bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Constructing Metaphors: The Role of Symbolization in the Treatment of Children
Authors: Drucker Jan
Published: November 2023

Lizzie, age 13, is reflecting on her early experiences in psychoanalysis, beginning when she was not yet 8. She remembers some of the prominent play themes that formed the content of session after session, month after month. I comment that she always had a special love of playing and an ability to play about those things that were most important to her, even when she could not and/or was reluctant to talk about them. She asks for examples and we discuss a few, including the way she depicted her troubled and painful academic life through our school play. Thought fully, Lizzie considers this, remembering that she did not want me to speak to her teachers for fear that I would know how badly things were going and think poorly of her for it. I point out that she was able to tell me what she needed me to know, so that we could work on it through her play. She smiles and says: “I used to wonder how you always knew things when I never told you anything. It seemed so easy.” Allison, age 12, enters the office and considers what she feels like doing. She asks, “Can you tell what mood I’m in by what I choose to do?” Without waiting for an answer, she adds, “Sometimes I don’t know myself until I begin doing it or even until I’m done!” Lizzie and Allison are beginning to understand the role that metaphoric constructions play in the articulation, communication, and mastery of experience. They are some what unusual in their ability to talk about this but not in the fact that they use play and other symbolic forms of expression.
Self-Other Action Play: A Window Into the Representational World of the Infant
Authors: Bergman Anni , Lefcourt Ilene Sackler
Published: November 2023

From early on, babies, by virtue of their babyness, elicit playfulness in others. Smiles special for baby, unique tempos of speech and body movement, and games passed down through the generations comprise the first mother-infant play. The mother of a 2-month-old baby recently asked us: “Would you like to see our first game?’’ She and her infant, gazing into each other’s eyes and smiling, became engaged in a dialogue. She lifted the baby from her lap, raised him slightly above her head, and said, ‘‘bouncy, bouncy!’’ She then returned him to her lap. The baby moved his body upward and looked at her expectantly. This provided the signal for her to lift him again. After several repetitions he stopped signaling; she was immediately sensitive to the change in his behavior, and the game ended.
Symbolic Play in the Interactions of Young Children and Mothers with a History of Affective Illness: A Longitudinal Study
Authors: Tingley Elizabeth C
Published: November 2023

Symbolic play serves important affective, cognitive, and social functions in children’s development. Traditionally, the affective function of symbolic play was viewed as the mastery of impulses and expression of inner conflicts (Freud, 1969). A more contemporary author has argued that symbolic play gives children the oppor-tunity to share and “play with” emotional experiences (Fein, 1987). One perspective, among many, on the cognitive function of symbolic play is that when children play symbolically, they are practicing subjunctive thought or learning to think “as if” (Bretherton, 1984). In the social domain, children’s symbolic play abilities have been linked to competence with peers (Connolly & Doyle, 1984) and sociometric status in the preschool years (Howes, 1987). When children’s tendency to engage in symbolic play is undermined, these important developmental functions may not be served.
Introduction
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

This book is intended to serve as a guide for those seeking to explore the subject of New York City’s government. Like most good guidebooks, it aims to be useful for those visiting for the first time, those on return sojourns, and even for natives willing to view their city from a new vantage.
Local Elections and Local Democracy
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

In democratic theory the most meaningful link between the preferences of a government’s constituents and its policy decisions is the election of those with political authority. The citizenry translates its policy preferences into municipal action by electing leaders who promise to pursue policies that reflect their objectives.
The Health and Hospitals Corporation
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

The medical care system in New York City is unique. Its distinguishing features include its enormous size, with an abundant supply of both physicians and hospital beds. But the special character of New York medicine also is rooted in two other characteristics, the large role of teaching hospitals and the large role of the municipal system.1 Whereas New York City accounts for only about 3 percent of the nation’s population, it is home to nearly 11 percent of all medical residents, and nearly seven of every ten hospitals in town are involved in graduate medical education.
The Biology of Learned Helplessness
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Maier Steven F , Seligman Martin E P
Published: November 2023

The literature investigating the biology of learned helplessness is both large and confusing. There are numerous proposals, each pointing to a different neurotransmitter, or hormone, or brain structure, as the key player in mediating learned helplessness. More­ over, each proposal has a body of supporting evidence. Adding to the confusion is the fact that some of the neurochemical consequences of being exposed to uncontrollable aversive events have been offered as alternative explanations to learned helplessness theory. That is, they have been invoked to explain the “helplessness” effects that follow inescapable shock (Chapter 2).
Reaction-Transport Modeling
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

A number of elements comprise a mathematical modeling study of geochemical selforganization. The approach set forth here is based on equations of nonequilibrium macroscopic physical chemistry. The richness of geochemical self-organization phenomena arises from the mathematical forms of the reaction and transport rate laws. These phenomena are studied using a number of analytical and numerical techniques to solve the reaction-transport equations. In this chapter we give an overview of the modeling approach and leave the development of specific rate laws to chapters focusing on particular phenomena. Techniques for reducing the equations in special limiting cases are presented.
Flow Driven Reaction Fronts
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Reaction fronts occur during weathering, metasomatism, diagenesis, geothermal alteration, and engineering processes. They arise when a fluid is driven through a rock if that fluid is out of equilibrium with at least one mineral in that rock. In this chapter, examples of such fronts are reviewed and simple models are analyzed to illustrate some of their properties.
Patterns of Failure
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

One of the oldest forms of war is the coup de main. Throughout the history of warfare, small parties of warriors, operating with limited resources and without hope of reinforcement, have repeatedly conducted sudden strikes—frequently deep within enemy lines—relying on shock, surprise, speed, and maneuver to defeat an often numerically superior enemy. In the past 40 years, such strikes have occurred in almost every conflict arena, from the swamps of Cuba to the desert of Iraq.
Raid to an Empty Camp
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

Throughout the Vietnam war, the U.S. military went to extraordinary lengths to save its personnel from captivity. Time and again, rescue crews braved daunting odds.to recover airmen who had been downed in enemy territory—often, North Vietnam itself. One of the most dramatic examples occurred during North Vietnam’s 1972 invasion of South Vietnam. On April 2, 1972, Lieutenant Colonel Iceal E. Hambleton was shot down south of the demilitarized wine between North and South Vietnam. He parachuted to the ground, only to land in the path of three North Vietnamese divisions. For the next eight days, the Air Force conducted up to ninety strike sorties a day to keep the enemy away from his position and secure the area for a helicopter rescue mission.1
Dynamic Patterns In Multiple Lead Data
Authors: Cevins Alan S
Published: November 2023

A new era may be dawning in measuring the higher cognitive functions of the human brain because of the steady accumulation of advances in psychophysiology and the technologies of brain signal measurement and analysis. A clear sign of this is the renewed interest in improving the spatial detail of scalp-recorded event-related potential (ERP) components and determining their generators in the brain.
Animal Models Of Cognitive Event-Related Potentials
Authors: Buchwald Jennifer S
Published: November 2023

A great impetus to the utilization of animal models of human evoked potentials occurred during the 1970s with the initial reports of small-amplitude, short-latency responses, later to be known as the auditory brain stem responses (ABRs),recorded from the human vertex (reviewed by Moore, 1982).
Event-Related Potentials And Automatic And Controlled Processes
Authors: Hoffman James E
Published: November 2023

According to two-process theory, perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills depend on a mixture of two kinds of processes: automatic and controlled. These two kinds of processes are held to be qualitatively different and can be distinguished using several criteria.
Judgments of frequency: a tool for the Analysis of memory
Authors: Hock Howards. , Hasher Lynn
Published: November 2023

Frequency of occurrence is a variable of fundamental importance in determining the amplitude and latency of psychophysiological responses. This is particularly true of event-related potentials (ERPs). The classical study of Tueting, Sutton, and Zubin (1971) showed that the magnitude of the P300 component varies inversely with the frequency of occurrence of the eliciting event.
Nonfamilial Strategies For The Identification Of Subjects At Risk For Severe Psychopathology: Issues Of Reliability In The Assessment Of Event-Related Potential And Other Marker Variables
Authors: Simons Robert F , Miles Mark A
Published: November 2023

There are compelling motives for conducting research with high-risk subjects, and cogent arguments can be made for choosing to investigate subjects who are at risk by virtue of their genetic relatedness to affected probands. Friedman (Chapter 18, this volume) has described in detail his own studies of children with schizophrenic parents, and it is easy to see how this research strategy can be applied to individuals whose diathesis, or vulnerability, may predispose them to other forms of psychopathology such as affective disorder or alcoholism.
Cardiorespiratory Control
Authors: Richter D W , Spyer K M
Published: November 2023

The primary role of both the cardiovascular and the respiratory systems in vertebrates is the exchange of respiratory gases between the external environment and the tissues. The respiratory system, involving either gills or lungs, has evolved together with the cardiovascular system, and only in cooperation can the two systems ensure maintenance of the appropriate diffusion gradients for oxygen and carbon dioxide between air (or water) and blood, and between arterial blood and the tissues. Tissue respiration thus depends on the physiological adjustments of both respiratory and cardiovascular functions.
Autonomic Regulation of the Urinary Bladder and Sexual Organs
Authors: groat W C De , Steers W D
Published: November 2023

Urogenital functions, such as micturition, penile erection, and seminal emission, are completely de pendent on neural mechanisms that involve both the brain and lumbosacral spinal cord. This dependence on central nervous system control distinguishes the urogenital tract from many other visceral structures (e.g., the gastrointestinal tract and cardio vascular system) that maintain a certain level of function even after elimination of extrinsic neural input.
Science and Progress: The Unity of Scholarship and Activism
Authors: Reed Adolph L
Published: November 2023

Du Bors’s CAREER can be read from one vantage point as a series of oscillations between scholarly pursuit and social activism. Such a reading would be suggested by reflection on his movement, after thirteen years on the Atlanta University faculty, to the NMCP for nearly two and one-half decades, then back to Atlanta University for ten years and then back to the NMCP. Furthermore, within his writings scholarly detachment and a hortatory posture often coexist even in a single text. His simultaneous commitments to scholarship and activism might appear unusual or even contradictory in an era when ideological conventions and a de facto division of intellectual labor assign the two categories to quite distinct spheres and agencies. However, in the cultural and intellectual milieux in which Du Bois undertook his career, a different set of conventions governed the relationship between academic and temporal activity. Scholars showed little reluctance to intervene in practical affairs, and professionalistic ideologies had not yet hardened the boundaries separating proper academic endeavor and social or political engagement.
“Tradition” and Ideology in Black Intellectual Life
Authors: Reed Adolph L
Published: November 2023

In 1989 and 1990 at least three new editions of The Souls of Black Folk were published in the United States, and it was excerpted in at least one collection of “African-American Classics.” An earlier wave of reissues had occurred, not surprisingly, during the 1960s, and the introductory essays accompanying editions in the different periods present a revealing contrast. No reference to the double-consciousness passage appears in either Saunders Redding’s introduction to the 1961 Fawcett edition or Nathan Hare’s and Alvin Poussaint’s introductions to the 1968 Signet edition. Nor does John Hope Franklin mention it in his introductory essay to the 1965 Three Negro Classics collection which includes Souls. In a 1989 Penguin edition, however, Donald B. Gibson construes the double-consciousness tension as a central element of Du Bois’s volume.
Changing Influences on Adolescent Sexuality over the Past Forty Years
Authors: Wyatt Gail Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Faye Wattleton, the president of Planned Parenthood Federation of America, appears to have a realistic appraisal of adolescent sexual behavior. Indeed, according to U.S. statistics for 1982, almost half of un­ married female adolescents 15-19 years old were reported to be sexually active (NSFG, 1984). Similarly, as of 1978, slightly over half of U.S. unmarried males 15-19 years old were sexually active (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1981). There appears to be growing acceptance of the idea that sexuality will begin in adolescence (Caplow, 1982; Elliott & Morse, 1985; Robinson, King, & Balswick, 1972; Sorenson, 1973; Wyatt, 1989a).
Statistical Mechanics and the Quasiharmonic Theory
Authors: Anderson Orson L
Published: November 2023

If we assume the solid to be an insulator, then we do not have to account for the electron degrees of freedom. They are important for metals and for some insulators in which free electron motion necessitates some corrections. But for most discussions we shall assume that we deal only with the lattice part of the thermodynamic quantities of an insulator. However, we shall comment occasionally on calculations for two metals: iron and gold. Iron is important to geophysics because it is the main constituent of the earth’s core. Gold is important to high pressure experimental physics because it is often used as a pressure calibrant (Jamieson et al., 1982; Anderson et al., 1989).
Founding Democratic Political Structures
Authors: Medding Peter Y
Published: November 2023

As we noted in chapter I, the basic principle of the majoritarian (or Westminster) model of democracy is to facilitate and enhance rule by majority; that of the consensus model is to restrain and limit bare majority rule. The structures of Israeli democracy established during the founding period produced a hybrid of these opposing principles, with considerable inbuilt tension between them.
Coalition Cabinets, Party Government, and the Control of Policy-making
Authors: Medding Peter Y
Published: November 2023

The concentration of executive power in single-party governments and cabinet dominance of parliament in unitary systems facilitate control over policy­ making. Coalition cabinets, by way of contrast, even in unitary systems, tend to disperse power and to limit the capacity for control over policy-making. To establish and maintain the majority coalition, policy determination may be handed over to separate ministries controlled by different parties rather than retained by the cabinet as a collective body.
Silver Medal
Authors: Rosenhead J V
Published: November 2023

Gathered together as we are to honour Martin Beale, it is sadly appropriate that this should also be the occasion to commemorate posthumously the achievements of another great mathematical programmer-by the award of the Silver Medal of the Operational Research Society, its highest honour, to Leonid Vitalievich Kantorovich. We had originally hoped to award Silver Medals simultaneously to Leonid Kantorovich and to George Dantzig, and invitations were despatched at the same time. But there was no reply to our letter to Professor Kantorovich; instead we received news of his death.
New Possibilities Of K-Spaces
Authors: Kutateladze S S
Published: November 2023

L. V. Kantorovich considered the development of the foundation of the theory of ordered vector spaces among his most important achievements. Already in his pioneering works of the mid-1930s devoted to this subject, he singled out a class of spaces, which are now called Kantorovich spaces, or K-spaces. In modern language, K-spaces are order complete vector lattices. Ideas developed by Kantorovich and his students in the theory of K-spaces turned out to be extremely sagacious, very much ahead of their time. It is paradoxical that even now, almost half a century later, new deep relations are being revealed that establish the place of K-spaces in the same rank with mathematical objects of truly fundamental significance. This chapter is about some of the new possibilities of K-spaces related to the sphere of interests of students of Kantorovich working at the Institute of Mathematics of the Siberian Division of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
The Integral Representability Of Extended Functionals On Vector Lattices And Cones
Authors: Veksler A I
Published: November 2023

Definition 7.1. Let X be a vector lattice (VL) and Z the positive cone of X. Every positive semilinear ..{Le., additive and positively homogeneous) functional f on Z with values in R+ is called a general extended functional on X (or on Z). Further, we shall not distinguish between extended functionals on X and on Z. Let Y be an ideal in Z (i.e., the intersection of Z with an ideal in X). Let g be a general extended functional on Y. Put Evidently, g is a general extended functional on Z, and g is the smallest extension of g to all of Z.
Official Leadership in the City
Authors: Svara James H
Published: November 2023

This work examines the roles of mayors, council members and administrators in the urban governmental process and seeks to identify ways to improve the performance of these key figures.
The Significance of Structure
Authors: Svara James H
Published: November 2023

The governmental process, the interaction among officials determining and implementing policy and managing city government affairs, may be characterized by patterns of conflict or cooperation. Among the factors that influence the nature of the governmental process, the most important one inside government is the degree of formal fragmentation determined by the form of government and the assignment of power to officials within it. The tendency of cities with mayor-council forms to experience conflict and of cities with the council-manager to cooperate is important in itself but does not tell us all we need to know about governmental performance.
Introduction
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

Many of the problems of social psychology are based on definition. Social psychology has been defined so broadly that it includes virtually all of psychology and the social sciences as well. John Dewey (1917), for ex ample, in an address before the American Psychological Association in 1917 distinguished two types of psychological pro cesses-physiological and social. Physiological processes include elementary drives and sensations, whereas the greater part of our mental life, our beliefs, our ideas, and our desires, were seen as socially derived.
Social Psychology and Social Commitment
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

During the 1930s there was a growing concern for applying social psychology to an in creasing number of social problems brought on by the Great Depression. The concern with social issues did not suddenly commence in the 1930s. Sociological social psychology had developed largely as an applied discipline, and many of the founders of the American Sociological Society, such as Ed ward Ross and Lester Ward, were deeply committed to social change.
Crisis and Revision
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

In the two decades following World War II, social psychology progressed dramatically. The amount and variety of research in creased, new theories were developed, the involvement in the war effort led to new initiatives in applying social psychology, and the number of graduate programs expanded enormously. This record of productive activity was reflected in the five volumes of the 1968 edition of the Handbook of Social Psychology edited by Lindzey and Aronson (1968). As Elms (1975) declared, this was a period in which “social psychologists ... knew who they were and where they were going” (p. 967).
Observation of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R
Published: November 2023

One way to discuss a phenomenon is to begin with a definition of it, and then proceed to explain theoretically how the phenomenon has arisen. The problem with this manner of proceeding is that definitions can beg questions and so preclude certain types of answers. For this reason the present book began with theory, glossing over the problem of a definition by using a rough “common-sense” definition of aging. However, it is not always going to be the case that common-sense ideas of aging will suffice for an empirical evaluation of the evolutionary theory of aging or its implications. Therefore, it is now necessary to consider the problem of defining the phenomenon of aging in such a way that sources of ambiguity are reduced in importance.
Genetic Mechanisms for the Evolution of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R
Published: November 2023

Several different genetic mechanisms could be involved in the evolution of aging. This diversity of genetic mechanisms does not, however, place the general evolutionary theory of aging in any difficulty. Any one of them would be sufficient, just as jointly they are sufficient to give rise to the evolution of aging. Thus theoretical evaluation or experimental tests of these alternative genetic mechanisms are not tests of the general theory. This relationship between the general evolutionary theory and the particular genetic mechanisms that might subserve it is largely analogous to the problem of the population genetics of adaptation.
The Future of Gerontology
Authors: Rose Michael R
Published: November 2023

Although this book is intended to be all of a piece, nonetheless the majority of the book has been concerned with theories of aging of quite heterogeneous kinds, from antagonistic pleiotropy to lipofuscin accumulation. The connections between these theories have only been alluded to in passing. In this final chapter the focus will be on the causal connections between physiology and evolution, and the implications of these connections for the study of the physiology of senescence, gerontology, with respect to both theory and experiment. In sum, this is the conclusion to what has been, in part, a long argument for the importance of the evolutionary theory of aging for all research in gerontology.
A Chance for Peace?
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H
Published: November 2023

One other event dramatically interrupted Eisenhower’s plans for an orderly review and revision of basic national security policy, and potentially changed the context. On March 5, 1953, Joseph Stalin died. Because the Kremlin’s longtime autocrat had been perceived since the 1930s as the embodiment of the Soviet state, perceptions of him drove estimates of the communist threat. These perceptions produced an ironic mix of dread and comfort. On the one hand, analysts and policy makers alike viewed Stalin as ruthless, megalomaniacal, and quintessentially evil. On the other hand, he was known and considered cautious and predictable. As a consequence, Stalin’s death complicated efforts to assess Soviet intentions even as it revealed deep divisons among the perspectives and priorities of Eisenhower’s advisors-Dulles and C. D. Jackson in particular.
Strategic Objectives: Rollback?
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H
Published: November 2023

Whether or not the United States should adopt the basic objective of coercing the “rollback” of Soviet power and the ending of the threat to the free world (hereafter simply called “rollback”) was inevitably a key issue in preparing the first Eisenhower national security strategy. In the 1952 campaign Dulles had urged a more “positive” and “dynamic” policy than containment for liberating Eastern Europe, albeit limited to peaceful means as Eisenhower insisted.2 And aggressive rollback had been one alternative examined in the Solarium exercise: Task Force C had laid out a specific course, including use of covert action and limited force, for pursuing it. After Solarium, Cutler’s memorandum to the Planning Board on “Points for Consideration” in drafting the new national strategy included “(5) To take selected aggressive actions of a limited scope, involving moderately increased risks of general war . . . to reduce Soviet power in the Satellite periphery.” In essence, supporters of rollback rejected the premises of the containment strategy. In his seminal 1947 “Mr. X” article, Kennan forecast that, if successfully contained, the Soviet threat would eventually wither as the long-term result of internal decay and discord within the Soviet bloc. But that disintegration could take decades. Moreover, it depended on the West maintaining for that period (1) the military and other means to frustrate Soviet expansion and (2) the cohesion and will to use them effectively.
Evoked Potential Studies of Attention Capacity in Human Frontal Lobe Lesions
Authors: Knight Robert T
Published: November 2023

Ensembles of neurons active during sensory and cognitive processing generate field potentials that can be recorded from the scalp of humans. Evoked potentials (EPs) generated O to 50 msec poststimulation reliably assess stimulus-dependent neural activity in sensory pathways and primary sensory cortex. In the last 15-20 years, cognitive event-related potentials (ERPs) have been discovered that index mental processes independent of sensory parameters. ERPs have been employed to study motor preparation, orientation, attention, memory, and semantic analysis (for review: Hillyard and Picton, 1987).
Concluding Comments
Authors: Damasio Antonio R
Published: November 2023

The frontal lobe has been more reluctant to yield its physiologic secrets than any other sector of the human brain. Hans-Lukas Teuber once wrote about the “recurrent perplexity” caused by studying the frontal lobe and about how the problems it posed “seemed to exceed” those encountered in the study of other brain regions.
How The Soviet Union Stumbled Into Afghanistan
Authors: Harrison Selig S
Published: November 2023

When the Red Army invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, the conventional wisdom was that Soviet forces would eventually move onward to their real target: the Persian Gulf oil fields. Most analysts ignored or discounted what had been happening in Afghanistan itself during the months arid years leading up to the invasion. Accumulating historical evidence now makes clear that the Soviet Union was not pursuing a master plan of regional expansion. To be sure, Soviet policy in Afghanistan became progressively more doctrinaire and more adventurous during the last years of Leonid Brezhnev; after tolerating a Soviet-tilted brand of nonalignment there for more than two decades, Moscow suddenly began to prepare for a Communist revolution. But Afghan political developments pro pe1led Brezhnev and his advisers on their course much faster than they had anticipated or programmed, in ways they were unable to control, and with undesired results they did not envisage.
My Mission Begins
Authors: Cordovez Diego
Published: November 2023

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan sent shock waves through the chambers and corridors of the United Nations. At the time the United States and most other Western countries were increasingly critical of an “automatic majority” of socialist and Third World countries that in their view prevented the adoption of balanced decisions on matters of international concern. The West had been outraged by a resolution declaring Zionism a form of racism and racial discrimination. It was, therefore, as if the invasion offered a long-sought opportunity to bring about a split among the socialist and developing countries. The West thus started an active campaign to galvanize support for a strong condemnation of the Soviet Union. “It is hard to adjust your thinking overnight from American imperialism to Soviet imperialism,” said an Asian delegate when the Security Council was convened on January 5, 1980. Oleg Troyanovsky, the usually gregarious Soviet Ambassador, looked gloomy as Shah Mohammed Dost, the Foreign Minister of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, recited a boring and often repeated account of developments in his country. He stressed that the “limited contingents” of Soviet armed forces had been requested to remove foreign threats, in conformity with a treaty of friendship, good neighborliness, and cooperation.
The Final Hurdles: “Linkage” And The Time Frame
Authors: Cordovez Diego
Published: November 2023

To dramatize the fact that there remained only one unresolved issue-the time frame for the withdrawal of Soviet troops-I prepared, at the beginning of l987, a complete text of the draft settlement with a large omega sign (0: “the twenty fourth and last letter of the Greek alphabet; the ending or last of a series”) printed on each page. That year started with a flurry of diplomatic activity. On January 1 Najibullah declared a cease-fire by Afghan and Soviet troops. Only a few days later Shevardnadze arrived in Kabul on a “working visit.” Y aqub Khan traveled to Iran, Saudi Arabia, and China. Armacost and Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Anatoly Kovalyev held consultations with President Zia in Islamabad. The talks begun by Kovalyev and Zia were continued in Moscow between Yaqub and Shevardnadze. Abdul Wakil, the newly appointed Foreign Minister of Afghanistan, visited New Delhi, and Sultan Ali Keshtmand, the Afghan Prime Minister, went to Moscow.
Conservation Concerns and Compromises
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

The western part of the forest caught fire on October 4, 1990. I was with Dida and the muriquis, near the east edge of their range in a tranquil area called Raphael. I had just finished collecting my last fecal sample for the day, and was writing the time, 11:11 am, in my notebook, when Jairo, the man who looks after the research house, raced up to us on the trail with the catastrophic news. Seconds later we were all running as fast as we could in our bulky field boots, binoculars crashing against our chests, down the 1 kilometer path that led back to the research house.
The Evolution, Maintenance, and Loss of Self-Incompatibility Systems
Authors: Barrett Spencer C H
Published: November 2023

Self-incompatibility, the inability of a fertile hermaphrodite plant to produce viable seeds upon self-pollination, is the principal and most effective mechanism preventing self fertilization in flowering plants. While its manifestations are diverse, in all cases, the major effect is to promote outcrossing between genetically different individuals of the same species. Discrimination between self and non-self is not usually the result of incompatibility between the gametes themselves, or between gametophytes.
Reproductive Strategies in Algae
Authors: Wreede R E De , Klinger T
Published: November 2023

Data on algal reproductive strategies are few and scattered. Indeed, in his treatment of the theory of sex allocation, Charnov16 notes that” ... algae ... are not even mentioned.” This chapter represents a synthesis of current information, but many gaps in knowledge and understanding remain. The various reproductive pathways in algae are explored largely in the light of theory proposed for other groups of organisms, both higher plants and animals. Because the reader must be familiar with the complex life histories of algae, these will be briefly reviewed here.
Heuristics as the Engine of Variation
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

Brainstorming’s notion that we should generate a lot of ideas and then select from them is a mental Darwinism: Be fruitful and multiply your ideas and then let selective forces reign at a later time. Other investigators, far from the brainstorming tradition, have also favored Darwinian models of the inventive process, at least for early and unsophisticated invention. Their models also emphasize chance variation and then subsequent selection from among those variations. Certainly, chance has a place in invention. However, we should not overestimate its role. Just try to come up with improvements by randomly changing the connections in your stereo or the symbols in your computer program. The role of chance in evolution has millions of years to do its work. Human culture and technology moves much faster; more than chance and accident are involved here.
Single-Invention Heuristics
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

Many times an invention’s description suggests next steps, by the simple application of heuristics to the description. Let’s begin with heuristics applied to a single invention, heuristics that are especially useful in helping us explore and cross the fuzzy boundaries that often separate one invention incarnation from another.
Multiple-Invention Heuristics: Joining
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

Another important form of heuristic that relates to multiple inventions is the joining together of previously existing inventions. Let’s set the stage. I’m sitting in a chair, making penciled notes for this essay. I’ve just made a mistake, so I tum the pencil in my hand and erase the error. What a convenient system. A pencil with lead at one end to make marks and an eraser at the other end to undo them.
Transgenic Myth to Transgenic Mouse
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

The last few years I’ve been watching with ever more interest the research on genetic engineering that produces transgenic life-forms. Transgenic forms are the fascinating creations that result from mixing genetic material between different species. Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer are usually given credit for starting it all by transplanting genetic material from a toad to a bacterium, in the l 970s. No, the bacterium did not look like a tiny toad, but it did incorporate the toad’s DNA into its own genes.
Treating Nicotine Addiction in High-Risk Groups and Patients with Medical Co-Morbidity
Authors: Gritz Ellen R , Kristeller Jean L , Burns David M
Published: November 2023

Opportunities for smoking cessation intervention represented by patient-physician and patient-health care delivery system interactions have generated a substantial body of research that defines the content and effectiveness of physician-based smoking cessation programs. Many of these programs are appropriately designed for use in routine office visits by a patient, and the content of the intervention is not focused on a specific disease or condition. However, many patient interactions occur as the result of specific health problems or conditions that may increase the patient’s motivation and interest in cessation assistance. Cessation pro-grams delivered in conjunction with initiation of other therapy for a newly diagnosed major illness or as part of prenatal care have generally had higher cessation rates than have interventions delivered to healthy patients as part of a routine office visit.
Metchnikoff and the Origins of Immunology
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

This fascinating intellectual history is the first critical study of the work of Elie Metchnikoff, the founding father of modern immunology. Metchnikoff authored and championed the theory that phagocytic cells actively defend the host body against pathogens and diseased cells. His program developed from comparative embryological studies that sought to establish genealogical relations between species at the dawn of the Darwinian revolution. In this scientific biography, Tauber and Chernyak explore ore Metchnikoff’s development as an embryologist, showing how it prepared him to propose his theory of host-pathogen interaction. They discuss the profound impact of Darwin’s theory of evolution on Metchnikoff’s progress, and the influence of 19th century debates on vitalism, teleology, and mechanism. As a case study of scientific discovery, this work offers lucid insight into the process of creative science and its dependence on cultural and philosophic sources. Immunologists and historians of science and medicine will find it an absorbing and accessible account of a remarkable individual.
The Phagocyte Eclipsed
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

The emergence of the humoralist position has been extensively discussed (outlined in the previous chapter and see, e.g., notes 1 and 2). For our purposes, it suffices to describe the principal studies that formed the challenge to Metchnikoff’s cellular position in order to define the underlying logical basis of the controversy and to place it in contrast to the early debate. We endeavor to place the general development of the humoral position in the context of the phagocytosis theory by focusing on the studies of George Nuttall, Ernst Behring, Richard Pfeiffer, Jules Bordet, and Paul Ehrlich; at each turn we examine Metchnikoff’s response.
Hidden Attraction
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L
Published: November 2023

Long one of nature's most fascinating phenomena, magnetism was once the subject of many superstitions. Magnets were thought useful to thieves, effective as a love potion or as a cure for gout or spasms. They could remove sorcery from women and put demons to flight and even reconcile married couples. It was said that a lodestone pickled in the salt of sucking fish had the power to attract gold. Today, these beliefs have been put aside, but magnetism is no less remarkable for our modern understanding of it. In Hidden Attraction, Gerrit L. Verschuur, a noted astronomer and National Book Award nominee for The Invisible Universe, traces the history of our fascination with magnetism, from the first discovery of magnets in Greece, to state-of-the-art theories that see magnetism as a basic force in the universe. The book begins with the early debunking of superstitions by Peter Peregrinus (Pierre de Maricourt), whom Roger Bacon hailed as one of the world's first experimental scientists (Perigrinus held that "experience rather than argument is the basis of certainty in science"). Verschuur discusses William Gilbert, who confronted the multitude of superstitions about lodestones in De Magnete, widely regarded as the first true work of modern science, in which Gilbert reported his greatest insight: that the earth itself was magnetic. We also meet Hans Christian Oersted, who demonstrated that an electric current could influence a magnet (Oersted did this for the first time during a public lecture) and Andre-Marie Ampere, who showed that a current actually produced magnetism. Verschuur also examines the pioneering experiments and theoretical breakthroughs of Faraday and Maxwell and Zeeman (who demonstrated the relationship between light and magnetism), and he includes many lively stories of discovery, such as the use of frogs by Galvani and Volta, and Hertz's accidental discovery of radio waves. Along the way, we learn many interesting scientific facts, perhaps the most remarkable of which is that lodestones are made by bacteria (a sediment organism known as GS-15 eats iron, converting ferric oxide to magnetite and, over billions of years, forming the magnetite layers in iron formations). Boasting many informative illustrations, this is an adventure of the mind, using the specific phenomenon of magnetism to show how we have moved from an era of superstitions to one in which the Theory of Everything looms on the horizon.
Michael Faraday:The Era of Discovery Personified
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L
Published: November 2023

Michael Faraday (1791-1867) was one of the greatest experimental scientists who ever lived (Fig. 6-1). His role in discovering more about the relationship between electricity and magnetism highlights the next phase of progress. It was stimu lated by his first conceptual insights into the nature of magne tism (and electricity) combined with clever experimentation.
What If?
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L
Published: November 2023

Perceptions about the nature of magnetism have changed dramatically over time in a systematic manner. Super stitious beliefs held sway for thousands of years and slowly be gan to make way for enlightened thinking based on experimen tal studies of the phenomenon. Experiment, however, could begin in earnest only after sensitive and sophisticated measur ing instruments were built.
The Laws of Cajal
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

In the same May issue of the Revista appeared Cajal’s first paper on the retina, “Estructura de la retina de las aves” (“Morphology and connections of the elements of the retina in birds”). This study supported his conclusion that there is no anastomosis between the nerve cells. It may be noted that the ganglion cells, whose long axons carry the output of the retina, do not have axon collaterals; thus, Golgi’s hypothesis actually cannot be tested in these cells.
Controversy
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

Waldeyer’s review in r 89 r did not establish the neuron doctrine with one wave of a master’s wand. At the time of its appearance, it was regarded as an authoritative summary of what was known about the structure of nerve cells and nerve fibers. It gave clear expression to the point of view that all fibers arise directly from cells, and that a cell and its fibers form a unit, so that nervous transmission must take place from unit to unit. But the greatest influence of this review came from the new term “neuron” introduced for the unit.
Forging a Consensus
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

The direct observation of the outgrowth of nerve cell fibers from nerve cell bodies under the microscope ended the classical period of experimental studies that established that the cell theory applies to the nervous system. The parallel debate over the theoretical framework within which the experimental results would be fashioned into the neuron doctrine ended about the same time with the awarding of the Nobel Prize jointly to Golgi and Cajal in 1906. In their formal lectures of acceptance, the two protagonists defended their beliefs in the reticular and neuronal concepts, respectively, of nervous organization. We will briefly sketch the background for this historic confrontation.
Pain
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

In early civilizations, pain related to disease was believed to be caused by supernatural forces as a penalty for sins. Both the Greek word poine, and the Latin poena, words from which the term “pain” is derived, mean “penalty” or “punishment.”
Treatments and Therapies: From Antiquity through the Seventeenth Century
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines ways in which individuals with head and brain damage have been cared for from the time of the earliest known Egyptian medical papyruses through the 1600s. The number of different treatments is enormous, and it would take volumes to describe and illustrate the history or justification of each known drug or procedure. Thus, of necessity, this chapter and the next are selective. The emphases are on some of the major interventions, such as bleeding and craniotomies, as well as on showing how slowly some treatments of limited or questionable value gave way to more successful methods.
Paula: Fear of Physiotherapy and Problems Recognizing Objects After a Severe Head Injury
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

After leaving school at 18 yr old with good examination results, Paula obtained employment as a security officer in a factory. She was an energetic, happy young woman with a large circle of friends and a zest for life. With a busy social life Paula wanted her own transport and started to save for a motorcycle. Her only brother who was 2 yr older already had his own treasured Harley Davidson and Paula decided it would be less expensive to purchase a two-wheeled vehicle than a four-wheeled one. Tragically, when Paula was 19 yr old, her brother was killed in a road traffic accident. After the initial grief Paula’s parents were extremely reluctant, quite understandably, for Paula to buy a motorcycle and offered to pay for car driving lessons. They also agreed to help purchase a car for Paula when she passed her test.
Kirsty: A Case of Optic Aphasia, Associative Agnosia, or Semantic Memory Impairment?
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

Kirsty was almost 17 yr old in September 1982. She was school captain, she had 7 “O” levels, and was planning to go to University. Described as “happy, sociable, strong-willed and rebellious,” her life was to change drastically following a car crash in which her father was killed. Her parents had separated 2 yr earlier, Kirsty lived with her younger sister, younger brother, mother, and her mother’s partner. Early in September Kirsty spent the weekend with her father who was driving her home when the accident occurred.
Sarah: Learning Some Self-Care Skills After an Anesthetic Accident
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

In 1983, Sarah was 19 yr old and halfway through her 2nd yr at a multilingual secretarial college. She spoke French and German in addition to English and was an intelligent, kind young woman although a “bit of a loner” according to her aunt. Sarah lived with her aunt, uncle, and cousins as both her parents and sister had been killed in a train fire when Sarah was 16 yr old. Her aunt had promised her sister (Sarah’s mother) that if anything ever happened to Sarah’s parents, Sarah would live with her aunt and uncle. Her aunt felt Sarah was just beginning to get over the loss of her parents and sister when another tragedy occurred.