bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A normative and statistical approach to measuring classical horizontal inequity
Authors: Duclos Jean‐Yves , Lambert Peter J.
Published: March 2003

A local measure of classical horizontal inequity (HI) in an income tax or tax‐benefit system is proposed and aggregated into a global index. This index expresses the revenue gain per capita that would come from eliminating HI welfare‐neutrally, and also reveals the loss of vertical performance, in terms of the Blackorby and Donaldson (1984) progressivity index, caused by the presence of HI. Non‐parametric estimation procedures that can be used to tackle the ‘identification problem’ are delineated. An application to the Canadian tax‐benefit system between 1981 and 1994 reveals the changing profile of local HI, its sources, and its aggregate significance. JEL Classification: C14, D31, D63, H23

Approche normative et statistique à la mesure de l'inéquité horizontale classique. Nous nous intéressons dans ce document au problème tenace de la mesure de l'inéquité horizontale. Nous proposons tout d'abord une mesure locale d'inéquité horizontale, que nous agrégeons ensuite en un indice global. A la différence d'autres approches, qui s'intéressent au gain en bien‐être social qu'il y aurait àéliminer l'inéquité horizontale en gardant constant le revenu de l'État, notre indice global mesure le gain fiscal per capita qui échoirait au gouvernement si l'inéquité horizontale était éliminée sans changement dans le niveau de bien‐être social. Lorsque ce gain fiscal est exprimé en proportion des revenus moyens nets, notre mesure constitue un élément (négatif) dans l'indice de progressivité de Blackorby et Donaldson (1984); elle quantifie alors la perte de performance verticale causée par un traitement fiscal discriminatoire vis‐à‐vis d'individus qui étaient égaux avant l'intervention de l'État. Notre ‐indice étant exprimé en unités monétaires, son interprétation est facile et intuitive. Nous proposons finalement des procédures d'estimation non‐paramétrique pour résoudre le problème important de l'identification des individus égaux dans une distribution de bien‐être. A notre connaissance, il s'agit d'ailleurs de la première solution statistiquement cohérente au problème classique de la mesure de l'inéquité horizontale. La méthode est appliquée à la distribution canadienne des revenus bruts et nets en 1981 et 1994, et révèle à la fois la variation du profil de l'inéquité horizontale le long des quantiles et son importance comme source de perte de progressivité et de redistribution. Nous décomposons aussi l'inéquité horizontale totale entre et à travers différents groupes socio‐économiques, et testons la sensibilité de ces estimés à la variabilitééchantillonnale ainsi qu'au choix d'échelles d'équivalence et d'intervalles des fonctions de noyaux.
Do stricter penalties deter drinking and driving? An empirical investigation of Canadian impaired driving laws
Authors: Sen Anindya
Published: March 2003

In this paper I attempt to assess empirically the effects of Canadian impaired driving legislation enacted between 1976 to 1992. On average, penalties for impaired driving have limited impact on impaired driver fatalities. Instead, trends in impaired driver deaths are significantly correlated with the enactment of mandatory seatbelt legislation across provinces. Specifically, the implementation of mandatory seatbelt laws for drivers is significantly associated with a 27 per cent drop in impaired driver fatality rates. These findings suggest that more lives might be saved by focusing on initiatives aimed at enhancing vehicle safety. JEL Classification: H7, I1

Est‐ce que des punitions plus sévères découragent la conduite en état d'ébriété? Une étude empirique des lois canadiennes sur l'ivresse au volant. Ce texte tente de mesurer empiriquement les effets des lois sur l'ivresse au volant mises en place au Canada entre 1976 et 1992. En général, les punitions pour ivresse au volant ont eu un impact limité sur le nombre de décès de conducteurs en état d'ébriété. D'autre part, les tendances dans le nombre de décès de conducteurs en état d'ébriété sont reliées à la mise en place de législations obligeant le port de la ceinture de sécurité par les provinces. On peut dire que la mise en place de lois sur le port obligatoire de la ceinture de sécurité est associée à une chute de 27 pour‐cent dans le nombre de décès de conducteurs en état d'ébriété. Ces résultats suggèrent que beaucoup plus vies pourraient être épargnées en mettant l'accent sur des mesures qui amélioreraient la sécurité des véhicules.
Ranking State Environmental Outputs: Evidence from Panel Data
Authors: List John A. , McHone W. Warren
Published: March 2003

This paper uses state‐level pollution data from 1986–1997 to construct two indices that rank U.S. states according to environmental outputs. A major finding is that marginal performers in other indices, such as Wyoming, garner top spots in these ranking systems. The paper also presents findings from fixed and random effects models of panel data that imply state income levels are positively associated with environmental outputs after a threshold level of income is obtained.
U.S. Farm Wages and Labor Market Efficiency
Authors: Temel Tugrul
Published: March 2003

This study examines convergence in real wages for hired farm labor in the U.S. agricultural sector over the period 1978‐92,using the ‘average farm’ in each county as an observation. Convergence is investigated at the aggregate (or the entire U.S. level)and regional levels. Evidence supports convergence with a slower rate at the aggregate level than that at the regional level. Suggested by the evidence is the possibility that absolute benefits of wage equalization across states are ‘contagious’—that one state's successful investment raises productivity and factor payments in neighboring states and that agricultural labor markets are efficient and integrated all over the country.
Unemployment Duration in Non‐Metropolitan Labor Markets
Authors: Mills Bradford F.
Published: March 2003

Non‐metropolitan areas of the U.S have experienced significant structural economic changes in recent decades. These changes have raised concerns that some non‐metropolitan workers may face significant costs to employment displacements associated with economic adjustments. This paper explores the roles that linkages to metropolitan labor markets, area labor market conditions, and individual attributes play in determining the rates of exit from unemployment to employment among non‐metropolitan area residents. Adjacency to a metropolitan area is found to significantly increase transition rates from unemployment to employment among displaced non‐metropolitan workers, but local economic conditions are found to have relatively weak or insignificant effects on transition rates. Also, lack of post‐high school education and minority status both significantly reduce rates of exit from unemployment in non‐metropolitan areas following employmentdisplacement.
Local Diversity, Human Creativity, and Technological Innovation
Authors: Desrochers Pierre
Published: March 2003

The purpose of this paper is to point out some shortcomings of traditional approaches to the study of “knowledge spillovers” and to suggest an alternative based on how knowledge is actually created and exchanged by individuals. Which regional setting is the best incubator of technological change and economic growth? Is this promoted by regional diversity or specialization of economi activity? This study will include economic analyses of geographically localized “dynamic knowledge externalities, Jacob's externalities, or adding new work to old, industrial classification and technology combination, human creativity, and technology combination through human action and imaginative use of resources. Employees add to, or switch their product line; individuals move from one type of production to another; individuals observe a product/process in another setting and incorporate it; individuals possessing different skills and working for different firms collaborate; and urban diversity and resource collaboration are utilized. It is concluded that problems are solved through the combination of previously unrelated things and that promoting regional specialization at the expense of spontaneously evolved local diversity might be a counter‐productive policy.
Examination of Conditional Asset Pricing in UK Stock Returns
Authors: Fletcher Jonathan
Published: March 2003

I examine the empirical performance of various specifications of the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) in UK stock returns, using the stochastic discount framework. When the proxy for the market portfolio includes a proxy for labor income growth in addition to the stock market index, the performance of the CAPM improves. The improvement in performance shows in the magnitude and significance of the pricing errors and in the reduced impact of asset characteristics and other factors in the pricing of assets. There is further improvement when I use conditional versions of the models.
Discounted Reinforcement Learning Does Not Scale
Authors: McDonald Matthew A. F. , Hingston Philip
Published: March 2003

Currently popular reinforcement learning methods are based on estimating value functions that indicate the long–term value of each problem state. In many domains, such as those traditionally studied in AI planning research, the size of state spaces precludes the individual storage of state value estimates. Consequently, most practical implementations of reinforcement learning methods have stored value functions using generalizing function approximators, with mixed results. We analyze the effects of approximation error on the performance of goal–based tasks, revealing potentially severe scaling difficulties. Empirical evidence is presented that suggests when difficulties are likely to occur and explains some of the widely differing results reported in the literature.
Types of Contexts and Their Role in Multimodal Communication
Authors: Ferrari Giacomo
Published: March 2003

In this paper the idea is presented that human communication is carried through messages that are the result of the integration of a set of communicative acts, some of which are, in a traditional view, contextual phenomena with respect to a main (linguistic) communication act. A formalization of the notion of communicative situation is attempted, which eliminates the distinction between context and main communication acts. The ideas presented in this paper come from a re‐thinking of a prototype implemented in 1989 for the ESPRIT Project 527, CFID whose main features are presented in Section 4.
Decomposing and Solving Timetabling Constraint Networks
Authors: Meisels Amnon , Ell‐sana Jihad , Gudes Ehud
Published: March 2003

The binary version of the school timetabling (STT) problem is a real‐world example of a constraint network that includes only constraints of inequality. A new and useful representation for this real‐world problem, the STT_Grid, leads to a generic decomposition technique. The paper presents proofs of necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a solution to decomposed STT_Grids. The decomposition procedure is of low enough complexity to be practical for large problems, such as a real‐world high school.

To test the decomposition approach, a typical high school was analyzed and used as a model for generating STT_Grids of various sizes. Experiments were conducted to test the difficulty of large STT networks and their solution by decomposition. The experimental results show that the decomposition procedure enables the solution of large STT_Grids (620 variables for a real school) in reasonable time. The constraint network of a typical STT_Grid is sparse and belongs to the class of easy problems. Still, due to the sizes of STTs, good constraint satisfaction problem search techniques (i.e., BackJumping and ForwardChecking) do not terminate in reasonable times for STT_Grids that are larger than 300 variables.
Using Diagrams to Understand Geometry
Authors: Lindsay Robert K.
Published: March 2003

This paper describes ARCHIMEDES‐STUDENT, a computer program that constructs and modifies its own representations of diagrams from instructions supplied by a human who is demonstrating a theorem of geometry. The program's representation permits it to make inferences from its constructions and to find a justification for the conclusion of the theorem. It is argued that the sort of perceptual reasoning displayed by this program represents one important aspect of understanding because it relates the abstract mathematical theorem to knowledge of spatial relations. For humans this approach grounds abstraction in experience and thus provides a more compelling demonstration than a formal proof. Because ARCHIMEDES‐STUDENT is a well‐defined computer program, it provides a precise suggestion of how this aspect of understanding can be achieved.
Utilizing Moment Invariants and Gröbner Bases to Reason About Shapes
Authors: Schweitzer Haim , Straach Janell
Published: March 2003

Shapes such as triangles or rectangles can be defined in terms of geometric properties invariant under a group of transformations. Complex shapes can be described by logic formulas with simpler shapes as the atoms. A standard technique for computing invariant properties of simple shapes is the method of moment invariants, known since the early 1960s. We generalize this technique to shapes described by arbitrary monotone formulas (formulas in propositional logic without negation). Our technique produces a reduced Gröbner basisfor approximate shape descriptions. We show how to use this representation to solve decision problems related to shapes. Examples include determining if a figure has a particular shape, if one description of a shape is more general than another, and whether a specific geometric property is really necessary for specifying a shape. Unlike geometry theorem proving, our approach does not require the shapes to be explicitly defined. Instead, logic formulas combined with measurements performed on actual shape instances are used to compute well‐characterized least squares approximations to the shapes. Our results provide a proof that decision problems stated in terms of these approximations can be solved in a finite number of steps.
An Algorithm for Minimal Insertion in a Type Lattice
Authors: Valtchev Petko
Published: March 2003

The problem of inserting a new element x into a lattice of types L is addressed in the paper. As the poset L+x obtained by the direct insertion of x in L is not necessarily a lattice, some set of auxiliary elements should be added to restore the lattice properties. An approach toward the lattice insertion is presented which allows the set of auxiliary elements to be kept minimal. The key idea is to build the final lattice L+ as isomorphic to the Dedekind–McNeille completion of the order L+x. Our strategy is based on a global definition of the set of auxiliary elements and their locations in L+. Each auxiliary is related to a specific element of L, an odd, which represents GLB (LUB) of some elements in L superior (inferior) to x. An appropriate computation scheme for the auxiliary types is given preserving the subtyping in the lattice L+. The insertion strategy presented is more general than the existing ones, since it deals with general kinds of lattices and makes no hypothesis on the location of x in L. An algorithm computing L+ from L and x of time complexity O(|L||J(L)|ω^3(L)) is provided.
Realizing Presuppositions in a Montague Grammar‐Like Fragment of English
Authors: Surette Philip G. , Mercer Robert E.
Published: March 2003

A complete analysis of an English sentence includes syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic components. Presupposition belongs to the pragmatic component. How to determine the presuppositions of multiple‐clause sentences has been the focus of much work. Projection of clausal presuppositions is one method to determine the presuppositions of multiple‐clause sentences. In this paper we present a new approach to the projection problem. Drawing heavily on the theoretical techniques originating with Montague semantics, our system maps sentences of a category‐based grammar into a set of expressions of intensional logic: one expression corresponding to the literal interpretation of the sentence and the remaining expressions corresponding to the presuppositions of the sentence. The new approach correctly predicts the presuppositions of a larger range of multiple‐clause sentences than previous projection approaches.
Construction of Deliberation Structure in E‐Mail Communication
Authors: Murakoshi Hiroyuki , Shimazu Akira , Ochimizu Koichiro
Published: March 2003

We propose a model, called a deliberation structure model, that represents streams of relevant messages in email communication. The deliberation structure model treats e‐mail messages that include several topics and uses tree structure, called deliberation trees, that are based on Clark's contribution trees to represent message structure. Deliberation trees are useful to visualize the message structure. A method for constructing the deliberation structure is showed.
Interval Evaluations in the Analytic Hierarchy Process By Possibility Analysis
Authors: Sugihara Kazutomi , Tanaka Hideo
Published: March 2003

Since a pairwise comparison matrix in the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is based on human intuition, the given matrix will always include inconsistent elements violating the transitivity property. We propose the Interval AHP by which interval weights can be obtained. The widths of the estimated interval weights represent inconsistency in judging data. Since interval weights can be obtained from inconsistent data, the proposed Interval AHP is more appropriate to human judgment. Assuming crisp values in a pairwise comparison matrix, the interval comparisons including the given crisp comparisons can be obtained by applying the Linear Programming (LP) approach. Using an interval preference relation, the Interval AHP for crisp data can be extended to an approach for interval data allowing to express the uncertainty of human judgment in pairwise comparisons.
Remaking New Zealand's Economic Policy: Institutional Elites as Radical Innovators 1984–1993
Authors: Goldfinch Shaun
Published: March 2003

During the mid‐1980s and early 1990s the New Zealand economy moved from being one of the most regulated outside the former communist bloc to among the most liberal in the OECD. Largely unheralded and begun by an ostensibly social democratic Labour government, changes included the floating of the exchange rate; extensive liberalization of financial, capital and other markets; lowering of trade protection; fiscal restraint and monetary disinflation; changes to the machinery of government; corporatization and then sale of state assets; and changes to industrial relations frameworks (Castles, Gerritsen and Vowles 1996). Known as Rogernomics after Minister of Finance Roger Douglas, these economic policies were heavily derivative of neoclassical economic theories, such as the New Classical and Chicago schools, public choice and new institutional economics (Boston et al. 1996, ch. 2; Goldfinch 1997). This article explains how such radical economic restructuring occurred through the influence of a select group of strategically located institutional elites.
Not Just Parliamentary ‘Cowboys and Indians’: Ministerial Responsibility and Bureaucratic Drift
Authors: Kam Christopher
Published: March 2003

A strict interpretation of the doctrine of individual ministerial responsibility requires that the minister alone bear public responsibility for her department's actions. Critics charge that it is not sensible to hold a mminister solel responsible for departmental errors when government departments are so large and complex, and senior bureaucrats so powerful in their own right; senior bureaucrats should be made directly accountable to Parliament. The paper uses a game theoretic model to show that this criticism is misguided. To the extent that politicians more effectively police the bureaucracy when they are governed by a doctrine of ministerial responsibility than when they are not, the doctrine strengthens accountability. Much of the doctrine's force comes from the threat of ministerial resignation, but the opportunities that the doctrine creates for opposition parties to embarrass the government also contribute to its efficacy.
Privatization and the Courts: How Judicial Structures Shaped German Privatization
Authors: Cassell Mark
Published: March 2003

This article examines how legal institutional structures shaped the process of East German privatization by the Treuhandanstalt. It argues that the courts, as an important venue for oversight and accountability, were central to achieving the rapid and narrowly defined privatization carried out by the agency. Moreover, the experience of privatization after 1989 suggests the courts played a far more important role in shaping economic policy than one would have expected from traditional scholarship on public agencies, the courts, or the German legal system.
Empowerment, Performance, and Operational Uncertainty: A Theoretical Integration
Authors: Wall Toby D. , Cordery John L. , Clegg Chris W.
Published: March 2003

L’accession au pouvoir est présentée comme une recette universelle pour améliorer la performance au travail. On défend ici l’idée qu’il existe déjà des arguments forts pour penser que cette conviction est des plus discutables, et que l’impact de la participation dépendra du degré de l’incertitude opérationnelle qui prévaut. Notre point de vue s’appuie sur une analyse des idées qui émergent conjointement de cinq domaines, à savoir les théories des organisations, la structuration du travail, le management “zéro défaut”, le management des facteurs humains et celui des ressources humaines. On met en évidence les conséquences théoriques et pratiques de nos investigations et certaines des pistes à suivre pour approfondir la réflexion.

Empowerment is being promoted as a general recipe for enhancing work performance. We argue that there are already strong grounds for suggesting that this universalistic assumption is flawed, and that the effectiveness of empowerment practices will be contingent on the degree of operational uncertainty that prevails. This argument is supported by an analysis of ideas in common emerging from five different areas of inquiry, namely those concerned with organisational theory, work design, total quality management, human factors, and human resource management. We identify the theoretical and practical implications of our analysis, and some of the lines of investigation required to develop the ideas further.
Power Dynamics and Organisational Change: An Introduction
Authors: Munduate Lourdes , Bennebroek Gravenhorst Kilian M.
Published: March 2003

Cet article propose un cadre conceptuel pour appréhender les dynamiques de pouvoir lors de changements organisationnels. Weick et Quinn (1999)établissent une distinction entre le changement épisodique, discontinu et intermittent, et le changement continu, évolutif et progressif. Après avoir discuté cette distinction, nous analysons comment les processus de l’influence et du pouvoir social peuvent constituer la base du changement continu. Les bases du pouvoir des agents du changement sont ensuite décrites. Puis nous portons notre attention sur les relations de pouvoir dynamiques entre les agents du changement et les cibles, ainsi que sur les processus sociaux qui facilitent le changement continu. L’article se termine par un survol des contributions à cette édition spéciale.

This article offers a framework for understanding power dynamics in organisational change. Weick and Quinn (1999) make a distinction between change that is episodic, discontinuous, and intermittent, and change that is continuous, evolving, and incremental. After discussing this distinction, we analyse how processes of social power and influence can form the basis for continuous change. Subsequently, the power bases of change agents are described. Then we pay attention to the dynamic power relationships between change agents and targets as well as to the social processes that facilitate continuous change. The article ends with an overview of the contributions to this special issue.
Formal and Informal Interpersonal Power in Organisations: Testing a Bifactorial Model of Power in Role‐sets
Authors: Peiró José M. , Meliá José L.
Published: March 2003

Cet article porte sur la structure et les propriétés des bases du pouvoir dans les situations organisationnelles. On y présente et y teste une théorie bifactorielle du pouvoir élaborée à partir des sources du pouvoir identifiées par French & Raven. Cette theorie pose: a) le pouvoir formel englobe la légitimité et la possibilité d’imposer et de récompenser, le pouvoir informel l’arbitrage et l’expertise, b) le pouvoir formel est liéà la hiérarchie, c) il est asymétrique alors que le pouvoir informel est réciproque, d) et en relation négative avec le conflit. Un échantillon de 155 sujets a décrit ses relations de pouvoir et ses conflits avec les 1093 membres de son milieu professionnel, supérieurs, subordonnés et collégues. Une analyse bidirectionnelle des relations de pouvoir agent‐cible en situation conforte ces hypothèses. Les résultats sont repris à partir du modèle pouvoir/interaction et de l’idée de l’acquisition du pouvoir dan les relations d’influence.

This paper focuses on the structure and properties of power bases in organisational settings. Based on the sources of power identified by French and Raven, a Bifactorial Theory of Power is formulated and tested. According to this theory it is predicted that (a) Formal power includes legitimate, reward, and coercion power bases and Informal power includes referent and expert power bases, (b) Formal power is associated with hierarchy, (c) Formal power is antisymmetrical and Informal power reciprocal, and (d) conflict is negatively related with Informal power. A sample of 155 subjects reported their power and conflict relationships with their 1,093 role‐set members, including superiors, subordinates, and peers. A bidirectional analysis of the agent–target power relationships in role‐sets gives support to these hypotheses. Results are discussed in terms of the Power/Interaction model and the empowerment approach to power relationships.
The Identity of Capitalists and the Legitimacy of Capitalism: Sri Lanka since Independence
Authors: Moore Mick
Published: March 2003

In many Asian countries, the early decades of independence after World War II were marked by tension between ‘indigenous’ political elites and business elites that were in large part alien, or from minority ethnic groups. This tension was one reason for the preference that most governments showed for statist and nationalist economic policies. It has abated in most cases; political and business elites now tend to pursue more co‐operative strategies. Much of the explanation for this lies in changes in the international political economy that made market‐oriented economic policies more attractive to political elites. There are in addition internal political reasons for this rapprochement. These vary from case to case, and have been explored in most detail by scholars in relation to the Southeast Asian countries where Overseas Chinese have dominated larger scale business. This article extends this literature by examining the causes of the gradual rapprochement between ‘majority’ politics and ‘minority’ business in Sri Lanka.
The Discourse that Silences: Beneficiaries' Ambivalence Towards Redistributive Land Reform in the Philippines
Authors: Hirtz Frank
Published: March 2003

This article argues that the persistence of non‐capitalist dimensions within land relations in the Philippines is basic to rural livelihood strategies, and has been a major but widely‐neglected factor in the failure of land reform programmes. Addressing the issue of non‐capitalist relationships brings into focus the indigenous or ‘customary’ land tenure relationships that exist in lowland land tenure arrangements, with the result that the conventional dichotomy between lowland and upland ‘cultural minority’ land relations becomes spurious. The article offers some suggestions as to why, for the major part of this century, the indigenous norms of lowlanders have been overlooked, with a discussion which links up to issues of national identity and nation building.
Does Solidarity Pay? The Case of the Small Enterprise Foundation, South Africa
Authors: Reinke Jens
Published: March 2003

This article argues that the costs of lending through solidarity groups are high. This is explained by the nature of groups: groups are not a forum for contractual exchange, but are costly institutions built on social capital. The costs of group formation and interaction outweigh the benefits of high repayment rates associated with group control. Supposedly sustainable group‐lenders often depend on large injections of subsidized loans or capital from donors. This is usually ignored in mainstream literature which does not pay sufficient attention to the operational costs of credit extension. The argument is illustrated with a study of the Small Enterprise Foundation, South Africa, which shows a contradiction between staff‐intensive, personalized lending technology and sufficient cost‐recovery.
Insecurity and Pastoral Development in the Sahel
Authors: De Bruijn Mirjam E. , Van Dijk Han J. W. M.
Published: March 2003

In this article it is argued that conventional agro‐ecological and organizational concepts used in pastoral development are strongly biased towards the formulation and enforcement of norms. This leads development experts to attempts to control pastoralists and their herds. The policies and development interventions based on these assumptions have been largely unsuccessful. As a consequence attention for dryland areas and pastoral development has declined among researchers and development agencies. An important reason for this failure is the fundamental misfit between these normative concepts and the reality of dryland ecosystems and pastoral society. In order to show this, an alternative view on rangeland ecology and pastoral society is presented, supported by a case study of Fulbe pastoral society in dryland Central Mali. The authors argue that approaches to pastoral development must be revised in the direction of the dynamics inherent in the pastoral way of life.
Externalities, Learning and Governance: New Perspectives on Local Economic Development
Authors: Helmsing Bert
Published: March 2003

In spite of growing mobility of production and production factors, economic development is increasingly localized in economic agglomerations. This article reviews three partially overlapping perspectives on local economic development, which derive from three factors intensifying the localized nature of economic development: externalities, learning and governance. Externalities play a central role in the new geographical economics of Krugman and in new economic geography of clusters and industrial districts. The dynamics of local economic development are increasingly associated with evolutionary economic thinking in general and with collective learning in particular. Inter‐firm and extra‐firm organization has experienced considerable innovation in the last few decades. New institutional devices are based on the notions of commodity chain, cluster and milieu. These innovations introduce new issues of economic governance both at the level of industry and of territory.
The Distribution of Subsidized Agricultural Credit in Brazil: Do Interest Groups Matter?
Authors: Helfand Steven M.
Published: March 2003

This article examines the unequal distribution of credit and credit subsidies in the Brazilian agricultural sector from 1969 to 1990. Total credit subsidies exceeded US$ 40 billion in this period. The distribution across crops is studied econometrically. After controlling for area, the crops that benefited most had superior access to credit institutions, were tradeable, had high prices, and were not perennials. Proxies for collective action by crop were an unimportant determinant of credit policy, while a bias in favour of large producers was evident. Alternative explanations for this bias are discussed, including collective action by farm size and transaction costs in lending.
The Transformation of Mexican Retailing with NAFTA
Authors: Chavez Manuel
Published: March 2003

With the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA, in 1994, the opening up of Mexican commercial sectors was completed. Thereafter, the growth of multinational supermarket chains accelerated and Mexican food distributors and retailers were forced into redefinition and regrouping, not only at company level but also at the regional–location level. The central and northern regions are witnessing increased efforts on the part of supermarket chains to capture local market segments, a process which imposes new demands on producers, wholesalers, and consumers. This article addresses the strategies of competition and collaboration of Mexican and US supermarket chains in the new regional context, and highlights the lack of Mexican public policy to help domestic retailers to compete effectively.
Benin
Authors: Bierschenk Thomas , Thioléron Elisabeth , Bako–Arifari Nassirou
Published: March 2003

Under Benin's neo–patrimonial multi–party democracy, political continuity and social peace have been achieved at the cost of political immobilism. Major reform projects have advanced very slowly at best, relying heavily on donor–financed expertise and external pressure. At the same time, poorly co–ordinated and rather clientelistic aid has been a major factor in limiting the coherence of government action. This article suggests that it would be unrealistic and even dangerous, under these conditions, to expect very much very fast from the PRSP approach in Benin. The ‘regime change’ that is called for will require at least a substantial shift in donor behaviour, coordinated progress with stalled public management reforms and a step–change in the politics of reform in the country.
Inductive generalization in 9‐ and 11‐month‐olds
Authors: McDonough Laraine , Mandler Jean M.
Published: March 2003

Using little models, we showed 9‐ and 11‐month‐old infants events in which animal or vehicle properties were demonstrated, such as a dog drinking from a cup or a car giving a ride. The infants were tested on imitation of these properties on the same exemplars as used for the modeling, on generalization to other exemplars from the same domain, and on generalization to exemplars from an inappropriate domain. Infants generalized the properties broadly to both typical and novel exemplars within the appropriate domain, and rarely to exemplars from the inappropriate domain. It is concluded that at least by 9 months infants have formed global concepts of animals and vehicles that control the way infants learn the characteristic properties of these classes.
An attentional analysis of children's sensitivity to artistic style in paintings
Authors: Callaghan Tara C. , MacFarlane J. Michael
Published: March 2003

This study investigated the claim that children are not able to judge artistic style when it conflicts with subject matter cues in paintings, using stimulus and methodological controls not employed previously. 6 and 9 year old children and adults were asked to judge which member of a pair of paintings looked like it was painted by the same painter as the target in a matching to sample task. Style choices were always possible and subject matter matches were either not possible because that dimension was controlled in the stimulus set (control), or possible but in conflict with style choices (experimental). The levels of discriminability of style and subject matter differences were varied. For control conditions, we found that performance was poor for all ages when style differences were low in discriminability and subject matter varied across the three stimuli; otherwise it was high. For experimental conditions, we found that irrelevant variation of subject matter was more detrimental if differences on that dimension were highly discriminable. Even the youngest children could make style matches and could do so even when a subject matter match was also possible, suggesting that they are sensitive to artistic style and can focus on that dimension in the face of irrelevant variation on other dimensions. The results are discussed as they relate to earlier claims that children are not able to judge artistic style and to the implications for training that follow from those claims.
Adoption and maltreatment of foster infants by rhesus macaque abusive mothers
Authors: Maestripieri Dario , Megna Nancy L. , Jovanovic Tanja
Published: March 2003

In this study we investigated whether infant characteristics play a causal role in the occurrence of maternal abuse of offspring in rhesus macaques )Macaca mulatta) and whether abusive mothers differ from controls in their tendency to adopt alien infants in a cross‐fostering procedure. To this end, 13 infants born to mothers with a previous history of infant abuse were cross‐fostered shortly after birth with infants born to nonabusive mothers and subsequently observed for 12 weeks. Abusive mothers were significantly more likely to reject foster infants than control mothers were. When adoption was successful, all of the abusive mothers maltreated their foster infants whereas none of the control mothers exhibited infant abuse. These findings suggest that infant characteristics do not play an important causal role in the occurrence of infant abuse and that abusive mothers may differ from nonabusive ones in maternal motivation or reactivity to stressful procedures.
Effects of balance relations between objects on infant’s object segregation
Authors: Huettel Scott A. , Needham Amy
Published: March 2003

Young infants are sensitive to support relations between objects. However, the types of contact perceived to be sufficient for object support change over development. At 4.5 months of age, infants expect an object to be adequately supported when in contact with another object. By 6.5 months, this simple contact/no‐contact distinction is refined to account for proportion of contact: an object is perceived to be supported when 70% of its bottom surface is in contact with another object, but it is not perceived to be supported when 15% is contacted. Here, we employ an object segregation paradigm to investigate whether 8‐month‐old infants’ judgments of support relations are mediated by assessments both of the proportion of contact and of the position of contact.

Infants in the current experiments viewed test displays consisting of two objects, a long thin object (a box) and a smaller roughly cubic object (a box in Experiment 1, a cylinder in Experiments 2 and 3). Two basic positions of contact were used, such that either the centers or the lateral edges of the two objects were aligned. The proportion of contact was manipulated across experiments by having the smaller object support the larger or the larger object support the smaller. There was a significant effect of position of contact when only a small proportion of the upper object was contacted by the lower object. However, position of contact was found not to matter when all of the upper object was in contact with the lower object.

We conclude that 8‐month‐old infants’ judgments of support relations are influenced by both proportion and position of supporting contact. We integrate the findings from the current experiments into the general developmental framework proposed by Baillargeon and colleagues.
Why early linguistic milestones are delayed in children with Williams syndrome: late onset of hand banging as a possible rate–limiting constraint on the emergence of canonical babbling
Authors: Masataka Nobuo
Published: March 2003

In the present study, eight children with Williams syndrome were observed every 2 weeks between 6 months and 30 months of age when interacting with their mothers. When the collected data were transcribed in terms of both linguistic and motor activities, overall delay was found in terms of the onset of canonical babbling, first words, as well as various motor milestones in every child. The degree to which acquisition of each of the milestones was delayed was individually variable. Nevertheless, the onset of hand banging was found to be an indicator that predicted the onset of canonical babbling consistently among the children. Once canonical babbling was produced, moreover, the onset of first words was recorded during a following 2 to 3 month period. These findings appear to indicate the possibility that development of the motor ability to perform such rhythmic motor activity as hand banging acted as a control parameter for production of canonical syllables in the children.
Preferences for colours and colour‐‐emotion combinations in early childhood
Authors: Zentner Marcel R.
Published: March 2003

Previous research has shown that, by the age of 3 to 4 years, children rely not only on perceptual similarity but also on shared category or other underlying structures to draw analogies. The present study extends this work by showing that children as young as 3 years old detect consistent relationships between colours and facial expressions of emotions – two phenomena that share no physical characteristics, violate conventional categories and have no obvious environmental contiguity. Two explanatory hypotheses are put forward: (a) learning by convention, which is explored against the standard of adults’ and older children’s matching patterns, and (b) reliance upon a common underlying but perceptually unavailable dimension – operationalized in terms of emotion and colour preferences in the context of the present study. Both explanatory approaches are discussed and avenues for future work are suggested.
Spontaneous spatial constructions by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus)
Authors: Potì Patrizia , Langer Jonas
Published: March 2003

We investigated chimpanzees’ spontaneous spatial constructions with objects. Two were common chimpanzees ages 6 and 18 years and one was an 11‐year‐old bonobo raised in a very enriched human environment from very early in life. Chimpanzees’ products and procedures were quite advanced when constructing functional spatial relations by placing objects in or on each other, but not when constructing nonfunctional spatial relations by placing objects next to each other. This difference was found in all their constructions, including their spatial correspondences and spatial symmetries. Compared to those of younger nonencultured chimpanzees all their spatial constructions were more advanced. Compared to human infants, their functional spatial constructions were also more advanced but their nonfunctional spatial constructions were less advanced.
Children’s understanding of the mind’s involvement in pretense: do words bend the truth?
Authors: Sobel David M. , Lillard Angeline S.
Published: March 2003

Many have thought that children have an early appreciation of the role of the mind in pretense, fitting with the notion that pretend play is, in general, a ‘zone of proximal development’ (Vygotsky, 1978). Although results from several experiments are against this hypothesis, the evidence from that line of research has been questioned because the experiments thus far have always used the word ‘pretend’. Young children might have a perfectly clear understanding that pretense involves the mind, but have mismapped the word ‘pretend’ onto non‐mental correlates of pretending, like action and costume. Two experiments tested this possibility. Four‐year‐olds were shown videos of people engaging in real and pretend activities and asked questions regarding the role of mind; for half the children the word ‘pretend’ was used to describe the activity, and for half it was not. Contrary to the hypothesis, even when the word ‘pretend’ was not used, roughly half of the 4‐year‐olds failed to designate pretense as involving mental activity. Consistent with prior work, more children of this age were cognizant of the mind’s involvement in pretense than were cognizant of the mind’s involvement in physical actions.
Birth, kind and naïve biology
Authors: Solomon Gregg E.A.
Published: March 2003

Much recent debate concerning the acquisition of naïve theories of biology and of race has turned on the claim that even preschoolers understand biological inheritance. At issue is what is implied by the belief that offspring will have the characteristic features of their kind. The present paper argues that such an essentialist belief in innate potential need not indicate a domain‐specific understanding of the biological inheritance of human kinds (or race). In Study 1, preschoolers in a Switched‐at‐birth task were found to be as likely to judge an adopted girl to resemble her birth parents on the color of their shirts as on their race. In Study 2, a variant on the task, 4‐year‐olds were found to be more likely to judge the girl to resemble her adoptive parents, suggesting that the concept of birth origin was not central to their reasoning. Though the results are consistent with the claim that preschoolers reason about human kinds in an essentialist manner, they undermine the broader claim that such reasoning is anchored by a naïve theory of biology. The finding is of cultural as well as cognitive consequence.
Asymmetry in infant hemispheric readiness after exposure to a visual stimulus
Authors: Catherwood Di , Cramm Amanda , Foster Helen
Published: March 2003

This experiment assessed whether prior exposure to one visual stimulus could result in differential hemispheric responsiveness to a subsequent visual stimulus. The latency of saccadic orientation to a star‐shaped stimulus in the left or right visual field was assessed for 24 infants (mean age 22 weeks, SD 4.5) after exposure to either an upright or inverted facial pattern in the central visual field. The response to the lateral stimulus was equivalent in either visual field after exposure to the inverted facial pattern, but was significantly slower (p = 0.043) in the LVF (RH) than the RVF (LH) following presentation of the upright facial pattern. The outcome confirms that the processing of one visual stimulus may lead to differential hemispheric readiness to engage with a subsequent visual stimulus.
Application of EEG, ERP and intracranial recordings to the investigation of cognitive functions in children
Authors: Taylor M.J. , Baldeweg T.
Published: March 2003

Neurophysiological measures can provide important information about the substrate of cognitive function in children, and most importantly, can give precise temporal information about ‘on‐line’ brain function. These measures can be readily used in infants and children, and we present some examples of their application to understanding cognitive development. The most widely used of these techniques for developmental research is the method of event‐related potentials (ERPs). In addition, the electroencephalogram (EEG) and the more rarely used invasive, intracranial investigations are also important to furthering our knowledge of how the brain–behaviour relations develop. The paper summarizes practical issues and presents some selected examples of experimental and clinical research.
Applications of ERP and fMRI techniques to developmental science
Authors: Haan Michelle de , Thomas Kathleen M.
Published: March 2003

Event‐related potentials (ERPs) and functional magnetic resonance imaging are both measures of functional brain activation that have been applied to developmental questions. However, the two measures are not identical and reflect different aspects of neuronal function at a physiological level. There is increasing interest in using these methods in combination because of the complementary information they provide about brain activation. ERPs provide more detailed information about the timing of neural activity, while fMRI provides more detailed information about its spatial location. Thus, their combined use may provide more detailed spatio‐temporal information than either method alone. In this paper, we review the basic principles of ERP and fMRI and present selected studies from our own work to illustrate their strengths for studies of development. In addition, we discuss the potential benefits and special challenges of the combined use of electrophysiological and functional MRI techniques.