: February 2013

This article explores the main aspects of the reduction/loss of case and the decay of case marking systems. The general mechanisms which lead to the merger of case and case syncretism and, eventually, to the loss of (some) cases include: phonetic processes which result in the loss of the difference between two or more case forms, that is, erosion of case inflection, and, thus, in case syncretism; the overlapping of syntactic and semantic functions and/or uses of individual cases, that is, syntactic and semantic affinity of some cases; semantic or functional overlapping of whole argument structures; and a variety of analogical developments and paradigmatic levelling. The interplay between phonetic erosion and the semantic/functional overlap of case forms and argument structure constructions can be demonstrated with examples from several Indo-European languages, as these provide rich evidence for various scenarios of the decay and collapse of case systems. The ultimate case syncretism is typically preceded by a period of variation and alternation between case forms or argument structures.
The Geography of Case
Authors: Bickel Balthasar , Nichols Johanna
Published: February 2013

Cases are not evenly distributed worldwide. It is generally known, for example, that cases are common in Eurasia and much less common in Africa. Modern typological research aims at capturing and understanding such continent-wide frequency differences. A fundamental problem of linguistic geography, however, is that it is all too easy for the human eye to detect spatial patterns on a map even when they are artefacts of chance or when they arise simply because some regions have many more different people and languages than others. This article discusses linguistic geography, focusing on biogeographical and culture-historical theories of population movements and contact patterns that define a constant set of areas as predictor variables for statistical modelling (Predictive Areality Theory). It assumes areas as hypotheses and asks what, if any, aspects of case structure and case behaviour are significantly different across the hypothesised areas. It also tests a set of previously established areas against thirty-five typological variables that concern case inventories and various morphological and syntactic properties of case.
Poor (Two-Term) Case Systems
Authors: Arkadiev Peter
Published: February 2013

Two-term systems are of especial relevance to the diachrony of case systems: very often such systems represent either the last or the first stage of the existence of case in the language, and their study is important for understanding how case systems emerge and dissolve. To avoid confusion and aprioristic labels, the members of a bicasual system will be called Dir(ect) and Obl(ique). The label Dir is assigned to the case which coincides with the citation form of the noun. This article deals only with those systems where both cases are able to encode semantico-syntactic functions of verbal dependents (that is, relational cases). The article also discusses the areal and genetic distribution of two-term case systems, cross-linguistic trends in the functional organisation of two-term case systems, and their morphology and diachrony.
Introduction
Authors: Canny Nicholas , Morgan Philip
Published: February 2013

Beginning in the fifteenth century, people, plants, pathogens, products, and cultural practices — just to mention some key agents — began to move regularly back and forth across the Atlantic Ocean. As the connections and exchanges deepened and intensified, much was transformed. New peoples, economies, societies, polities, and cultures arose, particularly in the lands and islands touched by that ocean, while others were destroyed. This book describes, explains, and, occasionally, challenges conventional wisdom concerning these path-breaking developments from the late fifteenth to the early nineteenth century. It looks at European conquests of Native American populations (in North and South America), how some Native Americans contributed to the Atlantic trading world that flourished from the later seventeenth century onwards, the slave trade and importation of slaves from Africa, human settlement in America, and the re-segmentation of the Atlantic world of the eighteenth century into multiple polities.
Native Americans and Europeans
Authors: Whitehead Neil L.
Published: February 2013

The first sustained encounters between Europeans and native peoples of America in the fifteenth century were temporally episodic and geographically uneven. The prevailing winds and currents across the Atlantic nonetheless pushed European shipping repeatedly towards northern South America and the Caribbean region, as in the first voyage of Christopher Columbus. From this initial zone of contact European expeditions ranged to the south and west, enumerating rivers and assessing opportunities for trade and plunder. Within a decade of Columbus' first landfall under the flag of Spain, Portuguese expeditions had reported on the coastal regions of Brazil, followed in the 1530s and 1540s by reports from expeditions into the river basins of the Amazon and Orinoco. The organisation of production within native economies was largely domestically based and kinship relations were the basis for the organisation of agriculture and hunting.
Violence in the Atlantic
Authors: Schaub Jean-Frédéric
Published: February 2013

The shaping of an Atlantic world during the first two centuries of Europe's overseas expansion saw an increase in the use and intensity of violence. Conquest, beginning with the Atlantic archipelagos (Canary Islands, Hispaniola, Santo Domingo), led to massacres and the elimination of populations. The diseases that Europeans brought with them may have done the most to wipe out the Canary Islanders during the fifteenth century, and the Tainos during the first decades of the sixteenth century, but harsh quasi-genocidal actions contributed to the indigenes' demise. The burgeoning Atlantic slave trade was also an especially violent phenomenon. Captivity and slavery by no means began with the exploitation of Atlantic space but the global dimensions of the pressure on African populations, during the sixteenth and particularly during the second half of the seventeenth century, escalated the practice. This article examines the mass murder, religion and violence, violence and the judiciary, alliance, rape, racial and cultural hybridisation, and narratives of captivity and violence.
Voices from the Other Side
Authors: Terraciano Kevin
Published: February 2013

European and African migrations brought waves of change to millions of people on the western side of the Atlantic world. This article examines indigenous responses to some of these changes in three regions of the Americas (New Spain, Peru, and North America), from about the mid-sixteenth to the second half of the eighteenth centuries. It highlights indigenous attempts to reach out across the Atlantic, to meet imperial authorities face to face, to speak to them through mediators and messengers, or to influence them with writings. Many writings from Mexico and Peru reveal a tension between hope and despair, expectation and frustration, as possibilities for cooperation, trade, and alliance between colonists and indigenous gave way in many places to competition for resources and profit. The long-term costs of this competition to Native Americans were incalculable.
Popular Movements in Colonial Brazil
Authors: de Mello e Souza Laura , Reis João José
Published: February 2013

To speak of popular movements in Brazil before 1822 raises problems, especially if European and Atlantic contexts are considered. Who are the people, and how would they manifest themselves in a social formation marked by three centuries of slavery that not only deeply influenced the lives of Brazil's inhabitants but also articulated all economic and social relations, and radically demeaned the value of manual labour? Bondage in Brazil involved millions of slaves from Africa, and before that, the enslavement of thousands of indigenous peoples; this diversity occasioned much tension and conflict. Similarly, since Portuguese America was a group of colonial territories subject to a monarchical regime located on the other side of the Atlantic, animosities developed between those who lived in the kingdom (Reino) and those who lived and, more particularly, were born in America. Consequently, numerous social movements gained an anti-metropolitan, even anti-colonial, character without, until the early nineteenth century, mobilizing any significant popular participation. It is, therefore, important to differentiate between social movements and popular movements; the latter included slave rebellions.
Slavery and Antislavery, 1760–1820
Authors: Brown Christopher Leslie
Published: February 2013

In 1760, the ownership of African slaves was common across the Americas, ubiquitous in Atlantic Africa, and tolerated if not always officially permitted in much of Western Europe. By 1820, a new moral critique of colonial slavery and the Atlantic slave had led to the first organised efforts for their abolition. It would seem that the revolutionary era brought with it the beginning of the end for slavery in the Atlantic world. Yet, at the same time, there had never been more slaves in the Americas than there were in 1820. The expansion of the Atlantic slave trade and its increasing concentration on Brazil had profound consequences for the peoples and societies of West Africa. The Age of Revolutions was an era of spectacular growth in the institution of slavery in the Americas, when considered from a hemispheric perspective. This article suggests that the history of warfare has particular relevance to the history of slavery, and, as will become apparent, anti-slavery, in the Atlantic world.
Overview: craft production and technology
Authors: Thomas Gabor
Published: February 2013

A growing battery of analytical techniques now exists for determining the chemical or elemental composition of an object to source its raw materials. The developing relationship between craft specialization and political centralization can be traced with some clarity during the mid Saxon period. The tenth and eleventh centuries presented the beginnings of a radical shift in the location of craft production from the countryside into the urban sphere. Workshops in the service of the late Anglo-Saxon Church were no less innovative than urban ones supplying the lay market. The ninth-century plan of the Carolingian monastery of St. Gall suggests that the more formalized layout of reformed institutions may have had a constraining effect on the spatial setting of craftwork activity, in contrast to the more generalized spread seen on mid Saxon sites.
Markets,Emporia, WICS, and ‘Productive’ Sites: Pre‐viking Trade Centres in Anglo‐Saxon England
Authors: Pestell Tim
Published: February 2013

This article outlines the workings of those places that acted as arenas for trade and exchange in mid Saxon England, by exploring the terms that have been applied to them, how modern scholars have interpreted them, and how recent discoveries may point to future research directions. The impact of Henri Pirenne's work on stimulating discussion about the nature of trade contacts and of Carolingian social structures has ensured an extensive historiography. Richard Hodges saw kings exerting a high degree of control over trade, long-distance contact being utilized politically for reciprocal exchanges of prestige goods. ‘Productive’ sites are ‘places, whether excavated or metal-detected, that produce large quantities of coin and metalwork finds’. The processes Dark Age Economics strove to disentangle have undoubtedly become more complex and nuanced.
Burhsand Boroughs: Defended Places, Trade, and Towns. Plans, Defences, and Civic Features
Authors: Hall R. A.
Published: February 2013

The term ‘Borough’ is derived from the Old English word burh/byrig, the basic meaning of which is ‘defended site’. It seems that although earthworks and Roman fortifications were places where their enemies took refuge, contemporary Anglo-Saxons did not themselves build defended sites. Burh became a vernacular equivalent of mynster, meaning monastery or minster church. When burh defences were built anew in Wessex, and not incorporating Roman walls, they typically consisted of an earthen rampart with a ditch in front of it. Worcester has complementary archaeological evidence for topographical change in the Anglo-Saxon period. From the mid tenth century onwards, in relation to Worcester, Norwich, and Lincoln, there were signs in several major towns that occupation became more intense. It seems clear that right up to the Norman Conquest, kings, together with leading secular and ecclesiastical lords, attempted to foster further urban growth for the economic rewards which towns could generate.
What were they Thinking? Intellectual Territories in Anglo‐Saxon England
Authors: Carver Martin
Published: February 2013

The cemetery at Wasperton is a precise expression of complex ideological identities not yet in the history books. The Sutton Hoo burial ground has been reconciled with the exiguous written records to tell a story of kingship and conversion — and it may be so. The contemporary ideology of Portmahomack was referencing imported Christian ideas moderated by local prehistoric thinking, resulting in minimal monumentality. Stafford may be seen as essentially a fort, protecting the delivery of tribute, with a vicus on the east side where pottery was manufactured and cattle were processed. The presentation of these four case studies shows that early medieval sites in Britain can be assigned a number of intellectual properties. The Anglo-Saxons deserve more from their archaeologists than superficial explanations based on race, social structure, and Christianity.
Historical Sources and Archaeology
Authors: Campbell James
Published: February 2013

The shortfalls of burial evidence are plain enough in approaching the central problem: that of the fate of the Britons. The possible genocidal element in the Anglo-Saxon invasions may have been exaggerated in the nineteenth century, but underestimated in the twentieth. The ‘archaeological record’, as expected, raises more questions than it answers. The ‘Tribal Hidage’ as a tribute list directs attention to relations between kingdoms, a theme on which archaeology offers little beyond theories based on the movement of valuable goods, although an effort has been made to link grave patterns to hegemony. Two themes resound through the two volumes of Domesday and all the silver pennies: powerful administration and serious wealth. There is no doubt about the intellectual weight of the English church, at least for a generation or so around 700.
Material Culture and the Dance of Agency
Authors: Pickering Andrew
Published: February 2013

This article revolves around the discovery of matter. The first section concerns science studies. It emphasizes the importance of a focus on practice and performance as a way of undoing the ‘linguistic turn’ in the humanities and social sciences. The key concept here is that of a dance of agency. The second section reviews a variety of examples of this dance in fields beyond the natural sciences — civil engineering, pig farming, and convivial relations with dogs, architecture, technologies of the self, biological computing, brainwave music, and certain hylozoist and Eastern spirituality. This article focuses on contrasting forms that dances of agency and their products can take, depending on the presence or absence of an organizing telos of self-extinction. The third and final section reflects on the significance of this contrast for a politics of theory. This article traces the discovery of matter followed by the concepts of method, time, and agency.
Archaeological Assemblages and Practices of Deposition
Authors: Joyce Rosemary A. , Pollard Joshua
Published: February 2013

Archaeologists routinely describe sites as composed of assemblages encountered in deposits. But what is actually meant by ‘assemblage’ and ‘deposition’? This article explores how these concepts have been developed and considers the implications of contemporary understandings of deposition and assemblage that depart significantly from conventional definitions, many still to be found in introductory text books. Conventionally, the term ‘assemblage’ is applied to a collection of artefacts or ecofacts recovered from a specific archaeological context — a site, an area within a site, a stratified deposit, or a specific feature such as a ditch, tomb, or house. This article further explains in details the histories of archaeological approaches followed by contemporary approaches. The conventional definitions of assemblage and deposition emerged from geological and processual models of archaeological ‘formation processes’ that developed from the nineteenth century through the mid-twentieth century. Analysis the contemporary approach towards archaeological assemblages finishes this article.
Ceramics (As Containers)
Authors: Knappett Carl , Malafouris Lambros , Tomkins Peter
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the importance of ceramics in material cultural studies. It proceeds to say that ceramics are considered a key feature of human material culture because of what they are taken to represent in economic, technological, and evolutionary terms. The innovation of taking the plastic medium of clay and marrying it with pyrotechnology to create irreversibly a resilient object — usually in the form of a container, has frequently been assumed to mark a revolutionary stage in the development of modern human thought and practice, forming with agriculture and sedentism a trinity of epoch-changing innovations. This article talks about the idea of the body as being used as a container. It says that ‘Containment’ may well be the ‘function’ offering archaeology one of the most important sources of archaeological data and windows into society, and culture; but very little is known about the cognitive, experiential, and evolutionary grounding of the concepts embodied in each and every container.
Spanish South American Mainland
Authors: Blanchard Peter
Published: February 2013

This article reviews scholarship on the history and historiography of slavery in the Spanish South American Mainland. The history of African slaves on the South American mainland began with the Spanish conquistadors in the early sixteenth century. Already present in the West Indies and Mexico following the Spanish conquest and settlement of those areas, slaves now became involved in the expansion of Spanish rule southward. Small numbers accompanied the conquistadors along the Pacific coast. While most of the African slaves and slaves of African descent who participated in the conquest were soon freed, thereby establishing the roots of a growing and important free coloured population, thousands more arrived in their footsteps. In the process, the role of the African slave changed significantly. Initially, the majority of the slaves had been retainers and servants of the conquistadors who used some of the looted wealth of the Incas to acquire what was essentially an expensive status symbol. And while the slave as status symbol remained a constant throughout the history of slavery in Spanish South America, the vast majority of the new imports were destined to occupy far more demanding and onerous positions as manual labourers and domestic servants.
Biology and African Slavery
Authors: Kiple Kenneth F.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews scholarship on the biology of African slaves. Mother Africa ensured that her sons and daughters could tolerate a disease environment sufficiently harsh that it served as a barrier to European outsiders for many centuries, keeping them confined to the coast and, save for some notable exceptions, away from the interior. Falciparum malaria and yellow fever, however, the chief ramparts in this barrier, did not remain confined to Africa. Rather, they reached the Americas with the Atlantic slave trade to rage among non-immune white and red people alike. But they largely spared blacks who were relatively resistant to these African illnesses, as well as to the bulk of those Eurasian diseases whose ravages were mostly directed at indigenous peoples. The sum of these pathogenic susceptibilities and immunities added up to the elimination of the latter (and white indentured servants) as contenders for tropical plantation labourers, and placed that onus squarely on the shoulders of the Africans. Yet, such a nomination in an age of rationalism bore with it the notion that black people, because of their ability to resist fevers, were sufficiently different biologically from Europeans as to constitute a separate branch of humankind and a lower one at that.
Indian Slavery
Authors: Gallay Alan
Published: February 2013

Indian slavery was neither fleeting nor secondary to the story of colonialism, imperialism, and economic exploitation in the Americas. Persisting for centuries, it both pre-dated African slavery in the Americas, and survived African slavery's abolition in the United States. Not until the American government's five-year program to eradicate Indian slavery in Colorado and Utah after the American Civil War did slavery officially end, though it likely persisted in several areas of the American West. This article examines the contours of Indian slavery in the Americas, its evolution and character, the varieties of labour systems implemented to control Indian labour and lives, and the existence of Indian slave trades that paralleled African slave trades.
United States Slave Law
Authors: Finkelman Paul
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the historiography of slave law in the United States. Slave law in the United States developed over 225 years through a complicated mixture of custom, statutes, and court decisions. Before the American Revolution of 1776 England never micromanaged the colonies or promulgated a colonial slave code. Each of the thirteen colonies that became the United States had its own legislatures and court structures, and thus each colony developed slave law in its own way. This local development continued after the revolution, as each state had its own rules and regulations. The US Constitution, written in 1787, did not interfere with slavery in the states, but had a number of provisions which directly and indirectly impacted slavery throughout the nation.
Victoria Dressed in Black
Authors: Gray Erik
Published: February 2013

This article presents an explanation on Victorian elegy. It shows that Victorian Britain itself was largely characterized as a culture of mourning, and bereavement as a theme was a more obvious touchstone in the Victorian consciousness. In addition, the decline of faith that affected Victorian elegy is covered. It is appropriate that the Victorian era's most celebrated poem, Alfred Tennyson's In Memoriam (1850), should be an elegy. The Victorian culture of mourning found its poet in Tennyson and its figurehead in Queen Victoria herself. Dante Gabriel Rossetti states that there is nothing sublime or even extreme about the landscape of death. The growing popularity of women's poetry in Britain beginning in the late eighteenth century gave rise to the idea of the ‘poetess’. Thomas Hardy's poem is typical of its time and represents the logical next step in the development of elegy.
Expropriation
Authors: Reinisch August
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines problem of indirect expropriation by focusing on the actual judicial and, to a large extent, arbitral practice in the respective fields. At the heart of the investigation is the increased case-law under the ICSID Convention and the ICSID Additional Facility (in particular under NAFTA14 Chapter 11). The practice of the Iran–US Claims Tribunal, ad hoc investment arbitrations and judgments of international courts, such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and its predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), are also considered. Equally, the jurisprudence of human rights bodies, in particular of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), on the protection of property rights, which has been considered to be of particular relevance to modern investment arbitration is analysed. Wherever feasible the case-law analysis has been preceded by an examination of the applicable investment instruments.