bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Concept of Cultural Genocide
Authors: Hamilton Martin
Published: September 2022

The concept of “cultural genocide” was considered for, but eventually dismissed from the text of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948). At the heart of the concept of cultural genocide lies the idea that cultural groups may be destroyed by destroying the material expressions or “anchorage” of their culture. This idea tells us something about the critical value that we ascribe to cultural heritage. This chapter scrutinizes this proposed value relation between cultural heritage and cultural groups through an examination of the concept of cultural genocide. The first part of the chapter deals with the values underlying the original concept of cultural genocide, including the idea of the importance of cultural heritage for the surviving of a people. To this aim, the chapter will examine the normative evolution of the concept of cultural genocide from its origins to the 1948 Genocide Convention, including an analysis of the drafting of the Convention and the reason why cultural genocide was left out. The second part of the chapter evaluates how international law, both at its normative and enforcement level, deals with the concept of cultural genocide today—especially in the context of deliberate and systematic targeting and destruction of cultural heritage in armed conflict. Finally, this will be held up against the lack of a systematic account of the effects on cultures of losing the material expressions of their cultural heritage.
Cultural Property Protection in the Context of Counter Terrorist Financing
Authors: Hilaire Ricardo A. St.
Published: September 2022

United States military forces raided an ISIS compound in Syria in 2015, recovering hundreds of cultural objects and photographs of artifacts offered for sale, all in the possession of the terror group’s Antiquities Department. The operation prompted the US Department of Justice to file an innovative court complaint invoking the USA PATRIOT Act to forfeit antiquities from ISIS. The case exemplifies a growing interest among lawyers, legislators, and law enforcement in the nexus between transnational antiquities trafficking and terror funding, part of an emerging legal paradigm in the United States that extends the focal point of international cultural property protection from specialist discussions about heritage preservation to a broader concern for national security. Within this unfolding landscape, high-profile American political leaders have asserted that the sale of antiquities funds terrorism, prompting Congress to adopt the Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act and to consider the expansion of the Bank Secrecy Act’s anti-money laundering rules to include antiquities dealers. This chapter chronicles the emergence of this cultural property protection paradigm, particularly exploring its flowering as ISIS blitzed toward Baghdad and expanded its territorial footprint (2014–2016). Also described are its cultivation following the 9/11 terror attacks and the ensuing wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (2001–2004), its fledgling roots (2005–2011), its budding during the Syrian civil war (2012–2013), and its ripening emphasis on money laundering (2017–2020).
Non-Party Obligations for Cultural Property in Armed Conflict under the 1954 Hague Convention, Protocol II
Authors: Varner Elizabeth
Published: September 2022

Several core legal principles of LOAC applicable to cultural heritage are considered customary international law. This means that outlawing many attacks on or destruction of cultural heritage during armed conflict stands on values recognized explicitly by the international community (viz. opinion juris) as well as values broadly reflected in state practice. In that regard, it is important to notice how many of the provisions in the 1977 Geneva Conventions Protocol I are considered international customary law. The Geneva Conventions Protocol I influenced the later 1954 Hague Convention Protocol II, which opened for signature in 1999. As a result, some provisions in the Hague Convention Protocol II might be considered international customary law. This chapter will analyze if states who have not ratified Hague Convention Protocol II have any obligations under the Protocol, particularly Article 6, Respect for Cultural Heritage, which restricts the invocation of military necessity. To this aim, the chapter will focus on the Hague Convention Protocol II (1999) Article 6, Respect for Cultural Property, and, to a lesser degree, Article 7, Precautions in Attack, in order to analyze (1) interpretations of the Hague Convention Protocol II, Article 6, Respect for Cultural Property, which restricts the invocation of military necessity; (2) if the obligations in the Hague Convention Protocol II (1999), Article 6, Respect for Cultural Property, are customary international law; and (3) finally, the extent to which States that have not ratified the Hague Convention Protocol II (1999), particularly the United States, might have obligations encapsulated in that article.
Syrian and Iraqi Opinion on Protecting, Promoting, and Reconstructing Heritage after the Islamic State
Authors: Isakhan Benjamin , Barry James
Published: September 2022

After conquering large swathes of Syria and Iraq, the Islamic State (ISIS) undertook an aggressive iconoclastic campaign in which they damaged or destroyed several significant heritage sites. In response, the international community has launched several initiatives along three key axes: to protect heritage in times of conflict; to conduct education and awareness raising initiatives; and to reconstruct heritage sites damaged or destroyed by ISIS or in the broader conflict. This chapter critically reflects on these three sets of initiatives, drawing on fifty-three in-depth semi-structured interviews with Syrian and Iraqi men and women. Although the respondents were often supportive of these internationally backed heritage initiatives, they offered several criticisms and suggestions that could ultimately lead to greater success on the ground. The chapter concludes by noting that heritage initiatives in complex (post-)conflict environments such as Syria and Iraq, require ongoing, nuanced, and careful engagement with local populations to succeed. Failing to listen to and heed these opinions ultimately undermines the broader mission to foster stability and promote peace, and can fuel the propaganda machinery of Islamist groups.
The Epistemic Force of Musical Encounters
Authors: Carlson Licia
Published: September 2022

This chapter argues that musical encounters can have cognitive moral force; they can yield knowledge that is morally relevant to how certain individuals are understood, perceived, and valued. In the context of disability, attention to the musical lives of people with intellectual disabilities can yield knowledge about them as fellow human beings with distinct capacities and modes of expression that might otherwise go unnoticed. This knowledge is morally salient for a number of reasons: it challenges certain dehumanizing assumptions about individuals with profound intellectual disabilities, it can overcome epistemic barriers in relationships with these individuals, and the knowledge that shared musical experiences generate can be relevant and valuable for philosophers of intellectual disability. The chapter begins with a discussion of what it means to claim that music is “humanizing” and critiques elements of this sonification of sameness in the context of disability. It then turns to the sonification of difference, considers how musicking can have a pernicious othering effect, but ultimately argues that musical encounters have the power to reveal sameness through difference. It concludes by posing some remaining epistemological questions about how, where, why, and by whom this knowledge is produced.
Wordlessness Is Not Worldlessness
Authors: Carlson Licia
Published: September 2022

This chapter provides a series of philosophical meditations on the idea that music has the power to create sonic worlds that are beyond language, that wordlessness is not worldlessness. Taking Jan Zwicky’s concept of lyric philosophy and the “possibility of loss” as a starting point, it considers the relationship between disability, loss, and gain. It then examines the philosophical and musical significance of “wordlessness,” the “burden” of language, and the idea of silence as sound. Music can also create embodied, mutable worlds that are made of movements, gestures, and temporalities. To encounter these sonic worlds is to recognize mystery and the incalculable, as they point to something beyond what philosophy can define. These reflections are inspired by philosophers who have addressed the limits of language and the philosophical significance of music: Friedrich Nietzsche, Gabriel Marcel, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Jan Zwicky.
Conclusion
Authors: Carlson Licia
Published: September 2022

This concluding chapter considers how the arguments in the book have laid the foundation for a number of interdisciplinary counterpoints and harmonies that can be generative for future work in the philosophy of disability, the philosophy of music, and disability studies. It discusses the relevance of work in critical disability theory that examines race and what it means to “decolonize disability,” and it considers the importance of critical dialogue between disability theorists and philosophers and researchers and practitioners in other fields. It concludes with some final reflections on the meaning of “musical worlds” and the transformative power of musicking.
Coda
Authors: Carlson Licia
Published: September 2022

The Coda: A Remarkable Serendipity recounts the origin of the cover art for the book. The Toronto-based artist Jan Swinburne, who did the cover art for The Faces of Intellectual Disability, has been working on multi-media artwork that “solidifies” sound and language. The cover of the book is an image of her work TIME: Wander Lost in the Foothills of Impasto, which is based upon her vocalizing and recording the word “time.” There are numerous parallels and connections between the idea of sonification in the book and Swinburne’s “solidification” through the process of making these “Waveform Landscapes.” The artist and author both shared a commitment to questions of disability justice, voice, music, and time.
Trafficking Data
Authors: Kokas Aynne
Published: September 2022

Trafficking Data argues that the movement of human data across borders for political and financial gain is disenfranchising consumers, eroding national autonomy, and destabilizing sovereignty. Focusing on the United States and China, it traces how US government leadership failures, Silicon Valley’s disruption fetish, and Wall Street’s addiction to growth have yielded an unprecedented opportunity for Chinese firms to gather data in the United States and quietly send it back to China and, by extension, to the Chinese government. Such “data trafficking,” as the book names this insidious phenomenon, is enabled by the competing governance models of the world’s two largest economies: mass government data aggregation in China and impenetrable corporate data management policies in the United States. China is stepping up its data trafficking efforts through national regulations, soft power persuasion, and tech investment, extending the scope of state control over domestic and international data and tech infrastructure, and thereby expanding its global influence. The United States, by contrast, is retreating from participation in foreign alliances, international organizations, and the systemic regulation of the tech industry—practices with the potential to counter data trafficking. Confronting data trafficking as the defining international competition of the twenty-first century, this book advocates for an alternative future of data stabilization. To stem data trafficking and stabilize data flows, it shows, policymakers can synthesize tools from across the private sector, public sector, multinational organizations, and consumers to protect users, secure national sovereignty, and establish valuable international standards.
From Farms to Outer Space
Authors: Kokas Aynne
Published: September 2022

Chapter 4 argues that Chinese international tech investment produces the risk that China will achieve coercive control over critical infrastructure in the United States. To illustrate this, it demonstrates how risk functions in the telecommunications, agricultural, space, and municipal management sectors. These areas of critical infrastructure come with established oversight practices regarding data gathering, yet examining their enfoldment within the tech sector reveals how an illiberal creep of nonoversight occurs in tandem with Chinese investment. Control of critical infrastructure via data-driven platforms now offers Chinese firms, and by extension the Chinese government, control over some of the most sensitive areas for US national security, from the security of communications and the food supply to the control of satellites and cities. Furthermore, as data becomes increasingly essential to the functioning of the global economy, critical infrastructure with enhanced data-gathering capabilities become an even more important mode of international power.
Money
Authors: Kokas Aynne
Published: September 2022

China’s financial technology sector, including Alipay, its main competitor WeChat Pay, and others, offers opportunities for the Chinese government to gather data internationally. At Caesar’s Palace in Las Vegas, for example, it is possible to pay for an entire vacation using Chinese yuan on the Shanghai-based payment platform Alipay. Yet as this chapter shows, private sector payment-data-gathering efforts by Chinese fintech firms underscore a critical domestic challenge for the Chinese government. The relationship between Chinese payment apps, which are committed to commercial expansion, and the Chinese state-run banking system creates a fundamental tension: connecting the apps to the state banking system limits the apps’ expansion, yet doing so ensures that growth maps onto Chinese national power. The fintech sector reveals fissures in China’s internal politics that shape enduring tensions between global growth and national control of data in both China and the United States.
PMP and Election Campaigns
Authors: Wolfsfeld Gadi , Sheafer Tamir , Althaus Scott
Published: September 2022

This chapter demonstrates how researchers can use the Politics-Media-Politics (PMP) approach to study the role of different types of media in election campaigns. The chapter is divided into three sections. The first section, which focuses on applying the “politics first” proposition, talks about which aspects of the political ecosystem are the among the most important. The second section focuses on the “media selection and transformation” proposition by discussing which variables within the communication ecosystem are important for explaining the role of the various forms of media in election campaigns. The third and final section deals with “the second P,” which are political outcomes that are best explained by examining the previously discussed political and communication ecosystems. The four “effects” that are covered are agenda setting, priming, framing, and electoral victory.
Using the PMP Approach to Assess Media Performance in Both Democratic and Autocratic Regimes
Authors: Wolfsfeld Gadi , Sheafer Tamir , Althaus Scott
Published: September 2022

This chapter introduces readers to a basic conceptual framework that can be used to clarify whether a communication ecosystem is enhancing or degrading political performance in any place, at any time in history, and for any type of political regime. Using the conceptual leverage provided by the “politics first” proposition and the “media selection and transformation” proposition, this chapter develops a normative framework for clarifying why media independence is an important concept for political communication. Along the way, this chapter demonstrates the usefulness of the PMP approach for answering one of the more vexing and awkward bigger-picture questions that political communication researchers regularly have to face: What is communication supposed to do for politics? The authors specify some core representational activities that can be used as central criteria for evaluating media performance, and explore sources of tension in the representational dynamics between communication ecosystems and political ecosystems that create friction for political performance. The framework developed in this chapter can be applied to autocratic regimes as easily as democratic ones, so that media performance can be assessed from multiple normative perspectives across the full spectrum of regime types.
Bisschop's Bench
Authors: Fornecker Samuel D.
Published: September 2022

Arminian conformity in late seventeenth-century England was a variegated movement, whose internal diversity helped to reconfigure perennial questions about the relation of the English Church to its continental counterparts, Reformed and Remonstrant, with consequences that no modern study has sought to address. This monograph rectifies this problem by analyzing modes of engagement with the Dutch Remonstrant tradition by Arminian conformists of the later Stuart and early Hanoverian Church of England. In so doing, it argues that several of the period’s fiercest theological controversies arose from what traditionalist divines took to be the uncritical appropriation of that tradition by their fellow churchmen. It shows that many Arminian conformists credited Remonstrant ideas with facilitating the emergence of an intellectually robust Unitarianism, and that such divines accentuated identifiably Reformed emphases in an unprecedented display of disambiguation from the Remonstrant tradition. In this way, the study challenges the notion that a broadly unified Arminian consensus emerged at the Restoration on the basis that—whatever Arminian “reaction” the interregnum may be said to have produced—it was a movement comprising divergent theological agendas. Contending that signal associations of Remonstrant theologians with Socinian heterodoxy came from leading Arminian conformists themselves, and that such churchmen were not as comprehensively opposed to their Reformed contemporaries as has previously been thought, this wide-ranging monograph provides a fresh perspective on the Arminian theological tradition in the political, confessional, and educative contexts of late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century England.
Introduction
Authors: Fornecker Samuel
Published: September 2022

This chapter evaluates a historiographical tradition which holds that the Restoration marginalized Reformed divinity in English religious life, resulting in the assimilation of Arminian theological resources in its place. This idea is epitomized by diverse scholarly positions, whose diverse interpretations of the period concur in accepting the picture of a post-Restoration Arminian majority, rejecting Reformed divinity for a reactionary doctrinal program. In fact, the idea that the Restoration saw the advent of a unified Arminian response to Reformed divinity belies a misguided conception of Arminianism as merely anti-Calvinist soteriology. Historians patient of this conception have consistently assumed that Arminian conformists represented a monolithic “front” against Reformed divinity, simply by virtue of rejecting its soteriology. But the fissure dividing Arminian conformists over Remonstrant ideas precipitated a widespread negatively defined consensus, resulting in novel polemical configurations that relativized—without vanquishing—older soteriological boundaries. Due to the lack of research in this area, the complexity of later Stuart Arminian conformity has been drastically underestimated.
A Merely “Specifick” Trinity?
Authors: Fornecker Samuel
Published: September 2022

This chapter initiates a series of inquiries into doctrinal controversies centered in the Lower House of Convocation, in which the Principal of Jesus College, Oxford, Jonathan Edwards (c. 1628–1712), played a crucial role. Beginning with the Trinitarian crisis of the 1690s, this chapter shows how suspicions of Socinianism leveled against William Sherlock were exacerbated by Sherlock’s espousal of ideas about the unity of the divine persons, derived from the Remonstrant theologians, Étienne de Courcelles and Jean Le Clerc. Then, having drawn attention to Brent Sirota’s interpretation of the Trinitarian crisis as a battle of “political ecclesiologies” resulting from the lower clergy’s discontent with the lapsed disciplinary regime of the post-revolutionary Church, the chapter proceeds to show how the long prorogation of Convocation served to galvanize intra-Arminian tensions, providing a partisan aim toward which anti-Remonstrant polemic could be directed.
Conclusion
Authors: Fornecker Samuel
Published: September 2022

In historiography of the early modern Church of England, few terms possess as vast a range of meaning as the word “Arminian.” Recent research has devised useful taxonomies to underline its dynamic usage chronologically, and to flag its equivocal usages in English religious politics more generally. Yet this fastidiousness has not ordinarily prevented scholars from mapping earlier religious fault lines and polemical configurations onto later doctrinal debates. As a result, study of the Arminian conformist tradition during the later Stuart and early Hanoverian periods has been impoverished by an exaggerated emphasis on what can be witnessed through the narrow aperture of soteriological controversy. The present study has sought to widen that perspective by developing an account of the Arminian conformist tradition that provides a more nuanced understanding of the complexity of the post-Restoration Church of England’s engagement with its Reformed heritage. Extending the findings of recent revisionist research, this study has examined a series of cases in which Reformed orthodoxy remained a benchmark for the detection of aberrant doctrine and the construction of claims to confessional legitimacy—including for churchmen who rejected Reformed soteriology. The study has thus sought to initiate greater attentiveness to the complexity and dynamism of doctrinal development in England, during a period of de-confessionalization which nonetheless witnessed surprising patterns of innovation and preservation, provocation and response.
Ethics and Risk Distribution for Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Evans Nicholas G.
Published: September 2022

The study of how to build ethical autonomous vehicles (AVs) initially focused on the trolley problem and on questions about who to harm, but it has evolved to consider how to distribute the risk of harm. This chapter examines that evolution and argue that it signals a change in the kinds of philosophical, metaphilosophical, and empirical tools that should be marshalled to solve pressing ethical issues in AVs. We show this by examining cases in which AVs are required to make judgments under conditions of moral uncertainty, and when thinking about the widespread distribution of risks and benefits from AVs.
Automated Vehicles and the Ethics of Classification
Authors: Keeling Geoff
Published: September 2022

This paper articulates the moral significance of object classification for automated vehicle decision-making. The first part of the paper examines how classification errors and uncertainty about the classification of proximate objects relate to the permissibility of an automated vehicle’s actions. It is argued that moral permissions for automated vehicles are indexed to their epistemically justified predictions about the classification of proximate objects. The second part of the paper develops an account of the morally right way to navigate uncertainty about the classification of proximate objects in mundane road traffic situations. In particular, it is argued that an automated vehicle acts wrongly if, given its evidence, it could easily be the case that the vehicle’s actions injure a road-user. The paper concludes by developing an account of how to balance the competing values of time-efficiency and road-user safety in mundane road-traffic scenarios that involve uncertainty about the classification of proximate objects.
Trolleys and Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Behrends Jeff , Basl John
Published: September 2022

Recent years have witnessed a dramatic increase in the scrutiny of artificial intelligence applications. While we applaud this deserved attention, we are concerned that a substantial portion of the ethical theorizing in this domain has proceeded with insufficient attention to the details of the technology involved. This paper argues for a new approach to reasoning about the ethics of machine learning. We make our case by way of an extended evaluation of the literature on autonomous vehicles and trolley cases. We show that theorizing on this topic has relied on a mistaken assumption about how the engineering of autonomous vehicles is likely to proceed. We argue that identifying this mistake allows us to see why trolley cases are not immediately useful in answering moral questions about autonomous vehicles, and it reveals how to proceed when crafting moral arguments about any technology that makes use of machine learning.
The Trolley Problem and the Ethics of Autonomous Vehicles in the Eyes of the Public
Authors: Inoue Akira , Shimizu Kazumi , Udagawa Daisuke , Wakamatsu Yoshiki
Published: September 2022

The trolley problem is a classic thought experiment that evokes an ethical dilemma. Thomson’s “bystander” and “footbridge” versions of the trolley problem induce different intuitive judgments about what to choose in the ethical dilemma. However, it can be questioned how robust these intuitive judgments are. Hence, an online survey experiment of Thomson’s versions of the trolley problem was conducted. The experiment showed that more respondents tended to choose not pulling the lever in the bystander version and pushing a person off the bridge in the footbridge version when they believed they were not being watched. These results illustrate that people’s decisions deviate from the social norms in the absence of the public’s attention. To activate the practice of holding the manufacturers to a normative expectation based on the social norms, we suggest the law must be changed.
Unintended Externalities of Highly Automated Vehicles
Authors: Gurney Jeffrey K.
Published: September 2022

Automated vehicles will have both intentional and unintentional externalities on other people and industries. Many of the intended externalities of automated vehicles have been discussed at length; these intended externalities include safety benefits, increased happiness, better traffic management, and pollution reduction. In this chapter, the author will describe several unintended externalities of automated vehicles, which, although they have been discussed far less than the intended externalities, may be of equal importance. This chapter will explore such topics as the negative effects on organ donation, the opportunities that automated vehicles may create in the trade of illegal drugs, the impact that automated vehicles may have on relationships between police officers and racial minorities, and the effects on the airplane industry.
The Politics of Self-Driving Cars
Authors: Pagallo Ugo
Published: September 2022

This chapter deals with the normative challenges and the governance of autonomous vehicles (AVs). The list of normative challenges includes ethics, law, business, and social norms. Following Aristotle’s notion of practical science, these challenges can be summed up in terms of politics. The chapter thus has four key aims. The first is to understand whether current declarations and guidelines on the ethics of AVs should be conceived of in accordance with that which ought or ought not be done to contrast current legislation (hard ethics) or to strengthen and improve it (soft ethics). The second is to determine whether hard law or soft law is more suitable in this particular domain vis-à-vis business interests. The third is to examine the role played by social norms, given that matters of trust, social acceptability, and cohesion bear differently on how to reconcile different regulatory systems in competition. The fourth is to argue that what is at stake with the politics of AVs concerns the model of regulation and governance to be adopted. Today’s debate on the governance of AI and models of data governance in Europe provides valuable insights into the balance that needs to be struck in this vibrant field of technological innovation.
Autonomous Vehicles and Ethical Settings
Authors: Formosa Paul
Published: September 2022

While autonomous vehicles (AVs) are not designed to harm people, harming people is an inevitable by-product of their operation. How are AVs to deal ethically with situations where harming people is inevitable? Rather than focus on the much-discussed question of what choices AVs should make, we can also ask the much less discussed question of who gets to decide what AVs should do in such cases. Here there are two key options: AVs with a personal ethics setting (PES) or an “ethical knob” that end users can control or AVs with a mandatory ethics setting (MES) that end users cannot control. Which option, a PES or an MES, is best and why? This chapter argues, by drawing on the choice architecture literature, in favor of a hybrid view that requires mandated default choice settings while allowing for limited end user control.
An Epistemic Approach to Cultivating Appropriate Trust in Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Chilson Kendra
Published: September 2022

Consumer trust is of paramount importance in the development of autonomous vehicles (AVs), because without this trust, AVs would not only underperform, they could be unusable and dangerous. This essay gives an epistemic account of trustworthiness that aims for appropriate trustworthiness, which fully justifies consumers’ trust in AVs, based on indicators of trustworthiness. After defining trust in the realm of technology, this paper introduces six desiderata for autonomous systems in order to increase trust: Repeatability, Predictability, Reliability, Transparency, Reconstructability, and Explicability. After each term is defined and examples provided, it is argued that these concepts can be divided along two orthogonal axes: System Externality versus Internality, and Expert versus Nonexpert groupings. In order to establish appropriate trust for nonexpert consumers, both external and internal nonexpert indicators must be present, and internal expert indicators must be accessible by appropriate authorities. Finally, recommendations will be given for incorporating these features into AVs.
Distributive Justice, Institutionalism, and Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Taylor Smith Patrick
Published: September 2022

Much of the philosophical discussion concerning the permissibility or regulation of autonomous vehicles has focused on interpersonal ethics, including and especially the question of whether we can program a vehicle to behave as an ideal moral agent would when faced with a dilemma where a fatal crash is unavoidable. However, there are normative issues surrounding autonomous vehicles that go beyond the single, isolated decision of how to act when faced with this kind of “trolley problem.” One should also ask how different autonomous vehicle designs and regulatory regimes support or undermine social and distributive justice. In this paper, the author describes three different types of justice-based worries. First, there are justice-based considerations that are internal to autonomous vehicle deployment where we determine whether autonomous vehicles will behave in ways that distribute risks fairly among relevant classes of people. That is, it would be problematic if we purchased superior trolley problem performance at the cost of dramatically increased risks in other contexts. Second, determining whether and to what extent autonomous vehicle deployment scenarios generate conflicts with other domains of justice is necessary. Finally, there are justice-based worries concerned with dual-use technologies. If superior performance on trolley problems requires the development of technologies that can be used in less benign contexts, then those risks ought to be mitigated. After describing these three sources of concern, the author then offers some potential principles—using concepts borrowed from Rawlsian distributive justice—that might help guide us through these conflicts and trade-offs.
Autonomous Vehicles and the Basic Structure of Society
Authors: Dubljević Veljko , Bauer William A.
Published: September 2022

The widespread introduction of fully autonomous vehicles (AVs) presents macro-level socioeconomic concerns in addition to micro-level “ethics on the road” dilemmas. This paper concerns the impacts of AVs on our basic socioeconomic structure. Given the advent of self-driving freight trucks and taxis, for instance, millions of drivers could become unemployed very quickly. Citizens and leaders should address these kinds of macro-level social justice issues in advance in order to forestall the worst outcomes. To plausibly address these issues, we explore them using John Rawls’s theory of justice. After explaining the “original position” thought experiment and the principles of justice Rawls espouses, we apply these principles to the question of AVs. Focusing on the cases of truck and taxi drivers, we argue that the principles of justice as fairness support several possible policy-guiding norms that can be used to develop specific regulatory policies and ensure smoother economic transition as AVs are implemented on a broad scale.
Making Autonomous Vehicle Technologies Matter
Authors: Dutta-Koehler Madhu C. , Hatch Jennifer
Published: September 2022

Autonomous vehicle (AV) technologies are bound to reshape urban landscapes. Depending on how these technologies are deployed—whether in private cars, taxis, or mass-transit systems—the impacts and benefits will be differentially distributed across people and sectors. The authors argue that the introduction of this disruptive technology also offers, however, a significant opportunity to deploy autonomy in ways and forms that enable broad and equitable access, while ensuring efficient use of time and resources. Drawing on economic, demographic, environmental, and geospatial analyses of current public transportation access in urban communities affected by the first-mile/last-mile problem, the authors investigate the implications of introducing AV technologies to key underserved neighborhoods. Evaluating several criteria, including current and emergent technologies, global models of implementation, and the implications of increased transportation access to underserved communities, the authors propose a framework for cities to effectively take advantage of AV technology to increase social equity.
Fixing Congestion for Whom?
Authors: Voulgaris Carole Turley
Published: September 2022

Traffic congestion is among the most commonly cited urban transportation problems. Autonomous vehicles, if widely adopted, have the potential to dramatically alter the relationships among drivers, traffic congestion, and those who live in the places cars travel through. An explanation of the definition and causes of traffic congestion provides a framework for discussing the specific ways in which autonomous vehicles might influence traffic congestion, and it suggests that the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles could increase travel by car rather than reducing total traffic congestion. At the same time, by freeing drivers’ attention from the unpleasantness of driving in congested conditions without reducing the effects of congestion on nondrivers in the communities where cars travel, autonomous vehicles could shift the burden of congestion from drivers to nondrivers. Careful consideration of the distribution of the full range of harms congestion causes should shape policy responses to the introduction of autonomous vehicles.
Fulfilling the Promise of Autonomous Vehicles with a New Ethics of Transportation
Authors: Kock Beaudry , Lannquist Yolanda
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores how the ethics of our transportation system dominate and influence the ethics of autonomous vehicles (AVs). Success of any new technological entrant has always depended on supportive structures in the existing transportation system. Many have sought to shape the transportation system and its ethics in favor of a particular technology. This has bequeathed us a transportation system that is dangerous, polluting, inequitable, and wasteful, rooted in ethics that privilege the safety of people in vehicles, emphasize mobility over accessibility, design for injustice, and embrace inefficiency. Absent intervention, AV ethics and outcomes will simply mirror these failures unless we work to reshape both the system and its ethical underpinnings. A new ethics of transportation is needed, based on principles of human-centeredness, empathy, and justice guiding all transportation policies, investments, laws, standards, and technologies. Under this regime, AVs will be more successful and valuable to society.
An Introduction to Individual Sounds
Authors: Adams David
Published: September 2022

This chapter presents the phonetic symbols used in the book and descriptions of how each sound is made, with reference to the positioning of the articulators (tongue, jaw, lips, glottis) for each sound. Sample words from each language, including English, are given as examples of the sounds and comparison of sounds from one language to another. A brief history of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided. The sequence of the presentation is as follows: vowel sounds, glides, and consonants. Additional symbols are presented and explained, such as those for vowel length, syllabification, and word stress. Each sample word is translated into English and transcribed into the IPA.
Conclusion
Authors: Spitzer Robert J.
Published: September 2022

The Supreme Court’s recent ruling in the case of New York State Rifle & Pistol Association (NYSRPA) v. Bruen sets up the paradigm for the effort to roll back existing and established gun laws. This effort by conservative gun rights activists in law and politics to significantly broaden the definition of gun rights is part of a larger movement from the political right to push or redefine rights in many areas in a more conservative direction. This book offers a case study of that larger movement, occurring both at the national and grassroots levels. The lessons of our gun law past contradict the Originalism-based argument touted to support such a rollback of gun laws.
Nature or Nurture?
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: September 2022

The idea that humankind has little to speak of by way of its nature, that people’s minds are a “blank slate”, to be molded by culture and by other environmental factors, belongs to the very core of liberalism. In the ways it has been developed and applied, this idea is responsible for major polemics, misguided notions, and resultant confusion in the intellectual and public arena. In this chapter, we address the prevailing analysis of, and attitude toward, the phenomena of the nation and nationhood. The resurgence of nationalism comes as a surprise and shock to many, as the world has become increasingly interconnected and interdependent. Cosmopolitism and the demise of the nation-state have been heralded and celebrated as the order of the future. “Modernists” have claimed that the national phenomenon is recent, superficial, and contrived. As this chapter argues, ethnic and national affinities have deep roots in the human psyche and have been among the most powerful forces in human history. While always subject to historical transformations, ethnic and national identities are not going away any more than are other deeply rooted and changing human associations and relations, such as the family. They have had an emancipating effect and they are a major source of social solidarity, while also carrying a chauvinistic-aggressive aspect.
Precision Medicine and Distributive Justice
Authors: Fleck Leonard M.
Published: September 2022

Wicked ethical problems have been generated by precision medicine due to both the wiliness of cancer and the fragmentation of health care financing in the United States. The wiliness of cancer has resulted in these targeted cancer therapies yielding only very marginal gains in life expectancy for most patients at very great cost, thereby threatening the just allocation of health care resources. As a life-threatening phenomenon, cancer is not morally special. Philosophers have high hopes for the utility of their theories of justice. However, metastatic cancer and costly precision medicines generate extremely complex problems of health care justice that none of these theories can address adequately. What is needed instead is a political conception of health care justice (following Rawls) and a fair and inclusive process of rational democratic deliberation governed by public reason. A basic assumption is that society has only limited health care resources to meet unlimited health care needs (generated by emerging medical technologies). The primary ethical and political virtue of rational democratic deliberation is that it allows citizens as citizens to fashion autonomously shared understandings of how to address fairly the complex problems of health care justice generated by precision medicine. Still, in a pluralistic world, ideally just outcomes are a moral and political impossibility. Wicked problems can metastasize if rationing decisions are made invisibly, in ways effectively hidden from those affected by those decisions. A fair and inclusive process of democratic deliberation makes wicked problems visible to public reason.
Obligatory Social Beneficence
Authors: Fleck Leonard M.
Published: September 2022

Sufficientarianism reflects the reasonable ethical insight that society must accept limits for providing health care resources required as a matter of justice. What is beyond justice? Is there a role for obligatory social beneficence? If so, how can obligatory social beneficence be constrained so that it is not arbitrary and a threat to justice? Should gene therapy at $2 million for sickle cell disease or muscular dystrophy be a matter of health care justice as opposed to obligatory social beneficence? Should there be age cutoffs for extremely expensive, marginally beneficial targeted cancer therapies? Did the United Kingdom make a moral mistake when it created the Cancer Drug Fund to pay for expensive targeted therapies not approved by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence? Should artificial hearts at $500,000 each be part of a basic benefit package or left to social beneficence? These are the central questions in this chapter.
Precision Medicine, Precision Health
Authors: Fleck Leonard M.
Published: September 2022

Precision medicine and precision health should complement one another. However, they might also be competing for the same resources. Precision health is about preventing cancer or attacking it in its earliest stages. The key tool for accomplishing that is the “liquid biopsy,” a blood draw that captures cancer cells in early stages. If all adults in the United States had a liquid biopsy annually, the cost would be $160 billion. Some advocate taking that money from end-of-life targeted cancer therapies to fund these liquid biopsies. Should the democratic deliberators endorse that idea as just for their future possible selves? Should the deliberators endorse trading off identified lives (metastatic cancer patients) for the statistical lives they hope to save from cancer? Should whole genome sequencing be used early in life to identify individuals at greater risk for cancer, socially fund liquid biopsies for them, but deny social funding to everyone else?
Quod nescis quomodo fiat id non facis
Authors: Scribano Emanuela
Published: September 2022

Post-Cartesian Occasionalism argues that the power to cause an effect depends on the knowledge of the means by which the effect can be produced. This argument is used to deny finite beings any power to act. Arnold Geulincx expresses this thesis through the principle Quod nescis quomodo fiat id non facis, whose origins lie in Galen’s De foetuum formatione, a work translated into Latin only in 1535. Galen’s text is discussed in important works of early modern philosophy, such as Campanella’s De sensu rerum. The Quod nescis principle is completely foreign to Descartes’ physics and metaphysics, given their rejection of finalism. This point is confirmed by a comparison between the Cartesian theory of animals as machines and the theory of animal behavior developed by Pierre Chanet, a philosopher who accepted the Quod nescis principle.
Introduction
Authors: Ucko David H.
Published: September 2022

This introductory chapter summarizes the "insurgent's dilemma," namely the difficulty of defeating the state and sustaining power without suffering devastating retaliation along the way. Whereas this militarized form of insurgency was seen frequently during the Cold War, the instances of success via this strategy are now rare. In the face of this dilemma, insurgents can be expected to adapt. Three main strategies are explained: the entrenchment of localized insurgency in areas where the state is weak; the infiltration of democratic governments so as to claim power from within; and the shift to a virtual, ideational strategy that polarizes and subverts, but gives the state no targets which to strike. In outlining these future forms of insurgency, this introductory chapter explains both the importance of this topic and its methodological pitfalls. It explains the structure of the book and provides a breakdown of each chapter.
Unraveling the Dilemma
Authors: Ucko David H.
Published: September 2022

For insurgents across the world, military confrontation against the nation-state has become a far less salient road to power, and change is therefore in the air. This chapter lays out the backdrop for this evolution. It begins with a discussion of what insurgency is and has been. Seeking to counter the tendency to militarize the treatment of insurgency, the chapter reframes this phenomenon as defined primarily by its political and social essence. On this basis, the chapter surveys the collective experience of insurgents, during the Cold War and more recently. The analysis traces the evolution of insurgent strategy, and of counterinsurgency response, to indicate a gradual shift in outcomes benefiting the state. The reasons for this shift relate to a process of urbanization, the greater military capacity of states, the reduced state support for insurgency, and a normative environment less forgiving of movements of armed liberation. Casting insurgency as a reflection of the political and social context in which it unfolds, the chapter demonstrates how these factors have changed in ways that make insurgency less successful than it was during the Cold War. As traditional avenues to state capture are closing, producing an insurgent's dilemma, strategic adaptation becomes necessary.