bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
H
urricane
K
atrina
Authors: Peek Lori , Erikson Kai
Published: September 2017

This entry focuses on Hurricane Katrina, a powerful storm that made landfall on August 29, 2005. The hurricane generated one of the most deadly and destructive disasters in
US
history, and it still stands as the most costly natural catastrophe on record. Katrina affected approximately 90,000 square miles of land and inundated 80 percent of New Orleans after the levee system surrounding the city failed. Residents of coastal communities and cities all along the
US
Gulf Coast were placed under mandatory evacuation orders, and some 1.5 million persons fled the threatened region before landfall. Upwards of 120,000 more had to be rescued and evacuated following the storm. A decade after Katrina, tens of thousands of persons remained permanently displaced. The mental and physical health impacts, as well as the environmental and economic damages, have been enduring. Katrina is perhaps most telling, however, in terms of the racial, social class, age, and gendered disparities that it so clearly revealed in terms of who was most affected and who has faced the most challenges in recovering.
Humor
Authors: Reay Michael
Published: September 2017

Humor receives little attention in the social sciences compared to how commonly it appears in human interactions. It involves a very wide range of phenomena, but existing work in a number of disciplines suggests that it is caused by sudden experiences of incongruity during interactions, and that it has consequences for social identity and power. Both of these features make humor potentially relevant to sociology.
Identity, Deviant
Authors: O'Brien Patrick K. , Adler Patricia A. , Adler Peter
Published: September 2017

Identities refer to the way people think of themselves. This is important in the field of deviance because people's perceptions of situations and themselves are likely to affect their behavior. If people conceive of themselves as deviant, they are more likely to engage in further deviant behavior than if they have a nondeviant identity.
Ideology, Economy and
Authors: Carmines Edward G. , Wagner Michael W.
Published: September 2017

Two fundamental aspects of political life in advanced industrial democracies the world over are people's ideological preferences and their economic orientations. The interaction between these two factors helps organize citizens' value orientations and issue beliefs since there are several different ideological perspectives that people can have about the appropriate role for the involvement of government in managing a nation's economy. These distinctive ideological impulses range from extremely liberal (or “left”) preferences favoring equality through more state control over the production, distribution, and pricing of a society's goods to extremely conservative (or “right”) beliefs preferring individual freedom through allowing the market to control the production, distribution, and price decisions in a society.
Ideology, Economy and
Authors: Carmines Edward G. , Wagner Michael W.
Published: September 2017

Two fundamental aspects of political life in advanced industrial democracies the world over are people's ideological preferences and their economic orientations. The interaction between these two factors helps organize citizens’ value orientations and issue beliefs since there are several different ideological perspectives that people can have about the appropriate role for the government to play in managing a nation's economy. These distinctive ideological impulses range from extremely liberal (or “left”) preferences, favoring equality through more state control over the production, distribution, and pricing of a society's goods, to extremely conservative (or “right”) beliefs, preferring individual freedom via allowing the market to control the production, distribution, and price decisions in a society.
Ideology, Sport and
Authors: Millward Peter
Published: September 2017

Sport is a distinct form of leisure activity, and ideology is a culture that shapes ideas, beliefs, and actions, including, but not restricted to, those thought to be “political.” The ideological capacity of sport can be considered so great that it may now be apt to rework Marx's dictum – that sport, rather than religion, might sensibly be considered to be the new opiate of the people. Unquestionably, explicit links between sport and ideology have their roots in the work of the Frankfurt School thinker Theodor Adorno. In sum, Adorno argued that sport, like many other forms of popular culture, was a frivolous activity which reinforced the inequalities of the capitalist system and prohibited critical thought. At the heart of Adorno's critique lay two defining principles: participant competition and the consumption of the sporting spectacle.
Ie
Authors: Kuwayama Takami
Published: September 2017

In Japanese,iemeans “house,” but it is often applied to a group of people residing in the same house to make a living together. This semantic shift is evident in the definitions given in the authoritative dictionaryKöjien(5th edition, 1998): (1) a structure for residence; (2) a collectivity of people living in the same house; and (3) a kinship group with common ancestors and property handed down from generation to generation. The sociological and anthropological discussion of theieis inevitably concerned with the last two meanings. Theieis widely regarded as Japan's traditional family. There has been much controversy, however, about what it really is, particularly over the question of how theieshould be distinguished from the supposedly universal institution of family orkazoku. (Kazokuis written in two Chinese characters, the first of which is the same as the character forie). Furthermore, theiehas been used as a structural principle of larger organizations, including the entire Japanese nation, and, as such, it is central to the debate on Japan's national identity.
Immigration Policy
Authors: Brown Susan K. , Bean Frank D.
Published: September 2017

Immigration policy specifies the laws and practices that allow persons to move permanently to other countries and petition for citizenship or to enter and stay for delimited lengths of time without the right to apply for citizenship. In developed countries, such policies include not only voluntary work and occupation‐based and family‐based migration but also the admission of refugees and the acceptance of asylum seekers. In its most comprehensive form, immigration policy not only involves the admission of immigrants, but also endeavors to coordinate labor needs with the control of migrant flows, affect international policies that might alleviate the need for some migration, and integrate newcomers into the socioeconomic fabric of the destination society. Immigration policies also often cover non‐immigrants, such as those who cross borders to travel, conduct business, work temporarily, visit, or study. Such policies also extend to the treatment of unauthorized immigrants, or those who enter a country without a visa or who overstay a visa, although the presence of such persons in the country does not directly result from admissions policies.
Impression Formation
Authors: Moore Christopher D.
Published: September 2017

Impression formation is the process by which individuals perceive, organize, and ultimately integrate information to form unified and coherent situated impressions of others. Internalized expectations for situated events condition what information individuals deem is important and worthy of their attention. Further, these expectations condition how individuals interpret this information. In face‐to‐face interaction, social cues including others' physical appearance, verbal and non‐verbal behavior, and the social setting in which the exchange takes place combine with information in perceivers' memories to influence the ways in which they initially form impressions of others and themselves. These initial impressions serve as the basis for subsequent attributions.
Impression Formation
Authors: Moore Christopher D.
Published: September 2017

Impression formation is the process by which individuals perceive, organize, and ultimately integrate information to form unified and coherent situated impressions of others. Internalized expectations for situated events condition what information individuals deem is important and worthy of their attention. Further, these expectations condition how individuals interpret this information. In face‐to‐face interaction, social cues including others’ physical appearance and verbal and nonverbal behavior, and the social setting in which the exchange takes place, combine with information in perceivers’ memories to influence the ways in which they initially form impressions of others and themselves. These initial impressions serve as the basis for subsequent attributions.
Index Crime
Authors: Meier Robert F.
Published: September 2017

Index crimes are a series of eight crimes – murder and nonnegligent homicide, forcible rape, aggravated assault, robbery, burglary, larceny‐theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson – about which police agencies report to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). They have been an important source of information about crime for more then three‐quarters of a century. They are also an important part of a larger crime reporting program called the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR).
Inequality/Stratification, Gender
Authors: Adams Michele
Published: September 2017

Inequality and stratification based on gender refer to the differential ability of men and women to access society's resources and receive its privileges. As gender stratification increases, so does the level of gender inequality, reflecting greater differences between men's and women's access to power. Historically gender inequality has systematically disadvantaged women, with men occupying positions of dominance in the family and the paid labor force, as well as other social institutions, evidenced by women doing the bulk of unpaid housework and being paid less than men in the labor market. Gender inequality is a global phenomenon, although the relative power of men and women varies across countries. The disadvantaged position of women relative to men is a predominant factor in global levels of gender stratification, evidenced by women's lower levels of power and control over their reproduction, reduced education and health outcomes, and subjection to violence, intimate and stranger perpetrated, at the hands of men. Various theories, including structural functionalism, conflict theory, and feminist theories have been used as lenses to view gender stratification over time.
Infidelity and Marital Affairs
Authors: Harrison Kaeren
Published: September 2017

Infidelity is about being emotionally or sexually unfaithful. It is closely equated with non‐monogamy, and as such is usually examined in the context of marriage. However, as constructions of marriage have changed since the middle of the twentieth century, the meanings attached to infidelity (or unfaithfulness, betrayal, or disloyalty) are no longer associated so exclusively with marriage. Awareness – and direct experience – of the fragility of marriage is high, ensuring that marriage is no longer uncritically perceived as a monogamous lifelong relationship. This is reflected in the popularity of prenuptial contracts, civil ceremonies, and the sharing of “relationship aspirations” rather than traditional marriage vows.
Infotainment
Authors: Langman Lauren
Published: September 2017

The twentieth century, with its new forms of mass production and mass media, gave rise to what has been called consumer society, a world largely concerned with personal gratifications and desirable selfhood gained through consuming goods and experiences. An essential part of this new “amusement society” has been a focus on entertainment from watching television sitcoms to attending sport events, various rock concerts, or the symphony. As mass‐mediated entertainment became a growing industry, there was a proliferation of cable programming and cable news outlets, greater fragmentation of audiences, and a growing concentration of ownership. Thus the gathering of “hard news,” reports of breaking events of war and peace, prosperity and poverty, leadership, public affairs, or investigations of crimes became highly expensive, producing little revenue and ever less audience share. These various factors led to the erosion of barriers between reporting “hard news” and the production of “soft news” combining information and entertainment to produce “infotainment,” pleasantries about people, places, or events which provide the viewer with an agreeable form of entertainment “that is unrelated to public affairs or policy, and is typically more sensational, more personality or celebrity oriented, less time‐bound (meaning that the traditional journalistic norm of “timeliness” does not apply), and more incident‐based than hard news” (Patterson 2001).
Interaction
Authors: vom Lehn Dirk
Published: September 2017

“Interaction” describes particular kinds of social relationship that are different from, but constitutive of, groups, organizations, and networks. Interaction occurs when two or more participants are in each other's perceptual range and orient to each other through their action and activity. It ends when the participants dissolve their mutual orientation and leave the social situation.
Intergenerational Mobility: Methods of Analysis
Authors: Luijkx Ruud
Published: September 2017

This entry comprises an analysis of intergenerational mobility, and in particular mobility tables, in which parents’ and children's positions are cross‐classified. These positions can refer to the level of educational achievement, earnings, occupational position, religious denomination, social class, and so on. Intergenerational class mobility (social mobility) involves the class of the family in which respondents lived when young (theoriginclass), and their current class position (thedestinationclass).
Intersectionality
Authors: Fabrizio Pelak Cynthia
Published: September 2017

Most gender scholars agree that to understand historical and contemporary gender relations one must be attentive to how race, class, and other systems of power intersect with gender. The general consensus around intersectionality has emerged from an evolving interdisciplinary body of theory and practice that emphasizes the simultaneity of oppressions, the interlocking systems of inequalities, and the multiplicity of gendered social locations. Legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989, 1991) was one of the first to use the term intersectionality to draw attention to the marginalization of black women's experiences within single‐axis frameworks of anti‐discrimination laws, feminist theories, and anti‐racist politics. Sociologist Patricia Hill Collins (2000: 18) defines intersectionality as “particular forms of intersecting oppressions, for example, intersections of race and gender, or of sexuality and nation.” She goes on to say: “intersectional paradigms remind us that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions work together in producing injustice.” Intersectionality has its roots in numerous intellectual traditions, such as socialist feminism, race and ethnic studies, and postcolonial feminisms. The various identifiers of the projects in which intersectionality is central – black feminism, womanism, multiracial feminism, third world feminism, postcolonial feminism, indigenous feminism, and multicultural feminism – suggest divergent origins and analytical foci. In this entry, the term intersectionality is used to refer broadly to scholarship that uses theoretical approaches that foreground interlocking systems of inequality. Special attention is given to the contributions of scholars who were instrumental in developing the intersectionality perspective, namely black women intellectuals from North America and women of color scholars from the “third world.”
Intersexuality
Authors: Moore Laura M.
Published: September 2017

Intersex refers to a variety of inborn conditions whereby an individual's sexual or reproductive anatomy varies from social expectations about “normal” male or female anatomy. Because the standards are arbitrary, “intersex” is not a discrete category – what counts as intersex depends upon who's counting. That said, about 1/2,000 babies is born with obvious enough differences to come to medical attention. This biological variation creates direct challenges to binary constructs of sex and gender and to the cultural institutional systems designed around assumptions that discrete sex categories naturally yield complementary gender roles and heterosexuality.
Intersexuality
Authors: Moore Laura M.
Published: September 2017

Intersex refers to people with a variety of congenital conditions whereby their chromosomal, gonadal, and/or anatomical sex development does not allow them to be clearly classified as either male or female. There are many intersex conditions. Depending on how it is defined, it is estimated that between 1 and 2 percent of people could be classified as intersex at birth. Intersex people may occupy a range of gender and sexual identities. Intersexuality represents a direct challenge to binary, heteronormative sex/gender systems found in many societies which may explain much of the social and legal controversy surrounding this group.
Intimacy
Authors: Jamieson Lynn
Published: September 2017

What is imagined by “intimacy” as a quality of relationships is often associated with particular ways of behaving (Davis 1973). Intimacy is sometimes defined narrowly to mean the familiarity resulting from close association. In this sense, domestic life across much of the life course in all societies is intimate. Living arrangements that involve sharing domestic space, a “hearth and home,” the caring activities associated with bearing and raising children, and other forms of routinely giving or receiving physical care necessarily provide familiarity and privileged knowledge. Sometimes the term “intimacy” is also used even more narrowly to refer to sexual familiarity with another person. In everyday current usage, intimacy is often presumed to involve more than close association and familiarity, for example, also involving strong emotional attachments such as love. However, in both popular and academic commentaries, intimacy is increasingly understood as representing a very particular form of “closeness” and being “special” to another person founded on self‐disclosure. This self‐disclosing or self‐expressing intimacy is characterized by knowledge and understanding of inner selves. Privileged knowledge gained through close physical association is not a sufficient condition to ensure this type of intimacy. People living side by side can feel trapped together as strangers who know nothing of each other's inner worlds.
Islam
Authors: Allam Khaled Fouad
Published: September 2017

The birth of Islam coincided with radical change in the anthropological and sociocultural situation of Arab populations which, in about the seventh century
ce
, had already been affected by strong social tensions and by a number of important religious upheavals. If pre‐Islamic societies are generally to be considered as polytheistic, the presence, since the beginnings of Islam, of important Christian and Hebrew communities must not be understated and from which elements of the Koran are taken. This “new” religion, Islam – whose etymology means “peace” but also “submission” in the sense of humankind's devotion to God's word – not only changed the extant religious language, but also deeply modified the social and anthropological structures of the peoples of the Arab peninsula. In analyzing the structures of Islamic societies it is clear how such an event resulted from the demand for change in a social universe – the tribal and clanic world – which claimed to be structured differently from the extant one, and which was crossed by deep tensions and crises.
James, William (1842–1910)
Authors: Page Frank J.
Published: September 2017

William James was the son of a theologian and brother of the novelist Henry James. He taught psychology and philosophy at Harvard University. HisPrinciples of Psychology(1890) is the foundation of modern psychology. An annotated version,On Psychology: Briefer Course, was published in 1892. Other major works includeThe Will to Believe(1897),Human Immortality(1898),The Varieties of Religious Experience(1902),Pragmatism(1907), andThe Meaning of Truth(1909). Along with Charles S. Peirce, Charles H. Cooley, and John Dewey, he was instrumental in establishing American pragmatism. This intellectual tradition has been an influential framework for symbolic interactionism, US educational practices, and many epistemological issues. James's conceptions of psychology, consciousness, cognition, self, self‐esteem, stream of consciousness, and habit have a profound relevance for many sociological assumptions regarding the nature of society and its influence on human conduct.
Jehovah's Witnesses
Authors: Introvigne Massimo
Published: September 2017

Rodney Stark and Laurence Iannaccone (1997) noted that, despite their millions of members, until recently Jehovah's Witnesses failed to attract the attention of most sociologists of religion (Beckford 1975 is one of the rare book‐length studies). The difficult access to their international archives was a factor, together with a general underevaluation of non‐mainline Christian groups by certain sociologists. In the 1990s and 2000s, however, the situation changed. Sociologists became interested in testing on such a large group hypotheses about the relative success of different religious movements, cognitive dissonance, routinization of charisma, and mainstreaming of once marginal religions, while a new Witnesses leadership was ready to cooperate.
Jevons, William (1835–1882)
Authors: Zafirovski Milan
Published: September 2017

William Stanley Jevons is best known as an early influential British neoclassical and utilitarian economist mostly influenced by and developing Benthamite utilitarianism (Schumpeter 1991). More precisely, he is renowned among economists as one the founders (alongside Carl Menger and Leon Walras) of marginalism or marginal utility theory (during the 1870s) as what economist‐sociologist Schumpeter (1954) describes as a Copernican Revolution in economics (for more on Jevons as an economist, see Mosselmans & White 2000). Overall, his sociologically minded disciple Philip Wicksteed (1905) describes Jevons as “one of the most powerful, bold, and original thinkers” in economics. While virtually unknown or neglected among sociologists, curiously enough, Jevons can probably be credited (Swedberg 2003) with inventing the term economic sociology (in the second 1879 edition of his main work, the
Theory of Political Economy
), though not the idea or concept. The idea of economic sociology is already contained or germane in Comte, especially his notion of social economy, as a branch of sociology distinguished from orthodox economics, and of the “economy of real society” subject to “sociological research.”
Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804)
Authors: Walsh Philip
Published: September 2017

Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg, East Prussia (now Kaliningrad), where he spent his entire life, first as a student and
Privatdozent
, later as Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. The fourth child of an intensely religious family, Kant rose beyond his humble origins – his father was a harness‐maker – to become one of the most important figures of the European Enlightenment. His trilogy of main works, the
Critique of Pure Reason
(1781),
Critique of Practical Reason
(1788), and
Critique of Judgment
(1790), constitutes the basis for a system of thinking that has become an indispensable reference point for all subsequent philosophy. But Kant's philosophy of mind, epistemology, and ethics were also instrumental in laying the foundations of the human sciences, and classical sociology in particular was inspired from Kantian roots. His thought has remained influential through the development of sociological thinking during the course of the twentieth century, and remains an important source of ideas and inspiration within contemporary social theory.
Kuhn, Thomas and Scientific Paradigms
Authors: Stanfield Ron , Wrenn Mary
Published: September 2017

Thomas S. Kuhn (1922–96) was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and attended Harvard University. After graduating with a bachelor's degree in physics, Kuhn worked for the US government during World War II, then returned to Harvard for graduate study in physics. Having entertained an interest in philosophy since his undergraduate days, Kuhn agreed to teach a newly developed history of science class as part of his graduate work. As a result, in the last stages of his doctoral program, he decided to change his field to the history of science, a change which allowed him an entrée into the study of philosophy by focusing on the philosophical implications of change within a discipline. Kuhn continued down this intellectual pathway, dedicating much of his professional academic career to the study of the history of science, and was especially intrigued by the shifting of gestalts within a discipline through time.
Labeling Theory
Authors: Matsueda Ross
Published: September 2017

Unlike most theories of crime and deviance, which emphasize the causes of deviant behavior, labeling theories focus on society's reaction to crime and deviance. Labeling theorists argue that society's reaction to deviance is fundamental for three reasons. First, individuals who are labeled as deviant by society often become stigmatized and isolated from society, leading them into a deviant lifestyle. Second, the very definition of deviance lies not in the objective behavior of “deviants,” but in powerful groups’ ability to define and label the behavior of the powerless as deviant or criminal. Thus, deviance is socially constructed. Third, society's reaction to deviance provides positive functions for society by defining the boundary between deviant and conventional behavior and by reaffirming social solidarity.
Laicism
Authors: Baubérot Jean
Published: September 2017

The French Constitution defines France as a “République laïque,” a lay republic, and the French generally consider laicism to be a “French exception.” This aspect of singularity was recently reinforced with the passing of a law in March 2004 banning ostentatious religious signs in public schools. But it is impossible to simplify laicism in terms of this particular law. Laicism is also a possible means for relationships between the state, religion, society, and every human being. Such relationships can function only if there is flexibility and adaptability to all situations present in society.
Leaving Home in the Transition to Adulthood
Authors: Goldscheider Frances , Torr Berna
Published: September 2017

Full adulthood normally involves attaining the stable adult roles of worker, partner, and parent. Childhood, in contrast, is normally associated with net dependency on one's own parents. The transition to adulthood, then, comprises two steps: (1) ending childhood dependency and (2) making progress on the central responsible roles of adulthood. In the study of the transition to adulthood, these processes are bound together in complex ways.
Legal Profession
Authors: Deflem Mathieu , Kay Fiona M.
Published: September 2017

The legal profession refers to all occupational roles oriented toward the administration and maintenance of the legal system. Encompassing lawyers, judges, notaries, mediators, paralegals, counselors, as well as experts of legal education and scholarship, the legal profession has been the subject of considerable reflection in sociology. This sociological interest parallels the enormous attention devoted to the legal profession in various strands of sociolegal studies, including other social sciences besides sociology, as well as jurisprudence. Scholars have been intrigued by the successful monopolization of the execution of legal functions and the resulting social standing and closure of the legal profession. The fact that the legal profession is among the most researched aspects of law is thus a direct function of the professionalization of the legal role itself. Yet, although most scholarly research on the legal profession comes from within jurisprudence and from law‐and‐society perspectives, there also exists a distinctly sociological tradition on the societal aspects of the legal profession.
Lemert, Edwin M. (1912–1996)
Authors: Stebbins Robert A.
Published: September 2017

Edwin M. Lemert was born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He received his BA in sociology from Miami University (1934) and his doctorate from Ohio State University (1939), specializing in sociology and anthropology. He taught briefly at Kent State and Western Michigan Universities. In 1943 he moved to the University of California at Los Angeles, and in 1953 to the University of California at Davis, from which, in 1980, he retired as Professor Emeritus. After formal retirement Lemert worked almost daily in his university office, writing scholarly material until his death in 1996.
Lesbian and Gay Families
Authors: Heaphy Brian
Published: September 2017

In the narrowest sense, the term “lesbian and gay family” refers to lesbian and gay individuals or same‐sex couples and their children. The term is sometimes used to refer to same‐sex partnerships or cohabiting relationships. In the broadest sense, the term can denote social networks that include lesbian or gay individuals and/or couples where some or all of the members self‐define as “family.” These latter arrangements have also been described as “surrogate,” “friendship,” or “chosen” families.
Liberal Feminism
Authors: Wolff Kristina
Published: September 2017

Liberal feminism is one of the earliest forms of feminism, stating that women's secondary status in society is based on unequal opportunities and segregation from men. Emerging out of the abolitionist and women's movement in the US, this body of feminism focuses on eliminating gender inequality. The basic beliefs are grounded in liberalist philosophical traditions, as well as French and British feminist theory. Society consists of individuals who are equals and therefore all people must have equal rights. There is a clear division between the role of the state (public) and individual freedom (private). Liberal feminists create change by working within existing social structures and changing people's attitudes.
Life Chances and Resources
Authors: Ultee Wout
Published: September 2017

Around the mid‐1980s in the field of societal stratification, the research program of “Class, Status, and Power” had evolved into the more powerful program of “Life Chances and Resources.” At that time, theoretical and empirical efforts undertaken by sociologists in various countries of the world began to converge.
Life Environmentalism
Authors: Torigoe Hiroyuki , Kada Yukiko
Published: September 2017

Life environmentalism is a model that aims to resolve environmental problems from a perspective that considers conserving the community life and practices of the people who inhabit the affected area. The life environmentalism model was developed in the 1980s by Japanese environmental sociologists who were concerned with the environmental destruction wrought by industrialization. At the time, the field of environmental policy was divided into two schools of thought embracing mutually opposed ideas about the best approach to environmental policy. The first, which we call “nature environmentalism,” advocated the preservation (or restoration) of the pristine natural environment, following the ideals of the natural conservation movement and ecological theory. The other, which we call “modern technicism,” emphasized the development of modern technology to rehabilitate the affected environment. This was the position typically embraced by government officials who had civil engineering credentials and the power to allocate the public budget.
Life History
Authors: Clark M. Carolyn
Published: September 2017

Life history is somewhat of a stealth term – on the outside it looks harmlessly simple, but inside it is cloaked with ambiguity and its meaning is both slippery and elusive. The simple part derives from its point of origin: a researcher interviews a particular individual and elicits a richly detailed account of her or his life. It is in how that account is understood, and what is done with it, that the uncertainty and messiness begin. Nothing is straightforward. The life history interview, while privileging the informant in that that person decides what to share about his or her life and how to structure the telling, is nonetheless a co‐construction between the researcher and the informant, both of whom are situated within a discursive context that shapes the definition of story as well as its telling. The product of the research, the life history itself, is the interpretive work of the researcher. That person has framed the research from the beginning around particular interests, which may or may not be significant to the informant; working from the narrative generated by the informant, it is the researcher who through the life history makes knowledge claims about the larger issue under study.
Looking‐Glass Self
Authors: Dunn Jennifer
Published: September 2017

The looking‐glass self is the most well‐known dimension of Charles Horton Cooley's early, seminal conceptualization of what he called the social self. Cooley used the image of a mirror as a metaphor for the way in which people's self‐concepts are influenced by their imputations of how they are perceived by others. Cooley distinguished three “principal elements” of the looking‐glass self: “the imagination of our appearance to the other person; the imagination of his [
sic
] judgment of that appearance; and some sort of self‐feeling, such as pride or mortification.” Much of the time, Cooley thought, our experience of self is an emotional response to the supposed evaluations of others, especially significant others. Children learn the meaning of “I” and “me” and “mine” through the appropriation of objects they desire and claim as their own, in contrast to the things they cannot control. Importantly, among the objects they seek to control and appropriate as their own are their parents and others in the primary group. As infants and toddlers discover they can influence others by their actions, they simultaneously discover and realize reflections of themselves in these others.
Latino/a Youth
Authors: Burgos Giovani , Trillo Alex F.
Published: September 2017

This entry highlights the historical classification of Latino/as into different ethnic and racial groups, documents the most recent demographics of Latino/a youth by race and ethnic background, and identifies some of the most pressing challenges facing this population.
Management Education
Authors: Sturdy Andrew
Published: September 2017

Something like 25 percent of US university students currently major in business or management, and in the UK, 30 percent of undergraduates study some management. Elsewhere, business and management education is expanding its scope. A Chinese government minister is said to have recently called for a million MBA (Master of Business Administration) graduates to help fuel the national economy. Such penetration and expansion in higher education systems and other educational domains have prompted considerable comment and sociological research activity. The latter has often come from outside sociology departments, in schools of management and education, for example. While a number of concerns reflect more general educational issues such as pedagogy, vocationalism, and the social role of the university or academy, key areas of attention and debate are focused around core sociological issues: globalization, commodification, and professionalization.
Management History
Authors: Booth Charles
Published: September 2017

Management history is a scholarly endeavor which concerns itself with the investigation of the development of management thought and of managerial practice. It therefore sits in sympathetic (in principle) but uneasy (in reality) relationship with contiguous and overlapping fields such as business history, economic history, accounting history, the history of economics, and marketing history, among others. There is no satisfactory or broadly accepted statement of these fields’ domain boundaries, and any treatment is necessarily idiosyncratic.
Management Innovation
Authors: Clark Peter
Published: September 2017

Innovation refers to the processes of replacing past lifestyles, products, services, knowledge, and forms of managing by a variation which is different. The difference ranges from small and incremental to radical and discontinuous. Typically, innovations have been equated with entities and artifacts which can be readily seen and touched. These innovations, however, are embodiments of vast investments in forms of knowledge and ways of organizing (Clark 2003). The role of management in the innovation process and of how the organization of management affects the pace and directions of innovation remained largely unexplored until about 50 years ago. Forms of managing and organizing are innovations which are so taken for granted that their significance might be overlooked. Organizations, especially large‐scale corporations, are the pivotal arena within which invention and innovation are orchestrated. The earlier focus upon artifacts has shifted to the examination of the roles that management do and can play in orchestrating innovation.
Management Theory
Authors: Chanlat Jean‐François
Published: September 2017

Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, the industrialized world has known great socioeconomic development. During this long period of time, capitalist development was characterized by the growth of business firms, the rise of the state and public administration, the creation of numerous organizations, and the appearance of a new social figure, the manager. Since then, management thinking has experienced great development. The theories of management are both products of society, consisting of people and social forces in a historical context, and producers of this historical society. The sociology of management has to take into account this theoretical elaboration in order to understand the representations in its principal discourses, which contribute to shaping organizational forms and managerial practices.
Marcuse, Herbert (1898–1979)
Authors: Dandaneau Steven P.
Published: September 2017

Herbert Marcuse was a German philosopher and social theorist who immigrated to the United States to escape Nazi persecution, becoming a naturalized US citizen in 1940. Marcuse is credited with having formulated a distinctive critical theory of society that combined a Hegelian reading of Marx with insights drawn from his masterful studies of modern and twentieth‐century philosophy and social theory. As the only member of the famed Frankfurt School's inner circle at ease with partisanship, Marcuse's highly visible participation in 1960s revolutionary activism led to his celebration as a New Left intellectual hero on a par with Jean‐Paul Sartre. His once‐considerable presence and notoriety worldwide notwithstanding, Marcuse's scant influence on institutionalized sociology since is largely attributable to the fact that his lifelong commitment to dialectical forms of critical social analysis places his otherwise rich oeuvre at loggerheads with predominantly positivist sociology.
Marginal Art
Authors: Sugimoto Yoshio
Published: September 2017

The term marginal art (
genkai geijutsu
) was coined by Shunsuke Tsurumi, an analyst of mass culture in Japan. Tsurumi classifies art forms into three analytical categories: pure, popular, and marginal. In what he terms pure art, both producers and their audience are art specialists, with the producers being professional artists and those who appreciate it being equipped with a degree of expert knowledge. For instance, paintings, symphonies, operas,
noh
, and formal tea ceremonies executed or performed by professionals fall into this category. Popular art is produced by professional artists in collaboration with mass media organizations, but is consumed by non‐specialist masses and is therefore often regarded as vulgar art or pseudo‐art. Its specific forms include television programs, popular songs, posters, detective stories, animations, and comic strips.
Massive Resistance
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: September 2017

American society has long resisted the idea of creating a truly egalitarian society. This was first noted in the early nineteenth century in one of the earliest comprehensive studies of the United States when Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that America's ability and willingness to confront its racial and color divide would determine its very survival. Toqueville's study took on added meaning later in the century as North and South engaged in a bloody civil war, largely over slavery. Closely connected were issues related to the industrialism of the North versus the agrarian economy of the South, the belief that all powers should be centralized in Washington versus the idea that the US Constitution sanctioned a federal system which guaranteed specific rights to the states (states’ rights), and the jockeying by both the North and South for political power and supremacy which had plagued the United States since its very inception.
Master Status
Authors: Hunt Stephen
Published: September 2017

The term master status denotes a perceived social standing that has exceptional significance for individual identity, frequently shaping a person's entire social experience. The concept is at least implied within the theoretical framework of structural functionalism, especially the work of Talcott Parsons who was predisposed toward using the expression in a normative sense. Here, master status is attached to the prestige relating to the individual's primary social role (cf. Parsons 1951). However, in the disciplines of sociology and social psychology, master status is a concept used more specifically in the field of deviance.
Masturbation
Authors: Shepard Benjamin
Published: September 2017

The history of masturbation – self‐pleasuring solitary sex – includes countless episodes of definition and redefinition. Intellectuals from Jean‐Jacques Rousseau to Ludwig Wittgenstein agonized over masturbation. American social purists called for prohibitions against it. Sigmund Freud and his disciples debated it. By the early 1990s, an American surgeon general would be fired merely for suggesting that it was a worthy alternative to abstinence or unsafe sex.
Material Culture
Authors: Dant Tim
Published: September 2017

Material culture refers to the physical stuff that human beings surround themselves with and which has meaning for the members of a cultural group. Mostly this “stuff” is things that are made within a society, but sometimes it is gathered directly from the natural world or recovered from past or distant cultures. It can be contrasted with other cultural forms such as ideas, images, practices, beliefs, and language that can be treated as independent from any specific material substance. The clothes, tools, utensils, gadgets, ornaments, pictures, furniture, buildings, and equipment of a group of people are its material culture and for disciplines such as archeology and anthropology provide the raw data for understanding other societies. In recent years sociologists have begun to recognize that the ways that material things are incorporated into the culture shape the way that society works and communicates many of its features to individual members.
Mathematical Sociology
Authors: Fararo Thomas J.
Published: September 2017

After World War II, some sociologists began to employ mathematical models as part of a deepening and broadening of the interpenetration of mathematics and the social and behavioral sciences. These applications were quite different from traditional data analysis wherein statistical procedures are the main tools. The idea was to create more rigorous scientific theories than had hitherto existed in these fields. Traditionally, for instance, theories in fields such as psychology and sociology were strong in intuitive content, but weak from a formal point of view. That is, assumptions and definitions were not clearly stipulated and distinguished from factual descriptions and inferences. In particular, there was rarely a formal deduction of a conclusion from specified premises.
Matrix of Domination
Authors: DeVault Marjorie L.
Published: September 2017

The term matrix of domination is associated with the feminist thought of Patricia Hill Collins, who came to prominence in the academic movement that arose from women's activism in the 1960s and 1970s. Her project locates lived experiences of oppression within the social contexts that produce those experiences. Collins's term refers to the particular configurations of oppression and resistance (along varied lines of socially constructed difference) that shape life in specific communities and historical moments.
Matthew Effect
Authors: Gómez‐Morales Yuri Jack
Published: September 2017

When considering science as a social system, there is a continuous interplay between status and the class system which locates scientists at different positions within the opportunity structure of science. Social standing within science's opportunity structure is, then, a function of positive recognition by one's peers. All other extrinsic rewards, such as monetary income from science‐connected activities, advancement within the scientific hierarchy, and enhanced access to human and material scientific capital, derive from this basic form of recognition.
Mead, Margaret (1901–1978)
Authors: Williams Joyce E.
Published: September 2017

Margaret Mead was one of few academics to become known to the general public. Her discipline was anthropology but her contributions to knowledge were as critical to sociology and to psychology as to her own discipline. She pioneered fieldwork on women and children in various cultures; advanced ethnographic techniques; applied the social sciences to understanding everyday events and problems; and increased public awareness of culture as learned patterns of thought and behavior as opposed to inherited ones. Mead was ahead of her time as an anthropologist and as a woman when in 1925, at the age of 23, she went alone on her first field trip to study adolescents in Samoa.
Media Monopoly
Authors: Bagdikian Ben H.
Published: September 2017

The term media monopoly – concentrated control of major mass communications within a society – took on a new life in the second half of the twentieth century, thanks to global changes. These included new communications technology; growth of literacy in the population; demographics that increased the size of potential audiences; increasing democratization in the less developed world that heightened interest in politics and the media; and high profits and political influence that stimulated conglomerate ownership of all major means of mass communications. Since citizens increasingly depended on these media for political information and entertainment, the concentrated control by a small number of large business concerns inevitably produced public controversy.
Medical Malpractice
Authors: Ritchey Ferris J.
Published: September 2017

Medical malpractice is “an instance in which a physician or other medical practitioner causes injury or death to a patient through negligent behavior,” involving actions that fail to follow acceptable standards of practice (Cockerham & Ritchey 1997: 81). Uncertain medical conditions, however, make establishing negligence very difficult. Less than 20 percent of claims involve
res ipsa loquitur
cases, those that “speak for themselves,” such as amputation of a healthy limb. Some claims for injury and/or negligence are questionable, while out‐of‐court settlements occur to avoid litigation costs. After 1970, malpractice claims increased dramatically with crisis periods of greatly inflated liability insurance costs. Liability reform legislation has been introduced in every state.