bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Alternaria triticina
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Anahosur K. H.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Alternaria triticina
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On leaves, leaf sheaths, glumes and grains of
Triticum
spp., triticale and barley. DISEASE: Blight, brown oval spots on leaves and leaf sheaths cause leaf and sheath blight (43, 1298). Glumes, awns and seeds discoloured (47, 2128). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: India, Middle East and North Africa. TRANSMISSION: Fungus remains viable up to 20 months in crop debris in soil and multiplies and sporulates. Crops grown in such infected soil are important in initiating infection and subsequent dissemination of inoculum by wind and rain (Prabhu & Prasada, 1966); also it is seed transmitted (55, 5687; 54, 814).
Mycosphaerella holci
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Anahosur K. H. , Sivanesan A.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Mycosphaerella holci
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Chloris, Leucospermum, Macroptilium, Oryza, Panicum, Pennisetum, Pharus, Saccharum, Setaria, Triticum
and
Zea
. DISEASE: Causes spots on leaves, glumes, grains and brown canker of stems. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: World-wide, especially where the above mentioned crops are grown. TRANSMISSION: Fungus persists in affected crop debris, seeds, glumes, and on weed hosts and is viable up to two years (Koch & Rumbold, 1921). It is seed transmissible (1, 170; 34, 364; 47, 2153; 50, 2230; 54, 1779) as pycnidia were found even on seeds surface sterilized with HgCl2 (47, 2153). Conidia are dispersed by wind and rain.
Ramulispora sorghicola
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Anahosur K. H.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ramulispora sorghicola
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Sorghum bicolor, S. halepense, S. nitidum, S. vulgare, Sorghum
spp. (wild). DISEASE: Leaf spot. Small water-soaked lesions develop into oval to elliptical spots up to 7 × 3 mm, delimited by veins, with dark red or tan border up to 1 mm wide. Spots become irregular by 2-3 spots coalescing, with pinkish grey to straw necrotic centres. A few black sclerotia are found on the lower surface of roots. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Ethiopia, Nigeria, Malawi, Upper Volta); Asia (India, Indonesia, Pakistan). TRANSMISSION: The fungus can survive in the fragments of infected leaf tissues which remain on the ground and produce masses of conidia in damp weather which are disseminated by rain and wind. Sclerotia also survive and produce conidia in damp weather (Harris, 1960; Tarr, 1962). Wild species of sorghum act as collateral hosts.
Phytophthora porri
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Stamps D. Jean
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phytophthora porri
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Allium
spp. (leek, onion, scallion), cabbage,
Campanulapersicifolia
, tulip. DISEASE: White tip of leek; onion white leaf spot; storage rot of white cabbage; crown rot of
Campanula
. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe (UK, Netherlands, Switzerland, Norway); Asia (Japan). (CMI Map 204, ed. 2, 1967). TRANSMISSION: Suggested by wind-blown sporangia from the soil surface to leek leaves (11, 151). Sporangia were found in soil round diseased
Campanula
plants (31, 65). Tulip bulbs were invaded through the young bud but not through the scale leaf (54, 2855). Cut stems of cabbages were infected from the soil at harvest by soil splash or from the cutting knife (52, 266; 56, 899).
Achlya ambisexualis
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Willoughby L. G.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Achlya ambisexualis
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: perch, a coarse fish, often in association with other aquatic fungi such as
Leptomitus lacteus
(Roth) Agardh. Also occurs, alone, on cultivated goldfish. DISEASE: Animals: freshwater external parasite GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: UK, USA. TRANSMISSION: Unknown.
Peronospora sparsa
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Francis S. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Peronospora sparsa
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Cultivated roses and the following species,
Rosa californica, R. centifolia, R. canina, R. chinensis, R. rubiginosa
. DISEASE: Downy mildew of rose. Bright red to purple or, less frequently, brown spots develop on the leaves which fall very readily especially if the bushes are shaken gently. A non-parasitic defoliation of unknown origin termed a 'false mildew' has been reported from France (Tramier, 1962). The necrotic spots formed on the leaves are similar at a certain stage to those caused by
P. sparsa
. Conidiophores and conidia develop on the under surface of the downy mildew spots in high relative humidity. In Europe their production is sparse but in California it is reported as copious (Baker, 1953). In heavy infections stems and flowers (both calyx and petals) become diseased and badly infected and young stems often die back. Flowers and flower buds can be retarded and malformed by the pathogen without visible damage to the leaves (53, 3523). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Egypt, Morocco, S. Africa, Zimbabwe); Asia (Brunei, Iran, Israel, Japan, Mauritius, Philippines); Australasia (Australia, New Zealand); Europe (Austria, Britain (incl. Jersey), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Netherlands, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, USSR); N. America (Canada, USA); S. America (Argentina, Brazil). TRANSMISSION: As dormant mycelium in cuttings and plants. It is reported that mycelium can overwinter within infected stems both from warmer countries such as Australia (57, 2154) and Brazil (19, 98) and also from Northern Europe (53, 3523). The role of oospores in disease transmission is less certain. They have been found in leaves and stems (Baker, 1953; Fraymouth, 1956) and flowers (Cuboni, 1888) but their occurrence seems to be sporadic and they do not appear to be of great importance in carrying over the pathogen. The possibility that the disease may be seed borne was suggested by a worker in Poland (7, 325). In 1926 downy mildew was discovered in a commercial nursery near Lublin on one-year-old seedlings of
Rosa canina
. The seedlings had been raised from seed imported from Vienna and the inference was that the disease came with the seed especially as all seedlings of local origin were healthy.
Peronospora sparsa
is not listed as a seed pathogen by Neergaard (1977).
Cochliobolus sativus
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Sivanesan A. , Holliday P.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Cochliobolus sativus
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On grasses including cereals (barley, oats, rye, wheat) and other plants. DISEASE: Spot blotch or foot and root rot of temperate cereals. On barley dark brown, lenticular spots of variable size form on the young leaf sheaths; post emergence death may occur. Surviving infected plants can be dwarfed, dark green, erect and tiller excessively. Conidia spread infection; blackish spotting occurs on the nodes, glumes and grain (black point). In foot rot, especially on wheat, the stem bases have rust brown streaks and blotches. Roots show brown spotting or a more general necrosis; their development is reduced and they may break off at the crown. Tillers are killed, survivors become stunted; the spike only partly emerges and grain is shrivelled. In the field foot rot results in patches of stunted plants. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widespread (CMI Map 322, ed 3, 1974). TRANSMISSION: The fungus occurs on seed (49, 2834; 50, 637; 53, 2978, 3454; 56, 2458; 57, 500, 1142, 4422; 58, 220; 59, 5098). It is also soil-borne (see below) and spreads from volunteer plants and other hosts, and by air dispersed conidia(58, 1213).
Mycosphaerella fragariae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Sivanesan A. , Holliday P.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Mycosphaerella fragariae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Fragaria
spp. DISEASE: Leaf spot or white spot of strawberry. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Very widespread (CMI Map 110, ed. 3, 1969). TRANSMISSION: Presumably both spore forms are splash-borne and possibly wind-borne but no specific studies appear to have been reported. The fungus readily survives on leaves which remain green over the cooler months, and in leaf debris as sclerotial like bodies or on volunteer plants.
Taphrina wiesneri
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Booth C.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Taphrina wiesneri
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: cherry, apricot. DISEASE: Witches' broom and leaf curl of cherry and apricot (58, 1402). Also known as buckwood or bull-bough. The reddish to reddish-purple colour of the infected leaves together with the witches' broom type of growth are characteristic of the disease. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan, Asia, Europe (including Russia; 58, 1402). North America, South America (CMI map 199, ed. 2, 1967). TRANSMISSION: By blastosporic conidia or ascospores from infected tissue. Over-wintering on bud scales and in infected wood.
Urocystis agropyri
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Mordue J. E. M. , Waller J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Urocystis agropyri
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Aegilops, Andropogon, Agropyron, Agrostis, Arrhenatherum, Bromus, Dactylis, Deschampsia, Elymus, Elytrigia, Festuca, Hierochloe, Hordeum, Koeleria, Lolium, Phleum, Poa, Triticum
. DISEASE: Causes flag smut of wheat, barley and grasses, characterized by linear black erumpent sori between veins on leaves and sheaths. The disease causes stunting, excessive tillering, twisting and shredding of leaves and may prevent emergence of the seed head. Sori may also occur on glumes and have been observed on rhizomes (47, 2184). Symptoms are similar to those caused by
Ustilago striiformis
on grasses. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe, Asia, North America, Chile, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, China (CMI Map 80, ed. 4, 1973). TRANSMISSION: By spore balls which contaminate both seed and soil. Inoculum can remain viable on seed for 4 years and in soil for up to 3 years. Teliospores germinate to produce sporidia which infect young coleoptiles of hosts. Systemic mycelium may overwinter in young seedlings or perennate in crowns, rhizomes, etc.
Cercospora capsici
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Kirk P. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Cercospora capsici
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Capsicum annuum
and
C. frutescens
. DISEASE: Causing circular, whitish, grey or brown, often brown or reddish brown bordered leaf spots. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Ghana, Malawi, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe), Asia (Bangladesh, India, Malaya, Nepal), East Indies (Brunei, Indonesia, Sarawak), South America (Venezuela), West Indies (Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad). TRANSMISSION: By air-borne conidia.
Ascochyta avenae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ascochyta avenae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Avena byzantina
(Red or Algerian oat),
A. fatua
(Spring wild oat),
A. sativa
(common oat),
A. mortoniana, Hordeum vulgare
(barley),
Loliumperenne
(perennial ryegrass) and
Triticum
(wheat). DISEASE: Leaf spot or blotch of oats. At first lesions start as small purplish or chocolate-brown spots with a distinct margin. With time they enlarge, become elongated, grey brown and finally straw coloured. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Australasia & Oceania (New Zealand); Europe (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, UK); North America (Canada, USA, Colorado, Oregon, Washington). TRANSMISSION: No specific studies reported. Presumably spread by air-borne conidia and those carried over in crop residues.
Didymosphaeria arachidicola
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Didymosphaeria arachidicola
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Arachis hypogaea
. DISEASE: Net blotch (55, 3822), web-blotch (Pettit, Taber & Harrison, 1973) or leaf blotch of peanut (54, 3573). At first lesions are small, diffuse specks or streaks merging in an irregular pattern covering large areas of the leaflet. Initially lesions are superficial and confined to the adaxial surface but later spreading to the lower surface. As the disease progresses the net appearance is lost and a large reddish-brown blotch results. Often several such lesions coalesce covering the entire leaflet. Severe infection leads to defoliation. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Zimbabwe, formerly Rhodesia, South Africa, Mauritius); Australasia (Australia, Queensland); Europe/Asia (USSR, Caucasus, Republic of Georgia); North America (USA); South America (Argentina,? Brazil). TRANSMISSION: Presumably by conidia and ascospores dispersed by rain splash during wet weather or heavy dews. It is also possible that conidia and ascospores could be carried over on crop residues and debris in soil.
Tilletia controversa
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waller J. M. , Mordue J. E. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Tilletia controversa
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Aegilops, Agropyron, Alopecurus, Arrhenatherum, Beckmannia, Bromus, Dactylis, Elymus, Festuca, Holcus, Hordeum, Koehleria, Lolium, Poa, Secale, Triticum, Trisetum
. DISEASE: Causes dwarf bunt of winter wheat, and occurs sporadically on many grasses. Occasionally infects winter barley. Infected plants develop chlorotic flecks at an early stage, are markedly stunted, and produce rather fat, persistently green ears with protuberant spikes caused by the bunt balls which fill the grain. As with
T. caries
(CMI Descriptions No. 719) and
T. foetida
(CMI Descriptions No. 720) the contents of the grain are converted to a mass of teliospores which constitute the bunt ball. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe (except Spain and UK); N. Africa, W. Asia, N. America, Argentina and Uruguay (CMI Map 297, ed. 2, 1968). TRANSMISSION: Teliospores are released when the grain is harvested and contaminate soil and seed. Soil-borne spores are the major source of inoculum for infecting crops which occurs between December and April in NW USA (43, 1295). Teliospores in bunt balls can remain viable in the soil for several years.
Ustilago hordei
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waller J. M. , Mordue J. E. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ustilago hordei
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Agropyron, Avena, Bromus, Elymus, Hordeum, Secale, Sitanion, Triticum
. DISEASE: Covered smut of barley; also occurs sporadically on some other
Gramineae
. The smut sorus replaces the grains in infected ears, but is covered by a membrane which does not rupture and release the teliospores until harvest. Contamination of healthy grain can cause spoilage. Smutted heads emerge later than healthy ones or may be trapped in the 'boot'. Ears may be partially smutted and sori occasionally develop as elongated stripes on the flag leaf (58, 4349). Stem galls may also occur (57, 5451). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: World wide wherever the cereal host is widely grown (CMI Map 460, ed. 1, 1969). TRANSMISSION: Teliospores contaminate grain and soil and germinate to infect the coleoptile when the seed germinates.
Physoderma alfalfae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Walker J. C.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Physoderma alfalfae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Medicago saliva
(Lucerne, alfalfa) and
Medicago
spp. DISEASE: Crownwart of alfalfa. The disease is first noticeable in spring when the base of plant stems become slightly thickened. This thickening continues until large white warts or galls appear. Most galls reach full development in the summer, then decay rapidly with only a few surviving until the following spring (Jones & Drechsler, 1920; 58, 2281). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Asia, Australasia and Oceania, Europe, North America and South America (CMI Map 130, ed. 3, 1973). TRANSMISSION: By dissemination of resting sporangia. Local dispersal by spores swimming in water films may also occur.
Peronosclerospora sorghi
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Francis S. M. , Williams R. J.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Peronosclerospora sorghi
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Panicum trypheron; Sorghum
×
almum, S. arundinaceum, S. bicolor, S
. ×
drummondii, S. halepense, S. nitidum, S. verticilliflorum (= S. arundinaceum); Zea diploperrenis, Z. mays, Z. mexicana
. DISEASE: Sorghum Downy Mildew (SDM); a biotrophic plant pathogen. The disease is systemic. The pathogen invades and colonizes the growing points of young graminiaceous plants. Symptoms are first seen at the base of the leaves which appear yellowish. Later symptoms are the very characteristic streaks of chlorotic tissue alternating with green which run the length of the leaf. Leaves developing later will be totally chlorotic. Conidiophores and conidia form on the undersurface of the green areas when conditions are suitable. Conidiophores do not usually form on the undersurface of chlorotic areas. Oospores form in great abundance in the chlorotic tissues which become dry and brittle. These leaf tissues eventually disintegrate and split. The oospores are released and the leaves assume the characteristic shredded appearance of this disease on sorghum but not on maize. Local lesions can be produced on otherwise non-diseased leaves of susceptible cultivars forming yellowish rectangular diseased lesions varying in size from small flecks to a spot
ca
. 20 × 5 mm. Asexual spores may be formed on the undersurface of local lesions but oospores have never been found in these lesions. On sorghum diseased panicles are brown and shrivelled and form no grain. Occasionally panicles occur with only the lower portion diseased. In maize the diseased tassles are severely malformed and distorted. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: CMI Map 179, ed. 3, 1977. Add - Africa (Zimbabwe, as 'Rhodesia'); Asia (Iran (50, 5475), Yemen Arab Republic (60, 196); Australia (Queensland (58, 1220)); N. America (I11. (58, 2774), Neb. (59, 179); C. America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras; Malaguti, 1980); S. America (Bolivia, Uruguay; Malaguti, 1980) TRANSMISSION: Initial infections can occur from oospores in the soil and also from conidial showers from infected leaves. In certain regions, i.e., Venezuela, the perennial wild grasses, Johnson grass,
Sorghum halepense
and
S. arundinaceum
, are reservoirs of infection and provide primary sources of inoculum. Oospores have not been found in Thailand in the tissues of maize plants infected by the Thai maize pathotype.
Wojnowicia hirta
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Wojnowicia hirta
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Cereals and grasses (
Agropyron, Avena, Bromus, Calamagrostis, Calamovilfa, Dacrylis, Distichlis, Elymus, Festuca, Hordeum, Koeleria, Phleum, Poa, Secale, Sorghastrum, Sorghum, Spartina, Stipa, Triticum
). DISEASE: Secondary foot rot or root rot of cereals and grasses. Also referred to as rot of mature straw. Rot of cereals and grasses is very common (5, 223; 6, 272; 7, 370; 11, 503; 12, 685; 16, 242; 48, 120; 1602) and considered to be of definite economic importance (Sprague, 1950). In France infected wheat plants have been reported to become etiolated and progressively shrivelled without producing lesions (4, 662). As the disease progresses, cells at the base of the culms were claimed to collapse resulting in the breaking of the stems and general lodging of plants in infected areas (5, 223; 12, 685). Subsequently pycnidia were reported appearing on lower leaf-sheaths above and below the soil line (1, 288). Sometimes affected wheat plants have been found to show discolouration of culm bases and roots (5, 223), or dark brown to black spots and streaks on the stem which are partly superficial (7, 370, Sprague, 1935). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia); Asia (Turkey); Australasia and Oceania (Australia, New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia); Europe (Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Finland, France, Germany, Irish Republic, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Rumania, Spain, Switzerland, UK, USSR); North America (Canada, Alberta, Saskatchewan; USA, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Dakota, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming). TRANSMISSION: Infected soil has been found to be the chief mode of transmission where stubble has been ploughed under (3, 191). It has also been reported that
W. hirta
occurs on culms overwintered in the field usually at the 2nd node (9, 639-641).
Lophodermium kumaunicum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Minter D. W. , Millar C. S.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Lophodermium kumaunicum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Pinus kesiya, P. roxburghii
. DISEASE: Needle cast of pines. Little is known about the ecology of this species, but it seems likely that it fruits only after the needles have entered the litter. It is important to distinguish this species from other pine needle inhabitating species of
Lophodermium
, some of which are well documented as being strongly pathogenic (
CMI Descriptions
563, 564, 568). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Asia (India: Assam, Uttar Pradesh; Philippines). TRANSMISSION: By air-borne ascospores in wet or humid weather.
Lophodermium juniperinum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Cannon P. F. , Minter D. W.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Lophodermium juniperinum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Reported from many species of
Juniperus
, especially
J
.
communis
. Also reported from
Chamaecyparis
spp. and
Libocedrus decurrens
[Calocedrus decurrens]
. DISEASE: The pathogenicity of
L. juniperinum
has not been clearly established. Various authors (e.g. Peace (42, 155), Lanier (58, 2948), Parmelee (62, 4192)) have included it in lists of parasites of
Juniperus
, but none presented any firm evidence of pathogenicity. However, Darker (12, 254) could find no reason to suspect that
L. juniperinum
was other than a saprophyte. At least in Scotland, the ascomata develop on needles still attached to the tree, and mature between May and July. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Very widely distributed in temperate regions. Recorded from Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Eire, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Roumania, Sweden, Switzerland, UK and USA. TRANSMISSION: Unknown. Similar fungi have air-dispersed spores directly infecting host leaves.
Entyloma fuscum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Mordue J. E. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Entyloma fuscum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Papaver argemone, P. commutatum, P. dubium, P. orientale, P. rhoeas, P. somniferum
. DISEASE: Leaf spot of
Papaver
species including opium poppy. Infection also occurs occasionally on the tnflorescence. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widely distributed throughout Europe (including Denmark and Sweden); USSR (Lithuania); Turkey; Cyprus; South Africa; Mauritius; India; Japan; Canada and USA; Bermuda. TRANSMISSION: No detailed studies reported.
Tilletia lolii
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Mordue J. E. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Tilletia lolii
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Lolium perenne, L. perenne
subsp.
multiflorum, L. remotum, L. temulentum
; rarely on
Agropyron villosum, Hordeum marinum
. DISEASE: Covered smut on ryegrass. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe: Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, UK, USSR, Yugoslavia, Turkey; New Zealand. TRANSMISSION: No detailed information available, though infection is known to occur at the seedling stage (Sampson & Western, 1941).
UFrocystis occulta
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Mordue J. E. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Urocystis occulta
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Secale cereale
; occasionally recorded on other
Gramineae
including
Agropyron caninum, A. inerme, Elymus canadensis, E. triticoides, Hordeum distichon, Lolium rigidum
. DISEASE: Stripe or flag smut of rye. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe (except the Iberian peninsula), USSR, Turkey; Canada and USA; Australia. TRANSMISSION: Seed-borne. Rarely, soil-borne, but does not normally survive more than a few months in soil (34, 145; 30, 563; 16, 92; 15, 644).
Ustilago vaillantii
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Mordue J. E. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ustilago vaillantii
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Species of
Bellevalia, Chionodoxa, Muscari, Scilla, Albuca altissima, Eucomis punctata, Gagea lutea, Hyacinthus ciliatus
. DISEASE: Anther smut of
Muscari, Chionodoxa, Scilla
and many other small spring-flowering
Liliaceae
. Infection is systemic, and when severe results in failure to flower and occasionally death of the bulbs. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widely distributed in western Europe, extending eastwards to USSR; China and Japan; North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco); South Africa; USA. TRANSMISSION: No experimental evidence available, but presumably ustilospores are dispersed by wind, water-splash and pollinating insects to bulbs and seedlings. Once established, infection passes from parent to new-formed bulbs.
Entomophthora planchoniana
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Wilding N. , Brady B. L.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Entomophthora planchoniana
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) including species of
Cinarinae, Chaitophorinae
and
Drepanosiphanae
which are not usually attacked by the other common species of the
Entomophthorales
. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widespread, including Europe, N. & S. America, Australasia, Asia. DISEASE: Aphids become infected by a germ tube from an adhering conidium penetrating the cuticle. Naturally green aphids killed by this species are straw coloured and those filled with resting spores are grey. Black aphids turn reddish-brown. The rhizoids issuing from infected large aphids viewed from the side suggest stout supports. In N. Europe this species persists in aphid populations in warmer and drier conditions than all the other species attacking aphids except
Neozygites fresenii
. It frequently infects cereal aphids infesting the ears of cereals whereas
Erynia neoaphidis
is usually restricted to aphids on the leaves of the plant where conditions are less extreme.
Ascochyta paspali
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ascochyta paspali
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Paspalum dilatatum
(dallis grass), (and
P
.
floridanum
var.
glabratum
). DISEASE: Leaf blotch or streak of
Paspalum
spp. The visible symptoms are yellowish brown to grey lesions developing at the leaf tip and subsequently involving the entire leaf and sometimes the sheath. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Australasia (New Zealand); South America (Argentina) and North America (? USA). TRANSMISSION: The fungus occurs in
Paspalum
as an endophyte (Buchanan, 1984). The mycelium has been reported to grow systemically in xylem vessels of roots, leaves and inflorescences. Conidia are dispersed by rain splash and the fungus has been isolated from seeds. It has been suggested that the fungus might overwinter as mycelium within roots, crowns and infected seeds.
Phoma sorghina
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phoma sorghina
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Gramineae
and all kinds of plants. Also isolated from soil, air and various animal sources. DISEASE: A minor leaf spot of cereals and grasses. The visible symptoms vary considerably; on sorghum leaves spots are usually irregular or rounded, yellowish-brown or grey with definite reddish-purple margins or indefinite in outline, reaching 1 cm or more in width. Pycnidia develop within spots on leaves, glumes and seeds. Also the fungus has been implicated with pre- and post-emergence death of seedlings of
Macroptilium
and
Sylosanthes
species (54, 1779) crown rot of bananas (61, 3556), leaf spot of
Agave americana
and stem rot of
Euphorbia tirucalli
(63, 3383), brown stem canker of
Leucosperum cordifolium
(56, 253). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: A ubiquitous fungus occurring in tropical and subtropical regions. Africa (Botswana, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gambia, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe); Asia (Bangladesh, Brunei, Burma, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia (Irian Jaya), Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, USSR); Australasia and Oceania (Australia, Hawaii, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands); Europe (Germany, Portugal, Italy, UK); North America (Canada, USA); Central America and West Indies (Antigua, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Trinidad); South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia). TRANSMISSION: Probably by contaminated seed; the fungus has been found on or isolated from several seed samples (1, 289; 33, 599; 47, 2153; 54, 1779; 60, 367; 61, 4102). In Taiwan
P. sorghina
has been found to be transmitted from seed to seedlings (62, 4281). The fungus has also been claimed to persist on trash and weed hosts and remain viable up to 1 yr but lose its viability after 2 yr storage on dry infected leaves (Koch & Rumbold, 1921).
Septoria vignae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Septoria vignae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOST:
Vigna unguiculata
(cowpea) (=
V. sinensis
); also on
V. lanceolata
. DISEASE: Leaf spots of cowpea. The visible symptoms are chocolate brown to rust brown spots, paler below with pale or whitish centres. The spots are amphigenous but more prominent on the upper side of the leaf, usually rounded or irregular, up to 6 mm wide, occasionally coalescing to form larger spots with well defined margins. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Botswana, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe); Asia (India, Hong Kong); Australasia and Oceania (Australia, Queensland, New South Wales); South America (Brazil, Bahia). TRANSMISSION: No specific studies reported; presumably by conidia dispersed by water splash. The fungus might overwinter on crop debris left in the field.
Phytophthora palmivora
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Stamps D. J.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phytophthora palmivora
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: A wide range; 138 species of economic, ornamental, shade and hedge plants were listed (48, 337-344). DISEASE: Black pod and canker of cacao; patch canker, black stripe and leaf fall of
Hevea
rubber; bud rot of coconut and other palms; fruit and stem rot of pawpaw; root rots and damping-off of seedlings. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: World-wide in tropical and warm temperature regions with high rainfall. TRANSMISSION: In cacao by direct contact between diseased and healthy pods, by rain splash from diseased pods, leaves and infested soil, and by insect vectors and ant tents. In rubber by rain. Soil as a source of inoculum for pawpaw root rot.
Phytophthora meadii
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Stamps D. J.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phytophthora meadii
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Principally
Hevea
rubber; others include cacao, cardamom,
Ficus, Piper
, pineapple. DISEASE: Abnormal leaf fall of rubber. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Asia (Burma, China, India, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam), Australia (Queensland), Oceania (Hawaii). (CMI Map 548, ed.1, 1982). TRANSMISSION: By rain water. Sporulating lesions on rubber fruits are sources of inoculum.
Cladosporium allii-cepae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Kirk P. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Cladosporium allii-cepae
[Mycosphaerella allii-cepae]
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOST:
Allium cepa
DISEASE: Leaf blotch. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe (British Isles). TRANSMISSION: Possibly from contaminated debris but no clear evidence (61, 6765). There is no evidence that the pathogen overwinters on plant debris (62, 5055).
Phaeoisariopsis bonducellae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Kirk P. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phaeoisariopsis bonducellae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOST:
Caesalpinia bonducella
(Bonduc nut). DISEASE: Leaf spot. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Asia (India (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal)). South America (Brazil). TRANSMISSION: Presumably by air borne conidia. Survival mechanisms unknown.
Phaeoisariopsis griseola
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Kirk P. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phaeoisariopsis griseola
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Members of the
Leguminosae
including
Desmodium cephalotus, D. gangeticum, D. pulchellum, Dolichos lablab, Phaseolus acutifolius, P. angularis, P. calcaratus, P. coccineus, P. lunatus, P. mungo, P. vulgaris
, and also
Hibiscus esculentus
[Abelmoschus esculentus]
(Malvaceae). DISEASE: Angular leaf spot of beans, including development of pod lesions. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Angola, Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malagasy Republic, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Reunion, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa (Natal), Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe), Asia (Bhutan, China (Xunnan, Jiangsu, Guangxi), India (Kerala, Mysore, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh), Indonesia (Irian Jaya), Iran, Israel, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia (West, Sabah, Sarawak), Nepal, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, U.S.S.R. (Caucasus, Republic of Georgia, Krasnodar)), Australasia & Oceania (Australia (NSW, Qd, Vic.), Fiji, Hawaii, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea), Europe (Bulgaria, Greece, Irish Republic, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Sardinia, Spain, Switzerland, Yugoslavia), North America (Mexico, U.S.A. (Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, ME, MD, Maine, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New York, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin)), Central America & West Indies (Antilles, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Salvador, Trinidad & Tobago), South America & Southern Atlantic (Argentina, Brazil (Minas Gerais), Colombia, Paraguay, Peru, St Helena, Surinam, Venezuela). TRANSMISSION: From plant litter from previous years crop (57, 2704); Only a small number (< 2%) of seeds from a diseased crop were infected (60, 4739); Epidemiology (64, 3238). Conidia in plant debris remain viable for 8 months in the field whereas dormant mycelium in the seeds remains viable for > 1 year (60, 2314).
Ramularia rigidula
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Wilson S.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ramularia rigidula
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Polygonum aviculare, P. erectum
. DISEASE: Leaf spot of
P. aviculare
. Lesions frequently found at leaf tip and margin, irregular, rust-brown with dark brown border, sporulation occurs on both sides of leaf. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION:
Europe
: Austria, France;
Asia
: USSR;
North America
: USA (Indiana, Nebraska, Wisconsin). TRANSMISSION: Not known, probably wind dispersal by air-borne spores.
Ramularia winteri
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Ingham J.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ramularia winteri
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOST:
Ononis repens, O. spinosa
, Restharrow. DISEASE: On living and fading leaves of
Ononis
spp. not forming definite spots. Sporulation is known to occur in August. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe (Austria, Germany, Great Britain). TRANSMISSION: By wind dispersal of air-borne conidia.
Setosphaeria prolata
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Sivanesan A.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Setosphaeria prolata
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Cucumis, Eragrostis, Triticum, Zea
. DISEASE: Leaf spot associated with the anamorph. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Ethiopia, Guatemala, Kenya, Jamaica, USA. TRANSMISSION: By air-borne conidia.
Xanthomonas campestris pv. graminis
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Reay K. E. , Preece T. F. , Bradbury J. F.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Xanthomonas campestris pv. graminis
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Lolium italicum, L. multiflorum, L. perenne, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca pratensis
, and
Trisetum flavescens
. Single cases of natural infection of
Agropyron repens, Phalaris arundinacea
and
Phleum pratense
are also recorded (62, 241), but their status in the natural host range is unknown. In inoculation tests (Egli
et al.
, 1975; Egli & Schmidt, 1982) the following were highly susceptible:
Alopecurus pratensis, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca arundinacea, F. pratensis, F. rubra, Lolium loliaceum, L. multiforum, L
.
parabolicae, L. perenne, L. remotum, L. temulentum, Phleum arenarium
and
P. bertolonii
. Showing much less susceptibility were
Agrostis alba, Arrhenatherum elatius, Phleum alpinum, P. phleoides, P. pratense, Poa annua, P. compressa, P. fertilis, P. memoralis, P. pratensis
and
P. trivialis
. Leyns
et al.
(61, 6162) found that
Agrosas tenuis
and
Festuca ovina
were moderately susceptible when inoculated. Egli
et al.
(1975) recorded doubtful symptoms on
Hordeum vulgare
and
Triacum aestivam
on inoculation, but consider that they are unlikely to be naturally infected. DISEASE: Bacterial wilt of forage grasses. Symptoms usually first noticed at the heading stage, when young leaves curl and wither, and shoots remain stunted or may die. Other plants will continue to make poor growth and produce small, distorted inflorescences. Chlorotic and necrotic zones form on the older leaves along long stretches of vascular bundles, often extending into the sheaths. Bacterial streaming may be seen under the microscope from the cut ends of vascular bundles of infected tissue mounted in water. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: CMI Map 533, ed. 1, 1979 lists France, Germany, Switzerland and Wales, to which must be added Scotland (63, 2925), Belgium (61, 4199), Netherlands, Norway (62, 241), and New Zealand (62, 241). Possibly in USA (IL; 61, 5045) though this disease is currently attributed to a
Rickettsia-
like organism. TRANSMISSION: Within the crop transmission is presumed to be by the blades of mowing machines.
Pseudocercospora contraria
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Little S.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Pseudocercospora contraria
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Dioscoria
spp. DISEASE: Leaf spot of yams. Plant growth is not affected, but in severe infections some of the leaves, especially the older ones may be totally covered by the leaf spot. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (most countries); Asia: India, Indonesia (Java). TRANSMISSION: Presumably by wind-borne and water-splash dispersed conidia.
Cercospora malayensis
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Little S.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Cercospora malayensis
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Hibiscus abelmoschus
(musk mallow),
H. cannabinus
(deccan hemp),
H. esculentus
(okra),
H. fisculatus, H. mutabilis, H. sabdariffa, H. suranensis, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Sphaeralcea cisplaniina
. DISEASE: Leaf spot or brown leaf spot of
Hibiscus
spp. The first symptoms are yellowish patches on the leaf surface. These then become necrotic and gradually expand into irregular greyish brown leaf spots with dark brown to purple borders, surrounded by a pale yellow halo. Ultimately the necrotic areas become shrivelled and crack (30, 445). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: The fungus is found wherever
Hibiscus
is cultivated (Chupp & Sherf, 1960). Africa: Ethiopia, Ghana, Mauritius, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe; Asia: Borneo, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines; Australasia: Fiji, Papua New Guinea; North America: West Indies (Jamaica, Trinidad, Cuba); South America: Colombia, Venezuela. TRANSMISSION: Presumably by wind-borne and rain-splash dispersed conidia.
Pseudocercospora timorensis
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Little S.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Pseudocercospora timorensis
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Ipomoea batatas
(sweet potato),
I
.
biloba, I. campanulata, I. cordofana, I. muricata, I. peltata, I. setifera
.DISEASE: Leaf spot or brown leaf spot of sweet potato. Small circular lesions first form on the leaf borders and tips before spreading over the leaf surface. These leaf spots enlarge becoming brown to dark brown in colour with a verruculose surface. The larger leaf veins may delimit the spots. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa: most countries; Asia: Hong-Kong, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Taiwan; Australasia: Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands; North America: West Indies (St Lucia). TRANSMISSION: Presumably by wind-borne and water-splash dispersed conidia.
Acremonium tsugae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Williams M. A. J.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Acremonium tsugae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Tsuga heterophylla
(western hemlock). DISEASE: Canker. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: North America: Canada. TRANSMISSION: Unknown; possibly by insects.
Cercospora rubro-tincta
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Williams M. A. J.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Cercospora rubro-tincta
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Prunus amygdalus
[Prunus dulcis]
; also
P. avium
and
P. communis
.DISEASE: Leaf spot. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa: Libya, Zimbabwe; Asia: India, Israel; Europe: Cyprus, Malta; North America: USA. TRANSMISSION: Presumably by air-borne, or rain-splash dispersed conidia.
Colpoma quercinum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Minter D. W.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Colpoma quercinum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS:
Quercus lanuginosa, Q. pedunculata, Q. robur, Quercus
sp. DISEASE: Die-back of oak. The evidence on degree of pathogenicity and mode of entry into the substratum is conflicting. It has been suggested by Twyman (1946) that the fungus is pathogenic and infects through mechanical wounds or damage caused by certain insect larvae. Boddy & Rayner (1984), however, argued that the apparent rapidity and exclusiveness with which
C. quercinum
becomes established in twigs after fall suggests that it may be present before fall in a latent form, perhaps in the bark. Endobiotic latency is thought to be a common phenomenon in the
Rhytismataceae
, the family to which
C. quercinum
belongs, so this explanation is probably more accurate. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Asia: Pakistan, USSR (Caucasus). Europe: Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, England, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland, USSR (Russia), Wales. Collections identified as this fungus are known from North America, but further research is needed to establish whether they are truly identical. TRANSMISSION: By air-borne ascospores in humid conditions.