bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Restoring the Global Judiciary
Authors: Flaherty Martin S.
Published: May 2020

In the past several decades, there has been a growing chorus of voices contending that the Supreme Court and federal judiciary should stay out of foreign affairs and leave the field to Congress and the president. Challenging this idea, this book argues instead for a robust judicial role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy. The book demonstrates that the Supreme Court and federal judiciary have the power and duty to apply the law without deference to the other branches. Turning first to the founding of the nation, the book shows that the Constitution's original commitment to separation of powers was as strong in foreign as domestic matters, not least because the document shifted enormous authority to the new federal government. This initial conception eroded as the nation rose from fledgling state to superpower, fueling the growth of a dangerously formidable executive that today asserts near-plenary foreign affairs authority. The book explores how modern international relations makes the commitment to balance among the branches of government all the more critical and considers implications for modern controversies that the judiciary will continue to confront. At a time when executive and legislative actions in the name of U.S. foreign policy are only increasing, the book makes the case for a zealous judicial defense of fundamental rights involving global affairs.
Introduction
Authors: Flaherty Martin S.
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter discusses the Youngstown Sheet ﹠ Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952) case. Also known as the “Steel Seizure case,” Youngstown became controversial after President Truman, facing a national steelworkers strike during the Korean War, ordered an emergency federal takeover of steel mills to keep them running. The chapter reveals that, during this trial, Justice Robert Jackson wrote an opinion that has ever since served as a classic framework for thinking about how the judiciary should resolve rival claims of authority between the president and Congress. In addition, six unelected lawyers in black robes told a president of the United States that he was powerless to take an action he thought to be essential for conducting a war. Through this case, the chapter demonstrates the awesome power of the American judiciary to maintain the rule of law, the Constitution, and, with them, basic rights.
Separation of Powers in Foreign Affairs
Authors: Flaherty Martin S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that separation of powers was understood to apply to foreign no less than domestic affairs. In so doing, it provides a corrective for both the history of the Founding and certain Founding myths that later constitutional approaches have projected upon that history. The chapter first brings together two dominant accounts of the Constitution's origins. It then argues that separation of powers mattered more, not less, with regard to the national government's enhanced powers in foreign affairs. The constitutional text and debates together confirm that the Founders sought to divide foreign affairs powers among the three branches in the same original ways they had for authority seen as ordinarily domestic. As in domestic affairs, moreover, the expectation was for the judiciary to play a critical role, especially in checking the other branches, the better to reign in excess power and safeguard fundamental rights.
Holding Steady
Authors: Flaherty Martin S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter contends that for much of American history, constitutional tradition confirmed the Founders' basic commitments about separation of powers, foreign affairs, and the courts. In particular, the Supreme Court and the federal judiciary more generally played their part as originally envisioned. That meant, among other things, fulfilling their assigned roles of checking both Congress and the president, not to mention the states, in the service of protecting individual rights under both domestic and international law. These general patterns, moreover, persisted though the mid-twentieth century. However, the chapter makes its case mainly though a consideration of certain landmark controversies and decisions that are nonetheless representative. These cases suffice to confirm the overall fidelity of subsequent constitutional tradition to the Constitution's initial vision.
Saying What Foreign Affairs Law Is
Authors: Flaherty Martin S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter undertakes much the same task regarding foreign affairs matters that arise once a case has been accepted for review. Here, easily the most threatening potential wrong turn has concerned potential judicial deference to the executive's interpretations of agency regulations, international law, statutes, and the Constitution itself. In each of these areas, the pressures have grown only stronger for courts to cede their responsibility to say “what the law is” to executive officials, on the grounds of their supposed superior grasp of foreign affairs over judges. At times the Supreme Court, and courts below it, have bowed to such arguments. Yet in a series of landmark cases in the wake of 9/11, the Court has remained true to its constitutional role. This chapter relies throughout on the trilogy of Founding pledge, overall tradition, and international relations context to commend the justices' fidelity and contend that, if anything, they have not been steadfast enough.
Navigating an Evolving Identity
Authors: Morton Jennifer M.
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the idea of codeswitching in order to avoid incurring ethical costs and retain a sense of one's identity. It talks about how changing a person behaves as it moves between the community it is attempting to join in which the person's family and friends reside. The chapter discusses codeswitching as a strategy for strivers to navigate the ethical conflicts that arise when one is pulled in different directions by conflicting sets of social expectations. Strivers might deploy codeswitching as a way to maintain their ties to their community while adapting to the world in which educational and career opportunities reside. Playing for both sides might be thought of as a strategy to minimize the ethical costs that strivers face as they pursue upward mobility.
Global Development
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

In the Cold War, “development” was a catchphrase that came to signify progress, modernity, and economic growth. Development aid was closely aligned with the security concerns of the great powers, for whom infrastructure and development projects were ideological tools for conquering hearts and minds around the globe, from Europe and Africa to Asia and Latin America. This book provides a global history of development, drawing on a wealth of archival evidence to offer a panoramic and multifaceted portrait of a Cold War phenomenon that transformed the modern world. Taking readers from the aftermath of the Second World War to the tearing down of the Berlin Wall, the book shows how development projects altered local realities, transnational interactions, and even ideas about development itself. The book shines new light on the international organizations behind these projects—examining their strategies and priorities and assessing the actual results on the ground—and it also gives voice to the recipients of development aid. It shows how the Cold War shaped the global ambitions of development on both sides of the Iron Curtain, and how international organizations promoted an unrealistically harmonious vision of development that did not reflect local and international differences. The book presents a global perspective on Cold War development, demonstrating how its impacts are still being felt today.
Introduction
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of how development became a Cold War global project from the late 1940s until the late 1980s. Narrating the political, intellectual, and economic history of the twentieth century through the lens of development means dealing with ideas as much as with material transformation, recounting the ways ideas and projects affected local realities, transnational interactions, and, eventually, notions of development. In describing this trajectory, the book makes three main points. First, it argues that the Cold War was fundamental in shaping the global aspirations and ideologies of development and modeling the institutional structures that still rule foreign aid today. Second, it contends that the role of the state was crucial, and that though development projects were articulated in global terms, as narratives to frame problems and provide solutions, they actually served national purposes. Third, it argues that development institutions tried to create a universal and homogeneous concept of development but ultimately failed.
Truman’s Dream
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter begins by looking at Harry Truman's speech during his oath taking for his second term as the thirty-third president of the United States of America on January 20, 1949. As the fourth point in his program, he launched a policy of making US scientific advances and industrial progress available to underdeveloped areas in order to fight misery, malnutrition, and illness. Truman's Point Four, as it soon became known, was presented as an absolute novelty. Enthusiastically acclaimed by his contemporaries, it is sometimes considered the start of a new era of world history. With Point Four, President Truman interpreted the spirit of the times and condensed ideas from many places, bringing together humanitarianism, the concept of development, and the Cold War. Moreover, Point Four has been described as the first case of implanting the Marshall Plan outside its original European framework. They shared the same goals: peace, plenty, freedom, and the hope of keeping communism at bay by offering growth as the cure for social hardship. The differences between the Marshall Plan and Point Four were, however, huge. Unlike emergency measures like the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) and the Marshall Plan, and despite its limited funding, Point Four was meant to carry on for longer.
Western Alternatives for Development in the Global Cold War
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses how modernization worked its way into Cold War politics and how it influenced public discourse and foreign policy in the United States during the second half of the 1950s. Between 1957 and 1958, several events prompted the United States to shift toward a more active foreign aid policy. These events brought a consensus that a more vigorous approach to promoting economic growth and development as a way to contain communist influence was needed. The question of improved coordination of development assistance among the Atlantic nations was also a factor. Most of Western Europe shared America's concern about Soviet penetration, and several members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) insisted on activating economic collaboration according to article 2 of the North Atlantic Treaty, using it to provide aid cooperatively. The chapter then considers how, with the presidency of John F. Kennedy, modernization became the representative Western ideology for waging the Cold War, even as other coexisting traditions of imperial origin offered rival methods of using development aid as a tool of foreign policy to face radicalization in the decolonizing world.
The Limits of Bipolarity in the Golden Age of Modernization
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter addresses the differentiated priorities in the West and East as they emerged during the institutionalization of development structures and procedures. In the 1950s, with the Soviet Union and its allies entering the development business, aid became a full-fledged weapon in the Cold War arsenal. Development plans extolled the virtues of modernity and modernity was conceived in the singular: there were several ways to solve the same problem, and experts had differentiated approaches, but they did not diverge drastically. With the entry of the Soviet Union as a potential donor rather than a distant model, development turned competitive. Models were now pitted against one another in a competition about effectiveness and symbolic strength. Technology was not neutral anymore. Machinery and dams were products of a culture, and the choice of technology implied a choice of social organization, labor relations, and structures of production: it was a political choice. Countries had to take sides in the Cold War, because the decision was a final and irreversible one between irreconcilable proposals. The chapter then focuses on the organs charged with coordinating aid: the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Permanent Commission for Technical Assistance of Comecon.
The Dynamics of the Lost Decade
Authors: Lorenzini Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses how the 1980s are often described as the lost decade in the history of development, when the allegedly universal crusade against poverty failed to deliver the expected results. In the early 1980s, neoliberal criticism of development continued apace. Critics railed against the social engineering underlying development and extolled the virtues of the market. The World Bank made no exception, as it moved away from Robert McNamara's basic needs-based policies, now considered harmful rather than useful. During the 1970s, while major donors retreated from bilateral lending, the World Bank had increased its commitments from $1 billion in 1968 to $13 billion in 1981. Cynical developing countries thought that it was “the rich countries' substitute for the NIEO.” However, results were poor, and key elements of the system came under attack: the overextension of the public sector with duties beyond normal governmental functions; excessive emphasis on physical capital and the resulting underestimation of human capital; and the proliferation of economy-distorting controls. The African case was seen as exemplifying the distortions caused by antipoverty World Bank policies.
Exile
Authors: Dweck Yaacob
Published: May 2020

This chapter traces the life of Jacob Sasportas prior to Sabbatianism. It places Sasportas in a series of different contexts: a member of a leading Sephardic family in Spanish Oran, a corrector in the printing house of Menasseh ben Israel in Amsterdam, and a minister to the fledgling congregation of Portuguese Jews in London. In each of these contexts, Sasportas emerges as “a man against,” challenging truisms and opposing received opinions, even as he sought patronage from wealthy Jews whom he scorned. Sasportas's response to the different centers in the western Sephardic Diaspora—Amsterdam, Hamburg, London, and Livorno—was conditioned by the fact that he experienced them as an outsider. Much of this was a rhetorical posture. Sasportas repeatedly placed himself on the margins of the places in which he lived, even as the Jews in these cities provided him and his family with material support. However, his marginality was not only rhetorical; or perhaps the rhetoric itself bears close scrutiny. What few accounts remain indicate that Sasportas was perceived by others, particularly other Jews, as an outsider as well. Occasionally, this led to comity and a meeting of the minds. More often, though, this posture of the outsider led to conflict, and these conflicts frequently left a long paper trail—a paper trail that offers a perspective, however partial, on the Sephardic Diaspora in western Europe in the seventeenth century.
Aftermath
Authors: Dweck Yaacob
Published: May 2020

This chapter surveys the last three decades of Jacob Sasportas's life, when he moved between Hamburg, Amsterdam, Livorno, and Amsterdam again. During this period, Sasportas continued to enter the fray of rabbinic controversy and rarely mentioned Sabbetai Zevi or Jewish messianism. The chapter then posits that for Sasportas, the problem posed by Sabbetai Zevi was actually symptomatic of a much larger issue: the rabbinate itself. Sabbetai Zevi and the Sabbatian movement provided Sasportas with the conditions of possibility to compose a book that both documented the course of events and articulated a viewpoint. Once articulated, however, many of the tenets Sasportas had expressed in an incisive formulation in response to Sabbetai Zevi reappeared in his other writings and in other writings about him. For Sasportas, the world of rabbinic learning was the point of departure for his thought. He approached Sabbetai Zevi and the question of his messianism from the point of view of rabbinic law. Indeed, the problem of rabbinic authority, and ancillary issues such as honor, respect, and jurisdiction, surfaced repeatedly in The Fading Flower of the Zevi.
Current
Authors: Folch Christine
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that Itaipú power is politics in consideration of the engineering necessary to generate current. As Itaipú became steadily more important to Paraguayan politics and economics during planning and construction, engineering and engineers themselves became indispensable to the doing of politics. The first section of the chapter offers a technical explanation of just what a watt is and how Itaipú generates electricity in order to ground the basic argument that the materiality of the form of energy is intimately tied up with the political forms connected to that energy source. It briefly describes how Itaipú generates electricity, discussing the peculiarities of renewable energy vis-à-vis hydrocarbons, in order to understand the considerations and constraints debated by expert energy managers, by Brazilian and Paraguayan politicians, and by civil society. The second part of the chapter focuses on major design decisions on the location of turbines and the frequency of electricity generation. It also reveals how and why Itaipú megawatts came to possess nationality and suggest why members of Paraguay's government and energy sector saw machinery as a question of sovereignty.
Currency
Authors: Folch Christine
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the technicalities of the electricity tariff, how energy rent is conceptualized within Itaipú, and its effects on the Paraguayan government. It describes the making of a tariff, the base cost of electricity, and the political work done by a number before turning to “compensation,” the rent that Paraguay receives for energy sold in Brazil as well as the ensuing controversies that spurred the election of Fernando Lugo. This chapter also provides ethnographic exploration of favor-petitioning practices in the Paraguayan side of the dam and how administrators in the Lugo transition attempted to curtail such expectations. The calculations cast light onto the unappealing aspects of hydrofinance that enable the entire system even as the tariff formula and the social expectations into which it is embedded reveal broader postures toward state wealth, the public, and who has a claim to the financial resources of a nation. It explains the price of electricity and construction debt, as well as the social and numerical formulas for their calculation.
Renegotiating Integration
Authors: Folch Christine
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on Ricardo Canese and Fernando Lugo's respective teams, their negotiating goals and tactics, and their pressure points and publics. It examines how two parts of the left turn envisioned state power and just where energy fit into it. It draws practical and theorized understandings of state power from two of Paraguay's leading political thinkers. Both were extremely intelligent, well-read, and conscious of the historical importance of the changes they were proposing as they used Itaipú and integration with Brazil to implement theories of statecraft. Importantly, they are both members of the New Democrat class Hetherington that are described as a key liberalizing group in the democratic transition post-Stroessner. This chapter also counterposes campaigns by the Ministry of Foreign Relations and by the Itaipú technocratic team, highlighting intellectual groundwork. Both Ricardo Canese and Fernando Lugo's teams sought to change the public imagination regarding state and power, how government operated, what electricity was for and, ultimately, they argued for a new kind of regional integration.
Neoextractivist Futures
Authors: Folch Christine
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyzes models of hydroelectric-led development, how policy unfolds, and why politics took over, demonstrating fragilities attendant to hydrostates. To understand how energy policy gets worked out, the chapter traces visionary stances on Itaipú and political-economic futures in light of the Joint Declaration's opening and what happened instead. It explores how hydroelectric-led development in the twenty-first century reimagined hydrodollars. Hydrodollars may be thought of as economic growth and industry and commerce powered by hydroelectricity, government liquidity through energy rent capture, and increased capital circulation within a country because of the spending of rent and wages. Hydrodollar dynamics dominate within Paraguay because industry and commerce are supplied by hydroelectricity.
Formations of Belief
Authors: Nord Philip , Guenther Katja
Published: May 2020

For decades, scholars and public intellectuals have been predicting the demise of religion in the face of secularization. Yet religion is undergoing an unprecedented resurgence in modern life—and secularization no longer appears so inevitable. This book brings together many of today's leading historians to shed critical light on secularism's origins, its present crisis, and whether it is as antithetical to religion as it is so often made out to be. The book offers a more nuanced understanding of the origins of secularist thought, demonstrating how Reformed Christianity and the Enlightenment were not the sole vessels of a worldview based on rationalism and individual autonomy. Taking readers from late antiquity to the contemporary era, the chapters show how secularism itself can be a form of belief and yet how its crisis today has been brought on by its apparent incapacity to satisfy people's spiritual needs. The book explores the rise of the humanistic study of religion in Europe, Jewish messianism, atheism and last rites in the Soviet Union, the cult of the saints in colonial Mexico, religious minorities and Islamic identity in Pakistan, the neuroscience of religion, and more.
Past Belief
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the centrality of early modern ecclesiastical history, written by Catholics as well as Protestants, in the refinement of research techniques and practices anticipatory of modern scholarship. To Christians of all varieties, getting the Church's early history right mattered. Eusebius's fourth-century history of the Church opened a royal road into the subject, but he made mistakes, and it was important to be able to ferret them out. Saint Augustine was recognized as a sure-footed guide to the truth about the Church's original and bedrock beliefs, but some of the Saint's writings were spurious, and it was important to be able to separate the wheat from the chaff. To distinguish true belief from false, teams of religious scholars gathered documents; the documents in turn were subjected to skeptical scrutiny and philological critique; and sources were compared and cited. The practices of humanistic scholarship, it turns out, came from within the Catholic Church itself as it examined its own past.
True Believers in the Modern Middle East
Authors: Weiss Max
Published: May 2020

This chapter explores the experience of two contemporary Middle Eastern thinkers: Sadiq Jalal al-ʻAzm and Nasir Hamid Abu Zayd. The former, writing in the aftermath of the Arab–Israeli War of 1967, penned a critique of Islam, alleging that its blinkered repressiveness had set the Arab world up for defeat. The latter, writing in the 1990s, sought to fashion a modern, enlightened Islam and, in pursuit of that end, subjected Islam's most sacred text, the Qur'an, to critical philological scrutiny. Both men paid a price for their heterodoxy: al-ʻAzm lost his job at the American University in Beirut and was tried for incitement of religious discord; Abu Zayd was denied promotion at Cairo University and also subjected to public prosecution. The interest in the present context is that in both instances the prosecuting agency was the so-called secular state, whether Lebanese or Egyptian, and it acted in response to the prodding of mobilized religious constituencies, thus transforming itself, though secular, into an accomplice of sectarianism. Postcolonial Arab nationalisms, as had Soviet communism before them, held out the promise of liberation, but liberation, once again, turned out to be a mixed blessing. The secular state did not set itself up in opposition to faith but catered to believers, enhancing its own power by giving satisfaction to the repressive impulses of religious orthodoxy.
The Reformation Era and the Secularization of Knowledge
Authors: Gregory Brad S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that the Reformation fractured a world of unitary Catholic faith. This splintering, in turn, opened the way to a pluralism that in the long run has proved debilitating. Indeed, secularism has turned out to be a source not just of experiential depletion but of outright spiritual damage. It promotes a cacophonous state of being, “hyperpluralism,” that corrodes the moral consensus essential to a nourishing life in common with others, and nowhere is such fracturing and the loss of moral compass attendant upon it more evident than in the modern university. The chapter contends that one cannot live without religion, and the disorienting spiritual anarchy that engulfs the world today is an emphatic confirmation of the point.
Belief in Science? On the Neuroscience of Religion
Authors: Guenther Katja
Published: May 2020

This afterword demonstrates how the return of religion to public life has had an impact on science. Faith itself has become an object of physiological study, with researchers deploying brain scans to identify a “God spot,” the supposed seat of a wired-in human spirituality. The afterword then considers the growing field of “neurotheology.” Rather than asking whether God exists and contemplating His divine nature, neurotheology seeks to ascertain whether religious experience is a normal product of brain function or the result of neural pathology. The reality has, however, not lived up to the hype. Far from overcoming theological stalemate, neurotheology has merely refought old battles on new terrain. Both believers and skeptics have been able to draw on neuroscientific results to shore up their positions, and debates have returned as vigorous and apparently intractable as before. In fact, rather than being a refuge from polemic, neurotheology provides evidence that debate over theological questions might not admit final resolution. Whatever its claims, neurotheology's most important lesson might be that people are better advised to respect religious differences than to try to overcome them.
Shifting Landscapes and a Missing Map
Authors: Hammer Juliane
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of American Muslim organizations working against domestic violence in Muslim communities. The central goal of these organizations is simple: the eradication of domestic violence, a scourge that affects too many individuals, families, and communities in the United States and all over the world. Their work, however, is complicated, ongoing, and challenging. This book is about the people who carry out anti-domestic violence work in Muslim communities in the United States. It chronicles their efforts, their motivations, and their engagement with gender dynamics, textual interpretation, and religious authority. The chapter then lays out the framework for the following chapters, including the sources and methods employed in the study and the complex landscape of secondary literature on domestic violence.
Need to Teach
Authors: Hammer Juliane
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines interviews conducted with Muslim advocates whose work against domestic violence (DV) focuses on awareness and prevention. There is a shared story arch among many of the advocates that supports the primacy of an experienced and embodied ethic on non-abuse that is then translated into active work in the community and in a later step a search for religious discourse in order to further effective activism. Advocates often first recognized domestic abuse as wrong, then became critical of the ways in which Muslim communities address or do not address this issue, and responded by taking action and developing or finding religious arguments. It is in this last part of the story that religious authority, and with that status and authority in communities, became an existential issue for the effectiveness of anti-DV work. The chapter then reflects on the connection between feminist ideas about patriarchy and DV on the one hand and acceptance/rejection of such ideas in Muslim communities on the other.
Above and Beyond
Authors: Hammer Juliane
Published: May 2020

This chapter links the work of Muslim advocates and service providers in Muslim communities and with Muslim clients to the broader domestic violence (DV) movement, as well as analyzes their relationship with broader religious coalitions and organizations that have embraced an interfaith approach to DV. There are both similarities and differences in the ways in which religious communities have addressed DV and searched their traditions for resources to fight it. And the mainstream DV movement, which is very much part of American society, has proven to not be immune to the issues of othering, racializing, and marginalizing Muslims as both victims and advocates. It appears, at first, that Muslim advocates are influenced by the structures, assumptions, and power dynamics of the three overlapping spheres of interfaith DV movement, the mainstream DV movement, and the state, thus making their interaction with these three spheres appear one-directional. However, Muslim advocates, because they recognize these structures and their own exclusion from power, at least attempt to speak back to them from within their own religious and ethical frameworks.
Looking Back and the Road Ahead
Authors: Hammer Juliane
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter summarizes the central arguments developed throughout this book. American Muslim efforts against domestic violence (DV) demonstrate powerfully that Muslim communities in the United States are indeed American, both in their affirmation of American values and in their resistance against oppressive and exclusionary laws and practices. In other words, critiques of anti-Muslim hostility, racism, and marginalization through cultural and religious domination are as much an expression of Americanness as the necessary engagement with American structures, institutions, and levels of government. Thus, one conclusion from this project is that Muslim advocates against domestic violence are no more than a specific example for American advocacy against DV. However, they are also set apart by their reference to their Muslim identity—and construction of Islam—as a powerful resource for this struggle to end DV in Muslim communities and American society. The chapter then describes an event at which the Muslim anti-DV movement was analyzed by its Muslim participants while pointing to larger frameworks of gender-based violence, anti-Muslim hostility, and racism.
Elections and Fair Representation
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes what appropriate consideration requires in terms of what are often called “aggregative” procedures—procedures for aggregating citizens' judgments into common decisions, such as the selection of representatives. These procedures also include processes of election and voting on laws. Among other things, these requirements entail a shift in how people think about the responsibilities of representatives. Democratic representation requires an egalitarian synthesis of citizens' judgments, which is complicated by the fact that citizens render judgments at different levels of specificity. Citizens themselves differ as to how much discretion their representatives ought to have, and this disagreement should be reflected in representation. The chapter then argues that aggregative procedures must satisfy an “antidegradation” requirement that precludes rules and procedures that express or reflect a judgment that some citizen or citizens occupy an inferior political status. This is a kind of antidiscrimination rule for political decision-making institutions.
Unequal Voting
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses how the inequalities in voting power involved in the US Senate and in the Electoral College used to elect the president violate the requirements of political equality. The Senate comprises two senators from each state. States with large populations get the same number of votes in the Senate as do states with small populations. Because the states vary considerably in population, there are large inequalities in how many citizens are represented by a senate delegation. This unequal representation of individuals in the Senate constitutes objectionable political inequality. The Senate is thus unjustifiably undemocratic. This conclusion has implications for the election of the US president, as the Electoral College process for such election tracks what the chapter argues is the malapportionment of the Senate. This inequality, too, is objectionable, and it should be eliminated. The reasons for a more egalitarian election of the president are all the more urgent given that the inequalities in the Senate are much more constitutionally entrenched, and thus likely to remain. The election of the president should mitigate that inequality rather than exaggerate it.
Oligarchic Threats
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses how the influence of wealth in political processes undermines democracy—despite formal equality in voting rights—by promoting the deliberative neglect of poorer citizens. This conflict between the disproportionate influence of the rich and the appropriate consideration of the poor and economically middling results from general conditions of deliberative scarcity. In these conditions, more speech for some—or, more precisely, more consideration for some, provoked by certain kinds of speech—really does come at the expense of consideration for others. Political equality requires a fair division of responsibility among advocates and listeners for ensuring this consideration is granted. Wealth inequality threatens such fairness. The chapter then defends a reformist response to this oligarchic threat in the form of policy solutions aimed at limiting the use of wealth for political power. The difficulty of truly severing economic and political power, however, suggests that political equality may, as a practical matter, be incompatible with great economic inequality, whatever the formal nature of democratic institutions. When one views democracy as primarily about the distribution of formal political power one ignores this practical incompatibility.
Conclusion
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: May 2020

Democracy and equality are intimately linked. We cannot understand or properly respond to one ideal without the other. Democracy’s value stems in significant part from the way it manifests and sustains citizens’ equal status. Social equality requires democratic institutions and practices, because part of what it is for people to relate as equals is to share authority over what they do together. The design of democratic institutions—and our conduct of democratic practices—should be guided by this egalitarian ideal of sharing authority as civic friends. We ought to orient our efforts to establish and maintain equal relations with the democratic constituents of equality in view. We treat people as equals in part by sharing with them authority over how we treat one another. There is risk in granting authority to others. But a society of equals is a great reward....
Introduction
Authors: Offner Amy C.
Published: May 2020

This chapter provides a background of the journeys across the postwar Americas to uncover the mid-century world to which David Lilienthal belonged and the unseen possibilities that lay within it. It starts from the idea that the fate of the US welfare state and Latin American developmental states cannot be understood in isolation from one another. Lilienthal belonged to a generation of North Americans who threw their energies into the Third World after 1945, and their work overseas did more than remake foreign lands; it shaped the possibilities of policy making at home. Within the Western Hemisphere, long exchanges between US and Latin American societies endowed their political economies with some of the same internal contradictions. When the crises of the 1970s and 1980s came, the divergent promises that they harbored became vividly apparent. The mobilization of the right and the explosive conflicts of those decades did not simply substitute one set of ideas for another, obliterating all that came before. Instead, they sorted out the elements of midcentury mixed economies, destroying some practices, redeploying others, and retrospectively redefining them all as emblems of two different eras.
Land Reform in Local Hands and Local Minds
Authors: Offner Amy C.
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes the Cauca Valley Corporations (CVC) that performed the iconic functions of the developmental state, giving the national government unprecedented reach and power. The autonomous corporation was in fact the public authority that administered Colombia's 1961 land reform law in one of Latin America's richest agricultural regions. No policy more powerfully symbolized the promise of mid-century developmentalism, and none depended more systematically on local intermediaries whose skills and relationships undergirded every property negotiation, cadastral survey, and forcible eviction. The CVC translated the letter of the law into facts on the ground. The CVC also interpreted the law and sealed its fate in the Cauca Valley. Crafted in the wake of the Cuban revolution, Colombia's agrarian reform aimed to show Latin Americans that capitalist development could deliver economic redistribution and social justice.
Management as a Universal Technique
Authors: Offner Amy C.
Published: May 2020

This chapter talks about Reinaldo Scarpetta who argued that managers were the men called to tackle the wide-ranging problems of postwar societies. Managerial knowledge had come into the world a creature of the modern corporation, shaped to its requirements, but it now stood as a universal technique, its applications limitless. Government itself, Scarpetta declared, was simply “people managing public affairs.” Scarpetta's portrait of his own time occluded a long history of businessmen and economists comparing the capitalist firm to the state, management to government. His claims resembled those that Latin American economists made for themselves and dramatized the professional competition that economists came to face from managers who taught and studied in the same university programs. The postwar attempt to form a new economics profession produced an increasingly self-conscious generation of businessmen who rejected economists' account of them as narrowly self-interested masters of the shop floor and the corner office.
The Great Society as Good Business
Authors: Offner Amy C.
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on David Lilienthal when he returned to the US public eye. Businessmen who had long shaped and implemented domestic policy faced a grave crisis of legitimacy, and Lilienthal cast his lot with corporate executives desperately seeking a place in the Great Society. Corporate executives who had spent the early postwar decades wringing profits from international development, military, and Indian policy brought a distinctive perspective to insurgent demands for social justice, state action, and community control at home. Lilienthal belonged to a cohort of skilled institution builders, publicists, and political strategists who carried that lesson from the supposedly “underdeveloped” world to domestic business associations, government advisory boards, and community action programs of the 1960s. As far as these men were concerned, grand questions about the role of the private sector in public life had been resolved by the time the War on Poverty began, and the Great Society seemed an opportunity to consolidate their gains across domestic and international spheres.
Pauline E. Hopkins and the Shadow of Transcription
Authors: Nurhussein Nadia
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on Pauline E. Hopkins's “Of One Blood” in the context of the African American periodical in which it was serialized, the Colored American Magazine. Published only a few years after the surprising Italian defeat at Adwa, “Of One Blood” contributed to the magazine's project of “documentary Ethiopianism” as expressed in histories and biographies but it also preserved the fantastic conception of Ethiopia that helped create Ethiopianism. “Of One Blood” is exemplary as a fictional text that introduces the mysticism that the historical and ethnographic texts of the Colored American Magazine avoid while still participating in documentary Ethiopianism by sending its characters to Ethiopia. The chapter also discusses how “Of One Blood” activates Regalization Fantasy, which is intrinsic to imperial Ethiopianist ideology. As a result of the fantasy's paradoxical inclusivity and exclusivity, the imperial model of Ethiopianism seen in “Of One Blood” contains the irritant that leads to its own dismantling by mid-century.
Unpleasant Truths about Institutional and Financial Development
Authors: Lin Justin Yifu , Monga Célestin
Published: May 2020

This chapter refutes the linear and almost teleological approach in vogue in development economics on political and financial institutions. It briefly discusses the theoretical issues at hand and suggests that policies take into account the requirements of both time and place, which emphasizes the importance of the development level. The chapter acknowledges that institutional development problems are indeed major impediments to economic growth. But contrary to conventional wisdom, it argues that they are often correlated with the level of economic development. Seen from that perspective, the well-known weaknesses in the governance and financial sectors of many poor countries today often reflect their low level of development and the results of failed state interventions and distortions originating from erroneous economic development strategies.
Reaping the Dividends of Globalization: A Winning Road Map
Authors: Lin Justin Yifu , Monga Célestin
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyzes the conditions needed to design and implement successful special economic zones and industrial parks. It discusses long-term trends and fundamental issues in global trade since trade is the main source of growth for low-income countries that have limited domestic demand. In recent years the story of global trade has often been presented by some economists and development experts as a cause for concern on the export-led growth model that made possible the so-called Asian Miracle that is no longer available for poor countries in Africa or South Asia. But statistics appear to show a turning tide: the value of world merchandise exports rose from $2.03 trillion in 1980 to $18.26 trillion in 2011, equivalent to 7.3 percent growth per year on average in current dollar terms according to WTO trade statistics. But from 2012 to 2014, world trade growth averaged only 2.2 percent, well below the average for the proceeding 20-year period. This has raised the question whether the same shaping factors that have given rise to today's global trade system are likely to continue in the medium and long term.
Working Imaginaries
Authors: Dunbar-Hester Christina
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the diversity advocates' imaginaries of work and labor, many of which are contradictory, both aligning with and critiquing market values. This topic matters because, especially as advocates envision their practices as potentially promoting worker power, their analyses generally do not fully account for the protean boundaries of so-called tech work and actual, material labor conditions, including the lower-status labor that supports Global North hacking. The chapter also focuses on ideations surrounding work and labor relationships within diversity initiatives. It demonstrates that various motivations for diversity advocacy sit in tension with one another. It also argues that the imagined relationships between diversity in tech and workplace preparedness are important because they expose the generative potentials in diversity advocacy.
Introduction
Authors: Lee Maurice S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter provides an understanding of information that is productive for literary critics at a time of methodological instability and professional insecurity. It reflects on knowledge as the subject of epistemology, while information—a more recent and less disciplined concept—seems more the stuff of numbers, facts, classification, computational science, and media technology. To study information in these terms is to pivot away from philosophical questions about correlations between subjects and objects or the accuracy of language, and to focus instead on the possibilities of navigating the world through algorithmic processes, bureaucratic protocols, and data-based analysis. The chapter also claims that informational concepts and practices shape not only the internal thematics of literature but also the ways in which meanings are made from texts. It explains how writers and readers, including literary critics, have frequently been inclined to resist the rise of information.
Reading
Authors: Lee Maurice S.
Published: May 2020

This chapter reviews some roots of modern literary criticism by showing how some romantics respond to textual excess by variously resisting and adopting informational strategies of skimming and excerpting. A main concept of the chapter is “deserted island reading,” an ideal of immersive literary experience formed in opposition to mass print. The fantasy of losing oneself in a book unfolds across the legacy of Robinson Crusoe, which projects an account of intensive hermeneutics from the eighteenth through the nineteenth centuries. Deserted island reading was especially attractive to romantics such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, a founding figure of modern close reading whose aesthetics and interpretive practices were formed under the pressures of information. But whereas Coleridge offers an agonistic example of the relationship between information and literature, Ralph Waldo Emerson presents a more modulated case in which the prophet of subjectivity, intuition, and motility that proves surprisingly open to informational modes of reading.