bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
III-Phospide Nanowires
Authors: P.A.M. Bakkers Erik , Hocevar Moira , E. Algra Rienk , Feiner Lou-Fé , A. Verheijen Marcel
Published: November 2012

In this chapter we review the latest developments in the field of InP and GaP nanowires. A major part
of the chapter is devoted to the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) growth (mechanism) of nanowires, but also ‘catalystfree’
growth mechanisms will be discussed. The chapter starts with methods to obtain control of nanowire
diameter and position. Such control is essential to understand the details of the growth mechanism. It will be
shown that the liquid particle can truly catalyze the growth of nanowires. The other main theme considers the
structural and optical nanowire properties. Nanowires can have a different (wurtzite) crystal structure than the
bulk (zinc blende) materials. Parameters, which can affect the formation of specific crystal structures, will be
discussed. Closely related to the crystal structure is the formation of stacking faults, such as twin planes. Single
twins, paired twin and twin superlattices are characterized and their occurrence is explained by a kinetic growth
model. Photoluminescence has been used to assess the optical properties of single nanowires. It is shown that
wurtzite InP has higher bandgap energy than zinc blende InP. Control of the crystal structure allows for a new
type of band-engineering. Finally, the photonic properties of wire ensembles are discussed.
Growth of III-Arsenide/Phosphide Nanowires by Molecular Beam Epitaxy
Authors: Harmand Jean-Christophe , Glas Frank , Patriarche Gilles , Largeau Ludovic , Tchernycheva Maria , Sartel Corinne , Liu Linsheng , Jabeen Fauzia
Published: November 2012

We describe and analyze the growth of III-V semiconductor nanowires by molecular beam epitaxy
activated with gold particles. We focus on (Al)GaAs(P) and InP(As) compounds. Optimal conditions of substrate
surface preparation and adequate growth parameters are reported. The catalyst particles are shown to be rich in
group-III atoms and liquid when nanowires form. The favorable growth temperatures thus depend on which
group-III element is used. We explain why the nanowires often adopt the unusual wurtzite structure, pointing out
that the crystalline phase is determined at the nucleation stage and that high liquid supersaturation is necessary.
The kinetics of nanowire elongation is investigated with an original method based on modulations of the incident
fluxes. The group-III flux intercepted by the nanowire sidewall facets is the main contribution to axial growth.
Conditions leading to a short diffusion length of the group-III adatoms on these facets, produce lateral growth that
we use to form abrupt core-shell heterostructures. We also present a method to bury vertical freestanding
nanowires by a planar epitaxial growth. This process induces the layer-by-layer transformation of the nanowire
phase from wurtzite to zinc-blende. Finally, the statistics of nucleation at the liquid-solid interface is revealed by
using the flux modulation method. We show that the diluted concentration of group-V atoms in the nano-sized
catalyst drop is at the origin of the self-regulation of the nucleation events.
III-Antimonide Nanowires
Authors: Weman Helge , L. Dasa Dheeraj
Published: November 2012

We review the recent progress in the growth, structural, optical and electrical properties of
GaAs/GaAsSb, GaAs/GaSb, and InAs/InSb nanowires (NWs) grown by the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism.
The structural characterization of GaAsSb NWs reveals that they adopt zinc blende (ZB) crystal phase, whereas
the same growth conditions (except the Sb flux) produce GaAs NWs with wurtzite (WZ) crystal phase. With
increasing mole fraction of Sb, the ZB GaAsSb NW forms a lower density of twinning planes. Low-temperature
photo-luminescence (PL) characterization of axially heterostructured GaAs/GaAsSb NWs shows that the linear
polarization of the PL emission from the ZB GaAsSb inserts is opposite (parallel to NW axis) to the WZ GaAs
segments (perpendicular to NW axis) due to a difference in the optical selection rules between ZB and WZ
crystals. GaSb NWs have been grown on top of GaAs NWs by the Au-assisted VLS method. The two most
striking differences between the GaSb and GaAs NWs are: 1) The diameter of the GaSb NWs is significantly
larger than that of the GaAs NWs. 2) Whereas the GaAs NWs have WZ crystal phase with stacking faults, the
GaSb NWs exhibit a defect-free ZB crystal phase. Undoped GaSb NWs have so far been determined to be p-type.
Low-temperature PL measurements on GaSb NWs reveal a PL peak near 0.8 eV, with the energy position
dependent on the V/III ratio. InSb NWs grown on top of InAs NWs show similar behavior in terms of diameter
and crystal phase change as the GaAs/GaSb NWs.
III-V Ternary Nanowires
Authors: Martelli Faustino
Published: November 2012

In this chapter I will give an overview of the existing knowledge on the growth and the main properties
of III-V ternary nanowires. I will describe bare ternary as well as heterostructure nanowires, both axial and radial.
A particular emphasis is given to the competing behaviors occurring during the growth of this class of nanowires,
that is different ad-atom incorporation due to different properties of impinging species of the same group:
diffusion lengths, solution of the different element in the catalyst nanoparticle and the thermal stability of
chemical bonds. These competing processes have effects on alloy composition, composition uniformity and
nanowire shape.
III-V Semiconductor Nanowire Transistors
Authors: Tegude Franz-Josef , Prost Werner
Published: November 2012

Semiconductor nanowires may be used as the channel of a field-effect transistor device. In contrast to
field-effect transistors made of epitaxial layers, the nanowire approach provides large material diversity and
enables a fully surrounding gate contact. In this way, no carriers can escape from the channel and a higher
transconductance is routinely observed. In contrast to carbon nanotubes the charge polarity can be selected and a
metallic phase that may inhibit the channel depletion is avoided. In this chapter device concepts will be presented
based on semiconductor band structure and heterostructures. Recent advances in device technology and selfassembly
will be discussed. The corresponding DC performance of the different nanowire approaches is
reviewed. Special emphasis is given on the measurement and the performance of nanowire field-effect transistors
at high frequencies.
III-V Semiconductor Nanowire Solar Cells
Authors: Crankshaw S. , Fontcuberta i Morral A.
Published: November 2012

This chapter reviews the implementation of semiconductor nanowires as the active optical elements of
nanowire-based photovoltaics. Some essential principles for understanding the semiconductor p-n junction
photoresponse are briefly covered, followed by a more detailed presentation of the arguments for turning to a
nanowire geometry rather than the traditional planar case. These include the decoupling of the light absorption
and carrier collection directions for a radial junction geometry, the relaxation of lattice-mismatching constraints
in choice of material combinations for axial heterojunctions, and absorption enhancement via light scattering in
nanowire arrays. The emphasis here is on semiconductor nanowires grown epitaxially from a substrate, rather
than solution-based methods. Because of the application-oriented nature of the material discussed, though, this
scientific literature review is complemented by some remarks on the relevant patent literature for this field, also
including alternative synthesis methods, as a gauge of the readiness for moving from scientific research to
technology development. Finally, an outlook on additional modifications or integrations into the semiconductor
nanowire solar cell framework is presented, such as the incorporation of plasmonic cell elements.
What are Scotland’s Sexual Health Challenges?
Authors: Fraser Shirley
Published: November 2012

The concluding chapter in the first section provides an insider view of the development of
Respect and Responsibility - the first sexual health strategy for Scotland. Written by Shirley Fraser, a
leading expert in sexual health policy-making in Scotland, it describes the experiences and challenges in
identifying policy and service responses in sexual health that are acceptable to the public, to clinicians
and managers in the NHS, to national and local government, and the array of interest groups and
communities of interest. The chapter reflects back on the last two decades, during which
significant social, cultural and organisational shifts concerning sexuality and sexual behaviour have
occurred in Scotland and elsewhere, specifically focussing on activity and thinking before and since the
strategy.

The author covers the political and policy pressures and opportunities surrounding the Scottish strategy,
and describes parallel activity in national sexual health policy elsewhere in the UK. The structures that
were established to create and oversee the implementation of Respect and Responsibility are charted,
alongside the strong political support that the devolved Scottish Government (of successive political
complexions) has provided. The chapter asserts that the Scottish strategy (although changed from draft to
final outcome) contains a broader understanding of sexual activity, and the social determinants of sexual
ill-health, than others in the rest of the UK, with the adoption of a population health approach, and the
decision to see children and young people as a critical target group, but not to the exclusion of others,
differentiating the Scottish perspective.
Key Clinical Indicators for Sexual Health: Current National Sexual Health Data Collection and Future Plans
Authors: Naughton and Jim Chalmers Felicity
Published: November 2012

The service improvements in sexual health across Scotland that this collection discusses have
required the underpinnings of timely, accessible and accurate information to inform and facilitate activity
and to monitor its outcomes. This chapter contributes to the section in this collection on the delivery
infrastructure. It sets out the role of national data and information services in recording and reporting
sexual health activity across the Scottish health care system, as aligned to the targets set out in the NHS
QIS Standards, which the last chapter covered. The need for excellent intelligence to inform both
national and local planning, and to better understand sexual ill-health and inequalities across Scotland, is
clearly conveyed and demonstrated in this chapter written by two of the central players - Dr Jim
Chalmers and Felicity Naughton - in the formulation and delivery of the national sexual health
information system that is part of the central support system for the NHS in Scotland.

The chapter gives an insight into the various sources of national sexual health data, including clinical
reporting from services across Scotland, public surveys and qualitative material, and of the uses to which
it can be employed – in a systematic way, through the Information Services Division information
dissemination system, and in an ad-hoc way, in response to Government requests for example. The
authors ably demonstrate in this chapter the cohesive nature of the systems and the critical role that the
intelligence generated has in sexual health improvement, informing policy-making and the employment
of resources.
Managing Patients Differently - The Scottish National Sexual Health IT System (NaSH)
Authors: J Winter Andrew
Published: November 2012

The concluding chapter in this section of the book provides a comprehensive review of the
evolution of the Scottish sexual health patient information system - NaSH, and its eventual
implementation. With all NHS Health Boards, at the time of writing, either using or about to introduce
NaSH, this is a significant achievement, given the previous patchy nature of sexual health patient records
in Scotland as the chapter describes. Dr Winter, a GUM consultant and expert in sexual health
information management, was part of the group behind the NaSH system, and conveys the multiple
strands that NaSH needed to incorporate, and the internal and external challenges that needed to be
overcome.

The NaSH system was funded by the Scottish Government to support increased access to services and to
bring all sexual health services in Scotland into the 21st century in IT terms in line with the inception of
the Sexual Health Strategy. It needed to meet the needs of national governance and local commissioners
for robust information about client uptake, service efficiency and sexual health demographics; of
clinicians and NHS managers for a workable and efficient system that maximised client outcomes; and
of clients for a system that made services increasingly accessible yet protected confidentiality in a highly
sensitive clinical area. The commissioning and tendering process for the NaSH system is described, and
a range of tables and documents drawn from the development process included that illuminate the
complexity of the system, and the issues that had to be addressed.
Scottish Sexual Health Services: Cinderella Starts Making her Way to the Ball
Authors: Bigrigg Alison , Glasier Anna
Published: November 2012

A central objective of Respect and Responsibility - Scotland's first national sexual health
strategy - was to improve sexual health services through developing strong local and national alliances.
This chapter by two of Scotland's sexual health clinical leaders, Dr Alison Bigrigg of the West of
Scotland Managed Clinical Network and Professor Anna Glasier of NHS Lothian, reviews the resulting
organisational arrangements and the key roles given to the NHS in Scotland and their local authority
partners to take a holistic view to the Scottish sexual health landscape.

Summarising the previous structures of sexual health care, and the players involved, the chapter charts
the shift to a more innovative environment by describing examples of good practice from across Scotland
that have resulted from these opportunities, and from the funding that came to local areas through the
Strategy. This includes work to support young people in Lothian; innovative developments in the West
of Scotland; a managed sexual health clinical network Grampian; an enhanced sexual health role for
community pharmacists; a national campaign to raise awareness of long acting reversible contraception
(LARC), and partnership working in Dumfries and Galloway.

The sexual health strategy aimed to reduce inequalities in access to sexual health services, and the
authors argue that these, and other examples of sexual health care in the 21st century go a long way to
improving the previous landscape of sexual health services in Scotland.
Health Improvement Perspectives: Transformation Within Services Through Reaching Out
Authors: Eaglesham Phil
Published: November 2012

The final chapter in this section - Chapter 9: Health improvement perspectives:
transformation within services through reaching out – continues to explore the importance of
taking a broad model of sexual health into conceptualising sexual health and in targeting activity to
those most vulnerable to poor sexual health outcomes. The first sexual health strategy for Scotland
emphasised the need for this approach, and in this chapter Phil Eaglesham from NHS Health
Scotland describes the significant role of health improvement in promoting good sexual health in
Scotland and reviews its contribution to population health.

Mr Eaglesham gives an overview of the tenets of health improvement practice in Scotland and the
UK, and provides evidence of work from a health improvement perspective to address the needs of
those most at risk of poor sexual health outcomes and to advocate for improved outcomes. These
include men who have sex with men, as well as young people as a group, and examples are given
of good practice in sexual health improvement especially in relation to partnership working, linked
to specialist services and supporting multi-agency approaches.

Two examples from Greater Glasgow and Clyde, Archway – for those who have been recently
raped or seriously sexually assaulted, and Open Road – for men involved in prostitution, are given
as useful case studies. The chapter ends by suggesting that sexual health improvement approaches
contribute to broader population health in Scotland by often providing the only routes for rapid
access to healthcare and support for those marginalised in our society.
References
Authors: Ilett Rosie , Bigrigg Alison
Published: November 2012

Full text available
Contributors
Authors: Ilett and Rosie , Bigrigg Alison
Published: November 2012

Full text available
Interconnect Variability and Performance Analysis
Authors: Onur Topaloglu Rasit , Feng Zhuo , Li Peng
Published: November 2012

Variability of interconnects is a major problem. Starting with 32nm technology, double patterning lithography
is used for printing interconnects in critical layers. Such a process may introduce additional variability
to interconnects. In this chapter, we first target interconnect variability for single and double patterning systems
at the technology level. Double patterning lithography techniques require additional masks for a single
interconnect layer. Consequently, one challenge double-patterning lithography brings is that overlay results
in additional variability for interconnect coupling capacitances. We provide variational interconnect analysis
methods and extend these techniques to handle variability in double-patterning lithography. We experimentally
demonstrate our methodology using technology-computer-aided-design (TCAD) simulations on a 32nm
technology.

We then present a parameter reduction-based technique to utilize such variability information for large
interconnect networks on integrated circuits. Process variations in modern VLSI technologies are growing in
both magnitude and dimensionality. To assess performance variability, complex simulation and performance
models parameterized in a high-dimensional process variation space are desired. However, the high parameter
dimensionality, imposed by a large number of variation sources encountered in modern technologies,
can introduce significant complexity in circuit analysis and may even render performance variability analysis
completely intractable. We address the challenge brought by high-dimensional process variations via a new
performance-oriented parameter dimension reduction technique. The basic premise behind our approach is
that the dimensionality of performance variability is determined not only by the statistical characteristics of
the underlying process variables, but also by the structural information imposed by a given design. Using
the powerful reduced rank regression (RRR) and its extension as a vehicle for variability modeling, we are
able to systematically identify statistically significant reduced parameter sets and compute not only reducedparameter
but also reduced-parameter-order models that are far more efficient than what was possible before
[2,3]. For a variety of interconnectmodeling problems, it is shown that the proposed parameter reduction technique
can provide more than one order of magnitude reduction in parameter dimensionality. Such parameter
reduction immediately leads to reduced simulation cost in sampling-based performance analysis, and more
importantly, highly efficient parameterized interconnect reduced order models. As a general parameter dimension
reduction methodology, it is anticipated that the proposed technique is broadly applicable to a variety
of statistical circuit modeling problems, thereby offering a useful framework for controlling the complexity of
statistical circuit analysis.
Applied Computational Mathematics in Social Sciences
Authors: Damaceanu Romulus-Catalin
Published: November 2012

Applied Computational Mathematics in Social Sciences adopts a modern scientific approach that combines knowledge from mathematical modeling with various aspects of social science. Special algorithms can be created to simulate an artificial society and a detailed analysis can subsequently be used to project social realities. This Ebook specifically deals with computations using the NetLogo platform, and is intended for researchers interested in advanced human geography and mathematical modeling studies.
SALINITY STRESS IN AGRICULTURAL LAND: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Authors: Jain Shalu , Kumar Ajay
Published: November 2012

Plants have a series of fine mechanisms for responding to environmental stresses. These mechanisms
include perception of stress, molecular and physiological response to stress which may results into the adaptation to
that stress. In all the stresses, salinity stress is a major concern in today’s agriculture. Recent experimentation with
transgenic plants has led to increased understanding of salinity tolerance, with emphasis on the areas of ion
homeostasis, osmotic regulation and antioxidant protection. A case study of the major challenges and opportunities to
improve stress tolerance in plants under salinity is presented. As different abiotic stresses are inter-related (e.g. salinity
and osmotic stress), our ability to improve crop performance may well be determined by combining different,
apparently unrelated approaches for introducing several stress tolerance mechanisms into specific crop plants.
Contributors
Authors: K. Bhowmik Pankaj , K. Basu Saikat , Goyal Aakash
Published: November 2012

Full text available.
Basic Law and Consent
Authors: Jeffrey C. McILwain
Published: November 2012

The proof that consent has been given by a patient lies with a clinician as part of their duty of care within the tort of negligence. An adult may give consent for themselves however if they are incapable or a child then another appropriate adult, except in an emergency situation, must be included in the discussion about consent for the patient. There is case law and legal doctrine that underpins such an approach and aspects of statute law that also apply.
Organ Retention / Specimen Retention
Authors: Jeffrey C. McILwain
Published: November 2012

In the United Kingdom following several hospital scandals the Human Tissue Act of 1961 was updated in 2004. This in the matter of consent lays out specific detail of who can give consent in the living and in the dead.
Data Protection / Confidentiality
Authors: Jeffrey C. McILwain
Published: November 2012

As within any storage of information or sharing, the matter of confidentiality of such information is paramount and probably subject to statute law.
Functional Neuroimaging and Language: an Update
Authors: Marcia Radanovic
Published: November 2012

Functional neuroimaging methods allow the study of healthy subjects and patients while they perform selected tasks, in a relatively non-invasive manner. PET and fMRI studies have greatly contributed to our understanding of language processing in the past decades. Regarding language comprehension, studies indicate that the posterior region of the left superior temporal gyrus, or Wernicke's area, is divided into several functional subareas which are involved in phonemic perception, access to lexical representations, and retrieval of words from the semantic store; the inferior temporal cortex, the medial and lateral portions of the temporal lobe, the angular gyrus and frontal association cortex in the left hemisphere (LH) are related to semantic processing, while the left frontal inferior cortex is involved in syntactic tasks. Comprehension of discourse and texts depends on the left frontal lobe, although the macrostructural and connotational aspects of discourse interpretation demand right hemisphere (RH) activation. Other aspects of language processing that have been extensively studied using functional neuroimaging methods are bilingualism, the effects of literacy in the organization of neural networks, and the impact of speech therapy in the recovery of linguistic abilities in patients with cerebral lesions or degenerative diseases. However, one of the challenges faced by researchers in this field is how to create activation experiments that mimic the natural use of language in a more ecological way.
Pseudoinvexity: A Good Condition for Efficiency and Weak Efficiency in Multiobjective Mathematical Programming. Characterization.
Authors: Arana-Jimènez M. , Ruiz-Garzón G. , Rufián-Lizana A.
Published: November 2012

We present new classes of vector invex and pseudoinvex functions which generalize
the class of scalar invex functions. These new classes of vector functions are
characterized in such a way that every vector critical point is an efficient or a weakly
efficient solution of a Multiobjective Programming Problem. We establish relationships
between these new classes of functions and others used in the study of efficient
and weakly efficient solutions, by the introduction of several examples. These results
and classes of vector functions are extended to the involved functions in constrained
multiobjective mathematical programming problems. It is proved that in order for
Kuhn-Tucker points to be efficient or weakly efficient solutions it is necessary and sufficient
that the multiobjective problem functions belong to a new class of functions,
which we introduce. Similarly, we present characterizations for efficient and weakly
efficient solutions by using Fritz John optimality conditions. Some examples are proposed
to illustrate these classes of functions and optimality results.
Optimality and Constraint Qualifications in Vector Optimization
Authors: Laura Carosi , Laura Martein
Published: November 2012

We propose a unifying approach in deriving constraint qualifications and theorem
of the alternative. We first introduce a separation theorem between a subspace and
the non-positive orthant, and then we use it to derive a new constraint qualification for
a smooth vector optimization problem with inequality constraints. The proposed condition
is weaker than the existing conditions stated in the recent literature. According
with the strict relationship between generalized convexity and constraint qualifications,
we introduce a new class of generalized convex vector functions. This allows
us to obtain some new constraint qualifications in a more general form than the ones
related to componentwise generalized convexity. Finally, the introduced separation
theorem allows us to derive some of the known theorems of the alternative which are
used in the literature to get constraint qualifications.
Second Order Optimality Conditions in Vector Optimization Problems.
Authors: Hachimi M. , Aghezzaf B.
Published: November 2012

We are interested in proving optimality conditions for optimization problems. By
means of different second-order tangent sets, various second-order necessary optimality
conditions are obtained for both scalar and vector optimization problems where
the feasible region is given as a set. We present also second-order sufficient optimality
conditions so that there is only a very small gap with the necessary optimality
conditions. As an application we establish second-order optimality conditions of Fritz
John type, Kuhn-Tucker type 1, and Kuhn-Tucker type 2 for a problem with both
inequality and equality constraints and a twice differentiable functions. At the end, a
very general second-order necessary conditions for efficiency with respect to cones is
present and it is applied to smooth and nonsmooth data.
Invex Functions and Existence of Weakly Efficient Solutions for Nonsmooth Vector Optimization
Authors: Batista Santos Lucelina , Rojas-Medar Marko , Ruiz-Garzón Gabriel , Rufián-Lizana Antonio
Published: November 2012

In this work we study the existence of weakly efficient solutions for some nonsmooth
and nonconvex vector optimization problems. We consider problems whose
objective functions are defined between infinite and finite-dimensional Banach spaces.
Our results are stated under hypotheses of generalized convexity and make use of
variational-like inequalities.
Proper Efficiency And Duality For Differentiable Multiobjective Programming Problems With B-(P,R)-Invex Functions
Authors: Antczak Tadeusz
Published: November 2012

In this paper, the concept of proper efficiency has been incorporated to develop the
optimality conditions and duality results for dierentiable nonconvex multiobjective
programming problems. The assumptions on properly efficiency are relaxed by means
of the introduced classes of vector-valued B-(p; r)-invex functions. These results extend several known results to a wider class of nonconvex vector optimization problems.
Duality Theory for the Multiobjective Nonlinear Programming Involving Generalized Convex Functions
Authors: Osuna-Gomezy R. , B. Hernnandez-Jimenez M. , L. Salles Neto L.
Published: November 2012

In this chapter we present and prove dierent forms of weak, strong and converse
duality theorems for the Wolfe and Mond-Weir dual problems associated with the
vector optimization problem with constraints, where the vector objective function and
the vector function associated with the inequality-type constraints are invex, strictly
invex or quasi-invex.
Index
Authors: Arana Jimenez Manuel , Ruiz Garzon Gabriel , Rufian Lizana Antonio
Published: November 2012

Full text available
Contributors
Authors: Tihanyi K. , Vastag M.
Published: November 2012

Full Text Available.
Index
Authors: N. Petropoulou Eugenio
Published: November 2012

Full text available.
Why Do We Sleep? Human Sleep: Neurobiology and Function
Authors: Shirine Allam J. , Guilleminault Christian
Published: November 2012

Sleep is defined as a reversible state of reduced responsiveness to environmental stimuli. It roughly occupies one third of a human life. The science of sleep has greatly evolved over the past century. From a state of passive inactivity, sleep has come to be regarded as a complex physiologic state, with characteristic brain activity.

The neurobiology of sleep is complex. Transection studies have led to the description of the ascending reticular activating system as responsible for the awake state, with the main neurotransmitters involved being acetylcholine, norepinephrine, glutamate, serotonin, dopamine, histamine and orexin. Similarly, specific brain regions have been involved in the active generation of sleep. Non rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is generated in the basal forebrain and anterior hypothalamus, containing the neurotransmitters gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) and galanin. These areas send inhibitory signaling to the excitatory regions of the brain. Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) is generated in the caudal pons and rostral mesencephalon area. It consists of several features, divided into tonic and phasic phases. Each of these is produced by a specific group of neurons. Acetylcholine is one of the major neurotransmitters in REM sleep.

Sleep has been described in the developing human fetus as early as 28 weeks of gestation. At birth, the human infant sleeps up to 16-18 hours a day and spends half of that time in REM sleep. This high fraction of sleep in the human infant has led to the hypothesis that REM is important in brain maturation.
Epidemiology of Sleep Disorders
Authors: Mihai Teodorescu,  , Rahul Kakkar
Published: November 2012

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is estimated to affect about 24% of adult males and 9% of adult females. The prevalence rate of OSA with excessive daytime sleepiness was reported to be 5-7 % in adult males and 3-4 % in adult females. Since these publications, the incidence and prevalence of obesity, a major risk factor for OSA, has increased significantly.

Central sleep apnea (CSA)m is a conglomerate of different conditions, including: primary CSA, Cheyne-Stokes breathing-CSA (CSB-CSA) pattern, high-altitude periodic breathing, CSA due to medical conditions not Cheyne- Stokes, and CSA due to drugs or substances. Another newly recognized CSA syndrome is complex sleep apnea, which is seen during treatment of OSA, generally before the obstructive events are completely abolished by positive airway pressure (PAP). Primary CSA is uncommon in adults and is seen in less than 10% of patients presenting polysomnography (PSG). The prevalence of primary CSA, high-altitude periodic breathing, and CSA due to medical conditions in the general population are unknown. The obesity-hypoventilation syndrome (OHS) is also known as obesity-associated hypoventilation or Pickwickian syndrome. Criteria for OHS includes a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 and chronic alveolar hypoventilation leading to daytime hypercapnia, in the absence of pulmonary or neuromuscular disease.

Epidemiological data on insomnia has been confounded by multiple definitions; most of the studies account for three insomnia symptoms: difficulty falling asleep, difficulty maintaining sleep and early morning awakenings. Insomnia symptoms were reported to be present in about one-third of the general population. Non-restorative sleep, which is also part of the insomnia definition (ICSD-2), is rarely explored. When daytime consequences of insomnia are taken into account, the prevalence is estimated to be around 10%. Overall, daytime consequences may be as prevalent as 2/3 of insomnia subjects.

Narcolepsy is classically defined by sleepiness and abnormal rapid eye movement (REM) sleep-related symptoms (cataplexy, hypnagogic hallucinations, and sleep paralysis). In one study, the prevalence of narcolepsy with or without cataplexy has been reported as 30.6 per 100,000 people (18 years or older), narcolepsy with cataplexy as 21.8/ 100,000 people and narcolepsy with HLA-DQB1 *0602 as 15.3/ 100,000 people. In 18,980 randomly selected subjects, representative of a target population of 205 million European inhabitants, excessive daytime sleepiness was reported by 15% of the sample, napping two times or more in the same day was reported by 1.6% of the sample, while cataplexy (episodes of loss of muscle function related to a strong emotion) was found in 1.6% of the sample. A narcolepsy diagnosis was reported in 47/100,000 people, severe for 26/100,000 and moderate in 21/100,000. Multiple sleep-onset REM periods and short mean sleep latencies (of less than 8 minutes) were reported in about 4% of the general population.
Sleep History and Physical Examination
Authors: David A. Schulman
Published: November 2012

Patients afflicted with sleep disorders may have a wide variety of complaints, the majority of which are, generally, nonspecific. It is therefore critically important that providers caring for these patients should be well-versed in the appropriate work-up of snoring, daytime sleepiness, insomnia and nocturnal behaviors. This chapter will briefly review these common complaints and the appropriate evaluation of each.
Central Sleep Apnea
Authors: Naveen Kanathur  , John Harrington  , Vipin Malik  , Teofilo Lee- Chiong
Published: November 2012

Central sleep apnea (CSA) is a sleep-related breathing disorder that is characterized by repetitive cessation of airflow due to diminished or absent ventilatory effort. There are several types of CSA, and these can be classified into two general types, namely hypercapnic (central alveolar hypoventilation, secondary to neuromuscular disorders or chronic use of long-acting opioids) or non-hypercapnic forms (idiopathic CSA, CSA due to heart failure, sleep-onset periodic breathing, high-altitude central apneas, and continuous positive airway pressure-emergent CSA). Whatever its cause(s), CSA can give rise to sleep disturbance, repetitive awakenings, insomnia or excessive sleepiness. Definitive diagnosis of CSA requires polysomnography. Therapy should be individualized depending on the nature and severity of central apnea; this may include use of oxygen supplementation, drug therapy or positive airway pressure.
Narcolepsy
Authors: Emmanuel Mignot
Published: November 2012

Narcolepsy with and without cataplexy has two different nosological entities. Narcolepsy-cataplexy is strongly associated with HLA-DQB1*0602 and usually caused by a selective deficiency in the hypothalamic neuropeptide hypocretin (orexin). The cause of hypocretin deficiency is most likely an autoimmune attack directed against hypocretin cells. Diagnosis is performed clinically, with the additional sleep tests such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test, or in some cases, by measuring hypocretin-1 levels in the Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

To date, therapy is mostly pharmacological and does not act directly on the hypocretin system. Stimulant compounds seem to increase alertness by activating dopaminergic transmission in the brain, while antidepressant therapy reduces cataplexy by increasing adrenergic and serotoninergic transmission. The mode of action of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (sodium oxybate), a treatment for cataplexy and disturbed nocturnal sleep is uncertain, but may involve GABA-B receptors. Narcolepsy without cataplexy is primarily diagnosed using MSLT, with a finding of a short mean sleep latency (≤ 8 min) and at least 2 Sleep Onset REM Periods (SOREMPs). The population-based prevalence of narcolepsy without cataplexy is unknown. It is likely that many cases of narcolepsy without cataplexy have very different pathogenesis, and/or result from false-positive MSLT. A minority of cases without cataplexy have hypocretin deficiency. For cases without cataplexy or hypocretin deficiency, research is needed to better understand the pathophysiology. Therapy is similar to that used for cases with cataplexy, although amphetamine stimulants should be used with more caution.
Idiopathic Hypersomnia
Authors: Dan Cohen  , Asim Roy  , Randip Singh
Published: November 2012

Idiopathic hypersomnia is a primary sleep disorder of central nervous system origin. It is an uncommon sleep disorder. However, it impacts patients significantly in their day to day activity. It is seen less frequently than narcolepsy. It is described clinically with excessive daytime sleepiness, often prolonged episodes of non-refreshing sleep, prolonged naps and difficulty in awakening from sleep. The difficulty awakening from sleep is often labeled as “sleep drunkenness”. At this time, the pathophysiology of this disorder is not well understood. It is very important to exclude other potential causes and therefore is a diagnosis of exclusion. Treatment for this disorder is in the similar algorithm as patients with narcolepsy; however the response is not consistent. Therefore, this specific disorder is one of the frustrations for most clinicians who treat these patients. This section will review the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnostic criteria, differential diagnosis, treatment and future outlook of this frustrating disorder.
Sleep-Related Movement Disorders
Authors: Brian Koo
Published: November 2012

Under normal circumstances, movement is relatively suppressed during sleep. Motor system activity reflects this paucity of movement as it decreases from drowsiness to slow wave sleep (SWS) and then further in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Some movement during sleep in fact is adaptive with small shifts in body weight preventing pressure-related injuries such as nerve palsy and skin ulceration. Other movements occurring during sleep serve no obvious purpose and may even fragment sleep, especially when recurrent. This latter constellation of movements constitutes the sleep-related movement disorders. This chapter will focus on the sleep-related movement disorders which are largely characterized by repetitive, non-epileptic, purposeless movement which occurs during sleep. Many of the sleep-related movement disorders are clinically benign or on the severe end of the normal spectrum and as such our discussion will begin with an introduction to normal movement during sleep. The chapter continues with a discussion of benign sleep-related movement then the clinically recognized sleep-related movement disorders. Special attention will be given to restless legs syndrome (RLS) and periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD) as these entities are both common and a major source of morbidity.
Sleep and Metabolic Syndrome
Authors: Alexander Babayeuski  , Octavian C. Ioachimescu
Published: November 2012

On average, human beings spend approximately one third of their life sleeping. Many individuals are chronically sleep deprived, while many individuals with primary sleep illnesses, such as obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) are unaware of their condition; as a result, without treatment, they suffer from serious negative physical, neurobehavioral and metabolic consequences. Obstructive sleep apnea is now a well recognized chronic disorder that leads to multiple cardiovascular and metabolic complications.

During the last decades there has been a mounting body of data that established a better characterized link between OSA and insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and/or metabolic syndrome. Likely mechanistic mediators of this connection are intermittent hypoxia and sleep fragmentation. Through sympathetic system activation, oxidative stress, hypoxia/re-oxigenation, systemic inflammation, production of harmful adipokines from metabolically active visceral fat and complex endocrine changes, sleep apnea and obesity lead to a vicious cycle of abnormal glucose metabolism, which likely contributes to an increase in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. When appropriate, physicians should have a low threshold to assess sleep apnea, as effective therapy is readily available (CPAP, mandibular advancement devices, etc). In this chapter we will summarize and analyze the most current data in this rapidly growing field of sleep medicine.
Sleep Apnea and Cerebrovascular Disorders
Authors: Henry Klar Yaggi
Published: November 2012

When considered separately from cardiovascular disease, stroke is the third leading cause of death and ranks as the leading cause of long-term disability [1]. Strategies for stroke treatment and prevention have helped to reduce the burden of disease, but it remains an important public health challenge. Therefore, understanding underlying pathophysiology and developing novel therapeutic approaches for cerbrovascular disease is of crucial importance.

Understanding the link between sleep and cerebrovascular disease may represent one such novel approach. A recent Institute of Medicine report, entitled Sleep Disorders and Sleep Deprivation: an Unmet Public Health Challenge, estimated that 50-70 million Americans suffer from a chronic sleep disorder. A major aspect of this “unmet public health challenge” is the cerebrovascular health consequences of sleep-disordered breathing. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a common form of sleep-disordered breathing, has a high and rising prevalence in the general adult population, attributable in part to the emerging epidemic of obesity and enhanced awareness. OSA has also been independently linked to important health outcomes, including hypertension [2], fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events [3-5], stroke [6-8], sudden cardiac death [5] and all cause mortality [9, 10], while therapy for sleep apnea may help to reduce cerebrovascular risk.
Sleep and Epilepsy
Authors: Silvia Neme-Mercante  , Nancy Foldvary-Schaefer
Published: November 2012

Over a century of work has confirmed critical links between sleep and epilepsy. Seizures can have profound effects on sleep, typically causing awakenings, arousals and shifts to lighter stages. However, sleep continuity is disrupted in people with epilepsy even in the absence of seizures, suggesting that sleep instability may be an inherent component of certain forms of epilepsy. Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can adversely affect sleep and wakefulness. At least some of the newer AEDs appear to have more favorable sleep-wake profiles than the older agents. In turn, sleep is an important modulator of seizures and epileptic discharges on the electroencephalogram (EEG). Sleep instability can promote seizures and sleep deprivation provokes seizures and EEG abnormalities. Synchronized Non-REM (NREM) sleep facilitates seizures, whereas the clinical and EEG manifestations of epilepsy are suppressed in REM sleep. The sleep EEG is useful in the diagnosis and localization of epilepsy. New epileptic foci can appear in sleep and REM sleep demonstrates the most precise localization of the epileptic discharge. Polysomnography combined with video and EEG (VEEG-PSG) aids in the differentiation of seizures and parasomnias. Daytime sleepiness and sleep disorders such as sleep apnea are common in people with epilepsy. Treating sleep apnea has been shown to reduce EEG abnormalities and seizures in some cases. These observations underscore the importance of a routine sleep assessment in case of all the people with epilepsy.
Famous Quotes about Sleep
Authors: C. Ioachimescu Octavian , Lee-Chiong Teofilo
Published: November 2012

Full text available
Fundamentals and HW/SW Partitioning
Authors: Battiato S. , Puglisi G. , Bruna A. , Capra A. , Guarnera M.
Published: November 2012

The main goal of this Chapter is devoted to provide all the fundamental basis related
to the involved technological issues relative to the single-sensor imaging devices. A rough understanding
of the overall ingredients of a typical imaging pipeline is important also to consider the
performance of any imaging devices, from low to high level, as the result of several components
that run together to compose a complex system. The final image/video quality is the result of a
certain number of design choices, that involve, in almost all cases, all aspects of the hardware and
software technology. As briefly stated in the preface, the book aims to cover all aspects of algorithms
and methods for the processing of digital images acquired by imaging consumer devices.
More specifically, we will introduce the fundamental basis of specific processing into CFA (Color
Filter Array) domain such as demosaicing, enhancement, denoising, compression together with
ad-hoc matrixing, color balancing and exposure correction techniques devoted to preprocess input
data coming from the sensor. We conclude the Chapter just including some related issues related to
the intrinsic modularity of the pipeline together with a brief description of the hardware/software
partitioning design phase.
Color Rendition
Authors: Bruna A. , Naccari F.
Published: November 2012

The color reproduction accuracy of digital imaging embedded devices is a key factor
of the overall perceived image quality. The human visual system, under most conditions, is able
to compensate for the effects of the scene illuminant on the perceived image. Therefore on digital
imaging devices, some processes have to be performed across the image generation pipeline in order
to obtain an effective color accuracy regardless of the scene illuminant and the sensor response
features. In this chapter we describe the most common color processing algorithms performed
across the image generation pipeline: white balancing algorithm, which is aimed to compensate
the effects of the illuminant power spectral distribution and the color correction process, which
compensates the mismatch between the color filters array transmittance and the color response of
the human visual system to different wavelengths. The first one, on embedded devices, is usually
performed through an image statistical analysis to obtain an estimation of the scene illuminant and
is often based on strong assumptions on scene spectral reflectance distribution. The second relies
on the characterization of the sensor color filters spectral transmittance. We illustrate the role of
such algorithms on the overall perceived color image quality and describe typical methods for
white balancing performance and sensor characterization benchmarking. We describe also some
additional algorithms which, frequently on consumer devices, can be used to improve the visual
appearance of common colored objects (e.g., skin tones, vegetation and sky).