bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Scanpath Eye Movements during Visual Mental Imagery in a Simulated Hemianopia Paradigm
Authors: Liman Thomas G. , Zangemeister Wolfgang H.
Published: February 2021

Several studies have shown that eye movements (EM) are functionally involved in visual imagery. In this study we investigate the impact of a simulated homonymous hemianopia paradigm (SH) with and without foveal masking on scanpath eye movements during visual mental imagery. EM of twenty subjects were recorded under SH condition during viewing and subsequent visual imagery of complex pictures. Using evaluated string editing methods viewing and imagery scanpaths were compared. Our results show that scanpath EM are involved in visual mental imagery and reflect the picture content even under SH. In contrast, additional foveal masking significantly reduces the similarity between viewing and imagery scanpath. This points toward a detrimental effect of foveal masking on subsequent visual imagery performance.
Spoken language-mediated anticipatory eye-movements are modulated by reading ability - Evidence from Indian low and high literates
Authors: Mishra Ramesh K. , Singh Niharika , Pandey Aparna , Huettig Falk
Published: February 2021

We investigated whether levels of reading ability attained through formal literacy are related to anticipatory language-mediated eye movements. Indian low and high literates listened to simple spoken sentences containing a target word (e.g., "door") while at the same time looking at a visual display of four objects (a target, i.e. the door, and three distractors). The spoken sentences were constructed in such a way that participants could use semantic, associative, and syntactic information from adjectives and particles (preceding the critical noun) to anticipate the visual target objects. High literates started to shift their eye gaze to the target objects well before target word onset. In the low literacy group this shift of eye gaze occurred only when the target noun (i.e. "door") was heard, more than a second later. Our findings suggest that formal literacy may be important for the fine-tuning of language-mediated anticipatory mechanisms, abilities which proficient language users can then exploit for other cognitive activities such as spoken language-mediated eye gaze. In the conclusion, we discuss three potential mechanisms of how reading acquisition and practice may contribute to the differences in predictive spoken language processing between low and high literates.
Analysis of eye and head coordination in a visual peripheral recognition task
Authors: Schwab Simon , Würmle Othmar , Altorfer Andreas
Published: February 2021

Coordinated eye and head movements simultaneously occur to scan the visual world for relevant targets. However, measuring both eye and head movements in experiments allowing natural head movements may be challenging. This paper provides an approach to study eye-head coordination: First, we demonstrate the capabilities and limits of the eye-head tracking system used, and compare it to other technologies. Second, a behavioral task is introduced to invoke eye-head coordination. Third, a method is introduced to reconstruct signal loss in video-based oculography caused by cornea reflection artifacts in order to extend the tracking range. Finally, parameters of eye-head coordination are identified using EHCA (eye-head co-ordination analyzer), a MATLAB software which was developed to analyze eye-head shifts. To demonstrate the capabilities of the approach, a study with 11 healthy subjects was performed to investigate motion behavior. The approach presented here is discussed as an instrument to explore eye-head coordination, which may lead to further insights into attentional and motor symptoms of certain neurological or psychiatric diseases, e.g., schizophrenia.
When East meets West: gaze-contingent Blindspots abolish cultural diversity in eye movements for faces
Authors: Miellet Sébastien , He Lingnan , Zhou Xinyue , Lao Junpeng , Caldara Roberto
Published: February 2021

Culture impacts on how people sample visual information for face processing. Westerners deploy fixations towards the eyes and the mouth to achieve face recognition. In contrast, Easterners reach equal performance by deploying more central fixations, suggesting an effective extrafoveal information use. However, this hypothesis has not been yet directly investigated, i.e. by providing only extrafoveal information to both groups of observers. We used a parametric gaze-contingent technique dynamically masking central vision - the Blindspot – with Western and Eastern observers during face recognition. Westerners shifted progressively towards the typical Eastern central fixation pattern with larger Blindspots, whereas Easterners were insensitive to the Blindspots. These observations clearly show that Easterners preferentially sample information extrafoveally for faces. Conversely, the Western data also show that culturally-dependent visuo-motor strategies can flexibly adjust to constrained visual situations.
Collecting and Analyzing Eye-Tracking Data in Outdoor Environments
Authors: Evans Karen M. , Jacobs Robert A. , Tarduno John A. , Pelz Jeff B.
Published: February 2021

Natural outdoor conditions pose unique obstacles for researchers, above and beyond those inherent to all mobile eye-tracking research. During analyses of a large set of eye-tracking data collected on geologists examining outdoor scenes, we have found that the nature of calibration, pupil identification, fixation detection, and gaze analysis all require procedures different from those typically used for indoor studies. Here, we discuss each of these challenges and present solutions, which together define a general method useful for investigations relying on outdoor eye-tracking data. We also discuss recommendations for improving the tools that are available, to further increase the accuracy and utility of outdoor eye-tracking data.
High working memory performers have efficient eye movement control systems under Reading Span Test
Authors: Azuma Miyuki , Ikeda Takashi , Minamoto Takehiro , Osaka Mariko , Osaka Naoyuki
Published: February 2021

Controlled eye movements are critical in performing highly goal oriented behavior such as text reading. Previous studies have examined the relationship between working memory capacity and eye movement control during working memory task. However, the results were inconsistent, due to a methodological issue including the predictability of target location. In the present study, we used Japanese version of reading span test, where the position of to-be-remembered word is not predictable so that more efficient attentional control is required, and investigated how working memory capacity contributes to eye movement control during reading span test. Results based on total fixation time revealed that highworking memory performers efficiently control or shift their attention under high memory load.
The Effect of Different Text Presentation Formats on Eye Movement Metrics in Reading
Authors: Sharmin Selina , Špakov Oleg , Räihä Kari-Jouko
Published: February 2021

Eye movement data were collected and analyzed from 16 participants while they read text from a computer screen. Several text presentation formats were compared, including sentences as part of a full paragraph, sentences presented one by one, sentences presented in chunks of at most 30 characters at a predefined rate, and line-by-line presentation fitting the width of the computer screen. The goal of the experiment was to study how these different text presentation modes affect eye movement metrics (fixation duration, fixations per minute, regressions, etc.). One-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed that differences in presentation format have a significant effect on fixation duration, number of fixations per minute, and number of regressions.
Inhibition of Return after Color Singletons
Authors: Priess Heinz-Werner , Born Sabine , Ansorge Ulrich
Published: February 2021

Inhibition of return (IOR) is the faster selection of hitherto unattended than previously attended positions. Some previous studies failed to find evidence for IOR after attention capture by color singletons. Others, however, did report IOR effects after color singletons. The current study examines the role of cue relevance for obtaining IOR effects. By using a potentially more sensitive method – saccadic IOR – we tested and found IOR after relevant color singleton cues that required an attention shift (Experiment 1). In contrast, irrelevant color singletons failed to produce reliable IOR effects in Experiment 2. Also, Experiment 2 rules out an alternative explanation of our IOR findings in terms of masking. We discuss our results in light of pertaining theories of IOR.
Microsaccades and Visual-Spatial Working Memory
Authors: Gaunt Joshua T. , Bridgeman Bruce
Published: February 2021

Observers performed working memory tasks at varying retinal eccentricities, fixating centrally while microsaccade rates and directions were monitored. We show that microsaccades generate no interference in a working memory task, indicating that spatial working memory is at least partially insulated from oculomotor activity. Intervening tasks during the memory interval affected memory as well as microsaccade patterns. Average microsaccade rate peaks after appearance of a fixation cross at the start of a trial, and dips at cue onset and offset. Direction of stimuli in choice tasks did not influence micro-saccade direction, however. Poorer memory accuracy for locations at greater retinal eccentricity calls for revising ideas of short-term spatial representations to include retinotopic or allocentric codes
Heterophoria: Vergence stability and visual acuity after asymmetric saccades
Authors: Blum Bernhard M. , Kirchhoff Daniel , Bickmann Alexander , Ehrt Oliver , Straube Andreas , Eggert Thomas
Published: February 2021

Many patients with heterophoria report on symptoms related to impaired vision. To investigate whether these symptoms are provoked by saccades this study examines whether in heterophoria effects on intrasaccadic and postsaccadic vergence movements are linked to effects on visual performance. Visual acuity was measured in 35 healthy subjects during fixation and immediately after asymmetric diverging saccades. Binocular position traces were recorded by video-oculography. Subjects with exophoria showed larger intrasaccadic divergence amplitudes, which in turn led to smaller postsaccadic divergence amplitudes. Visual acuity did not depend on heterophoria or vergence amplitudes. The results suggest that compensating for exophoria requires increased convergence activity as compared to orthophoria or compensated esophoria. Visual acuity seemed relatively robust with respect to postsaccadic vergence movements.
Localizing the Neural Substrate of Reflexive Covert Orienting
Authors: Higenell Valerie , White Brian J. , Hwang Joshua R. , Munoz Douglas P.
Published: February 2021

The capture of covert spatial attention by salient visual events influences subsequent gaze behavior. A task irrelevant stimulus (cue) can reduce (Attention capture) or prolong (Inhi-bition of return) saccade reaction time to a subsequent target stimulus depending on the cue-target delay. Here we investigated the mechanisms that underlie the sensory-based account of AC/IOR by manipulating the visual processing stage where the cue and target interact. In Experiment 1, liquid crystal shutter goggles were used to test whether AC/IOR occur at a monocular versus binocular processing stage (before versus after signals from both eyes converge). In Experiment 2, we tested whether visual orientation selective mechanisms are critical for AC/IOR by using oriented “Gabor” stimuli. We found that the magnitude of AC and IOR was not different between monocular and interocular viewing conditions, or between iso- and ortho-oriented cue-target interactions. The results suggest that the visual mechanisms that contribute to AC/IOR arise at an orientation-independent binocular processing stage.
Normal Pursuit-System Limitations— First Discovered in Infantile Nystagmus Syndrome
Authors: Dell’Osso Louis F. , Jacobs Jonathan B.
Published: February 2021

Infantile nystagmus syndrome (INS) patients occasionally have impaired pursuit. Model and patient data identified relative timing between target motion initiation and INS-waveform saccades as the cause. We used a new stimulus, the “step-pause-ramp” (SPR), to induce saccades proximal to target-velocity onset and test their effect on normal pursuit. Our OMS model predicted that proximal saccades impaired normal ramp responses, as in INS. Eye movements of subjects were calibrated monocularly and recorded binocularly; data were analyzed using OMtools software. Proximal saccades caused lengthened target acquisition times and steady-state position errors, confirming the model’s predictions. Spontaneous pursuit oscillation supported the hypothesis that INS is caused by loss of smooth-pursuit damping. Snooth pursuit may be impaired by saccades overlapping targetmotion onset.
Using Eye Tracking to Trace a Cognitive Process: Gaze Behaviour During Decision Making in a Natural Environment
Authors: Gidlöf Kerstin , Wallin Annika , Dewhurst Richard , Holmqvist Kenneth
Published: February 2021

The visual behaviour of consumers buying (or searching for) products in a supermarket was measured and used to analyse the stages of their decision process. Traditionally metrics used to trace decision-making processes are difficult to use in natural environments that often contain many options and unstructured information. Unlike previous attempts in this direction (i.e. Russo & Leclerc, 1994), our methodology reveals differences between a decision-making task and a search task. In particular the second (evaluation) stage of a decision task contains more re-dwells than the second stage of a comparable search task. This study addresses the growing concern of taking eye movement research from the laboratory into the ‘real-world’, so findings can be better generalised to natural situations.
Eye-movements in real curve driving: pursuit-like optokinesis in vehicle frame of reference, stability in an allocentric reference coordinate system
Authors: Lappi Otto , Lehtonen Esko
Published: February 2021

Looking at the future path and/or the tangent point (TP) have been identified as car drivers’ gaze targets in many studies on curve driving. Yet little is known in detail about these "fixations to the road". We quantitatively analyse gaze behavior at the level of individual fixations in real on-road data. We find that while gaze tracks the TP area, this pattern consists of fast optokinetic movements (smooth pursuit and fast resetting saccadic movements). Gaze is not “fixed” to the TP. We also relate eye-movements to a reference direction fixed to a point on the trajectory of the vehicle (curve exit), showing that fixations lose their pursuit-like character in this rotating system. The findings are discussed in terms of steering models and neural levels of oculomotor control.
Is poor coordination of saccades in dyslexics a consequence of reading difficulties? A study case
Authors: Ghassemi Elham , Kapoula Zoë
Published: February 2021

We hypothesize that the high quality of binocular coordination of saccades in reading is progressively learned during childhood, and this oculomotor learning is based on a synergy between saccades and vergence. In present work deficits in the binocular control of saccades in six dyslexic children (mean age was 11±2.48 years) are studied for two tasks (text reading and Xs-C scanning), and at two viewing distances (40 cm and 100 cm). Fixation durations resulting are longer in Xs-C scanning task than in text reading task. We postulate that while reading motor preparation processes are executed with less demand for attentional resources. Importantly all physiological parameters of the saccades were the same for the two conditions and in either distance. Namely disconjugacy of saccades and disconjugate post-saccadic drifts were high but similar for the two conditions. Time analysis applied on saccade amplitude disconjugacy, on disconjugate post-saccadic drift and on fixation duration showed no significant effect of repetition or time. we believe that the binocular coordination deficits in dyslexic children reflect some type of microdyspraxia due to reduced oculomotor learning, perhaps related to inefficiency of the magnocellular visual system and the cerebellar functions.
Eye Movements in Gaze Interaction
Authors: Møllenbach Emilie , Hansen John Paulin , Lillholm Martin
Published: February 2021

Gaze as a sole input modality must support complex navigation and selection tasks. Gaze interaction combines specific eye movements and graphic display objects (GDOs). This paper suggests a unifying taxonomy of gaze interaction principles. The taxonomy deals with three types of eye movements: fixations, saccades and smooth pursuits and three types of GDOs: static, dynamic, or absent. This taxonomy is qualified through related research and is the first main contribution of this paper. The second part of the paper offers an experimental exploration of single stroke gaze gestures (SSGG). The main findings suggest (1) that different lengths of SSGG can be used for interaction, (2) that GDOs are not necessary for successful completion, and (3) that SSGG are comparable to dwell time selection.
Abstracts of the 17th European Conference on Eye Movements 2013
Authors: Holmqvist Kenneth , Mulvey Fiona , Johannson Roger
Published: February 2021

This document contains all abstracts of the 17th European Conference on Eye Movements, August 11-16 2013 in Lund, Sweden

ECEM 2013 has been the 17th European Conference on Eye Movements, with the original aims ‘to exchange information on current research, equipment and software’ remaining at the forefront. ECEM is transdisciplinary, promoting new approaches, co-operation between research fields and communication between researchers. It has grown from it’s origins as a small, specialist conference to a large international event, covering all aspects of basic and applied research using eye movements ( see information from previous conferences in the archive). Today, ECEM is the largest conference on eye movements in the world, based on number of submissions. In keeping with the tradition of supporting young researchers and promoting new research. In the days prior to the conference, ECEM 2013 has included methods courses for all interested delegates on several aspects of eye movements research and applications, led by top international experts (see method workshops).

Panel discussions during the conference have provided a forum for communication between researchers, manufacturers and interface designers on new and emerging themes in eye movements research and technology.(see program). The exhibition included top eye tracker manufacturers (see exhibition).

ECEM 2013 bought together neurophysiologists, psychologists, neuropsychologists, clinicians, linguists, computational and applied scientists, engineers and manufacturers interested in the movements of the eyes, with an emphasis on learning from each other and promoting development of the field. This ECEM was hosted by the Eye Tracking Group at Lund University, Sweden, and organised by the Eye Movement Researcher's Association (EMRA) and the COGAIN (communication through gaze interaction) association, to promote interdisciplinary, basic and applied research excellence.
Advantage in Reading Lexical Bundles is Reduced in Non-Native Speakers
Authors: Valsecchi Matteo , Künstler Viktoria , Saage Sven , White Brian J. , Mukherjee Joybrato , Gegenfurtner Karl R.
Published: February 2021

Formulaic sequences such as idioms, collocations, and lexical bundles, which may be processed as holistic units, make up a large proportion of natural language. For language learners, however, formulaic patterns are a major barrier to achieving native like competence. The present study investigated the processing of lexical bundles by native speakers and less advanced non-native English speakers using corpus analysis for the identification of lexical bundles and eye-tracking to measure the reading times. The participants read sentences containing 4-grams and control phrases which were matched for sub-string frequency. The results for native speakers demonstrate a processing advantage for formulaic sequences over the matched control units. We do not find any processing advantage for non-native speakers which suggests that native like processing of lexical bundles comes only late in the acquisition process.
The Effects of Shot Changes on Eye Movements in Subtitling
Authors: Krejtz Izabela , Szarkowska Agnieszka , Krejtz Krzysztof
Published: February 2021

In this paper we address the question whether shot changes trigger the re-reading of subtitles. Although it has been accepted in the professional literature on subtitling that subtitles should not be displayed over shot changes as they induce subtitle re-reading, support for this claim in eye movement studies is difficult to find. In this study we examined eye movement patterns of 71 participants watching news and documentary clips. We analysed subject hit count, number of fixations, first fixation duration, fixation time percent and transition matrix before, during and after shot changes in subtitles displayed over a shot change. Results of our study show that most viewers do not re-read subtitlescrossing shot changes.
Functionally sequenced scanpath similarity method (FuncSim): Comparing and evaluating scanpath similarity based on a task’s inherent sequence of functional (action) units
Authors: Foerster Rebecca M. , Schneider Werner X.
Published: February 2021

Measures of scanpath similarity are essential in many domains of eye tracking research. Depending on the question, different calculations are adequate. We (Foerster, Carbone, Koesling, & Schneider, 2011) developed a method with a functional matching procedure suitable for sequential tasks. Here, we report two extensions. We introduced an alignment variant making the method more robust across tasks. We added the possibility to compare scanpaths according to multiple characteristics. The extended method, here called “functionally sequenced scanpath similarity method (FuncSim)” reveals whether gaze characteristics are similar in the same functional units of a task, opposed to when participants are engaged in different functional units. Finally, the advantages of our method are presented and compared to other methods of scanpath similarity calculation.
EyeMMV toolbox: An eye movement post-analysis tool based on a two-step spatial dispersion threshold for fixation identification
Authors: Krassanakis Vassilios , Filippakopoulou Vassiliki , Nakos Byron
Published: February 2021

Eye movement recordings and their analysis constitute an effective way to examine visual perception. There is a special need for the design of computer software for the performance of data analysis. The present study describes the development of a new toolbox, called EyeMMV (Eye Movements Metrics & Visualizations), for post experimental eye movement analysis. The detection of fixation events is performed with the use of an introduced algorithm based on a two-step spatial dispersion threshold. Furthermore, EyeMMV is designed to support all well-known eye tracking metrics and visualization techniques. The results of fixation identification algorithm are compared with those of an algorithm of dispersion-type with a moving window, imported in another open source analysis tool. The comparison produces outputs that are strongly correlated. The EyeMMV software is developed using the scripting language of MATLAB and the source code is distributed through GitHub under the third version of GNU General Public License (link: https://github.com/krasvas/EyeMMV).
Eye-tracking Deaf and hearing viewing of sign language interpreted news broadcasts
Authors: Wehrmeyer Jennifer
Published: February 2021

In this study, the viewing habits of deaf and hearing adults are investigated using eye tracking while they watched interpreted news broadcasts. The study shows that deaf viewers primarily focus on the interpreter and secondarily access picture material, but make very little use of subtitles or lip-reading. In contrast, hearing viewers prioritise pictorial content but also spend significant proportions of time examining subtitles, lip-reading and even watching the interpreter. Viewing patterns are dependent on pictorial information density rather than comprehension. The study confirms the precedence of the interpreter as primary source for deaf viewers, but also questions the efficiency of subtitling as an alternative information source for deaf viewers if an interpreter is present.
Telling people where to look in a soccer-based decision task: A nomothetic approach
Authors: Bishop Daniel , Kuhn Gustav , Maton Claire
Published: February 2021

Research has shown that identifiable visual search patterns characterize skilled performance of anticipation and decision-making tasks in sport. However, to date, the use of experts’ gaze patterns to entrain novices’ performance has been confined to aiming activities. Accordingly, in a first experiment, 40 participants of varying soccer experience viewed static images of oncoming soccer players and attempted to predict the direction in which those players were about to move. Multiple regression analyses showed that the sole predictor of decision-making efficiency was the time taken to initiate a saccade to the ball. In a follow-up experiment, soccer novices undertook the same task as in Experiment 1. Two experimental groups were instructed to either look at the ball, or the player’s head, as quickly as possible; a control group received no instructions. The experimental groups were fastest to make a saccade to the ball or head, respectively, but decision-making efficiency was equivalent across all three groups. The fallibility of a nomothetic approach to training eye movements is discussed.
Detecting expert’s eye using a multiple-kernel Relevance Vector Machine
Authors: Boccignone Giuseppe , Ferraro Mario , Crespi Sofia , Robino Carlo , De’Sperati Claudio
Published: February 2021

Decoding mental states from the pattern of neural activity or overt behavior is an intensely pursued goal. Here we applied machine learning to detect expertise from the oculomotor behavior of novice and expert billiard players during free viewing of a filmed billiard match with no specific task, and in a dynamic trajectory prediction task involving ad-hoc, occluded billiard shots. We have adopted a ground framework for feature space fusion and a Bayesian sparse classifier, namely, a Relevance Vector Machine. By testing different combinations of simple oculomotor features (gaze shifts amplitude and direction, and fixation duration), we could classify on an individual basis which group - novice or expert - the observers belonged to with an accuracy of 82% and 87%, respectively for the match and the shots. These results provide evidence that, at least in the particular domain of billiard sport, a signature of expertise is hidden in very basic aspects of oculomotor behavior, and that expertise can be detected at the individual level both with ad-hoc testing conditions and under naturalistic conditions - and suitable data mining. Our procedure paves the way for the development of a test for the “expert’s eye”, and promotes the use of eye movements as an additional signal source in Brain-Computer-Interface (BCI) systems.
Visual search without central vision – no single pseudofovea location is best
Authors: Lingnau Angelika , Albrecht Thorsten , Schwarzbach Jens , Vorberg Dirk
Published: February 2021

We typically fixate targets such that they are projected onto the fovea for best spatial resolution. Macular degeneration patients often develop fixation strategies such that targets are projected to an intact eccentric part of the retina, called pseudofovea. A longstanding debate concerns which pseudofovea-location is optimal for non-foveal vision. We examined how pseudofovea position and eccentricity affect performance in visual search, when vision is restricted to an off-foveal retinal region by a gaze-contingent display that dynamically blurs the stimulus except within a small viewing window (forced field location). Trained normally sighted participants were more accurate when forced field location was congruent with the required scan path direction; this contradicts the view that a single pseudofovea location is generally best. Rather, performance depends on the congruence between pseudofovea location and scan path direction.
Influence of number, location and size of faces on gaze in video
Authors: Rahman Anis , Pellerin Denis , Houzet Dominique
Published: February 2021

Many studies have reported the preference for faces and influence of faces on gaze, most of them in static images and a few in videos. In this paper, we study the influence of faces in complex free-viewing videos, with respect to the effects of number, location and size of the faces. This knowledge could be used to enrich a face pathway in a visual saliency model. We used eye fixation data from an eye movement experiment, hand-labeled all the faces in the videos watched, and compared the labeled face regions against the eye fixations. We observed that fixations made are in proximity to, or inside the face regions. We found that 50% of the fixations landed directly on face regions that occupy less than 10% of the entire visual scene. Moreover, the fixation duration on videos with face is longer than without face, and longer than fixation duration on static images with faces. Finally, we analyzed the three influencing factors (Eccentricity, Area, Closeness) with linear regression models. For one face, the E +A combined model is slightly better than the E model and better than the A model. For two faces, the three variables (E,A,C) are tightly coupled and the E +A+C model had the highest score..
Estimation of a focused object using a corneal surface image for eye-based interaction
Authors: Takemura Kentaro , Yamakawa Tomohisa , Takamatsu Jun , Ogasawara Tsukasa
Published: February 2021

Researchers are considering the use of eye tracking in head-mounted camera systems, such as Google’s Project Glass. Typical methods require detailed calibration in advance, but long periods of use disrupt the calibration record between the eye and the scene camera. In addition, the focused object might not be estimated even if the point-of-regard is estimated using a portable eye-tracker. Therefore, we propose a novel method for estimating the object that a user is focused upon, where an eye camera captures the reflection on the corneal surface. Eye and environment information can be extracted from the corneal surface image simultaneously. We use inverse ray tracing to rectify the reflected image and a scale-invariant feature transform to estimate the object where the point-of-regard is located. Unwarped images can also be generated continuously from corneal surface images. We consider that our proposed method could be applied to a guidance system and we confirmed the feasibility of this application in experiments that estimated the object focused upon and the point-of-regard.
Image preference estimation with a data-driven approach: A comparative study between gaze and image features
Authors: Sugano Yusuke , Ozaki Yasunori , Kasai Hiroshi , Ogaki Keisuke , Sato Yoichi
Published: February 2021

Understanding how humans subjectively look at and evaluate images is an important task for various applications in the field of multimedia interaction. While it has been repeatedly pointed out that eye movements can be used to infer the internal states of humans, not many successes have been reported concerning image understanding. We investigate the possibility of image preference estimation based on a person’s eye movements in a supervised manner in this paper. A dataset of eye movements is collected while the participants are viewing pairs of natural images, and it is used to train image preference label classifiers. The input feature is defined as a combination of various fixation and saccade event statistics, and the use of the random forest algorithm allows us to quantitatively assess how each of the statistics contributes to the classification task. We show that the gaze-based classifier had a higher level of accuracy than metadata-based baseline methods and a simple rule-based classifier throughout the experiments. We also present a quantitative comparison with image-based preference classifiers and discuss the potential and limitations of the gaze-based preference estimator.
Human-Robot Interaction Based on Gaze Gestures for the Drone Teleoperation
Authors: Yu Mingxin , Lin Yingzi , Schmidt David , Wang Xiangzhou , Wang Yu
Published: February 2021

Teleoperation has been widely used to perform tasks in dangerous and unreachable environments by replacing humans with controlled agents. The idea of human-robot interaction (HRI) is very important in teleoperation. Conventional HRI input devices include keyboard, mouse and joystick, etc. However, they are not suitable for handicapped users or people with disabilities. These devices also increase the mental workload of normal users due to simultaneous operation of multiple HRI input devices by hand. Hence, HRI based on gaze tracking with an eye tracker is presented in this study. The selection of objects is of great importance and occurs at a high frequency during HRI control. This paper introduces gaze gestures as an object selection strategy into HRI for drone teleoperation. In order to test and validate the performance of gaze gestures selection strategy, we evaluate objective and subjective measurements, respectively. Drone control performance, including mean task completion time and mean error rate, are the objective measurements. The subjective measurement is the analysis of participant perception. The results showed gaze gestures selection strategy has a great potential as an additional HRI for use in agent teleoperation.
Autobiographical recall triggers visual exploration
Authors: El Haj Mohamad , Delerue Céline , Omigie Diana , Antoine Pascal , Nandrino Jean Louis , Boucart Muriel
Published: February 2021

Autobiographical recall is thought to rely on the ability to generate a visual image of the remembered event. Neuropsychological studies suggest a relationship between deterioration in visual mental imagery and autobiographical distortions, while neuroimaging data similarly implicate visual brain areas in autobiographical recall. However, neither whether autobiographical retrieval is associated with visual exploration, or not. Our paper aimed to provide such evidence one way or the other. Using an eye tracking system, we recorded eye movements of 40 participants during autobiographical recall and during a control condition in which participants had to count aloud. In both conditions, the participants had to look at a blank screen while their gaze location was recorded by the eye-tracker. Autobiographical recall triggered a lower number of fixations and reduced their duration. In contrast, the number, duration, and amplitude of saccades increased compared to the control condition. Our data suggest that autobiographical recall is characterized by visual processing.
Comparing Experts and Novices on Scaffolded Data Visualizations using Eye-tracking
Authors: Stofer Kathryn , Che Xuan
Published: February 2021

Spatially-based scientific data visualizations are becoming widely available, yet they are often not optimized for novice audiences. This study follows after an investigation of ex-pert and novice meaning-making from scaffolded data visualizations using clinical inter-views. Using eye-tracking and concurrent interviewing, we examined quantitative fixation and AOI data and qualitative scan path data for two expertise groups (N = 20) on five versions of scaffolded global ocean data visualizations. We found influences of expertise, scaffolding, and trial. In accordance with our clinical interview findings, experts use dif-ferent meaning-making strategies from novices, but novice performance improves with scaffolding and guided practice, providing triangulation. Eye-tracking data also provide insight on meaning-making and effectiveness of scaffolding that clinical interviews alone did not.
Effect of memory load on eye movement control: A study using the reading span test
Authors: Azuma Miyuki , Minamoto Takehiro , Yaoi Ken , Osaka Mariko , Osaka Naoyuki
Published: February 2021

We investigated the effect of memory load on attentional control using the Reading Span Test (RST), a task that requires working memory capacity. Previous studies have shown that a shortage of working memory resources leads to a deficit of inhibition of taskirrelevant information and that memory load affects eye movement control. Here, we recorded eye movement and integrated it with RST performance. Total fixation time and the number of regressions showed a memory load effect with the to-be-remembered word, and RST performance was also affected under high memory load. We concluded that a shortage of working memory resources caused by memory load prevents flexible eye movement control and may cause a deficit in inhibitory control based on intrusion errors.
Attention distribution and cognitive load in a subtitled academic lecture: L1 vs. L2
Authors: Kruger Jan-Louis , Hefer Esté , Matthew Gordon
Published: February 2021

In multilingual classrooms, subtitling can be used to address the language needs of students from different linguistic backgrounds. The way students distribute their visual and cognitive resources during a lecture is important in educational design. Students have to shift their attention between sources of information of varying density and relevance. If there is redundancy between these sources, there will be competition and possible cognitive overload. This paper compares visual attention distribution between subtitles and other sources of information through eye tracking and relates this to academic comprehension and cognitive load as measured through self-report questionnaires and EEG. The study provides promising results for the use of both first and second language subtitles in academic contexts.
Dummy eye measurements of microsaccades: Testing the influence of system noise and head movements on microsaccade detection in a popular video-based eye tracker
Authors: Hermens Frouke
Published: February 2021

Whereas early studies of microsaccades have predominantly relied on custom-built eye trackers and manual tagging of microsaccades, more recent work tends to use video-based eye tracking and automated algorithms for microsaccade detection. While data from these newer studies suggest that microsaccades can be reliably detected with video-based systems, this has not been systematically evaluated. I here present a method and data examining microsaccade detection in an often used video-based system (the Eyelink II system) and a commonly used detection algorithm (Engbert & Kliegl, 2003; Engbert & Mergenthaler, 2006). Recordings from human participants and those obtained using a pair of dummy eyes, mounted on a pair of glasses either worn by a human participant (i.e., with head motion) or a dummy head (no head motion) were compared. Three experiments were conducted. The first experiment suggests that when microsaccade measurements make use of the pupil detection mode, microsaccade detections in the absence of eye movements are sparse in the absence of head movements, but frequent with head movements (despite the use of a chin rest). A second experiment demonstrates that by using measurements that rely on a combination of corneal reflection and pupil detection, false microsaccade detections can be largely avoided as long as a binocular criterion is used. A third experiment examines whether past results may have been affected by possible incorrect detections due to small head movements. It shows that despite the many detections due to head movements, the typical modulation of microsaccade rate after stimulus onset is found only when recording from the participants’ eyes.
Eye-tracking Study of Reading Speed from LCD Displays: Influence of Type Style and Type Size
Authors: Franken Gregor , Podlesek Anja , Možina Klementina
Published: February 2021

Increasing amounts of text are read from various types of screens. The shape and the size of a typeface determine the legibility of texts. The aim of this study was to investigate the legibility of different typefaces displayed on LCD screens. Two typefaces (Georgia and Verdana), designed for screen renderings were analyzed by eye-tracking technology in 8 different sizes. Regardless of the font size, the texts set in Verdana were read faster. For both typefaces the reading speed increased with increasing the font size. The number of fixations increased with the character size, while the fixation time was shorter.
A probabilistic real-time algorithm for detecting blinks, saccades, and fixations from EOG data
Authors: Toivanen Miika , Pettersson Kati , Lukander Kristian
Published: February 2021

We present a computationally light real-time algorithm which automatically detects blinks, saccades, and fixations from electro-oculography (EOG) data and calculates their temporal parameters. The method is probabilistic which allows to consider the uncertainties in the detected events. The method is real-time in the sense that it processes the data sample-by-sample, without a need to process the whole data as a batch. Prior to the actual measurements, a short, unsupervised training period is required. The parameters of the Gaussian likelihoods are learnt using an expectation maximization algorithm. The results show the promise of the method in detecting blinks, saccades, and fixations, with detection rates close to 100 %. The presented method is published as an open source tool.
Children’s attention to online adverts is related to low-level saliency factors and individual level of gaze control
Authors: Holmberg Nils , Holmqvist Kenneth , Sandberg Helena
Published: February 2021

Twenty-six children in 3rd grade were observed while surfing freely on their favourite websites. Eye movement data were recorded, as well as synchronized screen recordings. Each online advert was analyzed in order to quantify low-level saliency features, such as motion, luminance and edge density. The eye movement data were used to register if the children had attended to the online adverts. A mixed-effects multiple regression analysis was performed in order to test the relationship between visual attention on adverts and advert saliency features. The regression model also included individual level of gaze control and level of internet use as predictors. The results show that all measures of visual saliency had effects on children’s visual attention, but these effects were modulated by children’s individual level of gaze control.
Effect of Dravidian vernacular, English and Hindi during onscreen reading text: A physiological, subjective and objective evaluation study
Authors: Chowdhury Bodhisattwa , Bhattacharyya Debojyoti , Majumdar Deepti , Majumdar Dhurjati
Published: February 2021

Multilingualism has become an integral part of our present lifestyle. India has twenty two registered official languages with English and Hindi being most widely used for all official activities across the nation. As both these languages are introduced later in life, it was hypothesised that comprehensive reading will be better and faster if the native medium was used. Therefore present study aimed to evaluate the differences in performance while using one of the four Indian Dravidian vernaculars (Tamil, Telugu Kannada and Malayalam) and two non-vernacular (English and Hindi) languages for onscreen reading task. A multi-dimensional approach including physiological (Eye movement recording), subjective (Language Experience And Proficiency Questionnaire, LEAP-Q, Legibility rating) and Objective (Reading time and Word processing rate) measurements were used to quantify the effects. Forty-four Indian infantry soldiers from each of the Dravidian language groups participated in the study. Volunteers read aloud two simple story passages onscreen in their respective vernacular and non-vernacular languages using both time bound and self-paced reading mode. Reading time was lower and word processing rate was higher respectively in case of vernacular than non-vernacular. Consideration of fixation count in both the modes of reading indicated better performance with vernaculars. Legibility score was better in Dravidian languages than others. Results indicated that reading text was faster in vernacular media followed by English and Hindi. Use of vernaculars in onscreen text display of high density workstation may therefore be recommended for easier and faster comprehension
Effects of search intent on eye-movement patterns in a change detection task
Authors: Lee Sangil , Lee Minho , Park Hyeonggyu , Chang Mun-Seon , Kwak Ho-Wan
Published: February 2021

The goal of the present study was to examine whether intention type affects eye movement patterns in a change detection task In addition, we assessed whether the eye movement index could be used to identify human implicit intent. We attempted to generate three types of intent amongst the study participants, dividing them into one of three conditions; each condition received different information regarding an impending change to the visual stimuli. In the “navigational intent” condition, participants were asked to look for any interesting objects, and were not given any more information about the impending change. In the “low-specific intent” condition, participants were informed that a change would occur. In the “high-specific intent” condition, participants were told that a change would occur, and that an object would disappear. In addition to this main change detection task, participants also had to perform a primary task, in which they were required to name aloud the colors of objects in the pre-change scene. This allowed us to control for the visual searching process during the pre-change scene. The main results were as follows: firstly, the primary task successfully controlled for the visual search process during the pre-change scene, establishing that there were no differences in the patterns of eye movements across all three conditions despite differing intents. Secondly, we observed significantly different patterns of eye movement between the conditions in the post-change scene, suggesting that generating a specific intent for change detection yields a distinctive pattern of eye-movements. Finally, discriminant function analysis showed a reasonable classification rate for identifying a specific intent. Taken together, it was found that both participant intent and the specificity of information provided to the participants affect eye movements in a change detection task.
Eye Tracking in the Wild: the Good, the Bad and the Ugly
Authors: Lappi Otto
Published: February 2021

Modelling human cognition and behaviour in rich naturalistic settings and under conditions of free movement of the head and body is a major goal of visual science. Eye tracking has turned out to be an excellent physiological means to investigate how we visually interact with complex 3D environments, real and virtual. This review begins with a philosophical look at the advantages (the Good) and the disadvantages (the Bad) in approaches with different levels of ecological naturalness (traditional tightly controlled laboratory tasks, low- and high-fidelity simulators, fully naturalistic real-world studies). We then discuss in more technical terms the differences in approach required “in the wild”, compared to “received” lab-based methods. We highlight how the unreflecting application of lab-based analysis methods, terminology, and tacit assumptions can lead to poor experimental design or even spurious results (the Ugly). The aim is not to present a “cookbook” of best practices, but to raise awareness of some of the special concerns that naturalistic research brings about. References to helpful literature are provided along the way. The aim is to provide an overview of the landscape from the point of view of a researcher planning serious basic research on the human mind and behaviour