bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Was wollen die jungen Chirurgen? Moderne Anforderungen an chirurgische Chefs
Authors: Roeth Anjali , Mille Markus
Published: February 2018

Um dem Mangel an chirurgischen Fachärzten entgegenzuwirken, muss man sich fragen, was der chirurgische Nachwuchs eigentlich will und wie man die Faszination des Faches Allgemein- und Viszeralchirurgie unterstreichen kann. Die Chirurgische Arbeitsgemeinschaft Junge Chirurgen (CAJC) der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Allgemein- und Viszeralchirurgie (DGAV) hat die Kernpunkte eines attraktiven chirurgischen Arbeitsplatzes gegliedert und zusammengefasst und bietet so Lösungsansätze. Auf der einen Seite steht die strukturierte und transparente Weiterbildung, die ein festes Weiterbildungscurriculum, die Assistenz von Teilschritten einer OP, regelmäßige Weiterbildungsgespräche, das Führen eines Logbuches, innerklinische Übungsmöglichkeiten sowie die Freistellung zu Weiterbildungsmaßnahmen beinhalten sollte. Hand in Hand damit geht eine „lebenswerte Chirurgie“, die sich durch die Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf, eine bessere Planung des Klinikalltags, eine positive Feedback-Kultur, Work-Life-Balance, neue Arbeits(zeit)modelle sowie mehr Zeit für Lehre und Forschung auszeichnet. Bei vielen dieser Punkte sollte der Chefarzt zentralen Vorbildcharakter übernehmen und dadurch den Grundstein für einen Strukturwandel innerhalb der Klinik legen, besonders da viele Punkte leicht umzusetzen sind. So kann die Attraktivität der Faches Chirurgie schnell gesteigert werden und eine „lebenswerte Chirurgie“ gelebt werden.
Etiologies and risks of splenic decapsulation after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: case report and literature review
Authors: Pamudurthy Vijeta , Abraham Raju , Betlej Thomas , Shah Ashish , Kim Dong , Sasso Brian , Chacko Abraham
Published: February 2018

Background and study aims Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is an invasive diagnostic and interventional procedure used in conditions related to the pancreas and biliary tract. It has a complication rate ranging from 4 % to 10 %. Severe complications are few with the most common of them being post-ERCP pancreatitis, post-sphincterotomy bleeding, and perforation. A rare, but potentially life-threatening complication of ERCP is splenic injury. We report the case of a 60-year-old female with choledocholithiasis who sustained splenic decapsulation following ERCP. The exact causes of splenic injury are unknown, although several mechanisms are postulated. A literature review of splenic injuries post-ERCP shows that there are only 3 cases with post-ERCP splenic decapsulation. Our patient is the first one in whom splenic decapsulation occurred without any risk factors or technical difficulties during the procedure. A high index of suspicion for splenic injury is required in any patient who has severe pain, anemia, or hemorrhagic shock after ERCP.
Cluster approach to the prediction of thermodynamic and transport properties of ionic liquids
Authors: Seeger Zoe L. , Kobayashi Rika , Izgorodina Ekaterina I.
Published: February 2018

The prediction of physicochemical properties of ionic liquids such as conductivity and melting point would substantially aid the targeted design of ionic liquids for specific applications ranging from solvents for extraction of valuable chemicals to biowaste to electrolytes in alternative energy devices. The previously published study connecting the interaction energies of single ion pairs (1 IP) of ionic liquids to their thermodynamic and transport properties has been extended to larger systems consisting of two ion pairs (2 IPs), in which many-body and same-ion interactions are included. Routinely used cations, of the imidazolium and pyrrolidinium families, were selected in the study coupled with chloride, tetrafluoroborate, and dicyanamide. Their two ion pair clusters were subjected to extensive configuration screening to establish most stable structures. Interaction energies of these clusters were calculated at the spin-ratio scaled MP2 (SRS-MP2) level for the correlation interaction energy, and a newly developed scaled Hartree-Fock method for the rest of energetic contributions to interaction energy. A full geometry screening for each cation-anion combination resulted in 192 unique structures, whose stability was assessed using two criteria—widely used interaction energy and total electronic energy. Furthermore, the ratio of interaction energy to its dispersion component was correlated with experimentally observed melting points in 64 energetically favourable structures. These systems were also used to test the correlation of the dispersion contribution to interaction energy with measured conductivity.
Time-resolved optical absorption microspectroscopy of magnetic field sensitive flavin photochemistry
Authors: Antill Lewis M. , Beardmore Joshua P. , Woodward Jonathan R.
Published: February 2018

The photochemical reactions of blue-light receptor proteins have received much attention due to their very important biological functions. In addition, there is also growing evidence that the one particular class of such proteins, the cryptochromes, may be associated with not only a biological photo-response but also a magneto-response, which may be responsible for the mechanism by which many animals can respond to the weak geomagnetic field. Therefore, there is an important scientific question over whether it is possible to directly observe such photochemical processes, and indeed the effects of weak magnetic fields thereon, taking place both in purified protein samples in vitro and in actual biochemical cells and tissues. For the former samples, the key lies in being able to make sensitive spectroscopic measurements on very small volumes of samples at potentially low protein concentrations, while the latter requires, in addition, spatially resolved measurements on length scales smaller than typical cellular components, i.e., sub-micron resolution. In this work, we discuss a two- and three-color confocal pump-probe microscopic approach to this question which satisfies these requirements and is thus useful for experimental measurements in both cases.
The effect of fog on the probability density distribution of the ranging data of imaging laser radar
Authors: Song Wenhua , Lai JianCheng , Ghassemlooy Zabih , Gu Zhiyong , Yan Wei , Wang Chunyong , Li Zhenhua
Published: February 2018

This paper outlines theoretically investigations of the probability density distribution (PDD) of ranging data for the imaging laser radar (ILR) system operating at a wavelength of 905 nm under the fog condition. Based on the physical model of the reflected laser pulses from a standard Lambertian target, a theoretical approximate model of PDD of the ranging data is developed under different fog concentrations, which offer improved precision target ranging and imaging. An experimental test bed for the ILR system is developed and its performance is evaluated using a dedicated indoor atmospheric chamber under homogeneously controlled fog conditions. We show that the measured results are in good agreement with both the accurate and approximate models within a given margin of error of less than 1%.
Merger and reconnection of Weibel separated relativistic electron beam
Authors: Shukla Chandrasekhar , Kumar Atul , Das Amita , Patel Bhavesh G.
Published: February 2018

The relativistic electron beam (REB) propagation in a plasma is fraught with beam plasma instabilities. The prominent amongst them is the collisionless Weibel destabilization which spatially separates the forward propagating REB and the return shielding currents. This results in the formation of REB current filaments which are typically of the size of electron skin depth during the linear stage of the instability. It has been observed that in the nonlinear stage, the size of filaments increases as they merge with each other. With the help of 2-D particle-in-cell simulations in the plane perpendicular to the REB propagation, it is shown that these mergers occur in two distinct nonlinear phases. In the first phase, the total magnetic energy increases. Subsequently, however, during the second phase, one observes a reduction in magnetic energy. It is shown that the transition from one nonlinear regime to another occurs when the typical current associated with individual filaments hits the Alfvén threshold. In the second nonlinear regime, therefore, the filaments can no longer permit any increase in current. Magnetic reconnection events then dissipate the excess current (and its associated magnetic energy) that would result from a merger process leading to the generation of energetic electron jets in the perpendicular plane. At later times when there are only few filaments left, the individual reconnection events can be clearly identified. It is observed that in between such events, the magnetic energy remains constant and shows a sudden drop as and when two filaments merge. The electron jets released in these reconnection events are thus responsible for the transverse heating which has been mentioned in some previous studies [Honda et al., Phys. Plasmas 7, 1302 (2000)].
A molecular dynamics study of lithium-containing aprotic heterocyclic ionic liquid electrolytes
Authors: Lourenço Tuanan C. , Zhang Yong , Costa Luciano T. , Maginn Edward J.
Published: February 2018

Classical molecular dynamics simulations were performed on twelve different ionic liquids containing aprotic heterocyclic anions doped with Li+. These ionic liquids have been shown to be promising electrolytes for lithium ion batteries. Self-diffusivities, lithium transference numbers, densities, and free volumes were computed as a function of lithium concentration. The dynamics and free volume decreased with increasing lithium concentration, and the trends were rationalized by examining the changes to the liquid structure. Of those examined in the present work, it was found that (methyloxymethyl)triethylphosphonium triazolide ionic liquids have the overall best performance.
Universal behavior of soft-core fluids near the threshold of thermodynamic stability
Authors: Malescio Gianpietro , Parola Alberto , Prestipino Santi
Published: February 2018

We study, by using liquid-state theories and Monte Carlo simulation, the behavior of systems of classical particles interacting through a finite pair repulsion supplemented with a longer range attraction. Any such potential can be driven Ruelle-unstable by increasing the attraction at the expense of repulsion, until the thermodynamic limit is lost. By examining several potential forms, we find that all systems exhibit a qualitatively similar behavior in the fluid phase as the threshold of thermodynamic stability is approached (and possibly surpassed). The general feature underlying the approach to Ruelle instability is a pronounced widening of the liquid-vapor binodal (and spinodal) line at low temperatures, to such an extent that at the stability threshold a vanishing-density vapor would coexist with a diverging-density liquid. We attempt to rationalize the universal pathway to Ruelle instability in soft-core fluids by appealing to a heuristic argument.
Clinical leadership: what is it and how do we facilitate it?
Authors: Gauld Robin
Published: February 2018

ABSTRACT
Clinical leadership has been on the New Zealand policy agenda since the launch of the 2009 In Good Hands report, yet performance in supporting its development has been variable. The 2016 New Zealand Health Strategy renews the emphasis on clinical leadership, but with few details for what this is, what the expectations are and how clinical leadership might be supported. This article backgrounds the field and provides some pointers for policymakers and the sector if New Zealand is to take the lead on clinical leadership.
Structural analysis and taste evaluation of γ-glutamyl peptides comprising sulfur-containing amino acids
Authors: Amino Yusuke , Wakabayashi Hidehiko , Akashi Satoko , Ishiwatari Yutaka
Published: February 2018

The structures, flavor-modifying effects, and CaSR activities of γ-glutamyl peptides comprising sulfur-containing amino acids were investigated. The chemical structures, including the linkage mode of the N-terminal glutamic acid, of γ-L-glutamyl-S-(2-propenyl)-L-cysteine (γ-L-glutamyl-S-allyl-L-cysteine) and its sulfoxide isolated from garlic were established by comparing their NMR spectra with those of authentic peptides prepared using chemical methods. Mass spectrometric analysis also enabled determination of the linkage modes in the glutamyl dipeptides by their characteristic fragmentation. In sensory evaluation, these peptides exhibited flavor-modifying effects (continuity) in umami solutions less pronounced but similar to that of glutathione. Furthermore, the peptides exhibited intrinsic flavor due to the sulfur-containing structure, which may be partially responsible for their flavor-modifying effects. In CaSR assays, γ-L-glutamyl-S-methyl-L-cysteinylglycine was most active, which indicates that the presence of a medium-sized aliphatic substituent at the second amino acid residue in γ-glutamyl peptides enhances CaSR activity.
Regularity of 𝐅𝐈-modules and local cohomology
Authors: Nagpal Rohit , Sam Steven , Snowden Andrew
Published: February 2018

We resolve a conjecture of Ramos and Li that relates the regularity of an

F
I

\mathbf {FI}

-module to its local cohomology groups. This is an analogue of the familiar relationship between regularity and local cohomology in commutative algebra.
1922: The Annus Mirabilis of Literary Modernism
Authors: Levenson Michael
Published: February 2018

The year 1922 has been known as the annus mirabilis (“miracle year”) of Anglo-American literary modernism, chiefly because of the near-simultaneous publication of T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land,” James Joyce’s Ulysses, and Virginia Woolf’s Jacob’s Room. The distinctive historical character of 1922 remains an ongoing concern: the year was at once a time of traumatic memory of World War I and a moment of renewed ambition for the radical experiments of modernism. During the war, Eliot, Joyce, and Woolf had enjoyed an unusual opportunity to revise and extend their aesthetic ambitions. Each of their works registers the more defiant provocation of postwar literature, but each confronts the powerful resistance of cultural and political authorities who saw the efforts, especially of Eliot and Joyce, as both meaningless and dangerous. The postwar period also saw the rapid expansion of new technologies (especially in transport and telecommunications) and a consumer society keen to enjoy the availability of freshly circulating material goods. D. H. Lawrence described the end of war as both a relief and a menace. This double valence captures the contrast between searing memories of battlefield death and anticipation of pleasure and plenitude in the Jazz Age. The central figures in this entry are at once newly confident in the adversarial mission of modernism and fully aware of the social complacency and cultural conservatism arrayed against them. The immediate felt disturbance of these works came through their formal challenge, in particular through the intersecting uses of many-voiced and multi-perspectival montage, an assemblage of fragmentary views, and a diversity of speaking tones. This conspicuous technique appears in closely related terms within the early films of Dziga Vertov and the postwar philosophy of logical atoms developed by Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein. But the formal inventiveness exhibited during the year is no more prominent than the social concern. Especially as in 21st century, historical studies of the period have recovered the depth of interest in questions of race, empire, sexual debility, and social failure.
Constitutionalism
Authors: Zackin Emily
Published: February 2018

The study of constitutionalism often begins with the question of what a constitution is. Sometimes the term refers to a single legal document with that name, but the term “constitution” may also refer to something unwritten, such as important political traditions or established customs. As a result, scholars sometimes distinguish between the “Big-C” constitution, that is, the constitutional document, and the “small-c” constitution, the set of unwritten practices and understandings that structure political life.

Constitutionalism is typically associated with documents and practices that restrict the arbitrary exercise of power. Most constitutions contain guarantees of rights and outline the structures of government. Constitutions are often enforced in court, but nonjudicial actors, like legislatures or popular movements, may also enforce constitutional provisions.

The relationship between democracy and constitutionalism is not at all straightforward, and it has received an enormous amount of scholarly attention. Constitutionalism seems to both undergird and restrain democracy. On the one hand, constitutions establish the institutions that allow for self-government. On the other, they are often said to restrict majoritarian decision-making.

Related to this question of the relationship between constitutionalism and democracy are questions about how constitutions change and how they ought to change. Can written constitutions change without changes to the text, and can judges bring about these changes? Do extratextual changes threaten or promote democracy?

Finally, not only do individual constitutions change, but the practice of writing constitutions and governing with them has also changed over time. In general, constitutions have grown more specific and flexible over time, arguably, allowing for a different kind of constitutional politics.
Politicians with Disabilities: Challenges and Choices
Authors: Friedman Sally , Scotch Richard K.
Published: February 2018

Persons with disabilities make up a large and significant segment of the American public; however, Americans with disabilities have rarely been considered an important political constituency or received public (or scholarly) attention in terms of their representation among political candidates or office holders. To the extent that people with disabilities have been addressed in American political discourse, they have been associated with the receipt of public benefits and services instead of being thought of as people with the potential to actively participate. Having a physical or mental impairment has typically carried with it a considerable degree of social stigma, and to be disabled is, in the minds of many, to be incapable and incompetent, dependent on others, and even morally questionable. Thus, for much of American history, the perception of an individual as disabled has been inconsistent with the personal qualities that the voting public and political gatekeepers view as desirable for public officials.

While there have always been politicians with disabilities in government, many of them have chosen to hide or minimize the visibility and extent of their impairments. However, cultural changes in part provoked by the disability rights movement have meant that many impairments have become less discrediting, and that people with disabilities are more likely to be seen as having the potential to be contributing citizens. The number of political candidates and officeholders with disabilities appears to be increasing, and some have chosen to include or even highlight their disabling condition as they present themselves to their constituents.
The Political Economy of Aid Conditionality
Authors: Girod Desha
Published: February 2018

Studies of Western development assistance conclude that aid is effective only when recipients have good governance, measured as pro-investment policies, democratic institutions, and political stability, or when recipients lack strategic importance to donors. Underlying the theoretical frameworks in these studies is a common mechanism: compliance with conditions on aid agreements, which, in turn, depends on recipient incentives to comply. With the exception of donors’ emphasis on the quality of governance in the early 2000s, donors generally overlook recipient incentives to comply with aid agreements and thus fail to capitalize on opportunities for aid effectiveness suggested by the academic studies. A paucity of data has limited direct analysis of compliance with conditions, but studies have relied on their own data collection or have leveraged data from the World Bank to assess determinants of compliance with conditions. Importantly, these studies of compliance support the findings from the aid-effectiveness literature, indicating that the initial incentives to comply with aid agreements are the driving force in agreement compliance and therefore aid effectiveness.

Based on these findings, future research on compliance with conditions on aid is encouraged, beginning with study of the direct influence of compliance on economic development. In addition, future research should analyze whether certain types of aid influence compliance with Western aid agreements, including tied aid and aid from non-Western donors. The implication for policy is that donors should enthusiastically support recipients who face incentives to comply because compliance drives aid effectiveness. When recipients lack such incentives, donors should try to change the underlying incentive structure of recipients rather than adding conditions on aid.
Political Parties and Candidate Selection
Authors: Rahat Gideon , Cross William P.
Published: February 2018

Candidate selection is about the decisions political parties make regarding who to put forward as candidates under their label for general elections. Beyond being the function that differentiates parties from other political groupings (especially considering the decline in parties’ performance of their other traditional functions), candidate selection is crucial for understanding power relations within parties, the composition of parliaments, and the behavior of elected officials. It also has an impact on the quality of democracy, especially with regard to the values of participation, competition, responsiveness, and representation.

Candidate selection methods vary according to certain parameters. The two most important ones are the level of inclusiveness of the selectorate(s) (the body or bodies that choose the candidates) and their relative level of centralization. Beyond the few cases in which state laws define the process, the nature of candidate selection methods is influenced by various country-level factors, such as the electoral system and national political culture, as well as by party-level characteristics, such as party ideology. Reform of candidate selection methods occurs as a result of general developments, such as party change or personalization, party system developments, such as electoral defeat, and intraparty struggles.

Although candidate selection is no longer “the secret garden of politics,” research still faces various obstacles. Consequently, the level of scholarly development is less advanced than the parallel study of electoral systems and their political consequences.
Hemichordate Nervous System
Authors: Miyamoto Norio , Wada Hiroshi
Published: February 2018

Hemichordates are marine invertebrates consisting of two distinct groups: the solitary enteropneusts and the colonial pterobranchs. Hemichordates are phylogenetically a sister group to echinoderm composing Ambulacraria. The adult morphology of hemichordates shares some features with chordates. For that reason, hemichordates have been considered key organisms to understand the evolution of deuterostomes and the origin of the chordate body plan. The nervous system of hemichordates is also important in the discussion of the origin of centralized nervous systems. However, unlike other deuterostomes, such as echinoderms and chordates, information on the nervous system of hemichordates is limited. Recent improvements in the accessibility of embryos, development of functional tools, and genomic resources from several model organisms have provided essential information on the nervous system organization and neurogenesis in hemichordates. The comparison of the nervous system between hemichordates and other bilaterians helps to elucidate the origin of the chordate central nervous system.

Extant hemichordates are divided into two groups: enteropneusts and pterobranchs. The nervous system of adult enteropneusts consists of nerve cords and the basiepidermal nerve net. The two nerve cords run along the dorsal and ventral midlines. The dorsal nerve cord forms a tubular structure in the collar region. The two nerve cords are connected through the prebranchial nerve ring. The larval nervous system of enteropneusts develops along the ciliary band and there is a ganglion at the anterior end of the body called the apical ganglion. A pair of pigmented eyespots is situated at the lateral side of the apical ganglion. The adult nervous system of pterobranchs is basiepidermal and there are several condensations of plexuses. The most prominent one is the brain, located at the base of the tentaculated arms. From the brain, small fibers radiate and enter tentaculated arms to form a tentacle nerve in each. There is a basiepidermal nerve cord in the ventral midline of the trunk.
Professionalism, Education, and Ethics Code
Authors: Martin Troy A.
Published: February 2018

The professionalization of education involves a modern, capitalist move toward securing a public market for schools and developing social status for educators. As a process that has produced knowledge, rationalized relationships, and controlled markets, professionalization of education has also defined an ethical discourse. Articulated in language, inscribed in state law, and embodied in conduct, professional ethics have been codified formally in “codes of ethics” and informally in professional identity and ways of thinking. The popular discourse of professional ethics in education narrows and constrains ethical possibility in practice.

Because of similar forms of codes of ethics across professions, interdisciplinary scholarship from education, social work, psychiatry, and medicine informs a critical examination of professional ethics. The codes, discourse, and standards of professional ethics are historically grounded in the framework of modern rationalism. As the field of education has developed to include a more diverse knowledge-base and new forms of empirical research, the rational order of prescriptive ethics has begun to slip. While regulatory codes of ethics continue to undergird public trust and provide legal insurance against malfeasance, educational scholars and practitioners engage a wider constellation of ethical perspectives and possibilities. Feminist care ethics, post-modern ethics, and phenomenological descriptive ethics present a few possibilities within emergent fields. As the ongoing effects of professionalization are critiqued and the possibilities of professional ethics are re-imagined, schools of education should look beyond the disciplinary enclosures of education to respond to an increasingly diffuse understanding of professional ethics.
Philosophical Perspectives on the History of African Socialism
Authors: Wingo Ajume H.
Published: February 2018

The heyday of African socialism as the animating force behind African political developments has passed. Yet, like other political doctrines of great revolutionary movements, its name and principles continue to be invoked by political and social leaders today. As recently as 2005, the Rev. Johnson J. Chinyong’ole of the University of KwaZulu-Natal argued that the principles of African socialism should guide the Anglican Church’s efforts in reducing poverty in Tanzania.

As part of the zeitgeist of early postcolonial Africa, the traditions and principles of African socialism have had a profound impact on how Africans have seen and shaped their world. An understanding of the central tenets of African socialism helps to explain the unique ways in which Africans have responded to and appropriated features of Marxism, socialism, and capitalism, as well as to illuminate distinctly African traditions of communalism, philosopher-kings, aestheticism, and perfectionism in politics.
Developing Countries and International Law
Authors: Scott Shirley V. , Zahava Orli
Published: February 2018

The most fundamental characteristic of a developing state is that its income, usually calculated as gross national product (GNP) per capita, is relatively low in comparison with that of an industrial country. A second characteristic shared by most developing countries is that they are former colonies. In recognition of the diversity amongst developing countries, they are sometimes divided into subgroups. The term “Least Developed Country” is used to refer to some 50 of the most vulnerable states, whose economies are vastly smaller than those of China, India, Brazil, or Mexico. The BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) is a group of states with emerging economies whose share of world trade, investment, and foreign currency reserve is projected to continue to grow. AOSIS, the Alliance of Small Island States, is a 44-member coalition that functions as a negotiating voice for small island developing states (SIDS) within the United Nations system. The engagement of developing countries with international law typically comes in four aspects: the colonial past and contemporary continuities in international legal approaches and categories, attempts by newly independent Third World states to transform international law through the introduction of specific new legal principles, the effect of the increasing gap between the emerging economies of certain developing countries and the most vulnerable developing states, and whether structural impediments remain to the equitable participation of developing countries in international law.
Antimonopoly in American Politics, 1945–2000
Authors: Scroop Daniel
Published: February 2018

Antimonopoly, meaning opposition to the exclusive or near-exclusive control of an industry or business by one or a very few businesses, played a relatively muted role in the history of the post-1945 era, certainly compared to some earlier periods in American history. However, the subject of antimonopoly is important because it sheds light on changing attitudes toward concentrated power, corporations, and the federal government in the United States after World War II.

Paradoxically, as antimonopoly declined as a grass-roots force in American politics, the technical, expert-driven field of antitrust enjoyed a golden age. From the 1940s to the 1960s, antitrust operated on principles that were broadly in line with those that inspired its creation in the late 19th and early 20th century, acknowledging the special contribution small-business owners made to US democratic culture. In these years, antimonopoly remained sufficiently potent as a political force to sustain the careers of national-level politicians such as congressmen Wright Patman and Estes Kefauver and to inform the opinions of Supreme Court justices such as Hugo Black and William O. Douglas. Antimonopoly and consumer politics overlapped in this period. From the mid-1960s onward, Ralph Nader repeatedly tapped antimonopoly ideas in his writings and consumer activism, skillfully exploiting popular anxieties about concentrated economic power. At the same time, as part of the United States’ rise to global hegemony, officials in the federal government’s Antitrust Division exported antitrust overseas, building it into the political, economic, and legal architecture of the postwar world.

Beginning in the 1940s, conservative lawyers and economists launched a counterattack against the conception of antitrust elaborated in the progressive era. By making consumer welfare—understood in terms of low prices and market efficiency—the determining factor in antitrust cases, they made a major intellectual and political contribution to the rightward thrust of US politics in the 1970s and 1980s. Robert Bork’s The Antitrust Paradox, published in 1978, popularized and signaled the ascendency of this new approach.

In the 1980s and 1990s antimonopoly drifted to the margin of political debate. Fear of big government now loomed larger in US politics than the specter of monopoly or of corporate domination. In the late 20th century, Americans, more often than not, directed their antipathy toward concentrated power in its public, rather than its private, forms. This fundamental shift in the political landscape accounts in large part for the overall decline of antimonopoly—a venerable American political tradition—in the period 1945 to 2000.
Women’s Movement and Women Workers, Post-1945
Authors: Deslippe Dennis
Published: February 2018

Working women and their issues played a central role in the women’s movement in the decades following World War II. Feminists lobbied, litigated, and engaged in direct action for workplace fairness. Working women, especially those in unions, joined feminist organizations and established their own organizations as well. There were fault lines within the women’s movement over the issues, strategies, and level of commitment to the causes of working women. In the first two decades after 1945, the unionists and liberal reformers who constituted the so-called Women’s Bureau Coalition (named after the U.S. Women’s Bureau) opposed the mostly affluent and conservative members of the National Woman’s Party for their support of the Equal Rights Amendment, supporting instead protective laws and policies that treated women differently from men in the workplace. With the arrival of second-wave feminism in the 1960s and 1970s, “labor feminists” clashed with the middle-class professional women at the helm of newly formed feminist organizations. As support for gender equality transformed employment practices, some labor feminists sought to retain (or extend to men) selected protective measures introduced in the early 20th century to shield women workers from the worst aspects of wage labor. In the face of harsh economic conditions in the 1970s, labor feminists again opposed other feminists for their efforts to modify the union practice of “last hired, first fired” as a way of retaining affirmative-action hiring gains.

In recent decades feminists have focused on equity measures such as comparable worth and pregnancy leave as means of addressing the unique challenges women face. In addition they have expanded their concern to lesbian and transgender workers, and, increasingly, to the needs of immigrant workers who make up an increasingly percentage of the working population.
Buddhist Art and Architecture in Tibet
Authors: Lo Bue Erberto
Published: February 2018

Tibetan Buddhists view images primarily as religious supports and secondarily as works of art. Buddhist images are aimed at improving one’s karma by earning merit in view of future existences, at removing obstacles, and at creating wellbeing. Their commissioning may be occasioned by various circumstances, including illness and death, besides the need for a specific religious practice. Since they are primarily expressions of faith, their age has a limited importance and their originality hardly any: a religious image is valued less for its rarity and aesthetic value than for its apotropaic virtues and for its particular connection with a holy place or master. Hence the application of Western post-Medieval aesthetic criteria to the appreciation of Tibetan art ought to be complemented by an appreciation of the specific religious meaning of an image, the interpretation of its particular symbolism, and the aim of its client within the specific cultural and historical context in which it was produced.

This article is preceded by a historical introduction sketching the development of Buddhist art and architecture in Tibet from the 7th to the present century, mentioning the role played by foreign artists, mostly Newars from the Nepal Valley, and dwelling on particularly significant monuments, such as the monastery of Sàmye (8th century) and the Great Stupa of Gyantsé (15th century), representing the two highest moments in the history of Tibetan religious art and architecture, the Pòtala being basically a fortified palace.

The first section, on Tibetan Buddhist art, deals with iconography and iconometry as well as materials and techniques, contrasting the prevalent approach to the subject by collectors, and even art historians, with that of Buddhist masters and devotees, pointing out the importance of the consecration of images, without which the latter remain worthless from a religious point of view.

The second section, on Tibetan Buddhist architecture, deals with the construction of religious buildings, their materials, their religious functions and their symbolism. Although stupas are referred to throughout the article, they are dealt especially in this section.

Sanskrit terms, whether in phonetic transcription or in transliteration, prevail in the first section because the relevant terminology is largely the Tibetan translation of Indian Buddhist terms, Tibetan terms in phonetic transcription and transliteration prevail in the second section, except in the part dealing with the stupa.
Native American Religions
Authors: Dees Sarah E.
Published: February 2018

Native American religious traditions encompass a diverse array of beliefs, practices, and features of material culture and society that reflect and shape individual experiences and communal life among Indigenous communities in what is today the United States. While Native American religious traditions have long been the subject of scholarly inquiry, a field of study dedicated specifically to this topic only emerged in the mid-20th century. Because historical sources describing Native religions often wove ethnocentric biases or anti-Indian sentiments into descriptions of Native beliefs and practices, present-day inquiry requires critically reflexive interpretation of primary sources and attention to insiders’ perspectives. Today, scholarship on Native American religions draws on numerous methodological approaches to explore key features of these traditions, including ceremonies, stories, philosophies, art, and social institutions. While these features vary greatly by religious community, practitioners of Native religions often emphasize the significance of land and the environment, their cultural heritage, and relationships between humans and non-human entities, spirits, and ancestors.

Many practitioners of Native American religions would resist the notion that a “religious” or “spiritual” realm can be separated from “secular” aspects of society or culture; thus, in addition to focusing on constitutive features of the religious beliefs and practices themselves, an understanding of Native American religions requires attention to broader social and cultural issues, including politics, law, health, and education. Furthermore, just as Native traditions were dynamic prior to the 15th century, they have been shaped by contact with non-Native religions and cultures since the first instances of European colonization. The historical conditions of European and Euro-American settler colonialism and encounter between Native and non-Native communities necessitate attention to issues such as Christian missionization and the ensuing Indigenous responses to Christianity, U.S. federal Indian policy, legal battles over Native American religious freedom and self-determination, and the place of Native religions in mainstream U.S. culture. While these themes and issues illuminate some shared features of Native American religions, the unique histories and characteristics of specific communities necessarily subvert efforts to articulate a simple, comprehensive definition of “Native American religion.” And, while knowledge of the past is essential for understanding Native American religions, a historical focus in itself is insufficient if it ignores the ongoing presence of Native American religious expression. Practitioners of Native American religions today emphasize religious continuity as well as creativity and change, blending long-standing historical traditions with more recently established religious innovations.
Religion, Charity, and Philanthropy in America
Authors: King David P.
Published: February 2018

Giving to religion makes up the largest percentage of American charity and philanthropy. Religious charities also make up the largest percent of U.S. nonprofits. Beyond the numbers, however, religious charity and philanthropy has shaped America’s religious and cultural contexts and served as a bedrock to American civil society. With a more vibrant nonprofit sector than any other Western nation, America’s religious and charitable sector is unique in many ways. Under a disestablished church and an open religious marketplace, religious institutions able to raise their own support often grew while institutions or denominations locked into funding models reliant on state support stagnated. In the 19th century, religious voluntary associations competed with one another for dominance even as their growing numbers began to shape a Protestant consensus that sought to guide religious initiatives and moral reforms that defined the young nation while distinguishing themselves from others. Minority religions also had traditions of religious giving, and they employed these traditions and practices not only to care for their own communities but to carve out their own space within the American landscape.

While terms such as charity, philanthropy, and benevolence were often used interchangeably throughout much of American religious history, religious giving primarily focused on charity as care for those within one’s religious community as well as a priority of giving to the poor. By the late 19th century, a rise of rationalized, professional, and sometimes secular philanthropy countered the traditional focus of religious giving through more systematic charitable organizations. The rise of major donors and foundations added a new wrinkle as they sought to reshape the focus of philanthropy and garnered increased attention even as small, individual givers still served as the bedrock of religious philanthropy. In addition to congregations, mission societies, humanitarian organizations, as well as parachurch agencies dominated this ever-evolving landscape. Religious giving became a diffuse, competitive marketplace that often shaped the winners, losers, and trends within American religion. The story of religious philanthropy, however, is not simply the one-way transfer of time and money from individuals to institutions. Rather the exchange between how religious individuals and institutions have engaged the shaping of civic society; moral outlooks; and the formation of boundaries, communities, and traditions of charity and philanthropy are an important aspect of American religious history. Religious philanthropy has accomplished great good even if it occasionally promoted distasteful actions. Across history and across a broad religious spectrum, religious philanthropy has always remained a vital part of both American ideals as well as the actual practices of the nation-state and civil society.
Race and Catholicism in American History
Authors: Poché Justin D.
Published: February 2018

Catholicism, as both an institution and a culture of popular beliefs, rituals, and values, has played an important role in the formation of racial boundaries in American society. The logic of race and its inherent function as a mechanism of social power, in turn, profoundly shaped Catholic thought and practice throughout the church’s own 400-year formation in America. Beginning with colonization of the New World, Catholicism defined and institutionalized racial difference in ways that both adhered to and challenged the dominant Anglo-American conceptions of whiteness as a critical measure of social belonging. Early Catholic missions abetted European colonialism by codifying Africans and Native Americans as cultural and moral “others.” Following a “national parish” system, institutional growth from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century sorted various European “races” and created spaces for resisting Anglo-American discrimination. The creation of a separate and singular mission for all “non-white” communities nonetheless reflected Catholic acquiescence to an American racial binary.

Intra-Catholic challenges to racialist organization struggled to gain traction until the mid-20th century. As second- and third-generation European immigrants began asserting white status in American society, Catholic understandings of sacred space, which infused white resistance to neighborhood integration with religious urgency, and hierarchical ordering of moral authority within an institution that historically excluded non-whites from positions of influence created significant barriers to Catholic interracialism. The influence of the civil rights movement and the structural transformation of both Catholic life and urban communities where non-whites lived nonetheless prompted new efforts to enlist Catholic teaching and community resources into ongoing struggles against racial oppression. Debates over the meaning of race and American society and social policy continue to draw upon competing histories of the American Catholic experience.
Emiliano Zapata and Revolutionary Mexico, 1910–1919
Authors: Hart Paul
Published: February 2018

Emiliano Zapata led the Liberating Army of the South during the Mexican Revolution. Zapata’s movement began with a demand for land reform, and his beliefs are most often captured by reference to the Plan de Ayala, which he promulgated in 1911. It was largely because of the Zapatistas (Zapata and his adherents) that land reform was written into the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Later, especially under President Lázaro Cárdenas, (1934–1940), the Mexican government carried out major land redistribution, which helped earn the post-revolutionary state legitimacy in the countryside. Over the course of nearly a decade fighting in the revolution, Zapata’s vision for remaking Mexico extended far beyond the Plan de Ayala and land reform to include judicial reform, decentralization of power, political democracy, the redistribution of wealth, and the promotion of the interests of rural workers and small agricultural producers while protecting Mexican sovereignty against powerful foreign interests. Zapata, however, led the most poorly armed of the main factions in the revolution and was unable to realize his goals. His enemies received large amounts of foreign military supplies, while he received no assistance from abroad. The inability of his poorly equipped volunteer army, mostly peasants and hacienda workers, to carry out large pitched battles dictated that they had to fight a grueling guerilla war. Zapata was unable to win on the battlefield, but was never totally defeated. He was assassinated in 1919. Although his larger vision for the future of Mexico did not prevail, his fight for land reform helped shape modern Mexico.
Indigo in the Atlantic World
Authors: Catena Adrianna
Published: February 2018

Around 1560, indigo-yielding plants were identified in the New World. Settlers turned with enthusiasm to the industry, cultivating the native Indigofera species on large-scale plantations from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Gulf of Fonseca. Production surged, and by 1600 indigo had become the third most valuable export from the Spanish Indies (behind silver and cochineal). After an initial, explosive start, the industry declined toward 1630, crippled by the onslaught of crop plagues, an insufficient supply of labor, and a collapsing transport system.

A second boom came only in the second half of the 18th century, following the Bourbon reforms, and with the recovery of trade through the Central American ports. By this time, a steady increase in European demand for indigo had encouraged the spread of colonial production to Dutch Java, French Saint-Domingue, British Jamaica, and South Carolina. Yet the Central American product had a longstanding, elevated reputation on its sid, and fared well against its rivals with the rare flor tizate, the region’s finest, ranked highest in European markets.

In the three centuries between the emergence of colonial production and the commercialization of a synthetic alternative at the close of the 19th century, indigo transformed lives and landscapes on both sides of the Atlantic. The industry formed an integral part of the Central American economy, with important social and environmental consequences for the region.