bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Racial Voting Patterns in the South: An Analysis of Major Elections from 1960 to 1977 in Five Cities
Authors: Murray Richard , Vedlitz Arnold
Published: March 2007

Conflicting views have been advanced about racial voting patterns in the South. One contention is that blacks can most easily align with affluent whites rather than with middle or low income whites. A second argument maintains the opposite—that southern blacks' natural allies are more likely to be working class and poor whites. A third view is that one should expect to find shifting electoral coalitions across racial lines. The authors test these hypotheses with data from 109 major electoral contests in five large southern cities. Findings indicate no consistent pattern of biracial voting exists because several factors influence voting alignments in given elections. These include the traditional patterns of racial politics in given localities; the type of election that is being contested; and the race of the candidates themselves. With regard to the latter two points: it is clear, for example, that in partisan contests black-backed candidates do best with low income whites, unless the candidates are black, in which case it is most difficult to get poor whites to vote for any black office seeker. In light of these findings, the simple models of racial voting are deficient because they fail to specify the factors that influence voting patterns in particular contexts.
Keeping Handguns From Criminal Offenders
Authors: Moore Mark H.
Published: March 2007

Gun control policies must strike a balance be tween conserving legitimate use of handguns and reducing criminal use. Current federal law seeks to accomplish this ob jective by discriminating between safe and unsafe gun owners —allowing the former and prohibiting the latter from owning guns. An important practical problem soon arises: containing guns within the entitled sector. Analysis of the current supply system suggests that gun offenders acquire guns from many different sources: purchases from licensed dealers, private transfers, thefts, and black markets. Among these, legitimate purchases seem most important in supplying assaulters, and thefts seem to be the most important in supplying armed robbers. The "black market" turns out to be difficult to dis tinguish from the other sectors. To the extent it is distinct, it seems to be populated primarily by small-scale, imper manent enterprises, rather than durable firms. Analysis of how existing institutions might be deployed against this system leads to the conclusion that local enforcement capacities and federal regulatory efforts are the most important operational capacities to develop. Federal criminal investigation capa bilities are important only for limited purposes.
"One With A Gun Gets You Two": Mandatory Sentencing and Firearms Violence in Detroit
Authors: Loftin Colin , Mcdowall David
Published: March 2007

Mandatory sentences for crimes committed with a gun are a popular policy because they promise a reduction in gun violence at a relatively low cost. In this article we present some results of a study of the implementa tion of such a law in Detroit, Michigan. Two major questions are discussed: (1) what effect did the Michigan gun law have on the certainty and severity of sentences; and (2) did the gun law reduce the number of serious violent crimes in Detroit? We find that, although the law required a two-year mandatory sentence for felonies committed with a gun and the prosecutor followed a strict policy of not reducing the gun law charge, there was little change in the certainty or severity of sentences that could be attributed to the effects of the gun law. Only in the case of assault was there a significant change in the expected sentence. Also serious violent crimes—murder, robbery, and assault—follow patterns over time that lead us to conclude that the gun law did not significantly alter the number or type of serious crimes in Detroit.
The Demography of Mid- and Late-Life Transitions
Authors: TREAS JUDITH , BENGTSON VERN L.
Published: March 2007

The extension of life expectancy has made possible the life cycle transitions we have come to associate with middle and later years. Because more and more Americans now live to see middle age, old age, and even advanced old age, these stages of life have been democratized. They have been made accessible to a broad cross-section of the population, rather than to only a select few. In conjunction with more generational independence of living arrangements, longer lifetimes have given rise to the empty nest followed by a postmarital period of solitary living. Changes in labor force participation patterns have meant that older persons today experience a relatively new life-style and life stage called retirement.
U.S. Foreign Policy, 1959-80: Impact on Refugee Flow from Cuba
Authors: SCANLAN JOHN , LOESCHER GILBURT
Published: March 2007

Migration from Cuba to the United States since Castro assumed power, and the characterization of those leaving as refugees, have been strongly affected by U.S. foreign policy concerns. During the 1959-62 migration wave, particularly prior to the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Cubans were welcomed as temporary exiles, likely to topple Castro and return home. The second major migration wave began in 1965, in the midst of a U.S. campaign for systematically isolating and economically depriving Cuba and its citizens. When thousands of those citizens left Cuba, primarily to improve their economic circumstances and rejoin family members, they were welcomed as refugees because of the symbolic value of their rejection of Latin America's only communist state. The third migration wave occurred in 1980, after a decade of detente and gradually improving U.S.-Cuban relations. It served no clear U.S. foreign policy ends and was perceived as helping Cuba rid itself of undesirables. Consequently those arriving received little public support.
The Aging of the Population and Health Services
Authors: VLADECK BRUCE C. , FIRMAN JAMES P.
Published: March 2007

The demographic revolution—engendered in large part by modern medicine—which has led to the extraordinary and continuing increase in the number and proportion of elderly persons in the population has profound implications for health services. The elderly are disproportionately heavy utilizers of health care, primarily because of the prevalence of chronic disease. In the United States most health care for the elderly is financed through public funds, and costs have been increasing at an alarming rate. There is wide consensus that, for all the excellence of performance of the medical care system in treating acute episodes, care of chronic disease is frequently unsatisfactory in both quality and cost. Given the demographic imperatives, reform of mechanisms for chronic care is thus essential.
America's Nuclear Ferment: Opportunities for Change
Authors: La ROCQUE REAR ADMIRAL GENE R.
Published: March 2007

Unprecedented public concern about nuclear weapons and nuclear war has been brought about by the bellicose rhetoric of the Reagan administration and preparations to fight and win a nuclear war. But Americans still for the most part share a profound fear and mistrust of the Soviet Union. Many of our more alarmist assumptions about Soviet aggressive intentions do not seem well founded. The vague concept of deterrence, used to justify everything we do in the nuclear area, has become a meaningless slogan. In our military planning we pay slight attention to how the Soviets may actually perceive our so-called deterrent actions. Ultimately nuclear weapons must be eliminated. For the forseeable future, a restrained nuclear weapons program limiting both the United States and the USSR to a retaliatory nuclear force posture is our best hope. The United States, Europe, and the Soviet Union must begin now to plan for vastly expanded cooperation and understanding if we are to prosper in the twenty-first century.
Design of the Automated Factory: More than Robots
Authors: NADLER GERALD , ROBINSON GORDON H.
Published: March 2007

This article emphasizes the dynamic and complex nature of a robotic factory. Every step from conception to eventual destruction is for, by, and because of people. Twelve principles of design are discussed, with emphasis on the uniqueness of each design and the processes and procedures involved in continual redesign. The technical system is related to the purpose, product, and properties of the social system; there is no optimal technology in itself. The article goes on to examine the requirements of the social system in future automated factories. Experiences in current automated factories, the organizational functions required to support the technical system, and the turbulent environment in which organizations are increasingly forced to operate are reviewed. The kinds of people needed will be required to exercise responsibility and discretion to replace supervision and prescription. The article discusses the usual myths about change, which the design process seeks to overcome, and ends with a note on the appropriate education for future designers, observing that our schools are probably not producing many appropriately trained people.
Wanted: Managers for the Factory of the Future
Authors: SKINNER WICKHAM
Published: March 2007

An obstacle to progress toward major technological change in American industry centers around the industrial manager and prevalent managerial processes. New technology promises a factory of the future with radically better and more challenging jobs and work environments but, in spite of these and major strategic advantages, the rate of investment and change is slow. Case research suggests that decisions to redesign and reequip factories with available new equipment are delayed by detail-centered, cautious managers enmeshed in typical corporate decision-making that focuses on finance rather than strategy. The investment costs and risks in new factory technology are substantially greater than present technology, augmented by the need for closely integrated equipment and information systems. Hence the start-up and debugging problems are formidable, the outcomes are nearly unpredictable, and the behavior of managers unwilling to assume such career risks is therefore altogether rational. This set of factors has outdated not only many present corporate investment decision-making processes but a heretofore successful generation of top industrial managers.
Supply, Demand, and the University
Authors: HACKNEY SHELDON
Published: March 2007

One reason there never seems to be adequate funding for the arts is that supply can never keep up with demand. Because of their mission and the environment they provide for creative minds, universities contribute to the problem by fanning the sparks of artistic desire. At the same time, because of their role in educating the audiences of the future, they are equally a part of the solution. In good financial times no less than in bad, Americans have tended to regard support for the arts in a puritanical light. Universities therefore make their most solid contributions to the arts in kind, by encouraging artists and the arts as part of the primary educational mission and by exposing all students to both the old and the new in art, music, and drama. Even though direct subventions are bound to remain inadequate, institutions can effectively provide support for the arts by resuming some responsibility for instilling aesthetic judgment in the citizens and consumers of tomorrow. Universities have a historical obligation to develop the highest in human awareness. This includes helping to determine tomorrow's tune by taking responsibility for informing the tastes of those who will pay the pipers of the future.
The Genealogy of Public Opinion Polling
Authors: MARTIN L. JOHN
Published: March 2007

Public opinion polling has a long pedigree, and wars, politics, business, and humanitarianism have all been incentives to its development. Its ancestry includes philosophers and social scientists who contributed to the definition of public opinion, which had to be conceptualized before it could be measured. Landowners and social reformers are among those who worked on the methods of social surveys. Journalists, psychologists, and sociologists contributed to the fashioning of questionnaires. Sampling theory was developed by astronomers, mathematicians, and economists, while the methods of data analysis were devised by statisticians, psychologists, and sociologists. All this, when coupled with modern technology, makes polling an indispensable tool of politics, business, and the mass media today.
The Future of American Unionism: A Comparative Perspective
Authors: KASSALOW EVERETT M.
Published: March 2007

The unions in advanced, industrialized societies are likely to face conditions in the coming decade that will be far less favorable than those in the decades immediately following World War II. Growing economic competition from newly industrializing nations, the onset of major structural reform and shrinking employment in a number of older industries, the shift to services, and some unfavorable demographic trends—all of these forces are likely to be operating in most of the advanced, democratic countries. While the responses of West European unions may tend to be similar to those in the United States, in some respects, important differences can also be anticipated. Differences in union institutions and tradition, as well as in bargaining systems and relationships with employers, help explain these likely divergences in development.
The Insanity Defense before 1800
Authors: WALKER NIGEL
Published: March 2007

The earliest context in which madness is treated as an excuse for crime is Justinian's Digest. The Christian church brought this feature of Roman law to pre-Norman England. Madmen were probably not regarded as triable by ordeal, but were simply left to be guarded by their kinsfolk. When trial by ordeal was abandoned, and juries had to determine guilt, juries were at first expected to find madmen guilty but refer their cases to the king for pardon. It was not until about 1500 that juries seem to have begun to acquit on grounds of insanity. The reasoning varied: madmen were “punished enough by their madness”; they “lacked the will to harm”; they could not “tell good from evil.” How strictly the tests of insanity were applied depended on the crime. The rejections of the defense that figured in the State Trials series were not typical, but gave historians the impression that the defense hardly ever succeeded before Hadfield's trial in 1800. In fact, as the Old Bailey Sessions Papers show, it often succeeded in the eighteenth century. Nor was this the result of empire building by the medical professions. Laymen's evidence was often accepted without any testimony by mad-doctors.
Home Truths about Prison Overcrowding
Authors: COBB ALONZO
Published: March 2007

The majority of prisoners the author has spoken with are not very concerned about prison overcrowding; they are concerned only with benefiting their own immediate conditions. They only talk about overcrowding and leave a minority of inmates to file the petitions and writs to get rid of overcrowded conditions. In this article, the physical conditions of overcrowded prisons are detailed and strategies are outlined whereby litigious prisoners may protect their own possessions vis-à-vis the prison authorities. For their part, some prison administrators prefer the status quo and are not too keen about inmates meddling in internal affairs. The federal courts in Georgia have mandated that overcrowded prisons come up to minimum standards. Such court action motivates prisoners to work for more humane prisons.
Problems and Paradoxes in Economic and Social Policies of Modern Welfare States
Authors: SPIVEY W. ALLEN
Published: March 2007

Relationships between economic growth rates and the expansion of welfare expenditures in Western nations are examined. The point is made that real gross national product grew rapidly from about 1959 until about 1973, but that since 1973 it has either grown slowly or not at all, while welfare expenditures and entitlements have continued to escalate. Forecasts of a variety of important economic variables in these countries for the near term are presented and discussed, and it is concluded that despite the current modest economic improvement, difficulties in funding welfare states will continue throughout the remainder of the 1980s. Some consideration is given to problems in welfare states to the end of the century, and further difficulties in funding and managing these states are forecast for this period as well. Problems of welfare states are not regarded as short-term by-products of maladjustments experienced in the Western world in the last 10 years but rather as long-term characteristics.
Religion in America
Authors: GALLUP GEORGE
Published: March 2007

This article reviews recent survey indicators on religi˙ous life in America. Generally the surveys reveal a rising tide of religious interest. The “highly spiritually committed” are more satisfied with their lives, more tolerant of others, and more concerned with the betterment of society. Despite the high interest in religion, there are glaring inconsistencies: levels of morality and ethics remain low, hunger is a reality for many Americans, and levels of self-esteem are low for many persons.
Media Coverage of the Middle East: Perception and Foreign Policy
Authors: SHAHEEN JACK G.
Published: March 2007

A distorted media image of the Arab people is becoming ingrained in American culture and continues to inhibit a resolution of the Middle East conflict. Seemingly innocuous vehicles of entertainment, such as television programs, motion pictures, novels, and comics, help promote the image to unsuspecting audiences, and these audiences relay the image to subsequent audiences. News correspondents' misperceptions of Arabs permeate their reports, policymakers' crucial decisions may be influenced by those unrealistic perceptions, and the public's stereotypical images may affect the formation and acceptance of policy. In order to show the extent of the harm caused by distorted images, examples from entertainment media and from news coverage will be offered. Pertinent to the image problem are illustrations of how misperceptions from the past have helped and continue to help influence policymakers' actions and decisions. Fair portrayals and accurate information are essential to foreign policy decisions; false images and incorrect information may corrupt the policymaking process.
Religion, Legitimacy, and Conflict in Nigeria
Authors: BIENEN HENRY
Published: March 2007

Nigeria has not evolved political formulas that explicitly allow religion or religious authorities to define legitimacy. There have, however, been struggles carried out in religious terms over constitutional mechanisms for adjudicating conflict. Religion also has been an element in the conflict between ethnic-language groups. Finally, religion provides a language, a set of values, and institutions through which groups struggle and over which groups contend, both within and between religious communities. It has been necessary for northern leaders to stress Islam in order to maintain northern unity. However, Islam itself has worked to intensify fissures opened up by social and economic change in Nigeria. Islam in Nigeria continues to be contentious in both domestic and foreign policy.
Campaign Finance Reform: The Unfinished Agenda
Authors: WERTHEIMER FRED
Published: March 2007

In 1974, following the Watergate scandal, Congress enacted major campaign finance reform legislation. The legislation created a revolutionary new public financing system for our presidential campaigns, but it left congressional campaigns to be financed totally by private money. The presidential public financing system has worked well. Despite some incremental problems, the system has accomplished its basic goal of allowing individuals to run for the presidency without becoming dependent on their financial backers. The system for financing congressional campaigns, on the other hand, is out of control and in need of fundamental reform. The inappropriate role of special interest political action committees (PACs) in influencing congressional elections and congressional decisions is the single biggest problem facing the political process. Congress needs to complete the unfinished campaign finance reform agenda of the 1970s by enacting public financing for congressional campaigns and establishing new restrictions on the total amount that PACs may give to a congressional candidate.
Social Scientists' Views on Immigrants and U.S. Immigration Policy: A Postscript
Authors: MOORE STEPHEN
Published: March 2007

This article reports the findings of a 1985 survey of 82 eminent anthropologists, economists, historians, political scientists, psychologists, and sociologists concerning the consequences of immigration to the United States. As a group, the social scientists were found to be more supportive of legal and illegal immigration than the general public. Of the six professions surveyed, the economists held by far the most positive opinion of immigrants: 81 percent responded that immigration has had a “very favorable” impact on the nation's economic growth. These results support the hypothesis, suggested by public opinion poll data broken down by level of education, that the more expertise a person has on the subject of immigration, the more likely he or she is to feel that immigrants make positive contributions to American society.
Durable Academic Linkages Overseas: A National Agenda
Authors: LAMBERT RICHARD D.
Published: March 2007

As a nation we spend about $1 billion annually on a bewildering potpourri of international exchange and training programs. Some attention to the cross-sectional profile of exchanges resulting from the many individual programs is needed. The current mix of programs is unbalanced as to sponsor, clientele, countries covered, and purpose. Four functions of exchange and training programs are identified: (1) the export of American technology and skills; (2) familiarization with another society; (3) transnational sharing of science and technology; and (4) research about other countries. It is argued that our overwhelming emphasis on the first two purposes must be balanced by greater emphasis on the latter two. In particular, in the social sciences and the humanities the provision of opportunities to build an interacting network of scholars similar to those in the natural sciences is called for. There is also a need for an increase in the opportunities for international affairs specialists to conduct their research abroad.
The Citizens' Role in Justice: Building a Primary Justice and Prevention System at the Neighborhood Level
Authors: SHONHOLTZ RAYMOND
Published: March 2007

Conventional law enforcement is reactive—and does little to break the cycle of hostile personal relations between citizens who eventually assault or kill one another. Based on over ten years of experience, a much more effective and preventive policy is community-based conflict resolution by trained citizen volunteers, working with other citizens. Interpersonal violence in the United States can be dramatically reduced if cities adopt such neighborhood justice, like that pioneered by the Community Board Program. So defined, the concept of prevention is a community responsibility maintained by citizens exercising their civic rights.
Interdependence of Scientific and Technological Information and Its Relation to Public Decision Making
Authors: KRANZBERG MELVIN
Published: March 2007

Recent breakthroughs in superconducting materials reveal the interdisciplinary thrust of modern science and technology. The past fragmentation and specialization of scientific and technical fields is countered by the need for joint research, occurring in several institutional contexts—university, governmental, and industrial—and on an international scale, all affecting the nature of science and technology communication. Recognition that the nation's security and economy depend upon its scientific and technological base means that government is increasingly concerned with its direction; at the same time, the internal dynamism of science and technology requires complex and costly endeavors, making them increasingly dependent upon governmental support and hence public approval. Informing the general public and policymakers adds external dimensions to communication needs. Furthermore, the complex nature of innovation requires greater and speedier communication within the science-technology community, met by more publications and advances in electronic communications, but not to the exclusion of the human element.
Japanese Attitudes Toward the United States
Authors: THAYER NATHANIEL B.
Published: March 2007

The Japanese look within themselves to find the causes of the Pacific War (1937-45). They have discovered an inner-directed nationalism that exalts conformity and ethnicity. Impressed with the high-mindedness of the Americans, who placed reform over rehabilitation in their occupation of Japan, determined not to go to war again, the Japanese have submerged their nationalism within a pro-Americanism. That state of affairs will continue so long as America seeks peace, looks outward, honors diversity, and lives up to its ideals.
The Physical Sciences and Mathematics
Authors: GERJUOY EDWARD , BARANGER ELIZABETH UREY
Published: March 2007

University faculty in the physical sciences and mathematics— the quantitative sciences—must generate their own research funds, often including funds to support their graduate students. The major funding source is the federal government, through its various funding agencies; the competition for research funds is intense. As a result, an agency's funding criteria, which depend on the agency's mission, can greatly influence research directions in a broad field of quantitative science. In particular, such influences—amounting to a significant skewing of research directions and subfield growth in university quantitative science, with possible effects on university recruiting and administrative policies as well—have resulted from the mission orientation of the Department of Defense (DoD), coupled with recent increases in DoD funding. Concluding observations discuss some possible means of alleviating the problems posed by DoD funding of university quantitative science.
The Role of Science and Scientists in Human Rights
Authors: CORILLON CAROL
Published: March 2007

The topic of science and human rights encompasses dozens of issues and involves scientists and scientific organizations in all corners of the globe. This article examines four of these issues and touches on the specific activities of scientists and scientific organizations in a number of geographic areas. The article is divided into four sections: the scientist as human rights activist, the scientist as human rights victim, the scientist as human rights abuser, and the application of science to human rights work.
Federalism's Future before the U.S. Supreme Court
Authors: HICKOK EUGENE W.
Published: March 2007

Since 1974, the U.S. Supreme Court's federalism jurisprudence, with one important exception, has continued to recognize the extensive authority of the national government. The Court has established the primary contours of the intergovernmental network. The sorts of federalism questions it now confronts usually concern the implementation of policies. The principal question, then, is not whether the national government can act but whether it can act in a certain way. This focus upon administration, rather than political principles underlying administration, has led to the development of a jurisprudence of intergovernmental affairs rather than federalism.
Research on Telecommunicated Learning: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: JOHNSTONE SALLY M.
Published: March 2007

Research on media-assisted distance education has been conducted since the 1930s, and most studies agree that when such courses are well designed, they are as effective as those taught in a traditional environment. Most of this research is based on a limited population however, and the extent to which it can be generalized to other groups is questioned. More recent research focuses on broader issues, such as new models of distance learning and interactivity strategies for learners at a distance. There are still some unanswered questions relating to the most effective types of interaction between learners and their teachers.
In Quest of African American Political Woman
Authors: PRESTAGE JEWEL L.
Published: March 2007

African American women, political activists for their entire history on the American continent but long denied the right to vote and hold office, have resorted to nontraditional politics. This article explores the nature and extent of African American women's political participation, beginning with the slave era. As victims of racial and sexual discrimination, these women have been active in the African American liberation movement and the women's movement. Along the way they developed a rich array of innovative alternatives to the traditional political activities from which they were excluded. After the 1965 Voting Rights Act, nontraditional activities began to give way to more traditional ones. Currently, they are the prime users of the ballot, hold a higher percentage of their race's elective offices than do white women, and as officeholders exhibit higher levels of women's organization membership than do white women and are highly supportive of women's issues. African American women receive high praise for their performance as officeholders. Unlike their white counterparts, African American adults have not experienced a gender gap.
Ethics in the Women's Movement
Authors: ELSHTAIN JEAN BETHKE
Published: March 2007

Feminism without ethics is inconceivable. Each feminist position makes contact with previous politico-ethical systems, sometimes extending, sometimes repudiating features of those systems. In this article, the author elaborates the relationship between feminism in its radical, liberal, Marxist or socialist, and ecological varieties and various political and ethical positions on some of the most highly charged issues of the day. Her aim is to show that feminism cannot escape exuding ethical assumptions and implications and that feminists can and should be held accountable for the stances their own positions either underwrite or repudiate. In this matter, at least, Jean-Jacques Rousseau was right when he insisted that “those who would separate politics from morals must fail to understand both.”
Defense Reorganization and National Security
Authors: DAVIS VINCENT
Published: March 2007

The Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 dramatically punctuated almost a century of efforts to make the leadership, management, and use of American armed forces more cohesive and efficient. The primary approach was an increasing centralization of civilian authority, including the creation and further strengthening of the Office of the Secretary of Defense by the National Security Act of 1947 and subsequent amendments. Nonetheless, the armed services remained in a divisive and contentious framework under the intentionally emaciated authority of a weakly centralized collectivity on the uniformed side of the defense establishment. The Goldwater-Nichols Act sought to fix the problem by centralizing the uniformed side of the Pentagon in parallel with the civilian side, running the risk that this could lead to civil-military conflict instead of a smooth partnership between the defense secretary and the sharply enhanced Joint Chiefs of Staff's chairman immediately under him. This article analyzes the main consequences of the Goldwater-Nichols Act over the first four years since it was signed into law.
China and Africa
Authors: SEGAL GERALD
Published: March 2007

It is hard to make a case that Africa matters very much to China. The 45-odd countries of the continent constitute roughly a quarter of all U.N. members and something like a half of all developing states, but they count for little in the overall scheme of Chinese foreign policy objectives. To be sure, there have been times when China was less involved with the international community and its rhetorical policy of support for African causes appeared to suggest that Africa was important to China. But especially since the late 1970s, when China sought prosperity through greater integration with the states of the global market economy, the rhetoric about Africa has been shown to be unsupported by real initiative. Yet this is not to suggest that it is pointless to review China's African policy, for at least a brief survey can help highlight the priorities of Chinese foreign policy and help separate the reality from the sometimes lofty rhetoric.
The Good-Books Imperative: Keeping up in Futures Studies
Authors: MARIEN MICHAEL
Published: March 2007

Keeping up with the literature is imperative in any field. It is especially so in the loose, multifaceted realm of futures studies, where there is much to read, much of which becomes out-dated in only a few years following publication. Newer is not necessarily better, but in futures thinking it often is. Books mentioned here have been selected from more than 11,000 abstracts and reviews published in Future Survey since 1979. They provide an introduction to much of the contemporary futures thinking in the United States, but they do not cover all sectors and all issues. The hundred-plus recommended book titles are a start in appreciating futures literature.
Affirmative Action in Higher Education
Authors: ORLANS HAROLD
Published: March 2007

Affirmative action in higher education has sought to increase the number of women and minority students and faculty in most educational fields, levels, and ranks. Voluntary measures to recruit black students and faculty began in the 1960s, before the government, in the early 1970s, imposed elaborate requirements to promote the employment of women and minority faculty. Women's groups pressing to change admission and employment practices they judged discriminatory have made far greater gains than blacks. In the last decade, Asians have also done surprisingly well as graduate students, faculty, and research staff in the sciences and engineering. The higher-educational status of blacks remains troublesome. In small part, this reflects many black students' preference for the professions over graduate school and academic life; in larger part, the consequences of slum life and schools.
Maghrebi Immigration to Europe: Double Insertion or Double Exclusion?
Authors: LEVEAU RÉMY
Published: March 2007

In Europe, Islam became a significant form of collective behavior among migrants from the Maghreb, Turkey, Western Africa, and India during the 1970s, when that group of people decided to settle abroad and raise their children in what they considered, at the beginning, to be a lasting exile. In that way, Islam appeared as an instrument for building new identities and transnational solidarities for the purpose of negotiating with the states and societies of settlement. But that peaceful approach has been taken as an unacceptable challenge by secular societies, which are no longer used to dealing with religious values as a way of collective self-assertion. In a future open Europe that will include 5 to 6 million Muslims, it will be necessary to establish a new doctrinal framework of cultural pluralism that includes Islam.
Citizen Groups and the Changing Nature of Interest Group Politics in America
Authors: BERRY JEFFREY M.
Published: March 2007

The rise of liberal citizen groups that began in the 1960s has had a strong impact on the evolution of interest group advocacy. The success of these liberal organizations was critical in catalyzing the broader explosion in the numbers of interest groups and in causing the collapse of many subgovernments. New means of resolving policy conflicts had to be established to allow for the participation of broader, more diverse policy communities. Citizen groups have been particularly important in pushing policymakers to create new means of structuring negotiations between large numbers of interest group actors. The greater participation of citizen groups, the increased numbers of all kinds of interest groups, and change in the way policy is made may be making the policymaking process more democratic.
The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas
Authors: McADAM DOUG , RUCHT DIETER
Published: March 2007

Current theory and research on social movements continue to treat these movements as discrete entities, rather than to focus on the ways in which activists in one struggle borrow elements from other similar groups. With its emphasis on the spread of information or other cultural elements, the diffusion literature represents a potentially fruitful starting point for theorizing about the transfer of ideas or tactics from one movement to another. Drawing on this literature, the authors sketch a model of the cross-national diffusion of movement ideas that emphasizes (1) the role of direct relational ties in encouraging an initial identification of activist-adopters in one country with activist-transmitters in another and (2) the role of nonrelational channels as the principal means of information transmission once this initial identification is established. The authors then use the case of the American and German New Left to illustrate the utility of the approach for the study of cross-national diffusion.
Recrafting the Common Good: Immigration and Community
Authors: BACH ROBERT L.
Published: March 2007

Recent urban unrest has rekindled interest in the impacts of immigration on established U.S. communities. Yet little is known about the ways in which newcomers and established residents interact. Popular journalists emphasize only incidents of conflict and turmoil. This article examines the current portrayal of conflicts between immigrants and established residents. Immigrants and established residents live in social worlds divided institutionally and residentially. Although their separation maintains a degree of order, it creates pressures on those occasions when newcomers and established residents interact, including interactions in workplaces, stores, schools, and parks. The article also explores how both groups are working together to face common problems after two decades of profound economic restructuring. New demands on immigration and community policies must mobilize the voluntary sector to generate new resources and to articulate the values derived from their diverse communities. Voluntary organizations face challenges to adjust their established practices and to redefine their membership. These efforts are fundamental for recrafting the common good.
The European Parliament and the Authority-Democracy Crises
Authors: LODGE JULIET
Published: March 2007

Since its inception, the European Parliament has stimulated integration and the transition to a European Union based on liberal democratic principles. Its Draft Treaty establishing the European Union remains the benchmark for a new constitution. Institutional change and the alteration in the balance of power between the Commission, the Council of Ministers, and the European Parliament are useful indicators of the transition of the European Community (EC) to a federal union whose flexible parameters remain contested. The European Parliament, as the chief advocate of democracy, efficiency, accountability, and openness in the EC, continues to play a constituent role and to seek means of redressing the EC's democratic deficit, which exists not only in the legislative sphere but also on a horizontal and vertical plane within the union. New legislative practices and the Committee of Regions alone will not close the gap.
Transnational Relations and Regionalism in the Caribbean
Authors: SERBIN ANDRÉS
Published: March 2007

The global trend toward increased involvement by non-governmental agencies and private parties has enriched the mix of actors operating at all levels of interstate and intersociety relations in the Caribbean. While many of these new relations persist in the traditional ties with the former colonial metropolises, there is evidence of new relations in the political, economic, gender, academic, and environmental areas. Even as this article examines many of these transnational relationships, it is not sanguine about the disappearance any time soon of the linguistic, ethnocultural, and political barriers that have historically kept the Caribbean balkanized.
Campaign Reform: Interest Groups, Parties, and Candidates
Authors: SITTIG ROBERT F.
Published: March 2007

The rapid rise of private interest group campaign financing since the 1970s has prompted responses from both citizen organizations and the federal and state governments. The conversion of presidential campaigns from private to public funding has been the most important example of this at the federal level, and more recently, congressional campaign financing has been nearly adopted. The record of campaign finance reform at the state level ranges more widely. Nearly all states have an independent enforcement agency and require candidate disclosure of campaign-financing data. Most states impose some limitation or ban on private groups and organizations in regard to campaign contributions, and many supplement private donations with taxpayer funds, which allows for more stringent restrictions on private groups and candidates. A few states now prevent immediate employment of former public officials in lobbying positions, and others have prohibited all gift and social lobbying outlays.
Women, Crime, and Fear
Authors: STANKO ELIZABETH A.
Published: March 2007

This article examines women's fear of crime. Through an examination of current attempts to address women's fear of crime, it is argued that women's anxiety about danger is largely a fear of men and reflects women's location in a gendered world. Confronting women's fear means confronting the danger women face at the hands of their partners, acquaintances, clients, and coworkers, as well as other potential violence from men inside and outside the home. In contrast, government advice tries to assuage women's fear by suggesting that women adopt individually managed precautionary strategies to minimize encounters with male strangers. Good lighting, good transport, adequate child care, decent education, safe houses, and safe relationships—one without the others is inadequate to address women's needs and, by extension, women's fear of crime.
Prosecutorial Limits on Overlapping Federal and State Jurisdiction
Authors: LANDERS RENÉE M.
Published: March 2007

Historically, debates over the wisdom of expanding the reach of federal power have reflected the tension between competing notions: the idea that responsibilities for the business of government can be allocated neatly into fixed federal and state spheres, and the idea that the federal government, including the federal courts, must have the flexibility to expand its reach to respond to changing national problems and concerns. In recent years, Congress has enacted several statutes expanding the criminal jurisdiction of the federal courts into areas previously the sole responsibility of the states. This article argues that three such expansions—the Violence Against Women Act, the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act, and the Child Support Recovery Act of 1992—fit within a traditional rationale for exercises of federal jurisdiction. In addition, this article suggests that, as a practical matter, these expansions do not signal an attempt to supplant state authority but, rather, are an effort to supplement state authority by invoking federal power and applying federal resources in strategic, limited ways. The wise allocation of federal resources in areas of overlapping state and federal jurisdiction depends on the selective exercise of federal prosecutorial discretion.
The Effect of Federalization on the Defense Function
Authors: CURTIS DENNIS E.
Published: March 2007

The increasing federalization of crime gives rise to concurrent state and federal jurisdiction over most crimes. This dual jurisdiction enables prosecutors to choose whether to prosecute in state or federal courts. It is generally easier to obtain conviction in federal courts, and there is usually a large differential in the possible punishment under the different systems, with the federal system often having the harsher sentencing structure. As a result, prosecutors have enormous power to coerce guilty pleas or to choose the easiest path to conviction at trial. This concentration of power is worrisome, especially because there is at present no coherent policy about which crimes and which criminals should be prosecuted in state courts and which in federal courts. The result is that the prosecutorial advantages are employed randomly, with predictable results: wide disparities in sentences for similar offenses committed by like offenders, and marked differences in enforcement patterns across jurisdictions.
High Technology and Work Tomorrow
Authors: ARONOWITZ STANLEY , DiFAZIO WILLIAM
Published: March 2007

Science and technology developments over the past 25 years have had profound effects on workplace productivity and income. Prevailing wisdom holds that significant levels of investment in plant and equipment and the consequent economic growth lead, in the context of a market economy, to more permanent jobs. The authors contest this claim. They argue that the tendency of technology investment is inherently labor saving, in both goods production and the services. Most new jobs that are being created, primarily in the services, have been contingent, part-time, benefit free, and frequently temporary. Thus there will be a shortage of decent-paying permanent jobs in the future. The authors argue that the premise of economic and social policy must take work as an active presupposition.
Dislocation Policies in Western Europe: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: EBERLE THOMAS SAMUEL
Published: March 2007

Within the past two decades, the “brutal American management methods,” which caused a national upheaval against Firestone in the 1970s, have become common practice in Swiss and other European corporations. These practices include global sourcing, dislocation of work to Third World countries, and workforce reductions by rationalization. In the middle of this general trend, Volkswagen in Germany set a countermodel: by introducing the four-day workweek, it redistributed work in the existing workforce, increased the sense of solidarity, and avoided layoffs. Volkswagen's actions added new fire to the heated European debate on how to deal with unemployment: by further deregulation or by work-time reduction and redistribution of work? In Europe, quite in contrast to the United States, an ongoing tension exists between modernization and the traditional culture, a tension manifest in a deep schism within the population.
Local Politics in a Global Era: Thinking Locally, Acting Globally
Authors: CLARKE SUSAN E. , GAILE GARY L.
Published: March 2007

Given the contested meanings of the local global context, it is important to see local political processes as more than a matter of new interests or claims prompted by globalization or even new institutions such as public-private partnerships. We argue that local politics in a global era are best understood in terms of the ideas, institutions, and interests shaping local policy processes. They are shaped by the causal stories that different groups and organizations use to politicize issues linking the local and the global, to seek new institutional venues, and to promote some solutions over others. We draw on our national surveys in 1989 and 1996 of large and mediumsized American cities to examine these causal stories about globalization and localism and the policy choices they privilege. Five local strategies are especially salient: classic locational approaches, the world-class community orientation, the entrepreneurial mercantilism strategy, asset-based human capital strategies, and the sustainable development orientation.