bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Contents of Phonological Signs: A Comparison Between Their Use in Derivational Theories and in Optimality Theories
Authors: Bromberger Sylvain , Halle Morris
Published: November 2023

In all the exchanges that we are aware of between proponents of Rule-based Derivational phonology (DT, from here on) and proponents of Optimality phonology (OT from here on), the participants seem to take for granted that the phonological symbols on which both sides rely mean the same thing in both kinds of theories. In other words, they seem to take for granted that switching between OT and DT analyses has no effect on the semantic values that attach to such symbols as ‘ae’, ‘;ae’;, ‘[+ voice]’, ‘[labial]’, and so on: that these and other phonemic and feature symbols carry the same information, have the same semantic content, regardless of whether they occur in the context of a derivation or in the context of a tableau. In this chapter we want to question this presumption of semantic invariance between OT and DT. We will, in fact, argue that many—perhaps all—such symbols mean different things in the two kinds of contexts.
Phonological Derivations and Historical Changes in Hebrew Spirantization
Authors: Idsardi William J
Published: November 2023

Chomsky (1995: 224) cites Hebrew spirantization as an example of a phonological phenomenon whose conditioning factors are rendered opaque (even absent) by the operation of later processes in the phonological derivation in standard rule-based generative phonology. Because Optimality Theory (OT, Prince and Smolensky 1993) is built on surface output conditions (and in later versions input-output and output-output correspondence constraints), any such cases of intermediate representations are non-trivial questions to be addressed.
Attic Greek Accentuation and Intermediate Derivational Representations
Authors: Noyer Rolf
Published: November 2023

Questions relating to levels of representation in phonology have reemerged dramatically in recent years along with the development of alternatives to classical generative theory such as Optimality Theory (OT: Prince and Smolensky, 1993; McCarthy and Prince, 1993a; 1993b; 1995) and Harmonic Phonology (Goldsmith, 1992). In Harmonic Phonology, for example, the grammar defines the class of well-formed expressions by appeal to phonotactic conditions which hold of three privileged levels (M, W, and P) and certain relations which must hold across these levels. In certain prominent versions of OT, similarly, the phonological surface alone is the ‘locus of explanatory action‘, and generalizations holding of any other level of description, such as that of the underlying forms, are deemed epiphenomenal.
On the Politics of Change
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D
Published: November 2023

The research reported here is a sociolinguistic and anthropological linguistic study of language change conducted mainly in two Albanian-speaking communities in southern Greece: Spáta in the district of Attika, and Kiriáki in the district of Biotia. Kiriáki represents a more conservative community, being geographically isolated in a mountainous, rough physical terrain, whereas Spáta represents a more modernized community due to its vicinity to the capital city of Athens. Other communities have been surveyed to be mentioned in the analysis of the relevant data.
The Coding of Linguistic Ideology and Arvanítika Language Shift
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2 I discussed the sociocultural and political process responsible for the contact-induced Arvanítika linguistic shift. In subsequent chapters some of the most significant outcomes of the shift, such as the recruitment of bilingual resources for the building of performance frames, the production of an across the-border voice and similar phenomena, were analyzed and related to the macroprocesses of subordination and heteroglossia. The major focus of this book is the dialectic between societal praxis as it is linked to the basic social restructurings of the communities and the use of bilingual resources in speakers’ communicative praxis leading to the creation of a set of interpretive and productive practices that are interested (Hill 1990). As an outcome of this line of analysis topics related to linguistic ideology have been addressed in various places in the book. For example, terminal speakers’ language attitudes and linguistic conduct as they emerge through the frame of an across-the-border voice represent in essence an ideological phenomenon. In this chapter I tum to the discussion of linguistic ideology which I consider worth examining in its own right.
Aristotle’s Representational Notion of Signs
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

In considering signs, their relationship to the cognitive world and to the world of things, it is important to distinguish clearly between three separate levels of observation: the linguistic level of signs (words, sentences); the epistemological level of cognitive correlates (concepts, propositions, etc.); and the ontological level of things, truth values,1 and facts. To keep these levels distinct, it will be necessary to adopt a convention for writing about them. One may speak of an elephant, of ‘elephant’ and of elephant. In the first case, we are talking about a certain animal, in the second, about a concept, and in the third, about an English noun. Please note that this distinction binds us neither to the assumption that every linguistic sign corresponds to a conceptual correlate, nor to the assumption that the meaning of a sign is to be situated on the epistemological level. Both of these assumptions will be discussed in detail later.
Conceptual Realism versus Conceptual Relativism
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

It’s time for a provisional summary. Two fundamental notions of signs have been contrasted, the representational and the instrumental. Aristotle and Frege were introduced as exemplary of representational notions, Plato and Wittgenstein as exemplary of instrumental notions of signs. These are the central questions that representational notions of signs try to answer: What does a sign stand for? What are the extra-linguistic correspondents of signs? Of course, behind such questions is a certain notion of what communication is. According to this notion, communication is the transferal to the addressee(s) of ideas, concepts, and so on, by the provision of substitutes for those ideas, concepts, etc.: you don’t have direct access to my thoughts, so I give you access by means of signs that stand for my ideas. In such a scenario, the people involved in communicating can safely be left out of the picture. They have no significant role in the conception of such notions of signs. However, representational theories have to live with one big mystery: by virtue of which characteristic do signs manage to stand for ideas? The answer “By symbolizing those ideas” is not a real answer; it only shifts the problem, for we find ourselves faced with another, analogous question.
Types of Concept versus Types of Rule
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

I will now attempt to illustrate, with four central examples, the difference and connection between types of concept and types of rule of use. First, though, it will be necessary to agree on a working terminology. The classic idea of a concept is one that is well defined and has sharp boundaries. A correct definition of a concept is called its intension; the class of existing objects that fall under the concept is its extension; the class of all possible (past, present and future) objects that fall under the concept is usually called the concept’s comprehension. Therefore, the intension of a concept classifies its comprehension. To the extension of the concept ‘car’ belong all presently existing cars; its comprehension includes all past, present and future cars, as well as all possible cars. If a distinguishing feature is added to a concept’s intension, its comprehension (but not necessarily its extension!) becomes smaller, and vice versa. As an example, the concept ‘yellow car’ classifies its comprehension, that is, the class of all possible yellow cars; the concept ‘yellow car with radio’ classifies the class of all possible yellow cars with radios. Since there might be some yellow cars without radios, the comprehension of the concept ‘yellow car’ is larger than that of the concept ‘yellow car with radio’. Since it is not impossible that all presently existing yellow cars have radios, or that there presently exists not a single yellow car, the only thing that can be said about the relation between the two extensions is that the extension of the concept ‘yellow car with radio’ cannot be larger than that of the concept ‘yellow car’; the two extensions also could be equal.
Expression and Meaning
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters, we have acquainted ourselves with different prototypical notions of linguistic signs. The quintessence of the exposition up to this point has been: (1)Linguistic signs serve us to communicate, classify and represent. (2)A theory of the representative capacity of linguistic signs provides no answer to the question of which property of a sign enables it to represent something (whatever that something may be), or more generally, by virtue of which property a sign is suitable for communication. (3)This does not mean that theories of meaning as use and representational theories are mutually exclusive. Cognitivist theories are generally representationally conceived. (4)The question “By virtue of which property is a sign suitable for communication?” can be answered only by a theory of meaning as use. Until now, our discussion has considered only the established signs of a language. But how do signs emerge? How do new signs arise from old signs? How and why do signs change? At this point, we will tum to the question of the genesis and change of linguistic signs. The signs of a language can come into existence through intentional, creative acts. In scientific discourse, it is common practice to create signs and intentionally modify them. Every non-redundant definition is such a creative or modifying act.
Rationality and Implicatures
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we saw that the hearer, in order to understand an utterance, must always undertake two inferential procedures. He must interpret the utterance on the basis of his knowledge of linguistic rules (which in most cases must be supplemented with non-linguistic knowledge), and view the result of this interpretation as a symptom of the end meant to be reached with the utterance. In other words, he must employ the result of use of the symbolic strategy to reconstruct the means-to-end relation with the symptomic strategy. The semantic interpretation must be followed by a pragmatic means-to-end judgment. Though the above is formulated from the perspective of the addressee, it does not mean that our theory is biased in favor of the hearer. But the presentation can be simplified by choosing one of the two perspectives. I continually proceed from the assumption that the inferences made by the hearer are exactly those that the speaker has in mind with the making of an utterance; that is, I continually assume completely successful communication.
Evidence for Eighteenth-Century Pronunciation: The Value of Pronouncing Dictionaries
Authors: Beal Joan C
Published: November 2023

The question which we shall address in this chapter is whether the Grand Repository and other eighteenth-century pronouncing dictionaries provide useful information for the historical phonologist: how much information do these pronouncing dictionaries provide, how reliable is this information, and how does it compare with other available sources of information on the pronunciation of English in the eighteenth century? Before considering the pronouncing dictionaries themselves, we should perhaps review the other types of evidence available to historical phonologists engaged m reconstructing the pronunciation of an earlier period of English.
Spence’s Grand Repository of the English Language
Authors: Beal Joan C
Published: November 2023

We have seen in the previous chapter that the pronouncing dictionaries produced in the later eighteenth century constitute a potentially very valuable source of information on the pronunciation of English in that period, not least because the respelling of each dictionary entry provides enough instances of any sound for patterns of variation and hence of the diffusion of sound changes, to be observed. What I intend to consider in this chapter is why Spence’s Grund Repository deserves particular attention.
Treatises on terminology
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

So far, explanations and quotations have shown an obvious proximity of ono-masiological works to encyclopaedias. But there is also a proximity to treatises which use the ono-masiological principle within scientific disciplines with (more or less) strictly systematized terminology such as those that began to appear in the sixteenth century.
John Withals’ dictionary for young boys (1553)
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

In the article signed by ‘S. L.’ in the Dictionary of National Biography, exactly one sentence is devoted to the author: ‘Withals or Whithals, John (fl. 1556), probably a schoolmaster, was author of an English-Latin vocabulary for children.’ The year given as ‘fl.’ is that of the second edition of his dictionary. The rest of the article deals with its history as a popular schoolbook. Some dates, obviously depending on Wheatley (1865), deviate from what it was possible (for me) to verify in the British Library. The summarizing sentence, ‘Withals’s Short Dictionarie became a standard school book’ is nevertheless true.
John Wilkins’ comprehensive thesaurus of English ( 1668)
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

By definition a universal language is intelligible to everybody, irrespective of their mother tongue. Many learned men of the seventeenth century engaged in plans to construct a semiotic system that would achieve this goal, among them Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Johannes Amos Comenius (1592-1670), Rene Descartes (1596-1650), Athanasius Kircher (1602-80), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), and others. In Britain particularly this idea found many adherents, mainly centred around the Royal Society, founded in 1660. Among them were Francis Lodwick (1619-94), George Dalgarno (?1626-87), Samuel Hartlib (d.?1670), and John Wilkins (1614-72).
Towards mental lexicography
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

Onomasiology is a term belonging to lexical semantics as well as to lexicography. It denotes a mental operation, namely the co-ordination of meaning and language, that is, of semantic matter and linguistic form. It also denotes the technique of listing lexemes according to some order which is not that of the alpha bet. Semasiology is the corresponding term which denotes the co-ordination of language and meaning, that is, of linguistic form and matter, employing the technique of listing lexemes in the arrangement of the alphabet. As is obvious, the two terms presuppose that meaning and language, matter and form, are separate entities in natural languages which, although bound to each other, can nevertheless be distinguished in abstraction. This presupposition can be proved valid by everyday linguistic behaviour. In using language we can employ either approach. When learning a language, native or foreign, in the manner which St Augustine1 described in the classical way, we give a name to something of which we have previously become aware, mostly by its being pointed out to us and by the ensuing perception. Indeed, the question ‘What do we call this [pointing]?’ is with us throughout our life. When we encounter difficulties in understanding, however, again with our native language or foreign ones, we always ask, ‘What does this word mean?’ Obviously, the mental operations that underlie the onomasiological and the semasiological principles are tied to the natural ways in which we handle linguistic communication, either at the productive or at the receptive end.
Conclusion
Authors: Kirby Simon
Published: November 2023

The use to which language is put influences its form. In particular, the way that we process utterances is reflected in constraints on variation across languages. We can see this—as many functional-typologists have— by comparing processing asymmetries with cross-linguistic asymmetries. However, this is only the starting point for a complete explanation. It is important to tackle the problem of linkage, by making the connection between these asymmetries as explicit as possible.
Lexical Information for Parsing Systems: Points of Convergence and Divergence
Authors: Ingria Robert J P
Published: November 2023

Parsers have been written in a number of different theoretical and computational frameworks. Since these frameworks often propose different linguistic elements and operations, the consequences of such differences for the construction of grammars for parsing are usually immediately obvious. Less obvious, but no less real, are the consequences for the lexicon. Nevertheless, information that is, in some sense, ‘identical’ is often represented in lexicons that differ considerably.
The Lexicon in Text Generation:Progress and Prospects
Authors: Cumming Susanna
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I will review the state of the text generation lexicon. I have two primary goals: first, to give the reader an idea of what is currently being done, by setting out some of the alternatives designers of generation lexicons have faced, the choices they have made, and the implications of these choices for the types of lexical phenomena they have been able to represent; and second, to suggest what a generation lexicon could do, that is, what range of lexical phenomena might be relevant to the generation task, and how these phenomena interact with other aspects or components of a generation system. While syntactic, taxonomic semantic, and morphological specification are well under stood, there are a number of issues around lexical representation which have only been treated in one or two recent systems; these aspects include collocation, metaphor, and the textual and social dimensions of lexical choice. I will propose that further corpus-based research is necessary for an adequate treatment of these areas.
Dictionary Systems for Office Practice
Authors: Byrd Roy J
Published: November 2023

Computer systems that offer natural language interfaces are becoming available in increasing numbers. Although such systems will be used in all imaginable environments, we expect to see a large portion of them devoted to office and business applications. Except in the most trivial cases, these systems all require some sort of dictionary subsystem to provide information about the words that they process.
The Role of Dictionaries and Machine-Readable Lexicons in Translation
Authors: Slocum Jonathan , Morgan Martha G
Published: November 2023

The dictionary needs of humans vary from those of computers; this results from their differential knowledge and abilities. Humans, by the time they are engaged as professional translators, have acquired an enormous body of common sense, knowledge of the world, and other information and heuristics involved in reasoning, hence translating. Computers as yet have no similar capacity for learning, nor indeed for representing and effectively utilizing such complex, diverse bodies of knowledge. On the other hand, computers are endowed with almost unlimited information stores having essentially perfect recall, while humans have demonstrably limited, incomplete memories with faulty recall.
Why Use Words to Label Ideas: The Uses of Dictionaries and Thesauri in Information Retrieval
Authors: Lesk Michael
Published: November 2023

The dream of having a great library in your desk, instantly accessible by a few keypushes, also needs a vision of how to find things (Bush 1945). Traditional retrieval systems label concepts with words, either in their conventional meanings, or using specially defined thesauri of words whose meanings are restricted. The problem with ordinary words is that they have multiple meanings, as seen from the sense definitions in any dictionary, and that there are often many words that might be used to identify the same concept. A summary of how retrieval is done today and many of the current research trends is available in Salton and McGill (1983).
Machine-Readable Dictionaries and Computational Linguistics Research
Authors: Boguraev Branimir
Published: November 2023

This chapter has three points of departure, and before getting into further details I will attempt to establish the premisses for the discussion which follows, the boundaries within which it will be contained, and the dimensions along which some presentations, comparisons, and evaluations will be made.
Structure and Access in an Automated Lexicon and Related Issues
Authors: Calzolari Nicoletta
Published: November 2023

I do not think this problem is to be tackled here at the ‘lower’ level of physical implementation, and not even at the level of required software: these issues, important as they certainly are, are however more dependent on the particular hardware, operating system, etc. which are used.
The Lexicon in a Computational Functional Grammar
Authors: Dik Simon C
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the lexical component of a Prolog implementation of a Functional Grammar (FG) of English. FG is a general theory of the grammatical organization of natural languages (NL), based on a functional perspective on the nature of NLs. In this perspective an NL is first and foremost conceived of as an instrument for human communication. From this axiomatic principle a number of things follow concerning the nature of FG. First of all, it is clear that the theory will have to account for the forms of NLs (the morphosyntax) in close interconnection with their meanings (the semantics) and their usages (the pragmatics).
C
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

The now somewhat old-fashioned v. reckon [up] means ‘to ascertain a number, quantity, cost, etc. by counting or by calculation’. Calculate means ‘to ascertain or determine by mathematical processes’ often of some intricacy. They reckoned/calculated that production would increase by 5 per cent in the next year. Hire charges are reckoned/calculated from the date of delivery. Both are trans., She calculated the area, and intr., Computers calculate more quickly than human beings. Children reckon on their fingers. Work out is an everyday syn. of both, but is trans. only.
I
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Idea, concept, conception ns. Idea and die Idee do not coincide in all uses, so that other words may be better transls. of idea .One sense of idea is ‘a conception or notion of sth. to be done or carried out’, ‘an intention or plan for action’.In one of its main senses, die !dee denotes a thought according to which one can act. It refers to just the germ of a plan which occurs to someone suddenly, not something thought out or worked out in detail, and can be a clever thought about the way something can be done. A following wie-clause is common. Auf meine Idee, wie wir das Produkt verbessem konnten, ging sie sofort ein. What is to be done is also often given in a new sent. Ich habe eine Idee! Lajst uns das Haus neu dekorieren! An infin.
N
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Near or close in time is nahe. Der SonnenuntergangfDer Frühling ist nahe. Niemand zweifelte am nahen Konkurs des Untemehmens. In naher Zukunft. An alternative is bevorstehen, which means that something will happen in the immediate future. Die bevorstehenden Prü.fungen. Nahe is often added. Die Prü.fungfWeihnachten stand nahe bevor.
S
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Safe = ‘free or protected from danger’. They felt safe in the cave. It is also applied to things, Your job is safe, and is used with from, We are now safe from attack. Secure is a syn. in some contexts. Is sth. secure/safe from harm? or Are we safe/secure from attack? S.o. has a safe/secure position. Sth. is safe/secure in s.o.’s keeping or in safe custody. The equivalent in all these cases is sicher. From is var .
Fundamentals
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The Susanne Corpus consists of sixty-four data files corresponding to the sixty-four Brown texts on which it is based (and having three-character names corresponding to the names of the respective Brown text files, from “A01” to “N1 8”), together with a documentation file (giving a skeleton outline of the analytic scheme described in this book) named “SUSANNE.doc”. Each data file is about 83 kilobytes in size: 5.3 megabytes for the Corpus in total, excluding the documentation file.
Word Classes
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

This chapter lists the system of wordtags used in SUSANNE wordtag fields, and explains how choices between alternative wordtags are made in debatable cases. The principles by which text is segmented into taggable “words” were stated in §§ 2.33-45.
Surface Grammar
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The rules for drawing trees and labelling their nodes which comprise the following chapters are designed, first, to yield analyses that are consistent and as uncontroversial as possible from a linguistic point of view; as a secondary matter, within the range of alternatives allowable (given the differences of opinion that exist among English linguists), the scheme chooses analyses that do not cause unnecessary difficulties for the kinds of corpus-based natural language processing techniques with which the scheme’s creators have also been involved.
Speech
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Spoken English is not a separate language from written English, and many of the annotation conventions devised for the written language carry over unchanged to spoken English. But it is obvious that the spoken language includes distinctive properties of its own, which require language annotation conventions.
Regulating Two at Once, II: Congruence in ML + EL Constituents and EL Islands
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

This chapter has several goals. First, it will continue the discussion from Chapter 4 of ML+ EL constituents by introducing a new constraint on ML+ EL constituents, a blocking filter. A Blocking Hypothesis proposes that a filter blocks not only EL system morphemes prohibited under the System Morpheme Principle presented in Chapter 4 but also EL content morphemes which do not show certain specified congruences with ML content morphemes. Second, in a related discussion, this chapter characterizes EL islands; obligatory EL islands are the result of certain noncongruences also involving the Blocking Hypothesis. The System Morpheme Principle discussed in Chapter 4 makes the prediction that syntactically relevant EL system morphemes will not appear in ML+ EL constituents; only syntactically relevant ML system morphemes are allowed. This prediction is supported by all available data; examples in addition to those already discussed will be presented later in this chapter. Clearly, this principle limits the occurrence of EL morphemes in these constituents. However, I now propose the Blocking Hypothesis as a corollary to the SM principle to limit further EL participation by blocking certain EL content morphemes as well.
Relating Lexical Borrowing and Codeswitching
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the relationship between lexical borrowing and codeswitching (CS), concentrating on the two as processes but also considering their outcomes. The general argument is that singly occurring forms originating with the EL, whether CS or borrowed forms (hereafter B forms), are part of the same developmental continuum, not unrelated phenomena, as some have argued. Evidence is that they undergo largely the same morphosyntactic procedures (of the Matrix Language, or ML) during language production. Therefore, it turns out, the motivation for distinguishing them in order to assess models of morphosyntactic constraints on CS seems to evaporate, at least for content morphemes. However, even though they are subject to the same production procedures, the lexical entries of CS and B forms must be different, since B forms become part of the mental lexicon of the ML, while CS forms do not. I follow Levelt (1989: 6) in his definition of the mental lexicon as ‘the store of information about the words in one’s language’.
Dravidian Personal Pronouns
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

The etymologies for the pronouns of the first person singular and plural given in A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary by Burrow and Emeneau under the entries 4234, 4231, and 3019 fall into five phonological groups of alternating stems in the nominative and oblique as follows.
On Diachronic and Synchronic Rules in Phonology: A Case from Parji
Authors: KRISHNAMURTI BHADRIRAJU , EMENEAU MURRAY B
Published: November 2023

Parji is a Central Dravidian language spoken by a small tribal people numbering about 25,000 in the forests and hills south of Jagdalpur in the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, bordering on Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
Unchanged Cognates as a Criterion in Linguistic Subgrouping
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

If a sound change has lexically diffused without completing its course, one finds that among the lexical items qualified for the change, some have already changed (c), others have remained unchanged (u), and still others show variant forms (u/c).
The Emergence of the Syllable Types of Stems (C)VCC(V) and (C)YC(V) in Indo-Aryan and Dravidian:
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Other traits have been suggested as belonging to the Indian linguistic area but have not been investigated, usually because data and analysis are not yet under control. Examples are the phonological development of syllabic structure and phoneme distributions that is seen in proceeding from OIA to MIA, with an end result that is suspiciously close to the structure of PD, as represented fairly closely by old or literary Tamil.
Landmarks in Comparative Dravidian Studies in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Introduction:

The Dravidian languages (around 25) are spoken by 191 million in India (Census 1991; for details see Appendix I) mainly in India; immigrant speakers of the major Dravidian languages in other countries such as Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. would be at least 10 million.
The Emergence of the Innate: Evolving Optimality
Authors: Mcmahon April
Published: November 2023

In the orthodox Optimality Theory view, phonological Universal Grammar consists of the function Gen, plus a list of innate, universal and violable constraints. The question to be explored in this chapter is whether a richly structured Universal Grammar of this kind could reasonably have evolved in our species by the mechanisms usually thought to be responsible for the development of complex systems. If the alleged development of such a system cannot be reconciled with the normal forces of evolution, then good arguments will have to be provided for seeing it as the product of some other, special processes. If no convincing arguments are available, we have a further, more general reason for seeing this picture of phonology as inadequate. The justification of innateness in evolutionary terms has not been much of an issue in linguistics up to now, probably for two main reasons. First, we shall see below that Chomsky quite clearly sees the evolution of language as out of the ordinary, and beyond the scope of the neo-Darwinian model considered in the last chapter. Secondly, there has been a lengthy period, since the topic of the origin of language was banned by the Linguistic Society of Paris in 1866, during which the evolution of language has not been part of mainstream linguistics.
Prologue
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

When the publisher invited me half a decade ago to collect a number of my articles for the present volume-and I would like to express here at the outset my gratitude to the editors for deeming some of my work worthy of publication in this format-my first thoughts inclined to a series of papers on matters of English surface grammar that have been ignored or analysed incompletely or incorrectly in the better-known grammars. But it was concluded that what should be assembled here was rather a collection of articles on the time-based or developmental structuring of languages-how the patterning of development and its results in an existing grammar are invisible without comparing isolects (not those supposititious, non-comparable entities called ‘idiolects’)-together with a few additional articles on the cause of linguistic change and the origin of new languages.
Reversals in Marked Categories and Contexts, with the Pragmatic Principle of Reading between the Lines in the Presence of Marked Usages
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

I In English, prepositions precede their objects in those ordinary clauses in which the object of the verb follows the verb; e.g. She bought a book for them. But in those-relative and interrogative-clauses in English in which a relativized or queried object of an adposition is moved to the beginning of the clause so as to precede the verb, we normally (see Bailey 1986d for descriptive rules; cf. Bailey 1992a: 113–14) strand the adposition after the verb as a postposition; e.g. the person she gave it to; What did they do it for? In exhibiting this patterning, English conforms to an implicational principle of general linguistics (J. H. Greenberg 1966b: 78–9): whereas vx-order (where X is the object or some other N” complement of the verb) implicates prepositions, xv-order implicates postpositions.
Language Structure: The System Created by the Constraints
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

The methods of 3.1-2.4 yield a base set of sentences from which the other sentences of the language arc derived. The dependence of 3.1, together with the linearization of 3.4.1-2,4, characterizes the set of possible sentences; it eliminates what cannot occur in the language. The likelihood gradation of creates not-well-defined sets of normal’ and marginal sentences, on which the reductions of 3.3 operate. Separating out the different constraints that contribute to the departures from equiprobability in the word-sequences of all sentences distinguishes the base subset of sentences, in which reductions have not taken place. This subset is structurally recognizable, because the operator-argument relation in it has not been obscured by zeroing, reduction to affix, length permutation, and other transformations. It is also purely syntactic, without having morphology carry part of the syntactic functions, since all affixes that can he derived from free words have been separated off, leaving the vocabulary to consist of syntactically indivisible word.
Information
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

Language is clearly and above all a bearer of meaning. Not, however, of all meaning. Many human activities and states have meaning for us, and only some of this can be expressed in language: feelings and vague sensings can be referred to only indirectly (10.7); non-public information, such as proprioceptive sensations, can be named only with difficulty; certain kinds of non-language information can be translated directly into language (e.g. graphs and charts); but other kinds (e.g. photographs) can be represented in language only loosely and selectively. Meaning itself is a concept of no clear definition, and the parts of it that can be expressed in language arc not an otherwise characterized subset of meaning. Indeed, since language-borne meaning cannot be organized or structured except in respect to words and sentences of language (2.4), we cannot correlate the structure and meanings of language with any independently known catalogue or structure of meaning. In each language, we do not know a priori which specific aspects of meaning will be referred to by words, and how much will be included in the meaning of a single word. Even when the meanings are well-defined, it is not always possible for words of a language to mirror in their structural relations the relation among the referents.
Contrast
Authors: Mettinger Arthur
Published: November 2023

Oppositeness of meaning, as has been shown in the previous chapter, has often been regarded as an important principle structuring the vocabulary of a natural language. In a way, however, the phenomenon as such has always been treated as simply existing, with hardly any consideration as to the actualization and textual function of semantic opposition on the level of language-use (parole).1 It is not difficult to see the reason for avoiding such an enterprise; establishing opposites on the expression plane presupposes knowing that the meaning of lexeme A and the meaning of lexeme B can/do enter a relation of oppositeness on the content plane, and meaning-relations on the content plane arc accessible only via generalizations on the expression plane—which means that the investigator is trapped in a vicious circle. Nevertheless, with a certain amount of “pretheoretical” know ledge it is possible to ‘identify units by virtue of their potentiality of occurrence in certain syntagms’ (Lyons 1977, 241), i.e. it can be shown that opposites show a tendency to appear more often and more regularly in some syntagmas than they do in other.;.
Grammatical sketch
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

This chapter outlines some of the main points of English syntax which are necessary for an understanding of later chapters (it does not go into exhaustive detail on any issue).

On a fair number of analytical issues there is currently disagreement between grammarians; only some of these disagreements are mentioned here. In a book of this size it would be impracticable to discuss all alternative proposals. What I have tried to do is provide a single, internally consistent view of the syntax of English.
Noun, adjective and verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

The lexical words of a language can be grouped into a number of semantic types, each of which has a common meaning component, and a typical set of grammatical properties. One of the grammatical properties of a type is its association with a grammatical Word Class, or Part of Speech. (See §I .2.)

Chapters 4–6 contain brief sketches of the semantic and syntactic characters of those semantic types which are in English associated with the Verb class. Following chapters discuss the occurrence restrictions on specific syntactic constructions, providing explanations for these that link the meanings of the constructions with the meanings of semantic types. In this chapter I provide a brief summary of the semantic types associated with the Noun and Adjective classes in English and introduce the division into Primary and Secondary verb types.
Primary-B verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

Primary-B verbs can, like Primary-A, be the only verb in a sentence, with all their roles filled by NPs (e.g. John saw Mary). But they can also, unlike Primary-A, have a complement clause as alternative to an NP in one syntactic relation (e.g. John saw that Mary had won). Whereas most Primary-A verbs, when used in a literal sense, take CONCRETE NPs, many Primary-B verbs may take any type of NP in O relation, e.g. an ACTIVITY noun as in John witnessed the incident.

The sections below outline the variety of complement clauses that the various types and subtypes of Primary-B verbs take. We return to this topic in Chapter 7, there providing semantic explanation for the occurrences.
I know that it seems that he’ll make me want to describe her starting to say that she knows that it seems that.
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

There are, as outlined in §2.7, seven kinds of complement clause, which can fill the object or subject (or, sometimes, a post-object) slot in a main clause. All Secondary and Primary-B verbs take complement clauses—but each one allows only some of the full range of complement clause possibilities. Which complement clauses a given verb may accept is determined by the meaning of the verb and the meanings of the complement clause constructions.

In §7.2 we outline the meanings of the different kinds of complement clause. §§7.3—4 then deal with Secondary and Primary-B types, one at a time, looking at the overall meaning of each type and the specific meanings of individual verbs within the type, thus providing a semantic explanation for the complement clauses that occur. §7. I deals briefly with ‘parentheticals’, which are related to THAT complement constructions.
Correlating Social Parameters and Linguistic Variables
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we shall be attempting an analysis of the relationship between the social parameters described in Chapter 3 and the linguistic variables. We will be using a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches. Quantitative methods are capable of uncovering aspects of the structure of a speech community as a whole—that is, the distribution of linguistic forms across a defined population. (hialitative methods, which will here take the form of studies of particular speakers, complement quantitative ones in that they can take account of the complex social and social-psychological make-up of an individual.
Language Contact in the Early Years: 1265-1865
Authors: Crowley Terry
Published: November 2023

Although it is a fascinating field of study, there is probably little chance of uncovering in detail the pre-colonial patterns of language contact in Vanuatu. A century and a half of contact with Europeans has changed beyond recognition many aspects of the past, along with their memory.
Language Contact since 1865
Authors: Crowley Terry
Published: November 2023

The first acquisition of land by Europeans from ni-Vanuatu for plantation purposes was on Tanna in 1867, when Henry Ross Lewin purchased 324 hectares to establish a cotton plantation. This was a good time to grow cotton as the American Civil War of the 1860s had caused cotton shortages and driven up the world price. Not only did Lewin set himself up as a cotton planter, but he had also been involved in the earlier recruitment of Tannese labourers to other islands, presumably to cut sandalwood and later to work on other plantations (Scarr 196T 16). He employed 120 Efate labourers on his plantation on Tanna in 1873. A number of other Europeans acquired land on Tanna, generally employing labourers from Efate. Relations between the Tannese and European planters on the island were evidently not good, in part probably because the Tannese and the Europeans had very different ideas about land ‘ownership’ and the rights that this entailed (Van Trease 1987: 19). By 1874 Lewin had been killed and European attempts to develop plantations on Tanna came to a temporary halt.
Justice and the Sources of Socialist Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine
Published: November 2023

Suppose that law docs not ‘wither away’ in a socialist or Communist utopia. Instead, legal institutions of some sort continue to mediate social relations in the absence of either bourgeois egoism or class conflict. A challenge to the withering away thesis throws into relief the nature of a valid legal system; it raises the question of how law is to be defined. If we arc to countenance law under socialism, we must know what kind of practices count as legal practices. We need to develop a theory of how we arc to identify law. Such a theory would have to determine the weight that should be assigned to the institutional foundation of societal rules, and the moral value of the rules themselves, in ascertaining what is to count as law. The question of what makes a certain system of rules or practices a legal system is the problem of the source of law.
Freedom and the Rule of Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine
Published: November 2023

At their most basic, the terms ‘rule of law’, ‘justice as regularity’, ‘legal formality’,2 ‘due process’,-’ ‘procedural rationality’/ ‘procedural justice’,5 can all be used to refer to the idea that it is not men but the law that should rule us. Some of an authoritarian persuasion have mistakenly construed this idea to mean that the law should rule us no matter what content or form it takes. Adherents of the ‘New Right’ current in British conservatism go so far as to use the term ‘the rule of law’ to denote the will of the state and the absolute obligation of citizens to obey it. And in the Soviet Union ‘the rule of law’ refers, not to a standard with which to measure law, but to the law itself, which because it has been enacted by the Soviet state, has automatic legitimacy.
Human Rights and Political Reform
Authors: Sypnowich Christine
Published: November 2023

At the heart of the problem of a socialist jurisprudence is the matter of rights. For many liberals, a legal system without rights could not properly be called a system of law. In Ronald D workin’s words, ‘If the government does not take rights seriously, then it does not take law seriously either’. On the other hand, for many Marxists, a socialist legal system that included rights could not properly be called socialist. It is the idea of individuals having rights against each other that many Marxists hold to be the most objectionable aspect of law. The fact that existing socialist societies of Eastern Europe simultaneously codify and abrogate fundamental rights may bear witness to both the ideological force of the Western idea of human rights, and their apparent incompatibility with the collectivist principles of socialism.
Altruism and Rights under Socialist Circumstances of Justice
Authors: Sypnowich Christine
Published: November 2023

All talk of rights under socialism, however coherent in theory, might be irrelevant if the situations in which we need rights did not in fact arise. For Marxists, rights protect egoistic interests fundamental to market relationships. To argue for legal rights under socialism, then, requires a demonstration that rights would still be necessary as a juridical instrument for the defence of individual interests.
Article 4
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc
Published: November 2023

In a time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and the existence of which is officially proclaimed, the States parties to the present Covenant may take measures derogating from their obligations under the present Covenant to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with their other obligations under international law and do not involve discrimination solely on the ground of race, colour, sex, language, religion or social origin.
The Common Law and the Commentaries
Authors: Lobban Michael
Published: November 2023

When Blackstone sought to devise a course of lectures to give young gentlemen ‘some acquaintance with the laws of the land’, he faced the problem not only of creating an adequate overall map of the hitherto unfathomable and chaotic nature of the law, but also of explaining the underlying principles of law that led to particular judgments in particular cases. For the Vinerian professor, the lawyer trained only in practice, uninstructed in the first principles on which the practice was based, would be bewildered if he encountered any case departing from precedent: ‘ita lex scripta est is the utmost his knowledge will arrive at,’ Blackstone wrote; ‘he must never aspire to form, and seldom expect to comprehend, any arguments drawn a priori, from the spirit of the laws and the natural foundations of justice’.