bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The role of distress, neuroticism and time since diagnosis in explaining support behaviors in partners of women with breast cancer: results of a longitudinal analysis
Authors: Hinnen Chris , Hagedoorn Mariët , Sanderman Robbert , Ranchor Adelita V.
Published: February 2007

In this prospective study distress, neuroticism and time since diagnosis were investigated as determinants of spousal support behavior (i.e. protective buffering and active engagement) in a group of 92 partners of women with breast cancer. Distress and neuroticism were assessed at three months after diagnosis while protective buffering and active engagement were assessed at three, nine and 15 months after diagnosis. Results indicate small but significant decreases in protective buffering and active engagement over time. Moreover, initial distress and neuroticism were found to be strongly and positively related to protective buffering at all three measurements. In addition, less distress was associated with more active engagement in especially individuals scoring relatively low on neuroticism, but only at 3 months after diagnosis. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Bradykinin analogs containing the 4‐amino‐2‐benzazepin‐3‐one scaffold at the C‐terminus
Authors: Ballet S. , De Wachter R. , Van Rompaey K. , Tömböly Cs. , Feytens D. , Töth G. , Quartara L. , Cucchi P. , Meini S. , Tourwé D.
Published: February 2007

High affinity peptide ligands for the bradykinin (BK) B2 subtype receptor have been shown to adopt a β‐turn conformation of the C‐terminal tetrapeptide (H‐Arg1‐Pro2‐Pro3‐Gly4‐Phe5‐Ser6‐Pro7‐Phe8‐Arg9‐OH). We investigated the replacement of the Pro7‐Phe8 dipeptide moiety in BK or the D‐Tic7‐Oic8 subunit in HOE140 (H‐D‐Arg0‐Arg1‐Pro2‐Hyp3‐Gly4‐Thi5‐Ser6‐D‐Tic7‐Oic8‐Arg9‐OH) by 4‐amino‐1,2,4,5‐tetrahydro‐2‐benzazepin‐3‐one templates (Aba). Binding studies to the human B2 receptor showed a correlation between the affinities of the BK analogs and the propensity of the templates to adopt a β‐turn conformation. The L‐spiro‐Aba‐Gly containing HOE140 analog BK10 has the best affinity, which correlates with the known turn‐inducing property of this template. All the compounds did not modify basal inositolphosphate (IP) output in B2‐expressing CHO cells up to 10 µM concentration. The antagonist properties were confirmed by the guinea pig ileum smooth muscle contractility assay. The new amino‐benzazepinone (Aba) substituted BK analogs were found to be surmountable antagonists. Copyright © 2007 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A synthetic analog of plantaricin 149 inhibiting food‐borne pathogenic bacteria:evidence for α‐helical conformation involved in bacteria–membrane interaction
Authors: Müller Diana M. , Carrasco Marta S. , Simonetta Arturo C. , Beltramini Leila M. , Tonarelli Georgina G.
Published: February 2007

Plantaricin‐149 is a bacteriocin produced by Lactobacillus plantarum NRIC 149 (a LAB isolated from pineapple), which consists of a peptidic chain made up of 22 amino acid residues [Kato et al. J. Ferment. Bioeng. 1994; 77: 277–282]. In this work, a synthetic C‐terminal amidated peptide analog denoted Pln149a was prepared by SPPS‐Fmoc chemistry and the antagonistic activity against gram‐positive and gram‐negative bacteria was tested. The secondary structure was studied by circular dichroism (CD) and the vicinity of the tyrosine residue by fluorescence spectroscopy under different conditions. We report the results of the interaction of Pln149a with reverse micelles prepared from the amphiphilic AOT in cyclohexane.

Synthetic plantaricin was active against one strain of Staphylococcus aureus and four strains of Listeria genus at pH 5.5 and 7.4 and, like its natural variant, inhibited L. plantarum ATCC 8014.

The data derived from spectroscopic measurements in presence of AOT reverse micelles suggest that the secondary structure of the peptide upon interaction is an α‐helix. In this membrane model, the hydrophobic side of the α‐helix is inserted into the micelles, leaving the lysines exposed to the solvent and interacting with the polar moieties of AOT. The fluorescence data point out that the N‐terminal tyrosine residue is close to the micellar interface. Copyright © 2007 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The [Tc(N)(PNP)]2+ metal fragment labeled cholecystokinin‐8 (CCK8) peptide for CCK‐2 receptors imaging: in vitro and in vivo studies
Authors: Agostini Stefania , Bolzati Cristina , Didonè Eliana , Cavazza‐Ceccato Mario , Refosco Fiorenzo , Aloj Luigi , Arra Claudio , Aurilio Michela , Tornesello Anna Lucia , Tesauro Diego , Morelli Giancarlo
Published: February 2007

The radiolabeling of the natural octapeptide CCK8, derivatized with a cysteine residue (Cys‐Gly‐CCK8), by using the metal fragment [99mTc(N)(PNP3)]2+ (PNP3 = N,N‐bis(dimethoxypropylphosphinoethyl)methoxyethylamine) is reported. The [99mTc(N)(NS‐Cys‐Gly‐CCK8)(PNP3)]+ complex was obtained according to two methods (one‐step or two‐step procedure) that gave the desired compound in high yield. The complex is stable in aqueous solution and in phosphate buffer. In vitro challenge experiments with an excess of cysteine and glutathione indicate that no transchelation reactions occur, confirming the high thermodynamic stability and kinetic inertness of this compound. Stability studies carried out in human and mouse serum, as well as in mouse liver homogenates, show that the radiolabeled compound remains intact for prolonged incubation at 37 °C. Binding properties give Kd (19.0 ± 4.6 nmol/l) and Bmax (∼106 sites/cell) values in A431 cells overexpressing the CCK2‐R. In vivo evaluation of the compound shows rapid and specific targeting to CCK2‐R, a fourfold higher accumulation compared to nonreceptor expressing tumors. Copyright © 2007 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Probing by transport the single‐particle energy spectrum up to high energy of one quantum dot with the ground state of an adjacent weakly coupled quantum dot
Authors: Austing D. G. , Yu G. , Payette C. , Gupta J. A. , Korkusinski M. , Aers G. C.
Published: February 2007

We investigate single‐electron resonant tunneling through gated vertical quantum dot molecules for which the tunnel coupling between the two dots is weak to examine magnetic field induced two‐ and three‐level crossings in the single‐particle energy spectrum of the constituent dots. We consider two devices. Device I with almost circular dots is close to ideal, i.e., the dot spectrum is like the Fock–Darwin spectrum with expected level crossings. Device II with elliptically deformed dots seems close to ideal too, i.e., the dot spectrum is overall like the elliptical parabolic dot spectrum, except at many of the level crossings, where unexpected anti‐crossing behavior is observed between two or more approaching levels. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Differential electroabsorption studies of semiconductors and semiconductor heterostructures
Authors: Weiser Gerhard
Published: February 2007

Electroabsorption spectra of high mobility semiconductors and quantum wells are presented and compared with non‐perturbative theoretical models. Since even moderate fields mix eigenstates in these materials very strongly a differential technique is applied, where a dc voltage defines the field in the sample which then is altered by a small modulation voltage. The response to that modulation is generated from the most sensitive part of an electronic state, the envelope function, which facilitates the analysis of the spectral lineshape. The difference of the response of delocalized electrons in bulk semiconductors and spatially confined electrons will be elucidated, including the intermediate case of 0.1 µm‐thick single crystals and field‐localisation of electrons in a superlattice. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Photoreflectance spectroscopy with nanometer spatial resolution under lateral current flow conditions in selectively doped heterostructures
Authors: Lonskaya E. , Ryabushkin O.
Published: February 2007

The simultaneous measurements of the photoreflectance spectra and I –V characteristics in GaAs/AlGaAs HEMT‐like structures allowed to determine the built‐in electric fields and a spatial dependence of the current density in direction transverse to heterostructure layers with nanometer spatial resolution. The variations of a spatial distribution of the current density with the lateral current were also investigated. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Photoluminescence and modulation spectroscopy study of the effects of growth interruptions on the interfaces of GaAsSb/GaAs multiple quantum wells
Authors: Hsu H. P. , Sitarek P. , Huang Y. S. , Liu P. W. , Lin J. M. , Lin H. H. , Tiong K. K.
Published: February 2007

Temperature dependent photoluminescence (PL), room temperature phototransmittance (PT), contactless electroreflectance (CER) and wavelength modulated surface photovoltage spectroscopy (WMSPS) measurements are utilized to study the effects of growth interruption times, combined with Sb exposure of GaAsSb/GaAs multiple quantum wells (MQWs) structures. The PL spectra show peak location red‐shifted, luminescence intensity increased and full width at half maximum narrowed with increasing interruption time. The features originated from different regions of the samples including interband transitions of MQWs, interfaces and GaAs are observed and identified through a detailed comparison of the obtained spectra and theoretical calculation. The anomalous temperature dependence of PL spectra has been attributed to the carrier localization effect resulted from the presence of Sb clusters and/or fluctuations in Sb composition at the QW interfaces. An additional feature has also been observed below the GaAs region in Sb exposure treated samples and the probable origin of this feature has been discussed. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Evaluation of the growth inhibitory activities of triphala against common bacterial isolates from HIV infected patients
Authors: Srikumar R. , Parthasarathy N. Jeya , Shankar E. M. , Manikandan S. , Vijayakumar R. , Thangaraj R. , Vijayananth K. , Sheeladevi R. , Rao Usha Anand
Published: February 2007

The isolation of microbial agents less susceptible to regular antibiotics and the rising trend in the recovery rates of resistant bacteria highlights the need for newer alternative principles. Triphala has been used in traditional medicine practice against certain diseases such as jaundice, fever, cough, eye diseases etc. In the present study phytochemical (phenolic, flavonoid and carotenoid) and antibacterial activities of aqueous and ethanol extracts of Triphala and its individual components (Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica and Emblica officinalis) were tested against certain bacterial isolates (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella sonnei, S. flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella paratyphi‐B, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella typhi) obtained from HIV infected patients using Kirby‐Bauer's disk diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) methods. T. chebula was found to possess high phytochemical content followed by T. belerica and E. officinalis in both aqueous and ethanol extracts. Further, most of the bacterial isolates were inhibited by the ethanol and aqueous extracts of T. chebula followed by T. belerica and E. officinalis by both disk diffusion and MIC methods. The present study revealed that both individual and combined aqueous and ethanol extracts of Triphala have antibacterial activity against the bacterial isolates tested. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Temperature trend in lancashire, 175–1945
Authors: Manley Gordon
Published: February 2007

A table of monthly mean temperatures for the Lancashire plain from 1753 to the present day has been compiled by reduction from a large number of little‐known early observations. It is believed that from 1781 onward the values are likely to be fairly reliable. The general trend of mean temperature for each month agrees remarkably well with that shown to have occurred since about 1800 in Scandinavia.
Air motion ahead of warm fronts
Authors: Miles M. K.
Published: February 2007

The ageostrophic component of the wind at 900 millibars in the cold air ahead of warm fronts has been found for sixty occasions between 1943 and 1949. The values show much variability both of magnitude and angular deviation from the isobars. It is found that this variability is not closely related to any of the following characteristics of the situation:—

(i) The curvature of the isobars in the cold air.

(ii) The isallobaric gradient ahead of the front.

(iii) The pressure tendency at the place where the ageostrophic component is found.

(iv) The refraction of the isobars at the front.

(v) The temperature difference between the two air masses.

(vi) The geostrophic wind at this place.

For forty‐four of the cases the vector change of geostrophic wind along the trajectory over the preceding six hours has been obtained and it is found that there is a correlation coefficient of 0.88 between this quantity and the magnitude of the ageostrophic component.

The line of best fit is |4|=0.78J′–1.0 where |A| and J′ are the magnitudes of the ageostrophic vector and the vector change of the geostrophic wind respectively, both being in mi/hr.

It is shown that this value of |A|/J′ could arise with quasi‐geostrophic motion but the observed direction of A is inconsistent with such motion.

Finally, predictions made from the equations of motion in an exponentially growing pressure gradient without the quasi‐geostrophic assumption are shown to be in close agreement with the observations.
Natural removal of pollution from the atmosphere
Authors: Meetham A. R.
Published: February 2007

Observations of atmospheric pollution throughout Britain are considered in relation to the amounts of pollution emitted through the combustion of coal. The estimated weight of ash emitted into the air and the estimate, from deposit gauges, of the ash deposited, are considered likely to agree fairly well at a figure of rather over one million tons per annum (one million tonnes/yr).

On the assumption that about 1.5 million tons of smoke are blown to sea each year, it is shown that about 1.1 million tons of sulphur dioxide are blown to sea each year; the remaining 0.8 million tons of smoke and 3.9 million tons of sulphur dioxide must be deposited in Britain, irrespective of the quantities measured in deposit gauges.

The average life of a smoke particle before deposition on land is probably of the order of 1–2 days; that of a molecule of sulphur dioxide is estimated with rather more certainty to be less than 12 hours.

Of the chlorides collected in deposit gauges more than half, as a rule, come from the sea, and less than half from the utilization of coal; but the ratio must vary with the position of the deposit gauge relative to the sea and to industries.
The microclimate of the potato crop
Authors: Broadbent L.
Published: February 2007

Shade temperatures and humidities in a standard screen and at an arbitrary level of 15 cm in potato crops were continuously recorded during three summers, 1947–49.

In dry sunny periods : (1) the maximum temperature in the crop was from 0° to 13°F higher than in the screen, and over a period of eleven weeks in 1947 averaged 6°F higher (2) the crop minimum was about 2°F lower than in the screen (3) over a period of five weeks in 1949 the average daily mean temperature in the crop was 2.2°F higher than in the screen, and (4) the average daily temperature range was 8°F greater than in the screen.

Wind, wet soil and cloudy weather greatly reduced these contrasts; occasionally the crop minimum was higher than the screen minimum.

By day, humidity was higher in the crop than in the screen, the average difference at the minima being 5 per cent in relative humidity, and 7°F in dew point. By night, the dew point in the crop was, on average, 2°F lower than in the screen, corresponding to the observed difference in mean minimum air temperatures.

During 1948 and 1949, more precise discontinuous records were taken of temperature, humidity and wind speed in and above potato crops with different densities of foliage in a variety of weather conditions. Temperature and humidity were measured at 10, 20 or 30, and 60 cm; wind at 20, 30 and 200 cm above ground level. In the crop there was only a slight temperature gradient in the early morning and throughout cloudy days, but during sunny days gradients were produced, depending on crop density; it was hottest at 10 cm in an open crop, at 30 cm in a dense crop; in both it was usually coolest at 60 cm when the soil was dry, but over wet soil the lowest temperature was found at 10 cm. Except on cloudy days, temperature inversion took place before sunset whatever the foliage density or moistness of the soil.

Humidity (dew point) was usually greatest at 10 cm, but in a dense crop over dry soil water vapour transpired from the leaves often caused the air at 30 cm to be more humid than that at 10 cm.

Wind affected both temperature and humidity by increasing lapse rates and causing rapid fluctuations within the crop, particularly of humidity. Changes of wind speed within the crop took place every few seconds, the amplitude of the fluctuations depending on the speed of the wind above the crop.
The measurement and recording of the heat flux into the soil
Authors: Deacon E. L.
Published: February 2007

Relatively simple instruments for measuring the heat flux into or out of the soil are described together with methods of calibration. One form consists of a suitable metal disc of sandwich construction producing a thermal e.m.f. proportional to the heat flux through the disc, which is placed in the soil just below the surface.

Details are also given of another form of flux plate which is suitable for continuous recording using a thread recording galvanometer.
Advective temperature change in the 1,000‐700 mb and 700‐500 mb layers
Authors: Craddock J. M.
Published: February 2007

It is shown, on the basis of about 700 measurements made at a particular station during six months, that the thermal change in the troposphere due to advection alone is largely offset by the other processes at work, so that the resultant change is a residual having a correlation of about 0.6 with the advective component.

The shear hodograph of an upper wind sounding is shown to afford little useful information on the resultant thickness tendency.
Effect of turbulence and condensation on drop‐size distribution in cloud
Authors: Best A. C.
Published: February 2007

Equations are developed to represent the rate of change of the number of drops of a given size in a cloud owing to condensation and to coalescence respectively. Numerical computation from these equations shows that condensation has a much greater effect than coalescence on drop‐size distribution in clouds with small average drop size, with small liquid‐water content or with a large degree of super‐saturation.

With the assumption that drop‐size distribution in a cloud is governed by rate of condensation on the drops in the cloud and rate of turbulent diffusion of the drops out of the cloud it is then shown that the fractional volume of water comprised by drops smaller than a specified size is expressible in terms of an Incomplete Gamma function. In this Incomplete Gamma function the argument is 1·5 and the upper limit to the integral varies as the square of the drop size and is also proportional to a quantity which depends upon the degree of turbulence and upon parameters connected with the rate of condensation. It is shown that this theoretical formula approximates closely to a simpler formula already established empirically and that reasonable values for the coefficient of turbulence and the condensation parameters lead to a mean drop size which agrees closely with measured values.
A new method of stimulating convective clouds to produce rain and hail
Authors: Bowen E. G.
Published: February 2007

The theory of the formation of rain by coalescence leads logically to the suggestion that, if water drops of suitable size are sprayed into the base of a convective cloud, the drops will ascend in the upward air current, will grow by coalescence with the cloud droplets and may ultimately fall out as rain. Calculations show that under appropriate conditions the drops could attain a diameter greater than 1 mm and emerge from the base of the cloud from 20 to 60 min after water had been sprayed into it.

Eleven experiments have been carried out to test the possibility of the method. In 10 cases, distinct changes occurred following the introduction of a water spray into the selected cloud. In 4 of these, virga fell from the cloud and it dissipated soon afterward. In 4 cases, rain or hail appeared shortly after spraying. On only one occasion were no results observed.

The results suggest that the method might be useful for the artificial stimulation of rainfall, but further experiments are required to fully establish the mechanism.
The effect of a hedge on the flow of air
Authors: Rider N. E.
Published: February 2007

Experiments are described in which the horizontal wind speed at three heights up to 2 m is measured at various distances up and down wind from a dense hedge 1·68 m high on occasions with wind directions approximately normal to the hedge. The results show that the hedge begins to exert an influence on the wind speed at 2 m at a distance equivalent to approximately 15 hedge heights upwind, and that downwind its influence extends to a distance approximately equivalent to 60 hedge heights. At the two lower heights of wind‐speed measurement the range over which the hedge has an effect is smaller. Diagrams are constructed to show the decrease in wind speed at the various heights within the distance range mentioned above.
Theory of air flow over a heated land mass
Authors: Smith R. C.
Published: February 2007

The velocity field of a stable atmosphere over and around a heated land mass is found, as a function of both time and distance, by consideration of the equations of motion, continuity and added heat. A heat function is introduced, in the last of these, which is not only fairly simple mathematically but also bears a good resemblance to the atmospheric picture. Certain terms are neglected initially to simplify the mathematics of the problem but they are used later to check the validity of the results and it is found that, in general, the solution would have been negligibly affected by the inclusion of these terms. There is difficulty in using the boundary condition at infinite height but this is overcome by evaluating the problem by two methods.

The numerical work was done on the EDSAC at Cambridge and some graphs of these results, using a normal type of ground temperature distribution and lapse rate, are shown.
Investigation into the accuracy of four types of rainfall recorder
Authors: Lewis W. A. , Watkins L. H.
Published: February 2007

This paper describes four rainfall recorders and gives the results of laboratory and field investigations carried out at the Road Research Laboratory to determine the accuracy of the instruments.

The instruments used were:

Standard Meteorological Office total‐rainfall recorder,

Meteorological Office rate‐of‐rainfall recorder,

Road Research Laboratory combined total‐rainfall and rate‐of‐rainfall recorder (orifice type).

Road Research Laboratory rate‐of‐rainfall recorder (channel type).

A laboratory study of the accuracy of the instruments was followed by examination of the records obtained of 49 storms occurring between the summer of 1951 and the autumn of 1952.

It was found that mean rates of rainfall between given times could be measured within about 5 per cent from the records from all the instruments, but that the chart speed of the Meteorological Office total‐rainfall recorder is too slow for peak periods of short duration to be located accurately. The principal advantage of the Road Research Laboratory combined total‐rainfall and rate‐of‐rainfall recorder is that it provides a clear picture of the shape of the storm curve which is very helpful in the analysis of the records.
The evaluation of some regression coefficients for estimating the 150‐mb wind at Liverpool
Authors: Ellison T. H. , Walshaw C. D.
Published: February 2007

The regression coefficients of the 150‐mb wind at Liverpool in winter on (a) the 300‐mb wind and the 500‐mb wind jointly, (b) the 300‐mb wind alone, (c) the 150‐mb wind 12 and 24 hr previously, (d) the 150‐mb wind 12 hr previously alone and (e) 24 hr previously alone, have been computed from data for January and February 1950 to 1954 with the aid of an electronic digital computer. The single regression equations are found to be practically as useful as the double ones. 12‐hour forecasts using the regression equation compare favourably with those made by orthodox methods.
Energy changes involved in disturbing a dry atmosphere
Authors: Ball F. K.
Published: February 2007

A method is presented for calculating the energy changes involved in disturbing a layer of a dry atmosphere. The special case of complete mixing is considered in detail and it is shown that this can only occur spontaneously when the Richardson number is less than one‐half. The kinetic energy absorbed or released when a layer of any thickness and lapse rate is completely mixed can be estimated from a graph. A second graph gives the kinetic energy necessary to maintain a given temperature gradient when heat is added to or withdrawn from any given level within the layer. Application to frost prevention shows that the energy required to maintain mixing in a 100‐ft layer while heat is being lost at the base is only a small fraction of the input energy from the normal design of frost fan.
Graphs of cumulative residuals
Authors: Kraus E. B.
Published: February 2007

The particular uses of cumulative residuals are demonstrated by two plots of annual Nile discharge at Aswan. It is shown that the mean regime of the Nile changed abruptly in 1898 in conformance with secular rainfall changes throughout most of the tropics. No trend is apparent in the two periods before and after 1898.
Waves in the lee of an isolated hill
Authors: Scorer R. S. , Wilkinson Mary
Published: February 2007

A two‐dimensional ridge produces a system of lee waves parallel to it, in a suitable airstream. Synthesizing an isolated hill by superposition of ridges inclined at various angles but intersecting in a point, and representing this by an integral, the interference pattern of the lee‐wave systems of the component ridges has been computed. An isolated hill produces a lee‐wave pattern very similar to that produced by a ship moving across the surface of deep water. It is confined within a wedge‐shaped region, the corner of the wedge being vertical and through the hill top. The half‐angle of the wedge depends upon the airstream characteristics but is typically about 15°. The waves decrease in amplitude downstream like x−½. If an oval hill lies across the airstream an appreciale lee‐wave system will be produced but it is greatly reduced in amplitude if the major axis of the hill is turned through 30° or more from the normal to the airstream. The discussion is restricted, on account of its complexity, to airstreams composed of only two layers, in each of which the parameter l is independent of height.
An investigation into the generation of waves when the fetch of the wind is less than 100 miles
Authors: Darbyshire J.
Published: February 2007

Wave records taken at Lough Neagh by wave‐pressure recorders and waves recorded over the Irish Sea by an airborne wave recorder are used to investigate the variation of wave height and wave period with fetch and wind speed, when the fetch is below a hundred miles. For values of fetch below 1 mi, these observations are supplemented by measurements taken at Staines Reservoir.

Empirical formulae are obtained for the maximum wave height, significant wave period, and spectral distribution of wave energy which reduce in the case of a large fetch to those already derived for waves in the open sea from weather ship observations. The formulae indicate that the steepness of the highest waves increases linearly with the wind speed and decreases with increasing fetch.

An expression is obtained for the mean square slope as defined by Cox and Munk (1954) and, under certain conditions, agreement is found with their results.
The formation of large droplets in small cumulus
Authors: Mason B. J. , Ghosh D. K.
Published: February 2007

Droplets of radius exceeding 30 μ are sometimes found in concentrations of order 100/l in non‐precipitating cumulus less than 5,000 ft in depth and having, on average, liquid‐water contents of only a few tenths of a gramme per m3. It is shown that droplets of this size may be produced by condensation and coalescence on hygroscopic nuclei of mass greater than 10−11 g entering the bases of such shallow clouds, provided that these last for at least one hour. The published concentrations of giant salt nuclei seem only just sufficient to account for the observed numbers of large droplets, but simultaneous measurements of both are urgently required.
Annual rainfall probability maps of the British Isles
Authors: Gregory S.
Published: February 2007

Maps showing the percentage probability of receiving an annual rainfall of less, or more, than 20 in., 30 in., 40 in. and 50 in. are presented for the British Isles, and the conditions shown on these maps are discussed.
Soil temperatures near Nairobi 1954‐1955
Authors: McCulloch J. S. G.
Published: February 2007

Continuous records of soil temperature at Muguga, Kenya, (1° 13'S, 36° 38′E) under bare soil at nominal depths of one, three and six inches and one, two and three feet were taken for the period 1954–1955.

The form of the temperature wave proved remarkably constant from day to day and the diurnal variation was measurable down to about one foot. The mean of maximum and minimum temperature is a good approximation to the daily mean temperature, as obtained by numerical integration, at depths of 6 in. and over. Nearer the surface, however, the mean of maximum and minimum gives an overestimate of the daily mean temperature. The annual soil temperature wave was not sufficiently marked to justify a mathematical analysis, but the mean diurnal wave for selected ten‐day periods was analysed and values of thermal diffusivity were computed for the depth ranges 1‐6 in. and 6‐14 in. Despite seasonal changes in soil moisture content, diffusivity values proved remarkably constant with mean values of 0·0020 and 0·0015 cm2 sec−1 respectively for the two depth ranges. There was no obvious correlation with soil water changes.
On the microstructure of atmospheric turbulence – A review of recent work in the U.S.S.R.
Authors: Obukhov A. M. , Yaglom A. M.
Published: February 2007

Owing to turbulence the instantaneous distribution of wind velocity, temperature, humidity and other meteorological elements is of a very complicated character, the elements at different points undergoing random and often very considerable fluctuations. Similarly, the values of the same elements at a fixed point and at different moments are characterized by random fluctuations having a very wide spectrum. Space and time fluctuations of meteorological elements are of general geophysical interest since they characterize atmospheric turbulence which is one of the most important features of atmospheric motion. Moreover, the study of fluctuations has an applied significance as one needs to know the statistical characteristics of fluctuations for the determination of the rate of the turbulent exchange in the surface layer, for the theory of meteorological instruments and for a number of problems of atmospheric optics, atmospheric acoustics and radio‐meteorology.

Because of their wide spectrum (both in space and time) the methods of study of these fluctuations vary according to the particular part of the spectrum which we are interested in. Here we shall mainly deal with the problem of small‐scale turbulence (of the micro‐inhomogeneities of the atmospheric fields) which are characterized by periods of a few hundredths of a second to some seconds and space scales of a few centimetres to some metres. Our considerations will mostly refer to the surface layer which has been most studied. In the U.S.S.R. a number of theoretical and experimental investigations concerning the microstructure of the principle meteorological fields, mainly those of the wind velocity and temperature, have recently been carried out. The results of these investigations are in satisfactory agreement. Simultaneously some special problems of the physics of the atmosphere using the above‐mentioned results have been treated. A brief review of all the investigations is given below.
The diurnal variation of pressure on the Greenland ice sheet
Authors: Hamilton R. A.
Published: February 2007

The curve of the diurnal pressure variation at ‘Northice’ shows a marked minimum in summer and autumn at about 0430 GMT. Maxima occur at 1300 and 2100 separated by a subsidiary minimum at 1730 GMT. The range is 0·3 mb.
Exchange of heat, moisture and momentum between Hurricane Ella (1958) and its environment
Authors: Gangopadhyaya M. , Riehl H.
Published: February 2007

On 2 September 1958, a tropical storm moved near the centre of the network of upper‐air observations in the Atlantic and Caribbean SE of Florida. This made possible determination of the structure of the storm at a radius of 4·5° latitude from the centre through the entire troposphere and computation of surface integrals concerning the exchange of heat moisture and momentum between the storm and its surroundings. It was found that a net heat export occurred, indicating a net tropospheric drying and cooling after inclusion of the effect of radiation. The inward transport of relative angular momentum was insufficient to balance the flux of angular momentum to the ground as estimated from calculations for the mean hurricane. These computations then suggest weakening of the disturbance with time, and this actually occurred.
Utility of stretch vector correlation coefficients
Authors: Charles B. N.
Published: February 2007

This paper compares empirical values of the vector stretch correlation coefficient, and the total vector correlation as fundamentally defined. The former is apparently sufficiently accurate when applied to temporal stretch alone, up to three days, but when applied to space stretch it may have little meteorological meaning unless it exceeds about 0·3 in large data samples (about 450 daily observations).
Photolytic de‐activation of silver iodide as an ice‐forming nucleus
Authors: Bryant G. W. , Mason B. J.
Published: February 2007

The rate at which the ice‐nucleating ability of silver iodide decays when irradiated with the equivalent of strong sunlight has been determined by measuring the density of oriented ice crystals appearing on single crystals of silver iodide after various periods of exposure to a mercury‐arc lamp. Wavelengths greater than 4,400 Å cause very little photolysis and decay of nucleation. The ice‐crystal density decreases 10‐ to 20‐fold after the silver iodide has been exposed to the equivalent of one hour's strong sunlight; this result is in fair agreement with the findings of the Australian workers where the activity of silver‐iodide smoke falls by 1 to 2 orders of magnitude after one hour in the atmosphere in sunlight.
Some recent changes in atmospheric electricity and their cause
Authors: Stewart K. H.
Published: February 2007

Annual mean values of atmospheric electrical potential gradient are tabulated for three British and two Portuguese stations and it is shown that unusual changes have occurred since 1952. These changes could be explained by an increased conductivity of the air near the ground. Measurements of β‐ray ionization made at the British stations indicate that the increase in conductivity has been produced by a surface deposit of radioactive material attributable to nuclear‐test explosions.
The fallspeeds of hailstones
Authors: Macklin W. C. , Ludlam F. H.
Published: February 2007

Measurements have been made of the speeds of ice objects resembling hailstones during free fall, and of the drag coefficients of such objects and of natural hailstones. It has been found that the drag coefficients range from those of spheres (about 0·45) to about 0·8, depending on the shape and surface characteristics of the stone.
An alternative derivation of the diabatic wind profile
Authors: Panofsky H. A.
Published: February 2007

Ellison's wind profile is re‐derived under the assumption that in neutral and unstable air the distance from the ground determines the eddy structure.
Precipitation over the North Atlantic Ocean
Authors: Tucker G. B.
Published: February 2007

The frequency of various types of ‘present‐weather’ observations are analysed and a method is derived using these to obtain estimates of mean monthly precipitation. The method is applied to observations from ocean weather ships in the North Atlantic Ocean to obtain the mean monthly, seasonal and annual precipitation over the ocean during the five‐year period 1953 to 1957. The results are then compared with previous estimates.
The spectrum of horizontal gustiness near the ground in high winds
Authors: Davenport A. G.
Published: February 2007

Results of a study of about 70 spectra of the horizontal components of gustiness in strong winds are described. From these and other published data the following expression for the spectrum of gustiness for strong winds in the lower layers is suggested:magnified image

Cross‐spectra and cross‐correlations of velocity between pairs of stations on a mast are given. From this it appears that the cross‐spectra can be expressed as a simple function of the ratio of the vertical separation to the wavelength, no dependence on height being detectable.
The energy balance of an evaporation pan and the measurement of the reflectivity of its bottom
Authors: Wartena L. , Borghorst A. J. W.
Published: February 2007

A U.S. Weather Bureau Class A evaporation pan was used for micro‐meteorological measurements in Iraq. Because it seemed doubtful if the method of the U.S. Weather Bureau could be used for working up the data in the desert climate of Iraq, the energy balance of the pan was studied, and details are published elsewhere. The considered items are summed up in this contribution and the results are given in Table 1. The problem of the albedo for sunlight of the shallow water in the pan was studied in the laboratory. Measurements were taken with a filtered lightbeam and a silicon photo‐cell. In a zinc pan filled with 0·175 m water, 8 per cent of the direct and diffuse sunlight with wavelengths < 1 μ which has penetrated through the water surface is reflected.
Scale analysis of atmospheric turbulence at 2 m
Authors: Panofsky H. A.
Published: February 2007

Various horizontal scales of the horizontal wind components are compared in stable and unstable air. In stable air the scales are small, and those along the wind are larger than the scales across the wind. In unstable air the scales are large and about the same in all directions.

The speed of translation of turbulent patterns normally does not deviate much from the wind speed, with one curious exception.

The ratio of the Lagrangian scale of lateral component to the Eulerian scale of lateral component averages about 5 in stable air with moderate winds, but is tentatively suggested to be considerably smaller in unstable air.
The use of the Piche evaporimeter in the calculation of evaporation
Authors: Stanhill G.
Published: February 2007

Water loss measured by the Piche evaporimeter, E, was found to be highly correlated with the calculated aerodynamic term, Ea, in Penman's evaporation formula. The error introduced by using the more convenient Piche evaporimeter measurements was less than that caused by the use of a single daily observation of vapour pressure in the calculation of the aerodynamic term.

No significant difference was found between the relationship in the Judean hills and the arid Negev region of Israel which was

A test of a simplified form of Penman's formula, based on local Piche evaporimeter readings for the aerodynamic term and a regional value for the energy term, gave close agreement with the evaporation values calculated using the full formula.
Transequatorial exchange of angular momentum
Authors: Rao Y. P.
Published: February 2007

The eddy and advective flux of relative angular momentum is computed for five stations along the equator and discussed.
The upper atmosphere in motion
Authors: Hines C. O.
Published: February 2007

The atmosphere above 80 km exhibits a wide range of dynamical phenomena. These are largely hydrodynamic in nature, and their sources of energy are likely to lie principally at lower levels. The regions are ionized, however, and hydromagnetically controlled motions also exist. They are generated from above as well as below.

The observational evidence is reviewed broadly here, in groupings determined by the physical processes that are thought to be operative, and the corresponding theories are measured against it. Many shortcomings are disclosed and assessed, and profitable avenues for future research are tentatively explored. Several areas are indicated in which the dynamical processes modify other features of the upper atmosphere, but these are not analysed in detail.
The density and structure of hailstones
Authors: Browning K. A. , Ludlam F. H. , Macklin W. C.
Published: February 2007

Macklin's (1962) experimental study of ice accretions, together with estimates of the typical conditions in the cumulonimbus of cold air masses and of summer continental air masses, is used to deduce the density of ice in the hailstones produced by these clouds. It is shown that generally small hail has a low density; it may reach the ground in the cold air masses but melts into rain in summer conditions. Large hail may have a low density core if grown upon a small frozen cloud droplet, but otherwise always has a high density. The presence of alternate layers of cloudy and clear ice is attributed to transitions between dry and wet growth.

It is shown that large hailstones can be grown during a slow second ascent in a steady updraught whose speed increases with height. Under certain simplifying assumptions it is also established that their surface temperatures are then always close to 0$C, and therefore that minor fluctuations in cloud liquid‐water content may cause growth transitions. When the simplifications are removed this result cannot be demonstrated, but it seems reasonable that alternate layers of clear and opaque ice could be produced in a similar way, and need not indicate successive rises and falls in an intermittent updraught, as formerly thought.
Production of ice crystals and electric charge by splintering of freezing droplets in thunderclouds
Authors: Browning K. A. , Mason B. J.
Published: February 2007

According to the Mason‐Latham mechanism the main thunderstorm charge is generated by the impaction, freezing and splintering of supercooled droplets on pellets of soft hail. The rates of charge and splinter production are now calculated using the Ludlam‐Browning model of the thunderstorm. The riming mechanism appears capable of producing charge at the required rate of about 1 amp in the region of strong updraught if large cloud droplets of r > 25 μ are present in concentrations of ∼ 10 cm−3 near the 0$C level. Splintering of these droplets while freezing on pellets of soft hail would produce ice crystals in concentrations about one‐tenth those of the large droplets between the — 20$C and — 30$C levels. The calculations indicate that the bulk of the thunderstorm charge cannot be generated and separated in regions of weak updraught because the production of splinters would lead to rapid glaciation of the cloud and the disappearance of supercooled water droplets.
Persistent temperature regimes at Kew
Authors: Craddock J. M.
Published: February 2007

The 5‐day mean temperature anomalies observed at Kew during the years 1901 to 1961 are examined for evidence of any pattern of variation characteristic of the time of year. It appears that the tendency for the existing temperature regime to persist is weak in spring and autumn, and stronger in winter and summer, being strongest of all in the late summer.
A long‐term series of monthly rainfall for Malta ‐ 1841 to 1961
Authors: Mitchell P. K. , Gregory S.
Published: February 2007

Previously published long‐term series are critically examined in the light of manuscript, primary printed and parallel records. All recently compiled series are shown to be inadequate. A new, but not entirely complete, series is proposed as a standard for Malta covering the 120 years from January 1841 to July 1961.
Sea smoke and steam fog
Authors: Saunders P. M.
Published: February 2007

The characteristics of fogs resulting from the advection of cold air over warm water (steam fog and sea smoke) are investigated. They are found to occur with air temperatures between 5 and 40°C lower than the water temperature, in winds from calm to gale; they have liquid water contents in the range 0·01‐0·5 gm−3, extend in height from 1 to 1,500 m and commonly exhibit either a columnar or banded structure. A study of their occurrence in Atlantic waters reveals a marked concentration in the western regions in the winter months because of the proximity of warm ocean and cold continent.

Through the use of equations for turbulent transfer it is shown that the occurrence of steaming is related to the well‐known fact that two masses of unsaturated air at different temperatures when mixed together can yield a supersaturated or foggy mixture. In deriving the connexion the equality of transfer coefficients for heat and water vapour is assumed.

The circumstances in which steaming occurs are defined. the difference in the temperatures of the air and water must exceed a threshold which is dependent on the humidity of the air and the temperature and salinity of the water: its value, in the range 5·15°C, is a minimum when the air is moist and the water cold and fresh. the liquid water content and vertical extent of steaming increase as the thermal contrast increases. Close agreement is found between observations of the onset of steaming and the computed threshold values.
Lagrangian and eulerian correlations and energy spectra of geostrophic velocities
Authors: Kao S.‐K. , Bullock W. S.
Published: February 2007

An analysis is made of the dispersion of the end‐points of geostrophic trajectories initiated daily at 0000Z for the International Geophysical Year, 1958, at 500 mb over Seattle, Washington. Computations of the yearly mean of the Lagrangian autocorrelation coefficients and eddy diffusivities show that the Lagrangian integral time scale, ·, is equal to 5·0 × 104 sec. It is found that the zonal, x, and meridional, y, components of eddy diffusivity are respectively Kx = 5·90 × 1010 cm2 sec−1 and Ky = 2·30 × 1010 cm2 sec−1. Spectral analysis of the kinetic energy of the Lagrangian geostrophic velocities shows that the kinetic energy densities of both the zonal and meridional components of the geostrophic winds generally increase from high to low frequency with a peak of the meridional component occurring at the frequency of 0·01 cycles hr−1. Analyses are also made of the Eulerian autocorrelation coefficients and energy spectra of the geostrophic velocities. It is found that the Eulerian integral time‐scale, ϵ−1, is equal to 9·4 × 104 sec, making the ratio of the Lagrangian and Eulerian time‐scales near 0·5.