bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of underfeeding post-partum Charolais beef cows on composition of plasma non-esterified fatty acids
Authors: Ponter A. A. , Douar C. , Mialot J.-P. , Benoit-Valiergue H. , Grimard B.
Published: August 2016

This work was designed to investigate whether the profile of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) remains constant in response to underfeeding in beef cows, since in other species mobilization of fatty acids (FA) has been shown to be dependent on fatty acid structure. Twenty-one Charolais cows (multiparous, no. = 16 and primiparous, no. = 5) were assigned to one of two diets (control diet (CD; no. = 11) or restricted diet (RD; no. = 10) which, respectively supplied all or 0·7 of energy and protein requirements) after calving. Blood and composite milk samples were collected weekly before the morning meal over a period of 9 weeks. The cows given RD lost significantly more body weight (P< 0·001) and condition score (P< 0·05) than the cows given CD. Plasma NEFA and urea concentrations were also higher in RD than CD during the experiment (P< 0·05 andP< 0·001, respectively). The level of feeding did not affect plasma insulin and glucose concentrations. Milk FA were affected by feeding level. The proportions of short- and medium-chain FA were lower in RD compared with CD (C8: 0, C10: 0, C12: 0 and C14: 0,P< 0·05 and C14: 1 and C16: 0,P< 0·10) while some of the long-chain FA were higher (C17: 0 and C18: 1,P< 0·001 and C17: 1,P< 0·10). Feeding level affected the profile of FA in plasma NEFA. The proportions of C16: 0 and C18: 1 were higher (P< 0·05) in RD cows compared with CD cows while the proportions of C12: 0, C14: 1, C17: 0, C18: 0 and C18: 2 were lower (P< 0·05). There was a feeding level×time interaction in the proportions of different FA in the plasma NEFA and in the total plasma NEFA concentrations. The differences caused by feeding level gradually disappeared with time. The proportion of C18: 1 in plasma NEFA and the total plasma NEFA concentrations were quadratically positively correlated, while the correlation between C18: 2 and total plasma NEFA was negative. In conclusion, when post-partum beef cattle are underfed, plasma NEFA concentrations increase (indicating lipomobilization) and this increase is associated with an increase in the proportion of oleic acid (C18: 1) in plasma NEFA.
Effect of offering maize, linseed or tuna oils throughout pregnancy and lactation on sow and piglet tissue composition and piglet performance
Authors: Rooke J. A. , Shanks M. , Edwards S. A.
Published: August 2016

The effects of different dietary essential fatty acids on piglet tissue composition at birth and performance until 7 days post weaning were investigated by offering the sow diets containing (17·5 g oil per kg diet) either maize oil (MO) as a control treatment, tuna oil (TO) as a source of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly 22:6 n-3, or a mixture of maize and linseed oils (LO) which supplied the same amount of n-3 acids as TO but in the form of 18:3 n-3. Ten sows were allocated to each treatment which was offered throughout pregnancy and lactation. Compared with MO, offering TO increased sow plasma and subcutaneous adipose tissue 22: 6 n-3 proportions whereas LO increased 18: 3 n-3 and, to a much lesser extent than TO, 22: 6 n-3. Offering TO to the sow increased the proportions of 20: 5 n-3 and 22: 6 n-3 in piglet brain and liver at birth and decreased the n-6 acids, 20: 4, 22: 4 and 22: 5. LO only increased piglet liver 20: 5 n-3 proportions but to a lesser extent than TO; however, LO also decreased the proportions of 20: 4, 22: 4 and 22: 5 n-6 in piglet tissues. Offering the pregnant sow dietary 18: 3 n-3 therefore increased deposition of 22: 6 n-3 in foetal piglet tissues to a much lesser extent than tuna oil and so it is necessary to offer the sow pre-formed 22: 6 n-3 in order to achieve maximum foetal 22: 6 n-3 deposition. By experimentally allocating piglets at birth, effects of sow nutrition during pregnancy and lactation were separated. Piglets sucking MO or TO sows were heavier than piglets sucking LO sows 7 days post weaning.
Response of lactating ewes grazing grass to variations in effective rumen degradable protein and digestible undegradable protein supply from concentrate supplements
Authors: Wilkinson R. G. , Sinclair L. A. , Powles J. , Minter C. M.
Published: August 2016

The response of lactating ewes grazing grass to variations in effective rumen degradable protein (ERDP) and digestible undegradable protein (DUP) supply from concentrates was investigated. During the spring and early summer of 1993, 36 Friesland and 12 Finn Dorset ewes were offered continuous access to permanent pasture (Lolium perenne) and allocated to one of six concentrates (1·2 kg/day) formulated to be iso-energetic and to supply 149 (H), 126 (M) or 103 (L) g ERDP and 70 (A) or 45 (B) g DUP per kg dry matter (DM) in a 3✕2 factorial design. Herbage intake was estimated using the n-alkane technique and herbage samples obtained for analysis. Ewe milk yields, milk composition, live weights (LW) and condition scores (CS) were recorded weekly. The DM and nitrogen degradability characteristics of the grass samples and concentrates were determined using four Friesland wether lambs fitted with permanent rumen cannulae. Throughout the experiment the grass ERDP: FME ratio was lower than the optimum for maximal microbial protein synthesis. However, using a rumen solid phase outflow rate of 0·05 per h, estimated concentrate ERDP and DUP supplies were similar to those predicted. Increasing concentrate ERDP supply had no effect on herbage intake or LW and CS change but reduced milk fat concentration (P< 0·05) and increased milk lactose concentration (P< 0·05) and the yields of milk (P< 0·01), protein (P< 0·05) and lactose (P< 0·01). There were no significant effects of concentrate DUP supply. In conclusion, it is suggested that concentrate ERDP increased microbial protein synthesis and metabolizable protein supply, a proportion of which may have been deaminated to provide precursors for milk lactose synthesis, such that the marginal response in milk protein yield was 0·210.
Linear and threshold model genetic parameters for disease, fertility and milk production in dairy cattle
Authors: Kadarmideen H. N. , Thompson R. , Simm G.
Published: August 2016

This study provides estimates of genetic parameters for various diseases, fertility and 305-day milk production traits in dairy cattle using data from a UK national milk recording scheme. The data set consisted of 63891 multiple lactation records on diseases (mastitis, lameness, milk fever, ketosis and tetany), fertility traits (calving interval, conception to first service, number of services for a conception, and number of days to first service), dystocia and 305-day milk, fat and protein yield. All traits were analysed by multi-trait repeatability linear animal models (LM). Binary diseases and fertility traits were further analysed by threshold sire models (TM). Both LM and TM analyses were based on the generalized linear mixed model framework. The LM included herd-year-season of calving (HYS), age at calving and parity as fixed effects and genetic, permanent environmental and residual effects as random. The TM analyses included the same effects as for LM, but HYS effects were treated as random to avoid convergence problems when HYS sub-classes had 0 or 100% incidence. Because HYS effects were treated as random, herd effects were fitted as fixed effects to account for effect of herds in the data. The LM estimates of heritability ranged from 0•389 to 0•399 for 305-day milk production traits, 0•010 to 0•029 for fertility traits and 0•004 to 0•038 for diseases. The LM estimates of repeatability ranged from 0•556 to 0•586 for 305-day milk production traits, 0•029 to 0•086 for fertility traits and 0•004 to 0•100 for diseases. The TM estimates of heritabilities and repeatabilities were greater than LM estimates for binary traits and were in the range 0•012 to 0•126 and 0•013 to 0•168, respectively. Genetic correlations between milk production traits and fertility and diseases were all unfavorable: they ranged from 0•07 to 0•37 for milk production and diseases, 0•31 to 0•54 for milk production and poor fertility and 0•06 to 0•41 for diseases and poor fertility. These results show that future selection programmes should include disease and fertility for genetic improvement of health and reproduction and for sustained economic growth in the dairy cattle industry.
Factors affecting milk production in Improved Awassi dairy ewes
Authors: Gootwine E. , Pollott G. E.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the factors affecting milk production and lactation curve parameters from the complete lactations of Awassi dairy sheep. The animals were kept in a single flock under intensive management and milked twice daily starting at lambing. Lambs were removed from the ewes at birth into an artificial rearing unit. The results of the analyses of 3740 complete lactations showed a mean litter size of 1·28 lambs born per ewe lambing and average total milk yield of 506 l from lactations 214 days in length and with an average lambing interval of 330 days. Mean lactation number was 3·71 and ewes conceived on average in the 6th month of the lactation. The lactations peaked on day 45 at a yield of 3·44 l. The maximum milk secretion potential of the ewes was 3·9 l/day, with milk yield increasing at 62 g/day mid way between lambing and peak yield and declining at 16·5 g/day mid way between peak and the end of lactation. Age at first lambing, lactation number, litter size, month of lambing and month of conception during the lactation had significant effects (P < 0·05) on some or all of the lactation parameters investigated. Relatively high milk yield was obtained in lactations starting in the January to March period. The monthly effect on milk production was explained by significant (P < 0·05) heat load and photoperiod effects. High milk production was found to have a significant (P < 0·05) adverse effect on reproductive performance. Conception followed a significant (P < 0·05) short term variation in milk production.
Non-insulin-mediated glucose uptake in fed and fasted sheep
Authors: Weekes T. E. C. , Obara Y. , Rose M. T.
Published: August 2016

In ruminants and humans, the majority of whole body glucose utilization is not mediated by insulin. However, while in man most non-insulin-mediated glucose utilization (NIMGU) occurs in the brain, in ruminants the locations of NIMGU remain less well defined. As fasting would be expected to limit NIMGU to what would be regarded as an essential minimum, two studies were performed to establish the contribution of NIMGU to total glucose metabolism in fed and fasted sheep. Each study used four adult castrated male sheep. In study 1, a primed continuous infusion of U- [13C] glucose was begun at time 0 and continued for 7 h. After 3 h of isotope infusion (basal period) somatostatin (0•417 µg/kg per min; SS) was administered for 4 h, either alone (SS-only) or together with insulin (1•0 mU/kg per min; SS + insulin) with normal glucose to maintain euglycaemia for 2 h. Normal glucose was then infused for both the SS-only and SS + insulin treatments to induce and maintain hyperglycaemia over the final 2 h of the experiment. In study 2, fed or 72-h fasted sheep were infused with 6-[3H] glucose from time 0 for 8 h, with SS infusion starting at 3 h and continuing for 5 h. After 3 h of SS infusion, glucose was infused to induce and maintain hyperglycaemia. In both studies SS infusion inhibited insulin secretion, however in study 2, SS in fed sheep caused hyperglycaemia; this effect was not significant in the fasted animals. The rate of glucose utilization was reduced by SS-only as it eliminated insulin mediated glucose uptake (IMGU); under such conditions whole body glucose disposal should be NIMGU. In fed sheep, average NIMGU levels represented between proportionately 0•61 and 0•67 of the basal glucose metabolic clearance rate. During the infusion of SS + insulin in fed sheep, NIMGU fell to 0•34 during euglycaemia and 0•33 during hyperglycaemia, as the infused insulin caused IMGU to predominate. In fasted sheep the absolute rates of both IMGU and NIMGU were reduced, though NIMGU as a proportion of total turn-over (IMGU + NIMGU) increased to 0•88 of glucose metabolic clearance. Calculations suggest that, in contrast to man, only a minor proportion of NIMGU is utilized by the brain and central nervous system in fed or fasted sheep. It is suggested that skeletal muscle and the gastro-intestinal tract may make a major contribution to NIMGU, even in fasted sheep.
Intakes andin vivoapparent digestibilities of four types of conserved grass forage by ponies
Authors: Moore-Colyer M.J. S. , Longland A. C.
Published: August 2016

The intakes and in vivo apparent digestibilities (AD) of four forages: hay (H), haylage (HY), big-bale silage (BB) and clamp silage (CS), were investigated in Welsh cross pony geldings (live weight (LW) ca. 330 kg). The trial was a 4✕4 Latin-square design with diets offered at 1•65 g/kg dry matter (DM) per100 kg LW per day, in two equal meals. Food and faecal samples were analysed for DM, organic matter, crude protein (CP), gross energy, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg) and non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) composition and content. Significant differences (P < 0·05) in DM intakes (DMI) g/kg M0·75were recorded between foods, where HY = BB = H > CS. For all measurements AD was significantly (P < 0·05) higher for BB and CS than for H, with HY being intermediate in all but digestibilities of Ca and Mg. Digestibility of NSP of BB and CS were significantly (P < 0·05) greater than for H and HY. The digestible energy (DE) of H, HY, BB and CS were 5·75, 9·09, 9·83 and 11·98 MJ/kg DM respectively, which coupled with the corresponding DMI resulted in all foods but H meeting the theoretical daily DE requirements of the ponies. Similarly, theoretical digestible CP requirements were met on all diets except H. NSP fractions accounted for 0·5 of daily DE in both H and BB, which were significantly (P < 0·05) higher than for CS and HY at 0·4 and 0·2 respectively. These results indicate that CS, BB and HY are readily digested by ponies and thus offer suitable high-energy alternatives to hay in horse rations.
Effect of breed on the deposition in beef muscle and adipose tissue of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
Authors: Choi N. J. , Enser M. , Wood J. D. , Scollan N. D.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effects of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on muscle fatty acid composition and content in two cattle breeds; the Holstein-Friesian, a dairy breed, and the Welsh Black, a traditional beef breed. Animals were kept on ad libitum grass silage and one of three concentrates varying in the source of fat; Megalac (high in C16 : 0), formaldehyde treated whole linseed (high in C18 : 3 n-3) and a combination of formaldehyde treated whole linseed and fish oil (high in C20 : 5 n-3 and C22 : 6 n-3). The concentrates were offered at approximately 0·4 of total dry matter intake. Samples of m. longissimus thoracis from Holstein-Friesians contained higher total amounts of fatty acids (P< 0·05) than that of Welsh Blacks in neutral lipid, but the phospholipid fatty acid content was similar between the breeds. Over all treatments, the proportion of C18 : 3 n-3 was higher (P< 0·001) in muscle neutral lipid of Welsh Blacks and the proportions of C18 : 3 n-3 and C18 : 1 trans were higher (P< 0·05 and P < 0·001, respectively) in their subcutaneous adipose tissue. Feeding linseed increased the amounts of C18 : 3 n-3 and also C20 : 5 n-3 in muscle phospholipids suggesting chain elongation and desaturation of C18 : 3 n-3 had occurred. The concentration of C20 : 5 n-3 was significantly higher (P< 0·05) in muscle phospholipids of Welsh Blacks while no differences were found for C18 : 3 n-3 and C22 : 6 n–3. However, when expressed as a proportion of total fatty acids, both C20 : 5 n-3 and C18 : 3 n-3 were significantly higher (P< 0·001) in the Welsh Black phospholipids. These differences resulted in a significantly higher P : S ratio of the muscle total fat (P< 0·05) in the Welsh Black than in the Holstein-Friesian but P : S was not affected by diet. On the other hand, the n-6 : n-3 PUFA ratio was significantly lower in the Welsh Black, reflecting the higher n-3 PUFA content. This ratio was lower in the linseed and the mixed treatments for both breeds, reflecting higher delivery of n-3 PUFA from these diets. Fortification of the diet with sources of PUFA and exploiting breed differences offer the potential to develop systems to increase human intakes of n-3 PUFA in line with current nutritional recommendations.
Ultrasound and hormone profiles to monitor follicular activity in cattle after treatment with high doses of progesterone and oestradiol
Authors: Ward W. R. , Ribadu A. Y. , Harvey D. , Dobson H.
Published: August 2016

To mimic the abnormal patterns of follicular growth in the early post-partum period, heifers were injected with 15 mg oestradiol and 37•5 mg progesterone every 12 h for 7 days starting on day 15 of the oestrous cycle. Control and treated animals (no. = 8 per group) were monitored by daily ultrasonography and plasma hormone measurements. Five treated animals had quiescent ovaries for 11 days during which period oestradiol concentrations exceeded 30 pg/ml. After this, the first post-treatment follicular wave produced a normal ovulatory follicle. The other three heifers had quiescent ovaries for 17 days during exposure to high oestradiol values but this was followed by the formation of persistent follicles. The prolonged exposure to oestradiol probably disrupted normal LH surges in the latter animals. Growth rates and internal diameters for normal, ovulatory and prolonged persistent follicles were similar for the first 6 days after emergence, but the persistent follicles grew larger (P < 0·05) than normal follicles over the next 20 days. Luteinization of a subsequent persistent follicle was observed in one heifer. For 2 to 3 days prior to follicular growth, FSH concentrations were similar in controls, and heifers with ovulatory or persistent follicles (P > 0·05). When follicles first emerged and for the next 4 days, oestradiol concentrations were greater in follicles which later persisted (P < 0·05). For the second half of the life-span of persistent follicles, oestradiol concentrations were basal, thus the structure remained for many days after endocrine function had declined. These observations allow new interpretation of previously confusing findings in subfertile cattle presented to veterinarians.
Shelf life and eating quality of beef from cattle of different breeds given diets differing in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid composition
Authors: Vatansever L. , Kurt E. , Enser M. , Nute G. R. , Scollan N. D. , Wood J. D. , Richardson R. I.
Published: August 2016

Two experiments were conducted with 32 Charolais cross steers (experiment 1) and 36 Holstein-Friesian and Welsh Black steers (experiment 2) to examine the effects of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA ) and breed on meat quality. Diets were comprised of grass silage and a concentrate (60 : 40 on a dry-matter basis). Lipid in the concentrate provided 30 g/kg diet dry matter derived from either linseed, fish oil or linseed/fish oil (experiment 1); and linseed or linseed/fish oil (experiment 2). These n-3 PUFA sources were compared with Megalac, a saturated fatty acid control, in both experiments. Diets were offered for 120 days (experiment 1) and 90 days (experiment 2). Measurements of meat quality included fatty acid composition, lipid oxidation and colour during retail display (i.e. shelf life parameters) and eating quality assessed by a trained taste panel. The samples examined were sirloin (longissimus) steaks and minced beef burgers produced from the forequarter muscles infraspinatus, supraspinatus and triceps brachii. The fatty acid results showed that linseed increased the proportion of 18 : 3 n-3 (a -linolenic acid) in neutral lipid of the burgers and approximately doubled it in the phospholipid. Increased synthesis of 20 : 4 n-3 and 20 : 5 n-3 also occurred, raising their levels in the phospholipid. Fish oil doubled the proportions of 20 : 5 n-3 and 22 : 6 n-3, with the linseed/fish oil results intermediate between linseed and fish oil. The Welsh Blacks in experiment 2 had higher proportions of 18 : 3 n-3 in neutral lipid and higher proportions of 18 : 3 n-3, 20 : 5 n-3 and 22 : 5 n-3 in phospholipid. This showed a clear genetic effect on fatty acid composition. The fish oil diet in experiment 1 greatly increased lipid oxidation during retail display in both overwrapped loin steaks and burgers packed in a modified atmosphere. Values for lipid oxidation in the burgers were much higher than in the steaks due to the intimate mixing of phospholipid fatty acids and prooxidants. Lipid oxidation was also greater in the linseed/fish oil samples than controls in both experiments but was similar in linseed and controls. Colour oxidation also proceeded more rapidly in the fish oil samples in experiment 1 and tended to be faster in the linseed/fish oil groups in both experiments. Eating quality was affected by diet in experiment 1 — the fish oil samples eliciting higher scores for ‘fishy’ and ‘rancid’ than controls and having lower ‘overall liking’ scores. Steaks from animals given the linseed diet (with high 18 : 3 n-3 proportions) had the highest ‘overall liking’ scores in experiment 1 but the cattle given linseed for the shorter time in experiment 2 were not different from controls. Despite their different PUFA profile in muscle, Welsh Blacks had similar eating quality scores to Holstein-Friesians which deposited more neutral lipid (marbling fat) in muscle.
Photoperiodic entrainment of seasonal changes in the appetite, feeding behaviour, growth rate and pelage of pony colts
Authors: Fuller Z. , Cox J. E. , Argo C.McG.
Published: August 2016

Relationships among photoperiod and changes in voluntary food intake, feeding behaviour, growth and pelage were determined in seven, 2-year-old pony colts (182·4 (s.e. 5·4) kg). Individually housed colts were provided with ad libitum access to a complete pelleted diet (gross energy = 16·7 MJ/kg dry matter). Voluntary food intake (VFI, kg/ day) was calculated daily and body weights were recorded weekly throughout the 36-week study. Feeding behaviour was evaluated at approximately 4-week intervals by continuous observation (24 h), and the hair weight density (HWD, mg/cm2) of shoulder pelage was determined fortnightly. Day length was artificially manipulated to mimic the prevailing mid-summer photoperiod (16 h light: 8 h dark, 16L: 8D). After 1 week of the study (and the preceding fortnight), day length was abruptly decreased and thereafter animals were exposed to alternating 14-week periods of short (SD, 8L: 16D) and long days (LD, 16L: 8D). The mean daily VFI of individual ponies was calculated weekly and normalized for digestible energy (DE) content and metabolic body weight (DEI, MJ/kg M0·75). The average daily gain (ADG, kg/day) in body weight of each individual was calculated weekly. The apparent digestibility of dietary energy (digestibility) was determined over 72 h (no. = 6) on two occasions (days 92 to 95 and 190 to 193) during the study. Digestibility was similar in both periods (0·48, s.e. 0·01). DEI, ADG and HWD changed in a cyclic manner throughout the study. The period of the appetite cycle (24·4 (s.e. 1·3) weeks) did not differ from that of the 28-week photoperiodic regime. DEI decreased from a maximum of 1·4 (s.e. 0·03) MJ/kg M0.75 per day (day 21), to a nadir of 0·75 (s.e. 0·02) MJ/kg M0.75 per day (day 154, P < 0·001) and had increased (P < 0·001) to attain a second zenith (0·93 (s.e. 0·01) MJ/kg M0.75 per day) before the end of the study. Ponies ate discrete meals of similar duration, but meal frequency was associated with changes in VFI (r = 0·77) as was proportion of time spent feeding (r = 0·79). Changes in ADG reflected those of DEI. Body weight was stable for 4 weeks at the nadir of the appetite cycle. Maximal HWD was coincident with the nadir of the appetite and growth cycles. Regression of individual values for DEI on ADG described a linear relationship (R2 = 0·80) which could be used to predict the energy requirements of growing ponies maintained under similar conditions:

DEI total (MJ/kg M0·75 per day) = 0·654ADG (kg/day) + 0·789 (1).

The duration of the photoperiod, appetite, growth and pelage cycles were similar, suggesting a causal relationship. Physiological responses to photoperiodic change were not immediate and exhibited a delay of 5 to 8 weeks.
Effects of xylanase and antibiotic addition on ileal and faecal apparent digestibilities of dietary nutrients and evaluating HCl-insoluble ash as a dietary marker in growing pigs
Authors: Yin Y.-L. , McEvoy J.D. , Schulze H. , McCracken K.J.
Published: August 2016

The effects of xylanase and antibiotic addition to the diet, and the use of HCl-insoluble ash as a marker, on ileal and faecal apparent digestibilities of nutrients were studied with 12 growing pigs fitted with post-valvular T-caecum cannulae (PVTC). The results showed that the apparent ileal digestibility of non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) was high, (over 0·30). Xylanase, or antibiotics (Avoparcin) or xylanase plus antibiotics supplementation of the wheat middling-based diets did not significantly (P > 0·05) increase the ileal and faecal apparent digestibilities of NSP, neutral-detergent fibre (NDF), dry matter, crude protein, energy or amino acids. There were no significant (P > 0·05) differences between the HCl-insoluble ash and Cr2O3 recoveries at the ileal or at the faecal levels: proportionately, 0·864 and 0·911 for the ileal and faecal recoveries of HCl-insoluble ash, and 0·857 and 0. 915 for the ileal and faecal recoveries of Cr2O3, respectively.
Effect of timing and duration of grazing of growing cattle in the West African Sahel on diet selection, faecal output, eating time, forage intake and live-weight changes
Authors: Ayantunde A.A. , Fernández-Rivera S. , Hiernaux P.H.Y. , Keulen H. van , Udo H.M.J. , Chanono M.
Published: August 2016

Sixty-four Azawak male weaned calves were allotted to eight treatments (T) in two trials to study the effect of timing (day or day-and-night) and duration of grazing on diet selection, faecal output, eating time, forage intake and weight changes. Grazing time during the day was 6 h for T 1, 2 and 3; 9 h for T 4, 5 and 6; and 12 h for T 7 and 8. Night grazing time was 0 h for T 1, 4 and 7; 3 h for T 2, 5 and 8; and 6 h for T 3 and 6. The trials were conducted from July 1995 to May 1996 covering the wet (WS), early dry (EDS) and late dry (LDS) seasons. Eight oesophageally fistulated steers were used in a cross-over design to sample the diet selected by day-grazers (D1) and by day-and-night-grazers during the day (D2) and at night (N2). Forage intake was determined from individual data on faecal output from all the calves and means of in vitro organic matter digestibility of extrusa of the fistulated steers. Water intake and eating time were measured in LDS. In WS there were no differences (P> 0·05) in the quality of the diet (extrusa) selected for D1, D2 and N2. In LDS, crude protein content for D1 was lower than for D2 (73 v . 79 (s.e. 2) g/kg dry matter,P< 0·05). In all seasons, faecal output and forage intake increased with total duration of grazing. Total time spent eating increased linearly with increasing total time allowed for grazing. These results suggest that allowing additional grazing time during the night leads to increased forage intake and consequently provides an opportunity for better animal production, especially in the dry season.
Evaluation of a simple method for assessment of rising behaviour in tethered dairy cows
Authors: Chaplin S. , Munksgaard L.
Published: August 2016

Problems with getting up can affect welfare, therefore a simple method for use in assessing rising behaviour was evaluated. Sixty-one Danish Friesian cows housed in two identical tie-stall barns were used. The cows were in their first (no. = 30), second (no. = 16) or third lactation (no. = 15). There were 19 cows in early lactation (<100 days in milk), 18 late lactation cows (>200 days in milk) and 24 dry cows, divided between the age groups. Rising was scored at three times of day for five consecutive days. Two observers scored the cows at 11:30 h and one of these observers scored them at 15:00 and 17:30 h. Cows were encouraged to rise using increasing levels of encouragement but the minimum possible force and were scored for rising (between 1 - normal rising sequence, smooth movement and 5 - rising front first) and the level of encouragement required. The behaviour of each cow was recorded on video for 21·5 h. Total lying time; lying frequency; maximum lying bout length; time to lie down; time for preparatory phase of lying; time to rise, and time for final phase of rising were recorded from the videos and video records of rising were scored. The rising score was repeatable and was unaffected by the different scoring conditions tested (presence of observer, day of scoring, time of day, level of encouragement). Stage of lactation affected total lying time, number of lying bouts, maximum bout length and rising behaviour, while lactation number only had a minor effect on lying behaviour. The proposed score for rising reliably reflected whether the cows in tie-stalls had difficulty rising when at least three observations were included. The proportion of cows in different stages of lactation and of different parities should be included in any assessment of rising behaviour, since stage of lactation and parity significantly affected rising behaviour.
Diet selection of sheep: effects of adding urea to foods with different protein contents
Authors: James S. M. , Kyriazakis I. , Emmans G. C.
Published: August 2016

Two experiments were conducted in which growing sheep were given choices between foods differing in their contents of urea. The crude protein (CP) contents of both of the foods of the pair were also varied. The hypothesis tested was that the diets selected would be those that met the effective rumen degradable protein (eRDP) requirements of the animals and would avoid excess consumption of eRDP. Three basal foods, differing in CP were formulated. D was designed to be deficient in CP with 80 g CP and 58 g eRDP per kg DM; H was calculated to be adequate with 159 g CP and 114 g eRDP per kg DM; P had excess with 210 g CP and 148 g eRDP per kg DM. Other foods were made by adding 12·5 or 25 g urea per kg fresh matter to each of the three basal foods to make a further six foods. In both experiments Texel✕Greyface female sheep were used. In experiment 1, 34 sheep weighing 37·2 (s.d. 1·85) kg were randomly allocated to one of six groups and each group was offered a choice between a pair of foods. Groups 1 to 3 were offered pairs in the D series (Dv. D + 12·5 g urea per kg (no. = 6), Dv. D + 25 g urea per kg (no. = 6) and D + 12·5 g urea per kg v. D + 25 g urea per kg (no. = 5)). Groups 4 to 6 were offered the same pairs of foods but with H instead of D. In experiment 2, 96 sheep weighing 29·8 (s.d. 3·37) kg were randomly allocated to one of 12 groups. Groups 1 to 6 (no. = 6) were allocated a single food (D, D + 25 g, H, H + 25 g, P or P + 25 g urea per kg) throughout the experiment. Groups 7 to 12 were given a choice (no. = 10) between two foods. One food of the pair was the basal D, H or P. The other food was the same basal food supplemented with either 12·5 or 25 g urea per kg. On the single foods adding urea to D resulted in an increase in food intake and live-weight gain suggesting that D was deficient in eRDP. Adding urea to either H or P had no beneficial effects on intake or live-weight gain. This suggests that both contained sufficient eRDP in relation to energy. Across all choice treatments in both experiments there was a highly significant preference (P< 0·01) for the food with the higher urea content. In experiment 1 0·62 (s.e. 0·04) of the diet selected was the food with the higher urea content. In experiment 2 the figure was 0·64 (s.e.0·03). The general preference for the food with the higher urea content was unaffected by the CP contents of the foods used. The results do not support the hypothesis that sheep will avoid excess eRDP when given a choice and suggest that eRDP may not be a relevant dimension in diet selection in the conditions of these experiments.
Effect of age of castration, oestradiol treatment and genotype on the fat colour of beef cattle raised at pasture
Authors: Gazzola C. , Jeffery M. R. , White D. H. , Hill R. A. , Reid D. J.
Published: August 2016

It is hypothesized that the fat colour of steers raised at pasture can be manipulated by altering animal growth patterns using the effects of post-pubertal surgical castration and oestradiol treatment. The fat colour of 151 steers of three genotypes of beef cattle, castrated at approximately 9 months or 18 months of age and treated, or not treated, with oestradiol after castration, was studied.

Surgical castration of beef cattle at both 9 months of age or 18 months of age caused no readily apparent animal welfare problems. The combined effects of early or late castration and oestradiol treatment produced varying growth patterns with early castrates exposed to two post-castration episodes of growth associated with carotene-rich forage and late castrates only one such episode of growth.

Late castrates and early castrates treated with oestradiol had a less yellow fat than early castrates not treated with oestradiol. The proportion of carcasses with commercially significant yellowness in the fat was decreased by either late castration or by oestradiol treatment. There was no effect of genotype on fat colour.
The effect of stocking density on the responses of growing pigs to dietary lysine
Authors: Ferguson N.S. , Lavers G. , Gous R.M.
Published: August 2016

An experiment was conducted to measure the effects of stocking density (increased number of pigs per pen) on lysine requirements of pigs grown from 25 to 60 kg live weight. Two hundred and sixty-four female Large White ✕ Landrace pigs were assigned at 25 kg to one of four dietary lysine treatments (13·3 (L1); 11·4 (L2); 9·5 (L3) and 7·6 (L4) g/kg) and either seven or 13 pigs per pen (or 1 0 and 0·5 m2 per pig, respectively). An additional treatment of one pig per pen (20 m2 per pig) was included to compare the responses of solitary- versus group-penned pigs. Animals were given ad libitum access to dietary treatments from a mean pen starting weight of 261 (s.e. 0·35) kg to a mean pen finishing weight of 63·4 (s.e. 0·61) kg live weight. There were no significant interactions between dietary lysine content and floor space per pig on food intake (FI), average daily growth rate (ADG), the amount of food per unit of gain (FCR) and the rate of protein retention (PR). Significant interactions were evident for body composition and the rate of lipid retention (LR). Over the weight range 25 to 40 kg there were significant differences in FI (P < 0·05) and FCR (P < 0·001) between dietary lysine treatments but most of these differences had disappeared over the 40 to 60 kg live weight. Individually penned animals had significantly higher (P < 0·05) FI and ADG than group-penned animals. However, there were no differences between seven and 13 pig per pen treatments. Stocking density had no effect on LR or body protein content but did cause a significant reduction in PR (P < 0·001) and an increase in body lipid content (P < 0·05) as the number of pigs per pen increased from seven to 13. Lysine requirements (expressed in g/day) therefore could be seen to be reduced with increasing stocking density. However, as lysine intake was reduced in group-penned animals, the reduced daily requirement does not necessarily warrant a reduction in the lysine content of the food. Feeding according to the requirements for maximum PR will still produce the best carcass and growth performance irrespective of the group size. The improvement in PR associated with higher dietary nutrient levels did not completely offset the adverse physiological effects of higher stocking density but may partly counteract the effect of reduced lysine intake. However, there were indications that feeding crowded pigs a lower dietary lysine concentration may not further reduce the already diminished protein (lysine) growth rate. An additional experiment was performed to test whether the number of feeder bins may have constrained food intake and therefore growth in group-penned animals. The results of this experiment showed that the number of bins had no significant effect on FI, ADG and FCR in group-penned pigs, and therefore a single feeder bin was not considered a constraining factor in pigs housed with limited floor space.
Comparative digestion of herbage by two breeds of sheep: effects of grass maturity stage and level of intake
Authors: López S. , Frutos P. , Mantecón A.R. , Giráldez F.J.
Published: August 2016

Two trials were conducted to study the effect of the stage of maturity of fresh herbage on its digestibility by two breeds of sheep (Churra v. Merino). The sward consisted of a mixture of grasses and clover, and was harvested either in late May (early cut, EC) or in late July (late cut, LC). In each trial, 12 mature sheep of each breed were used. Each animal received a different amount of fresh herbage, so that levels of food intake ranged between 8·1 and 24·7 g dry matter (DM) per kg body weight per day. EC herbage showed higher crude protein content (116 v. 67 g/kg DM), lower neutral-detergent fibre concentration (494 v. 664 g/kg DM) and higher DM digestibility (0·687 (s.e. 0·005) v. 0·463 (s.e. 0·007)) than the LC herbage. DM digestibility coefficients observed in Churra (0·694 (s.e. 0·028) for EC and 0·476 (s.e.0·028) for LC herbage) tended to be greater than those observed in Merino sheep (0·680 (s.e. 0·021) for EC and 0·452 (s.e. 0·040) for LC herbage). With the EC herbage DM digestibility tended to decrease as the level of intake increased. Samples of dried herbage were incubated in the rumen of Churra and Merino sheep to determine the DM degradability by the in situ technique. Fractional degradation rates (c values) were significantly faster in the rumen of Churra than in Merino (0·046 (s.e. 0·003) v. 0·031 (s.e. 0·002)), with large differences between breeds in the DM disappearance rates at intermediate incubation times, and no significant differences between Churra and Merino sheep in the mean a + b values. Microbial N supply, calculated from the urinary excretion of purine derivatives, was significantly affected by the herbage maturity stage and by the level of DM intake, but not by the breed of sheep. It is suggested that differences between breeds of sheep in food digestibility may be related to their ability to digest fibrous diets.
A General Method of Obtaining the Finite Integral of any Rational Algebraic Function of x: or Summing any Series of which such a Function is the General Term
Authors: Orchard William
Published: August 2016

Let be the given function, then, by a well known theorem

the integral of which, since u0, δu0, δ2u0, &c., are constants, and

will be

which differs from (A) only by the coefficients of δu0, δ2u0, &c, being shifted each one place to the left.
On a general method of approximation to the Values of Annuities and Assurances, for long terms of years, depending on One or Two Lives
Authors: Brown Samuel
Published: August 2016

The discovery of some general Law of Mortality, by means of which the values of the contingencies, depending upon human life, might be expressed in some simple formulæ, without the necessity of performing the numerous calculations which are required even for the chances of a single life, and still more in the various eases, in which two or more lives are involved, has occupied the attention and labours of many scientific men. But the result has not hitherto been satisfactory, in spite of the skill with which their investigations have been conducted, and the unwearied patience which they have brought to the task. The failure has probably arisen from the want of a sufficient number of observations, the authenticity of which could be relied upon; or for want of that accuracy in the data, without which it is in vain to attempt to find the traces of a regular law, disturbed as it must be by the peculiar circumstances under which the observations were made, or by the ignorance, and, in some cases it may be, by the wilful errors of those who have been employed to collect the facts.
On the Fires in London during the 17 years from 1833 to 1849 inclusive, showing the numbers which occurred in different trades, and the principal causes by which they were occasioned
Authors: Brown Samuel
Published: August 2016

Until within a very recent period the doctrines of probability have been applied to scarcely any great public purpose except the Assurance of human life. In that particular department of knowledge, a number of labourers have been for many years busily occupied in gathering the facts, endeavouring to classify events, and trace some general laws. In later years, researches have been extended into the effects of different classes of diseases upon health and longevity. Still more recently, the calculations of fidelity risks, of railway and other accidents, of bankruptcy, and of other circumstances affecting the person of an individual, or his commercial dealings, have been made with a view of proving their capability of being estimated for Insurance.
Maritime Risks.—Statement of Collisions, extracted from Lloyd’s List for the years 1845 to 1849 inclusive
Authors: Rucker John A.
Published: August 2016

In availing ourselves of the permission, which has been kindly accorded to us by Mr. Rucker, to publish the Statement which he has compiled with so much labour and skill, we cannot but draw the attention of our readers to a collection of facts on a subject on which very little authentic information has yet been made public. The author has brought together, for each of the years in the Statement, the facts under the different heads distinguished below; but as the object of this publication is rather to deal with the averages of results, and the number is scarcely sufficient in each year and under each head to form a fair standard of comparison, it has been deemed sufficient to reprint merely the general summary for the five years together, and to add the proportions per cent. so as to allow of some general means of comparing the totals together. With these and with Mr. Rucker's explanatory notes, this curious subject is left for the consideration of those whose pursuits may lead them to take an interest in similar enquiries, or whose experience may enable them to appreciate their value. It is hoped, indeed, that the publication may induce others to add to information on a topic so rarely touched upon, and yet so well worthy of the attention of the statist and the practical man of business.
On the Determination of the Rates of Premium for Assuring against Issue
Authors: Day Archibald
Published: August 2016

Among the numerous classes of risks now undertaken by Insurance Companies, those against the contingency of leaving issue are beginning, from their increasing numbers, to assume a position of greater importance than heretofore. Nothing has hitherto, to my knowledge, been written upon the subject, and the premiums for insurances of this nature have been left to the judgment of the actuary as each individual case has come before him, there being no recognized and accurate formula for the calculation of the risk. Under these circumstances, and as a considerable amount of material exists from which approximate results may be deduced, I venture to submit to the Institute a few considerations upon the subject, but confined principally to the probabilities of marriage so far as they affect the calculation of such premiums.
A Chapter in Fire Insurance: “Specific” and “Average”
Authors: Miller Thomas
Published: August 2016

According to present practice, when property is insured, both by average and by specific policies, the latter have to bear the whole of any loss which may occur, unless it exceed the total amounts which they insure; and, in that case, the excess of loss over the amounts they insure is covered by the average policies, and is subject to average at the settlement of the claim.
An Account of the Plan, Objects and Progress of the International Association for obtaining a Uniform Decimal System of Measures, Weights and Coins
Authors: Brown Samuel
Published: August 2016

The Great Exhibition of 1851, however fruitful it was in direct results beneficial to the trade and commerce of this country, has indirectly produced greater consequences still, by leading to the discussion of questions in which the common interests of all the nations of Europe are concerned.
Treatise on the Medical Estimate of Life for Life Assurance
Authors: Ward S. H.
Published: August 2016

The principal circumstances affecting the value of individual live, have reference to sex, age, personal peculiarities, habits, occupation, residence, family history, previous ailments, and present health. These are brought before the medical referee, in the printed forms of examination and inquiry adopted by Life Assurance Societies, in a series of questions calculated to elicit the information required. In the present treatise they will be considered under several heads.
On the Law of Mortality and the Construction of Annuity Tables
Authors: Makeham William Matthew
Published: August 2016

Most writers on the subject of life annuities have had occasion to lament the paucity of tables available for the performance of calculations involving two or more lives. The late Mr. David Jones has done much to supply this deficiency by the publication of complete sets of tables for two lives at various rates of interest; but, beyond this, it is extremely improbable that, under the present system, any considerable progress will be made, owing to the multiplicity of the different combinations when three or more lives are concerned, and the consequent magnitude of the task involved in the construction of complete sets of tables for such cases.
On the Rationale of certain Actuarial Estimates
Authors: Jellicoe Charles
Published: August 2016

Some three or four years ago, I submitted to the members of the Institute a few observations on the valuation of property held for life and in reversion, and on the due apportionment of it when questions arise between the life tenant and the owner of the fee. I was induced to bring this subject under the notice of the members from observing the great difference of opinion prevailing in regard to it generally, and especially in the discussions on the subject of church leases and of other property similarly circumstanced—in which discussions no sort of agreement appears to have been come to as to the true principles upon which the value of the interests of the several parties concerned should be estimated. In the paper in question, I endeavoured to point out some of these principles; and my object now is to enlarge somewhat on the arguments therein laid down, to show that the question at issue almost always resolves itself into one whether a property is to be bought or sold, to call attention to the vast difference in value which arises under the two conditions, and to point out the imperative character of the causes, from which this difference originates; finally, to urge the necessity of great care and circumspection in dealing with the questions submitted to us, so that all risk of confounding one of the conditions above referred to with the other may be avoided.
On some Considerations suggested by the Annual Reports of the Registrar-General, being an Inquiry into the Question as to how far the Inordinate Mortality in this Country, exhibited by those Reports is controllable by Human Agency (Part I)
Authors: Porter H. W.
Published: August 2016

Upon perusal of the Annual Reports of the Registrar-General, and of the valuable analyses by Dr. Farr that accompany them, we can scarcely fail to be struck with the alarming fatality which appears to prevail in this country from certain classes of diseases; and the inquiry naturally arises in our minds, whether we have any control over this excessive mortality: is, in fact, any proportion thereof preventable?