bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Structural Adjustment and Family Labour Supply in Latin America
Authors: LAM DAVID , LEVISON DEBORAH
Published: November 2023

Labor markets play a critical role in connecting macroeconomic fluctuations to the living conditions and demographic behaviour of households. Understanding how family labour market activity was affected by short-term economic fluctuations provides evidence about both the impact of the economic crisis and the economic responses made within the family. In analyzing family labour supply during Latin America’s economic crisis of the 1980s it is important to look beyond the usual measures of labour force participation and unemployment, such as those for prime age males, and consider the effects of macroeconomic fluctuations on the labour supply of different types of family members. Labour supply responses of married women, children and adolescents, and older people may provide indirect evidence about the flexibility of labour markets and the role that labour market adjustments play in periods of large macroeconomic changes, especially those caused by deliberate policy interventions.In particular, we are interested in the extent to which negative welfare effects of macroeconomic ‘shocks’ on individuals are lessened by a change in households’ strategies regarding labour force activity of household members. That is, are families able to buffer the impact of macro shocks via a reallocation of the time of family members, presumably from other activities into market work? If so. then evidence on the magnitude of changes in the labour supply of household members is one indirect indicator of the magnitude of the shocks felt by individual house holds.
Economic Recession and Changing Determinants of Women’s Work
Authors: Brigida Garcia , Oliveira Orlanoina de
Published: November 2023

In 1982, Mexico, like other Latin American countries, began to experience a severe economic recession. Since the mid-1970s the country’s economic development, which was based on import substitution, had begun to face difficulties. Public and private investment were at a minimum; fiscal imbalance, inflation and capital flight began to be pronounced. The currency was devalued for the first time in two decades. In spite of the above, Mexico experienced economic growth towards the end of the 1970s, but this was mainly due to a transitory oil boom. The government began to rely heavily on spending and borrowing in world capital markets; the foreign debt consequently reached unprecedented levels.
The Role of Government in the Economies of Developing Countries
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E
Published: November 2023

The collapse of the Soviet/socialist economies and the economic successes of the countries of east Asia have had a profound effect on thinking about both the development process and the role of government in that process. Several lessons are particularly relevant to this chapter:development is possible. Four decades ago the Republic of Korea had a per capita income less than that of India and today has one that is many times greater than that of India. China has been experiencing growth at a rate that has exceeded 12 per cent for the past 17 years-compounded, this rate implies that GDP has increased by a factor of eight.
Macroeconomic Policy and the Role of the State in a Changing World
Authors: Stern Nicholas
Published: November 2023

In the Keynesian era a broad consensus emerged on the role of government in an industrial economy. On the macroeconomic front the government had the responsibility of controlling overall demand, using primarily fiscal policy, to secure full employment. Its duty to control inflation was recognized in the 1950s and 1960s, though not seen as the primary challenge. The balance of payments was regarded as a constraint on macroeconomic policy, but one that could be handled, if necessary, by exchange rate devaluations and direct controls on both capital and current transactions. Indeed, capital controls were fairly universal. On the microeconomic and sectoral, or industrial, fronts the tasks included providing basic infrastructure, which was seen as a public responsibility because it was both essential and a natural monopoly; promoting or protecting strategic sectors; and correcting or regulating mark.et failures, such as the establishment or abuse of monopoly positions.
Industrial Policy in Developing Market Economies
Authors: Suzumura Kotaro
Published: November 2023

An industrial policy is an economic policy that is designed to improve the long-run welfare performance of a national economyby intervening in the allocation of resources between industrial sectors, or in the industrial organization of a specific sector, if the competitive market mechanism fails to function efficiently. Because market failures often arise from imperfect information; the cost of information acquisition, transmission and coordination; factors generating Marshallian externalities; and imperfections in risk and capital markets, the relevance of industrial policy as a strategy for developing market economies and economies in transition seems to be beyond dispute. Indeed, industrial policies have played a substantial part in the economic development of Japan, the Republic of Korea and other countries of east Asia, where the government has actively complemented the market mechanism. As Stieglitz emphasized in chapter 3 of this book, the government simply cannot replace the market-or any significant part of it. [But it] can play a critical role through marketsin promoting economic growth” (Stiglitz. 1997, p. 1). The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the role of industrial policy as a development strategy, paying due.
A Framework for a Development Strategy in a Market Economy
Authors: Stern Nicholas , Stiglitz Joseph E
Published: November 2023

A wel1-functioning economy requires a mix of government and markets. The balance, structure and functioning of that mix is at the heart of a development strategy. The mix is not simply assigning certain areas to one or the other domain. The more appropriate analogy is that of a partnership, in which each partner is given certain areas of responsibility. The political process makes the assignments. The task of this book is to provide an analytic basis to help examine how those assignments should be made.The first ingredients of a development strategy are its basic objectives, together with an analysis of the long-term assignments in light of those objectives. The nature of those assignments is altered by changes in the world economic environment and country circumstances, as well as with changes in, and emphasis among, the objectives that government sees as falling within its purview. These are the issues to which we tum in the first section. The second section then focuses on institutions and instruments. The details of these institutions and the precise nature of the instruments employed by government are as crucial a part of the development strategy determining how the partnerships actually function-as the assignments themselves.
Financial Security, Welfare Regimes, and the Governance of Work Systems
Authors: Morgan Glenn
Published: November 2023

European societies are currently undergoing profound transformations as they attempt to adapt to the challenges arising from international competition. Central to this process of adaption is the creation of forms of work system which are competitive against those arising in other parts of the world. As other chapters in this collection reveal, this process of transfor¬mation is structured by underlying forms of institutions and social relations. The direction and outcome of change processes within national systems under pressure from international competition is dependent on these underlying institutions and the capacities and capabilities of these institutions and key actors to produce new ways of working.
Bargaining for the Future 1ne Changing Habitus of the Shop Steward System in the Pulp and Paper Mills of Finland
Authors: Pulp Kari Lilja , Action Paper Mills As Fields Of
Published: November 2023

A distinctively Finnish feature of community development is that it has been formed imconnection with a saw mill, pulp mill, and/or a paper mill or coevolved with the establishment and growth of such mills and mill com¬ bines. Thus, for instance, Tarmo Koskinen has characterized Finland as an ‘archipelago of forest industry communities ‘ scattered in the backforests along the water ways and along the coastline (Koskinen 1987b). Looking from this ‘Braudelian ‘ perspective, industrial Finland was clearly invented by its geography: availability of forests, water ways, and water power. They constitute the foundation upon which the economic, social, and political institutions of the Finnish society have evolved. This foundation has remained the same for over 100 years while the economic, social, and politi¬cal institutions have been transformed several times, mainly due to exter¬nal political and economic pressures. Thus the economic and social field which emerges from the availability and refinement of the wooden raw material is an obvious key to the understanding of the functioning of the Finnish society. It provides a sectoral cross-cutting of the whole society (cf. Raumolin 1984; Lilja et al.1992).
Competition in the Water and Sewerage Industry
Authors: Swift John
Published: November 2023

Competition takes many forms. Sometimes it involves entry into markets, sometimes new products. It can mean new producers. Sometimes it involves price wars, at other times new methods of marketing.
China’s Defence Finance: Content, Process and Administration
Authors: Ding Arthur S
Published: November 2023

The defence budget helps outside analysts to understand a country’s defence policy and future defence plans. The size of the budget, how it is distributed, the degree to which it has been increased or reduced and in what areas, all help to explain that country’s conception of security, its military arrangements, its future plans and its development goals. It is indeed an instrument whereby countries learn about each other’s intentions and capabilities. Many nations openly publish such data in consider able detail in order to enhance transparency and build confidence.
The PLA’s Evolving Warfighting Doctrine, Strategy and Tactics, 1985-95: A Chinese Perspective*
Authors: Li Nan
Published: November 2023

Defence doctrine is an important indicator of armed forces’ intentions and capabilities. Since the policy of defence modernization was introduced in China in 1973,the war-fighting doctrine and strategic principles of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) have undergone two major changes. The first change came in the late 1970s. The Maoist doctrine of the “people’s war,” which had been prevalent in the late 1960s and 1970s, was replaced by a new doctrine of the “people’s war under modem conditions.” This change stressed the strategic aspects of how to fight the war rather than what type and nature of war the PLA should be prepared to fight. There are several differences in strategic aspects of “people’s war” and “people’s war under modem conditions.” First, rather than fighting a classic “people’s war” by drawing enemy forces into the interior of China, under “people’s war under modem conditions” the PLA now sought to defeat the adversary close to the border. Secondly, early battles were deemed more significant in influencing the course of war, a modification if not a total rejection of the notion of a protracted war of attrition associated with “people’s war.”
The Military Balance in the Taiwan Straits
Authors: Lin Chong-Pin
Published: November 2023

The 1994 book The Intercalary August 1995, a fictional account of a surgical-strike invasion of Taiwan by China, sold a record 200,000 copies between August and December 1994.The huge sales volume reflected a growing sense of insecurity among Taiwan’s residents, despite a visitor’s observation months earlier that the two sides had “rarely been more peaceful.”In the latter half of 1994, China staged its largest military exercise in years and Taiwan followed suit as if in response. Concurrently, Taiwanese emigration reached a six-year peak, which many perceived to have resulted from residents fleeing in fear. By early 1995, some U.S. officials admitted publicly that one had to take seriously the threat that “the mainland could invade” Taiwan. This statement represents a shifting post-Cold War perception from marginalizing China’s attack on Taiwan almost as a non-issue to reckoning such conflict as a possibility bordering on probability. Beginning in late July 1995, China reinforced this shift by testing missiles and artilleries in waters with unprecedented proximity to Taiwan, imposing in effect a series of temporary blockades on the island.
Industrial Policy and the Development of the Synthetic Fibre Industry Industrial Policy as a Means for Promoting Economic Growth
Authors: Suzuki Tsuneo
Published: November 2023

The nylon industry exhibited impressive growth, compared to the cotton and rayon industries, which began large-scale production in 1883 and 1918 respectively. Nylon production began substantially in 1951, reaching mid-growth in 1963-4 and peak growth in 1973 (see Table 3.1). Several factors contributed to the rapid post-Second World War development of nylon and other synthetic fibre industries.
Competition and Industrial Policy in Britain, 1945-1973
Authors: Tomlinson Jim D
Published: November 2023

This chapter will develop three themes about British competition and industrial policy from the end of the Second World War to OPEC 1. First, the weakness of domestic competition policy was coupled to a high level of international protection until the 1960s. This has led to the common view that British industry languished in a non-competitive environment, with disastrous consequences for long-run competitiveness (Allen, 1979; Caves, 1968; Crafts, 1988). However, this picture is oversimplified because of the large-scale entry of multinational (especially American) firms into Britain which competed with British-owned firms in many key sectors. The policy of welcoming multinationals is an unduly neglected feature of British policy affecting the level of competition in the economy.
Regulation American Style, 1933-1989
Authors: Vlftor Richard H K
Published: November 2023

Government regulation of business in America has reflected a unique mix of policies and institutional arrangements. In Europe, Japan, Canada, and Latin America, combinations of state-owned enterprise and discretionary administrative supervision were the normal forms of governmental control of business. In the United States, by contrast, semi-autonomous bureaucracies with formalized procedures and close judicial oversight developed detailed control over a substantial segment of private enterprise. With access to the world’s largest market, most domestic firms did not worry about international competition—and nor did public policy. In fact, one of the central points of this chapter is how different postwar America was from most other countries, in terms of industrial policy. It really did not have any. Its policies were primarily regulatory, formulated to stabilize and serve the domestic market.
Efficient Climate Policy in the Presence of Free-Riders
Authors: Hoel Michael
Published: November 2023

As long as there is no international law to force countries to participate in an international climate agreement, each country may have an incentive to be a free-rider, i.e. to stay outside the agreement instead of participating in it. This free-rider incentive remains even if the agreement is such that all countries are better off with the agreement than without. A country may be better off participating in an agreement than it would be without any agreement. But it will usually be even better off if the other countries cooperate, while it itself stays outside the agreement and pursues its self-interest.
Carbon Taxes and Industrial Location: Evidence from the Multinationals Literature
Authors: wang Zhen kun , winters l. Alan
Published: November 2023

The fear, if not the fact, of global warming is well established, and economists and other policy advisers have been called upon to suggest ways of averting or alleviating its dangers. Prominent in the economists’ toolkit is a carbon tax to discourage the use of carbon-based energy sources. A major concern about using carbon taxes, however, is that, if only a subset of countries impose them, those countries’ industries will become uncompetitive. As a result their sales will fall, to be replaced, at least partially, by those of similar industries located in non-taxing countries. This fear is most frequently expressed in the OECD countries, when policy-makers consider the difficulties of binding the developing countries into a global CO2 abatement agreement or enforcing the terms of such an agreement.
Economic Policy and the Manufacturing Base: Hysteresis in Location
Authors: Venables Anthony J
Published: November 2023

Discussion of industrial policy often refers to the importance of maintaining a ‘manufacturing base’, and suggests that there may be some level of activity below which contraction of manufacturing may be difficult to reverse. In simple economic models it is difficult to make sense of this line of reasoning. An adverse shock to industry in one country may cause exit or relocation of firms, but if the shock is reversed then those remaining earn a higher return than in the original equilibrium; entry will occur, and the equilibrium will revert to the initial position.
Under Different International Agreements: Can a Small Nation Gain from Introducing a Carbon Tax Early?
Authors: Lund Diderik
Published: November 2023

Some authorities, e.g. the Ministry of Finance of Norway (1992, pp. 133 f.), are considering whether the introduction of a carbon tax may have an important incentive effect on firms’ research and development (R&D). In that case, it may even pay to introduce such a tax before it is required by international agreements in order to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This chapter examines such a possibility in a theoretical model.
Environmental Policy and International Trade when Governments and Producers Act Strategically
Authors: Ulph A List Air
Published: November 2023

In the recent debates over the Uruguay Round, the Single European Market, and NAFTA, some environmentalists raised concerns that trade liberalization might damage the environment. One concern is that the consequent expansion of consumption, production, and trade will lead to increased pollution and use of scarce natural resources unless corrective policies are taken. A second concern, which will be the focus of this chapter, is that in the absence of trade policy governments may relax their environmental policies to give their domestic producers an advantage in the more competitive international markets (so called ‘eco-dumping’). This leads to policy recommendations that environmental regulations should be harmonized across countries, or, if that is not achieved, that countries who impose tighter environmental regulations than their rivals should be able to impose countervailing tariffs on imports from countries with slacker environmental regulations. Not surprisingly, such policies frequently find favour with industries in the traded sector.
Strategic Environmental Policy, International Trade, and the Single European Market
Authors: Ulph A List Air
Published: November 2023

The recent moves to further liberalize trade both at a global level, through the Uruguay Round, and regionally, through NAFTA and the Single European Market, have prompted an extensive debate on the implications of such trade liberalizations for the environment, with suggestions from some environmentalists that some forms of trade restrictions may be justified in order to protect the environment (see Anderson and Blackhurst, 1992, and Low, 1992, for good recent overviews of some aspects of this debate). Many of the contributions from economists to this debate have been framed, explicitly or implicitly, in the context of the conventional competitive model of international trade. But the debate has also prompted some new research, which has exploited the literature on strategic international trade with imperfectly competitive markets (see e.g. Helpman and Krugman, 1989) to reassess the links between environmental policy and international trade.
Innovation Networks: The View from the Inside
Authors: Oliver Nick , Blakeborough* Michelle
Published: November 2023

Recent years have seen many claims that new models of industrial organization are emerging. These models encompass both operations and innovation, and have been variously labelled ‘flexible specialisation’ (Piore and Sabel, 1984) ‘the Japanese model’ (Schonberger, 1982) and ‘lean production’ (Womack, Jones, and Roos, 1990), to name but three. The basic tenets of these models vary, but they share certain common features. Of particular interest here are the interfirm relationships claimed by the new models.
Innovation in Consumption and Economic Growth*
Authors: Swann G M Peter
Published: November 2023

Economic analysis of the effects of innovation on economic growth has focused almost exclusively on the supply side. Most of the literature examines the effects of innovative activity by producers, whether in the form of process innovations or product innovations. How do process innovations impact on productivity? What is the value of product innovations? But we argue in this chapter that the consumer is also an innovator, and we need to have an understanding of how innovation in consumption impacts on economic growth. While the traditional literature looks at innovation and the production function, the aim of this chapter is to take a very preliminary look at the effects on innovation on the utility function. While there are some pioneering analyses of consumer innovation in the literature, this chapter is written in the spirit that these need to be gathered into a more coherent theory of innovation in consumption.
Innovation and Corporate Structures: USA and Japan
Authors: Dore Ronald
Published: November 2023

The 1980s was a decade of burgeoning Japanese self-confidence. Especially after the Plaza agreement made it cheaper for Japanese companies to register patents in the USA, their share of total US-registered patents rose steadily to over 20 per cent. Technological performance became a hot academic subject and numerous attempts to count national contributions to scientific journals, to use citations to measure the quality of contributions and the importance of patents, to conduct Delphi studies on ‘who’s ahead’ in a given number of fields of science and technology, concluded—in Japan with glee, and in the USA with alarm—that Japan was catching up fast and destined in many fields soon to overtake the USA. Particularly disturbing for Americans was the fact that some of their smartest weaponry depended on bought-in Japanese components. The effect of the technological news was magnified by the economic news. The Japanese economy was booming in the second half of the 1980s; the USA was a byword for productivity stagnation and the triple deficit.
Introduction
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

This book examines central-provincial politics regarding investment implementation in post-Mao China. Tensions between the centre and the provinces have been riding high since the commencement of economic reform in the late 1970s. Central government officials blamed provinces for their ‘Machiavellian’ shrewdness in getting around, if not ignoring, central directives and policies. Provincial officials, on the other hand, complained that the centre was often unreasonable in its demands and unsympathetic to their needs and difficulties. The consequence was that both parties blamed one another for their difficulties, and in the process various problems in the economy were aggravated. The pursuit of economic gain led to ‘trade wars’ between different provinces as well as massive wastage as a result of inefficient investment. The centre was largely ineffective in its efforts in controlling the problems, as its control instruments, outdated relative to the new requirements of reform, were increasingly evaded and ignored by the provinces. The extent of the crisis was so great that at times the very integration of the Chinese state was called into question.
Investment in Guangdong: Central Policy and Provincial Implementation
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

The objective of this chapter is to provide the context for answering the question: what does investment implementation in Guangdong tell us about central—provincial relations? Two sets of questions are involved here. First, what characterized Guangdong’s investment after 1980? Was there an ‘implementation gap’ in investment policy in the centre-Guangdong interface, and what were its characteristics? Secondly, with respect to the factors behind the investment problem identified in Chapter 2, in particular the reforms in the fiscal system and in the administration of investment, what were the developments in Guangdong? This discussion of the institutional context is a prerequisite to understanding the politics of the process, the subject of discussion in Chapters 5 to 7.
Discretion and Strategies in Shanghai
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

As the largest economic centre and the number one contributor to total national revenue until 1991,1 Shanghai was in a policy and economic environment very different from that of Guangdong. Notwith-standing the fact that the same five categories of discretionary behaviour were apparent in both Guangdong and Shanghai, such beaviour had entirely different emphases. The details of these differences, as well as the context, are discussed comparatively in terms of Guangdong in the next chapter. This chapter discusses the development of Shanghai’s discretion in detail, following the typology of discretion outlined in Fig. 1.2.
Centre and Provinces: Interactive Processes
Authors: Li Linda Chelan
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on the linkage between the institutional context posed by the centre and the resultant discretionary behaviour of the Guangdong and Shanghai governments. Specifically, this chapter seeks to examine the mediating process whereby central policies influenced and constrained the choices and behaviour of Guangdong and Shanghai, as well as the process whereby provincial discretion influenced central policies. Fig. 7.1 depicts the interactive relationship between the centre and the provinces.
A Political Visionary in Mid-Life: Notes on leadership and the life cycle
Authors: Gould Laurence. J
Published: November 2023

A substantial body of contemporary work now exists about adult development. Much of this work began in earnest with the publication of a number of books which attempted to conceptualize the adult life course from a psychodynamic/ psychoanalytic perspective. Notably these were: Levinson and his coworkers’ major study (1978), R. Gould (1978), and Valliant (1977). These volumes significantly carried forward several prominent earlier enquiries regarding the stages of life by Erikson (1959), Jung (1971), and Jagues (1965). Although this body of theory and research, together with a large body of subsequent work, has contributed a great deal to an understanding of the many aspects of a person’s life as it unfolds, it has not specifically focused on the relationship between adult development and the nature of leadership. The purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to provide an initial outline for the integration of adult developmental theory with psychoanalytic and open systems perspectives on leadershipdrawing particularly on the works of Freud (e.g. 1921), Klein’s object relations perspective (e.g. 1928, 1935, 1940, 1945, 1959), Bion’s small group theory (1961), and Rice’s (1969) and E. J. Miller and Rice’s (1967) concept of primary task.
Creating the Modern Firm: Management and Leadership Challenges
Authors: Roberts John
Published: November 2023

This book has offered a set of frameworks, concepts, and tools to help meet the challenges of designing effective organizations. It has also offered a number of examples of firms that have developed strategies and organizational designs that allowed them to deliver exceptional perfor-mance and growth. Yet, the fact remains that it is very difficult to develop a winning strategy and an effective organization. Doing so is fundamentally a creative act that requires both the analytical problem-solving that charac-terizes management and the vision, communication, and persuasion that are essential features of leadership.
Introduction: Small Business in Historical Perspective
Authors: Odaka Konosuke , Sawai Minoru
Published: November 2023

Small business is a generic concept. Being the antonym of big business, its social significance becomes clearer when placed in the historical context where the latter first appeared in the world economy. Big business became conspicuous in the US economy in the second half of the nineteenth century, especially after the 1890s when the wave of corporate mergers swept the country: Mass-production methods were then introduced after the turn of the century, as best exemplified by the phenomenal success of Ford’s Model T, produced at the company’s Highland Park plant beginning in 1913 (cf. Hounshell 1984: 9). As noted by Peter Drucker (1946/1960), Ford’s method demonstrated for the first time that ‘under conditions of modern technology, the maximum profit is obtained by maximising production at the minimum cost’ (p. 220).
The Architecture of an Industrial Sector: Size and Structure in Canadian Manufacturing
Authors: Inwood Kris
Published: November 2023

A celebrated wave of technological change beginning with the steam engine and improvements in iron manufacture during the eighteenth century created the necessary conditions for mechanizing a wide range of activities in the transportation, mining, and manufacturing sectors (Ashton 1948; Mokyr 1993; Wrigley 1988). A large and still-growing literature investigates the causes and timing of this ‘industrial revolution’, and its effects on living standards, inequality, working conditions, settlement patterns, and long distance trade. On one point there is a consensus, that the new technologies improved productivity for large-scale enterprise and thereby contributed to the emergence of big business. And yet small unpowered firms were not eliminated by the multi-faceted influences of industrialization. Observers as diverse as Alfred Marshall (1923) and Ralph Samuel (1977) agree that hand production survived in many places and industries, in some cases be cause of changes introduced by the incoming technological tide. Theim portance of small firm survival is reinforced by recent debates about the nature of the industrial revolution (Berg and Hudson 1992; Hoppit 1990).
Small Manufacturing Firms and Local Productive Systems in Modern Italy
Authors: Alaimo Aurelio
Published: November 2023

Historical research on industrial development in Italy has been marked by some contradictions. International historiography has given scarce attention to the Italian phenomenon. The latter has often been considered just one of the many cases of latecomer countries, for which the task was simply to identify the substitutive factors of industrialization. Moreover, Italian historians themselves have shown little interest in the economic development of the last two centuries. Modern historians have dwelt on the classic themes of political and institutional history, while economic historians have shown a clear preference for the study of pre-industrial economy and of its extraordinary evolution, from great prosperity to its rapid decline.
Evaluating Japanese Industrial Policy: The Auto-Parts Industry Example
Authors: Odaka Konosuke
Published: November 2023

To promote the development of small and medium-size companies in machinery manufacturing, the Japanese Diet passed legislation in 1956 to supply greatly needed cash flow to the smaller makers of specified kinds of basic machinery, including auto parts and components. This chapter con siders this programme as an example of a Japanese industrial policy that was small-scale but contributed greatly to the success of an industry that now sets world standards. The implication might be that the national government and, more specifically, the Ministry of International Trade and Indus try (MITI) are due some credit for the success of the auto industry, albeit indirectly, since the creation of a world-class (or even a significant) auto industry was neither a stated policy nor a ‘stealth’ one. However, even if one argues that the programme was a necessary condition for the auto-sector’s success, it was only one of many factors. The larger concern is to under stand the motivation and intellectual underpinnings of Japanese industrial policy and how to evaluate it.
Globalization and Business Systems
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

The increasing domination of international trade by multinational companies (MNCs) over the past five decades has been seen by some to herald the establishment of new, non-national kinds of economic actors that behave differently from more nationally based competitors (e.g. Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989; Doz and Prahalad 1993; Hedlund 1993). Together with the expansion of international trade and growth of international capital markets, this increasing international managerial control of economic activities has been claimed to be leading to a borderless world in which national boundaries and the states controlling them have less economic significance than the decisions of transnational business elites and financial markets. Within Europe, such claims have, of course, been accentuated by the expansion of the European Union, moves to a single European market, and related efforts to standardize the rules of the game governing economic competition.
Path Dependence and Emergent Capitalisms in Eastern Europe: Hungary and Slovenia Compared
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

Just as the rapid industrialization of East Asian economies in the twentieth century highlighted the variety of economic coordination and control systems in market economies as well as their interdependence with societal institutions, so too the transformations of the former state socialist societies of Eastern Europe reveal the path dependence of political and economic change. As Grabher (1995), Offe (1997), and others have emphasized, differences in the nature of state socialist regimes and in their pre-war predecessor societies have greatly affected both how their political economies were transformed in the early 1990s and the nature of the economic systems that are currently being established. The command economies of Eastern Europe varied sufficiently in their political and economic structures to generate significant differences in how they introduced political and economic liberalization and in the resulting patterns of enterprise and market organization.
Enterprise Change and Continuity in a Transforming Society: The Case of Hungary
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I present some evidence about how leading Hungarian enterprises and their managers responded to the institutional and economic changes of the late 1980s and early 1990s that broadly confirms the analysis in Chapter 8. In addition to the limited and incremental nature of many changes to enterprises ‘ structures and strategies in the early 1990s, the effects of changes in ownership were more varied and less sharp than many anticipated. Where privatization did result in significant changes in control and behaviour, typically when foreign firms bought a dominant shareholding, these took some time to be implemented. Additionally, many of the enterprises in severe financial difficulties that remained in state hands had restructured their activities quite substantially by 1996. Changing ownership per se, then, was not a prerequisite for reducing the labour force, disposing of business units, or reorganizing the managerial hierarchy. However, substantial investment in new technologies and products overwhelmingly occurred in those SOEs taken over by foreign firms, as was found in numerous case studies elsewhere (Carlin et al. 1995).
Traditional Families and Fertility Decline: Lessons from Australia’s Southern Europeans
Authors: santow Gigi , Bracher michael D
Published: November 2023

The bearing of children is often said to result from fertility decision-making processes that reflect ‘the demand for children, the supply of children, and the costs of fertility regulation’ (Hollerbach 1983: 340). Childbearing that does not seem to fit this scheme can still be accommodated by being said to be the outcome of ‘non-rational decisions’ or ‘ambivalent decisions’ or ‘passive decisions’ (Hollerbach 1983: 341). Yet, as we try to show here, the greatest value of such a decision-making paradigm may be in providing a framework within which demographers can order their thoughts, rather than in its faithfully reflecting the way people go about producing, or not producing, their children. During the 1950s, sociologists and demographers, heavily influenced by economics and psychology, began to systematize their interest in what people might consider to be the ‘right’ family size, either for themselves personally, or for the wider community (Bulatao and Lee 1983). Alongside questions on actual reproductive performance, respondents to fertility surveys might be asked the number of children they would prefer, the number they would consider ideal, or the number they actually wanted: indeed, some surveys bombarded their respondents with the entire battery of questions.
The Cultural Significance of Western Fertility Trends in the 1980s
Authors: Simons John
Published: November 2023

Between the mid-1960s and the mid-1970s, fertility declined rapidly in north, west, and central Europe. In Italy, Portugal, and Spain, the decline from the mid-1960s was more moderate than elsewhere in Europe for the first ten years but became much steeper after 1974. Since the mid-1970s, and especially during the 1980s, the rates have generally stabilized, and in some countries they have increased. Analyses of the demographic statistics show that the fertility decline was largely the result of decreases in third and higher-order births, together with increases in the proportion of childless women. There have also been changes in the age at which people start childbearing.
The Level of Fertility in Tokugawa and Meiji Japan, c. 1800s-1930s: A Preliminary Analysis of the Hutterite Indices
Authors: Tomobe Ken’ichi
Published: November 2023

Recent studies of fertility in Tokugawa Japan have shown that the level of fertility was moderate compared with that of historical Europe. This paper, on the proximate determinants of fertility in Tokugawa Japan,1 examines changes in peasant fertility and the relationship between nuptuality and fertility in particular.’ Specifically, I calculate the Hutterite indices (If, lg, Im, and Ih) for a variety of Japanese populations and compare them with other historical populations. Using these indices to observe changes in fertility levels, we can guess whether these changes are coming from the changes in nuptuality (Im) or fertility (lg or Ih).
Indonesian Fertility Behaviour before the Transition: Searching for Hints in the Historical Record
Authors: Hull Terence h.
Published: November 2023

When societies undergo rapid social change the need for new histories to explain different systems of organisation or morality increases, and it is common for ‘fables’ to be invented to meet new requirements. In modern times rapid social changes have been accompanied by the growth of literacy, so the new fables have the benefit of being written, and thus fixed in form and substance but subject to reinterpretation. However, in terms of breadth of communication and impact on the exercise of power, the spoken word frequently continues to have a position of prominence in shaping the thinking of all classes, including the intelligentsia. Over the long term, societies in the course of rapid social change need reference to history to maintain some sense of coherent identity and common purpose. Theoretically a long tradition of written history would offer the most stable foudation for such cultural identification, but among developing nations written histories are often sparse and suspect, since they were the product of colonial institutions rejected in the rise of nationalism. Instead reinterpretations of written histories are elaborated through reference to oral traditions and imagined ‘realities’, to produce visions of society more in consonance with modern conditions and political needs.
Trends and Fluctuations in Fertility in Sri Lanka during the First Half of the Twentieth Century
Authors: ford C m. Lang
Published: November 2023

Previous research has indicated that fertility in Sri Lanka (Ceylon until 1972) has been falling since the early-to-mid 1950s. Initially this seems to have been due to rising female age at marriage, as well as to changes in age structure, but from the early-to-mid 1960s, in addition to rising age at marriage, marital fertility has also been falling, obviously reflecting the deliberate practice of birth control (Langford, 1981). According to Freedman and Blanc (1992), on the basis of an analysis of Demographic and Health Survey data, by 1985 (in fact, a four year period centred on 1985) the total fertility rate for Sri Lanka had fallen to 2.72 children per woman; an official Sri Lankan statement to the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994 put the total fertility rate for Sri Lanka at 2.2 children per woman (United Nations, 1994, 3).
Demographic Conditions and Household Formation in Chinese History: A Simulation Study
Authors: Zhao Zhongwei
Published: November 2023

Household formation and composition in Chinese history have been discussed for many years. Yet questions of what was the predominant type of household in the past, and what kind of household formation systems existed in historical China have not been conclusively answered and very divergent opinions still exist.
Marriage Patterns and Demographic Change in Sri Lanka: A Long-Term Perspective
Authors: Caldwell Bruce
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines changes over time in Sri Lankan marriage patterns and demographic correlates. The paper takes a historical perspective looking at long term factors underlying Sri Lanka’s marriage patterns but for its detailed analysis concentrates on the more recent period of the twentieth century for which there is more detailed information, which is within the memory of people living today, and which has been marked by radical and unprecedented change. The paper concentrates on female age at marriage because this has demographically been the most important aspect of marriage patterns in Sri Lanka.
Entrepreneurship as Innovation
Authors: Schumpeter Joseph A
Published: November 2023

To produce means to combine materials and forces within our reach. To produce other things, or the same things by a different method, means to combine these materials and forces differently. In so far as the “new combination” may in time grow out of the old by continuous adjustment in small steps, there is certainly change, possibly growth, but neither a new phenomenon nor development in our sense. In so far as this is not the case, and the new combinations appear discontinuously, then the phenomenon characterising development emerges. For reasons of expository convenience, henceforth, we shall only mean the latter case when we speak of new combinations of productive means. Development in our sense is then defined by the carrying out of new combinations.
The Treasury (1953-1955) and the years 1955-1958
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

The economy was peaceful during my time at the Treasury, 1953-5. I saw the Chancellor, R. A. Butler, only once, when my boss, Sir Robert Hall, was away. I was supposed to lead the Economic Section on foreign economic policy, a subject to which I had paid no more attention than was required for undergraduate teaching.
Conclusions to A Critique of Welfare Economics (1957)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

This book might, in part, be described as a study of the usage of influential and persuasive language in economics. Wherever it has been found that the terminology of economics is, in this sense, normative, we have suggested that the ethical issues involved should be brought right into the open. Unless this is done, it is often not at all clear whether a dispute is one of fact, or one of value. A discussion which is superficially objective and factual (because frankly ethical expressions are not used), but which is really about values, though the contestants may not realize it, is usually unhelpful, and may tend to create ill feeling.
Direct versus Indirect Taxes (1951)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

The first part of this article is designed to show that the usual theoretical treatment of the problem of direct and indirect taxation is based on extraordinary assumptions, and liable to be misleading. An alternative mode of analysis is suggested. In the second part, I try to show that no case against indirect taxation can be proved from the ordinary, general, purely competitive assumptions of economic theory; and, further, that the special assumption, necessary to prove the case, involves an unplausible conclusion concerning incentives.

A single ‘economic man’ who spends his income on two goods (one of which may be ‘money’) is assumed. In Figure 1, Qo is the equilibrium tax-free position. When an income tax equal to AB of Xis imposed, Q1 is reached. The same sum could be raised by an indirect tax on Y, which would result in a position such as Q2. From the usual convexity assumption, it follows that Q2 is worse than Q1. Q.E.D.
The Strategy of Indian Development (I960)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

India became independent in 1948. She is now in the final stages of preparing her Third Five-Year Plan for economic development. The First Plan ran from 1950/i to 1955/6 (British financial years). It has no relevance to India’s present problems. It was small; it was an amalgam of existing investment projects with little or no conscious economic philosophy behind it. The Second Plan runs from 1956!7 to 1960/i. The Third Plan starts in April 1961.
Miscellaneous Activities
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

From about the mid-195os, the Economic Section became increasingly worried by the exaggerated role that, it believed, ministers were beginning to give to monetary policy, and by the confused mystique apparent in some of their pronouncements, particularly those of Mr Thornecroft, concerning money and inflation. It was apparently believed that monetary measures could reduce inflation without reducing demand. Ever since the revival of monetary policy, chan¬cellors have been extremely reluctant to raise taxes, preferring to raise interest rates or restrict credit. This may well have destabilized the economy.
Fiscal Policy (I952)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

It has been seen that the removal of quantitative restrictions has reduced the means of control without reducing the ends. But to what extent is monetary policy an additional weapon? Are monetary and fiscal policy taken together sufficient in principle to achieve the Government’s aims? These questions cannot be fully answered here. But some comparison of the two is essential to a discussion of fiscal policy.
Higgledy Piggledy Growth (I962)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

This article originated in my belief that the information provided by Moodies Services, Ltd, had not been adequately exploited for academic purposes. The corrections which must be made to earnings and dividends for capital changes are very laborious, and could hardly have been done without the cooperation of Moodies Services, for which I am most grateful.