bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Role of Counterfactual Dependence as an Independent, Non-causal Desert-determiner
Authors: Moore Michael S.
Published: May 2009

This chapter defends counterfactual dependency as a desert determiner, independent of causation. Lawyers have not been wrong in looking for such dependency as the touchstone for liability for omissions, preventions, double preventions, and cases of de minimus causal contribution. They have only been mistaken in lumping such dependencies in as a kind of causation. The thesis of the chapter is that in such cases counterfactual dependency determines moral responsibility and legal liability quite independently of causation.
Economic Performance and Political Support
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines the theory that the poor economic performance of government has eroded political support by the citizenry. The analyses examine the relationship between perceptions of the economy and support for government. Using either opinion surveys or timeseries data, there is little evidence that economic performance is a major reason for the decline in political support.
Democratic Challenges, Democratic Choices
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: May 2009

Declining trust in government and rising support for democratic ideals can reshape the democratic process. But the new shape of politics depends on the choices that citizens and governments make. The dissatisfaction of contemporary publics can be a stimulus for democratic reform, and already substantial institutional change has followed from the public's demands for reform. But dissatisfaction can also erode the foundations of the democratic process if governments do not respond or attempt to exploit this dissatisfaction for short-term political gain. This chapter discusses the democratic choices we now face in this context of an increasing dissatisfied public.
Democracy and Expertise
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This book examines the role of policy expertise in a democratic society. From the perspectives of both political theory and policy studies, the chapters explore the implications of deliberative democratic governance for professional expertise and extend them to specific policy practices. The discussion focuses in particular on the ways professional practices might be reoriented to assist citizens in understanding and discussing the complex policy issues of an advanced technological society. In doing so, it also explores how public deliberation can be improved through more cooperative forms of policy inquiry. Adopting a deliberative-analytic approach, policy inquiry is grounded in a postempiricist, constructivist understanding of inquiry and knowledge and the participatory practices that support it. Toward this end, the chapters draw on thriving theoretical and practical work dedicated to revitalizing the citizen's role in both civil society and newer practices of democratic governance, in particular deliberative democracy in political theory, practical work with deliberative experiments, the theory and practices of democratic governance, and participatory research. Deliberative practices are promoted here as a new component part of policy-related disciplines required for participatory governance. Calling for a specialization of ‘policy epistemics’ to advance such practices, the second half of the book takes up issues related to deliberative empowerment, including the relation of technical and social knowledge, the interpretive dimensions of social meaning and multiple realities, the role of narrative knowledge and storylines policy inquiry, social learning, tacit knowledge, the design of discursive spaces, and the place of emotional expression in public deliberation.
5 Technical Knowledge in Public Deliberation: Toward a Constructivist Theory of Contributory Expertise
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This chapter turns to the difficult question of who should have the authority and legitimacy to speak about the technical dimensions of policy issues. Toward this end, the analysis engages the seminal effort of Harry Collins and Robert Evans to develop a contributory theory of technical expertise. Developing their theory to assist public policy deliberation in matters related to science and technology, they fail to understand a crucial dimension of their project — namely, that there is no direct bridge from the technical sphere to the public realm across which such knowledge can travel. While technical knowledge is important for deliberation in the public decision-making, it is not processed in the public realm by the same epistemological rules employed in the techno-scientific realm. The discussion thus examines the way in which both the development of technical knowledge and its application is situated in particular social contexts governed by the logic of practical reason. The chapter concludes with a call for the study of the epistemics of public deliberation and policy decision-making.
8 Transformative Learning Through Deliberation: Social Assumptions and the Tacit Dimension
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This chapter takes up an essential contention of deliberative democracy, namely the idea that citizens can improve their communicative competencies in ways that lead to self-transformative learning. It explores this argument by examining the nature of critical social learning, in particular the way it turns on underlying assumptions and tacit understandings. Toward this end, the text employs theoretical contributions from the field of adult education, especially work on ‘transformational learning’ pioneered by theorists such as Freire and Mezirow. In the process, it speaks to the role of differences in deliberative theory — especially those related to culture, gender, class, or race — and their crucial function in the dialectical processes of argumentation. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of tacit knowledge for expert practices and the facilitation of democratic dialogue.
Afterword
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

The book closes with a brief Afterword on the implications of the theoretical and practical arguments contained in the preceding chapters. Given that they are designed for a world that does not yet fully exist, this closing discussion re-emphasizes the fact that the interrelated discussions are presented as part of an effort to help stimulate professional change and renewal, to promote a better understanding of expertise in deliberative democracy, to advance more expert practices conducive to real-world deliberative fora, and to think about how these practices might be brought into the professional policy curriculum.
Between War and Politics
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

This book studies war in the thought of one of the 20th-century's most important and original political thinkers, Hannah Arendt. Hannah Arendt's writing was fundamentally rooted in her understanding of war and its political significance. But this element of her work has surprisingly been neglected in international and political theory. This book assesses the full range of Arendt's historical and conceptual writing on war and introduces to international theory the distinct language she used to talk about war and the political world. It builds on her re-thinking of old concepts such as power, violence, greatness, world, imperialism, evil, hypocrisy, and humanity and introduces some that are new to international thought like plurality, action, agonism, natality, and political immortality. Chapters engage Arendt's writing in dialogue with various schools of political and international theory, including realism, liberalism, constructivism, post-structuralism, post-colonial thought, neoconservatism, and Habermas-inspired critical theory. Re-reading Arendt's writing — forged through firsthand experience of occupation and struggles for liberation, political founding, and resistance in time of war — reveals a more serious engagement with war than her earlier readers have recognised. Arendt's political theory makes more sense when it is understood in the context of her thinking about war and we can think about the history and theory of warfare, and international politics in new ways by thinking with Arendt.
2 Violence and Power, Politics and War
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

This chapter sets out and analyses Arendt's understandings of the basic meanings of politics and war, violence, and power. Her definition of power — a collective capacity that emerges between people as they act together — is supported through a number of historical examples. Her position on partisan warfare and the uses and limitations of revolutionary violence are contrasted with the important writing on these subjects by Schmitt and Fanon. Arendt shared with Clausewitz a view of war as an act of force whose essence is violent combat. However, political action, though sometimes occurring during wartime, is fundamentally different. Politics is full of conflict. But it is also limited by plurality, the very condition for speech and political action among equals. In contrast to post-structuralist accounts, Arendt maintained that a distinction between politics and war was indeed possible and necessary for there to be politics at all.
3 Who Is Revealed in War? History, War, and Storytelling
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

This chapter addresses Arendt's method of thinking about politics and war. It was a fundamental conviction that the most significant changes in social and political life could not be understood through the projection of continuous historical laws. It was the nature of both politics and war to bring about the unexpected. Inspired, in part, by the tradition of historiography that emerged out of the realist writing of Homer and Thucydides, Arendt argued that it was essential to divorce the meaning of events from our ethical judgement of them. We should and do make ethical judgements. The difference is that we must also pay attention to the distinctly political criteria for judging action, which Arendt believed to be greatness. This understanding of the history of war and forms of agency in wartime is illustrated with the case of suicide bombing. ‘Who’, if anyone, is revealed in such acts?
5 ‘How Dangerous It Can Be To Be Innocent’: War and the Law
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

This chapter explores the implications of Arendt's historical and conceptual account of the relationship between Greek and Roman war, law, and territorial expansion for the laws of war in the contemporary period. Arendt understood the importance of law and territorial boundaries as the principle limitations on the otherwise unpredictability and boundlessness of political action. Unfortunately, the centrality of power and the constitutive relationship between law, war, and expansion has been neglected in much international thought. This tradition has been less good at asking questions about the productive or constitutive character of the law. This is illustrated through a discussion of the dominant liberal assumptions that have shaped most international legal thought and their role in making ‘accidental’ civilian casualties normal. Rather than frame questions about law and war in the language of compliance we can ask how civilian deaths are legitimated and under what guises does this occur.
6 Rage Against Hypocrisy: On Liberal Wars for Human Rights
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

Arendt was wholly ambivalent about the liberal discourse of human rights and by extension, it is argued, wars justified in their name. She can be read as far less sanguine about the apparent progressiveness of human rights ideologies than other of her readers have suggested. This argument is made through an analysis of her writing on violence and hypocrisy. Arendt's work is filled with examples of violent rage against hypocrisy, but also how hypocrisy can enable cruelty. Above all, Arendt was a defender of the created, public world where it is only possible to judge words and actions, not motives. And yet Arendt does not leave us without grounds to act against genocide. These grounds are not based on the large numbers of dead, on levels of cruelty as such. Wars of annihilation cannot be tolerated because they attack the fundamental basis of all politics which is human plurality.
2 Sidelining debate in theOdyssey
Authors: Barker Elton T.E.
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines representations of debate in the Odyssey, with the suggestion that its less prominent role has implications for the standard view of this poem as playfully dialogic. Reduced to only two events, debate comes across not only as marginal to its narrative dynamics but also as socially divisive: these two Ithacan assembly scenes split down partisan lines, with neither group, those with Odysseus and those against him (the suitors), interested in the institution. Indeed, while the suitors' language frequently evokes an Iliadic world of strife and open contest, the Odyssey shows much more interest in deceit than in debate. The clearest example of the suppression of dissenting voices finds its substantiation in Odysseus' own narration of events; but the divine meeting between Zeus and Athena that frames the epic in books 1 and 24 equally reveals, and revels in, the narrative's control over events and their interpretation.
Introduction: institutional dissent
Authors: Barker Elton T.E.
Published: May 2009

This section considers debate in its most fully realized institutional form, that of tragedy, which by its very form represents debate, not only in the specific feature of the agon, but in the many conflicts between characters on stage. It is particularly concerned to engage with the recent controversies regarding whether tragedy is political or not, and the extent to which tragedy relates specifically to Athenian democracy or more broadly to any polis.Turning attention away from the dominant question of what is political, this section sets out how tragedy is political, first in its onus on giving a voice to marginalized figures such as women, slaves and groups, which marks tragedy's most radical departure from the world of Homeric epic, second in its emphasis on speaking back. Thus the key democratic concept of παρρηία, freedom or frankness of speech, is enacted, explored and tested in tragedy's retelling of myth.
Media Personalities, 1918–24
Authors: Fulda Bernhard
Published: May 2009

Who was a ‘very important person’ in post‐war Germany? The abdication of William II left the German media without its most popular political celebrity. This void was filled by the press through the creation of scapegoats and the construction of new political heroes. This chapter studies the right‐wing hate‐campaign against one prominent member of the new regime, Erzberger, and the rise to stardom of a political fringe figure like Hitler between 1922 and 1924. What did contemporaries know about the politicians of the new democracy? How were politicians visualized in the print media? This book is concerned with the creation of a particular press climate as well as politicians' media images, which informed contemporaries' political choices.
Competing Stories, 1924–5
Authors: Fulda Bernhard
Published: May 2009

Did the press have any direct impact on the way politics was conducted? This chapter demonstrates the crucial role of small partisan broadsheets in the political process. Their influence on setting the political agenda, and the partisan information which they provided to grateful politicians is analysed for two case studies; the defamation trial of Reich president Ebert in December 1924; and the Barmat scandal of spring 1925. The Ebert trial enabled nationalist journalists to portray the Reich president as a traitor who carried responsibility for the stab in the back in 1918. The scandal‐mongering against Jewish businessmen, the Barmat brothers, resulted in the collapse of their consortium, the arrest and death of a Reich minister, and a widespread perception of endemic corruption in the new democratic system. The focus of this chapter is on the interdependence of media, judiciary, and legislature.
Conquering Headlines: Violence, Sensations, and the Rise of the Nazis, 1928–30
Authors: Fulda Bernhard
Published: May 2009

The 1920s saw the breakthrough of the tabloid press in Germany. By 1930, mass and tabloid newspapers held a marketshare of over 80% in Berlin. Despite their importance for the dissemination of news, previous studies have completely ignored the mass press as a phenomenon. This chapter analyses the media image of the two radical parties, the KPD and the NSDAP, before the crucial Reichstag elections of September 1930. Particular emphasis is given to the depiction of violence, the construction of a media reality through press photography, and the use of cartoons to carry political messages in Berlin's mass newspapers. This book presents new evidence to explain the Nazi breakthrough in 1930 not with the alliance between Hugenberg and Hitler in 1929, but with the repeated splits within Hugenberg's Nationalist party, which happened in full view of the newspaper‐reading public.
Extreme Speech, Public Order, and Democracy: Lessons from The Masses
Authors: Weinstein James
Published: May 2009

This chapter attempts to identify a core free speech principle that must be respected in any democratic society and against which the free speech restrictions can be measured. It argues that two essential components of democracy — popular sovereignty and the individual right of political participation — generate a right of every citizen to participate in the discussion by which public opinion is formed. It concludes that this core norm was breached in Hammond v. DPP, and arguably violated in Norwood v. DPP. These two decisions and the precedent that they follow render insecure the right of British citizens to voice views that offend dominant opinion. The chapter suggests several reasons for this state of affairs, including the British judiciary's view that free speech is instrumental to, rather than constitutive of, democracy, and the excessive deference afforded lower court findings in free speech cases. These mistakes are remarkably similar to those made by the U.S. Supreme Court when it first started to develop free speech doctrine in the early 20th century.
An Overview of American Free Speech Doctrine and its Application to Extreme Speech
Authors: Weinstein James
Published: May 2009

This chapter describes the basic features of the American free speech doctrine and then considers its application to various forms of extreme speech. This analysis reveals that most of the speech restrictions considered in this book, while consistent with the constitutional norms of other democracies, would be unconstitutional in the U.S. The leitmotif of contemporary American free speech doctrine is its intense hostility to content regulation of public discourse, particularly viewpoint regulation. In addition, Brandenburg v. Ohio narrowly confines governmental power to punish the advocacy of law violation. Hate speech bans, whether in the form of public order regulations, prohibitions against group defamation, or bans on Holocaust denial, would be deemed unconstitutional. Under Brandenburg, laws that prohibit mere advocacy of terrorism would also be held to violate the First Amendment. The chapter concludes that much of the explanation for American free speech exceptionalism lies in the U.S. Supreme Court's extensive experience with free speech issues, particularly the lessons it learned from its failure to protect adequately dissent in the early part of the 20th century.
Hate Speech in the United Kingdom: An Historical Overview
Authors: Williams QC Sir David
Published: May 2009

This chapter aims to outline briefly the emergence of statutory offences of incitement against the background of sedition and blasphemy at common law. The emphasis is on the law of England and Wales and, in particular, on the emergence of the offences of incitement to racial hatred and of incitement to religious hatred. There is reference also to issues of freedom of speech.
Extreme Speech and Liberalism
Authors: Malik Maleiha
Published: May 2009

This chapter argues that traditional models of liberalism that define democracy as the creation of a public liberal consensus are not an appropriate basis for political engagement with contemporary extremist groups. It proposes an alternative way of defining the goals of liberal politics based on the concepts of ‘agonistic respect’, ‘deliberative democracy’, and ‘discourse ethics’. Agonistic respect and deliberative democracy create political space for extremist groups. At the same time, the principles of discourse ethics contain the potential harm caused by extremist ideas and practices. The chapter also advocates the increased use of non-legal strategies rather than criminal law as a respnse to hate speech.
Hate Speech
Authors: Post Robert
Published: May 2009

The OED teaches us the connection between hate speech and the overall theme of this volume, Extreme Speech. ‘Hate,’ is considered ‘an emotion of extreme dislike or aversion; detestation, abhorrence, hatred.’ A draft OED addition of December 2002 defines ‘hate speech’ as ‘speech expressing hatred or intolerance of other social groups, especially on the basis of race or sexuality.’ To prohibit hate speech, then, is to forbid expression of ‘extreme’ intolerance or ‘extreme’ dislike. The qualification ‘extreme’ is prerequisite because intolerance and dislike are necessary human emotions which no legal order could pretend to abolish. This chapter addresses the question of when do these otherwise appropriate emotions become so ‘extreme’ as to deserve legal suppression. It shows that Europe and America have adopted distinct approaches toward the legal regulation of hate speech that reflect both the different role that public discourse plays in underwriting democratic legitimation in the two continents, and also the distinctly different levels of commitment that citizens of the two continents experience with regard to the felt imperative of maintaining norms of respect constitutive of social solidarity.
Hate Speech, Public Discourse, and the First Amendment
Authors: Heyman Steven J.
Published: May 2009

This chapter contends that public hate speech, such as the Nazi march in Skokie, should not be protected under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Part I of the chapter outlines a general theory of free expression which holds that speech may be regulated to protect the fundamental rights of others — rights that (like speech itself) are rooted in respect for human dignity and autonomy. Part II applies this theory to political hate speech. This speech invades its targets' rights to personal security, personality, citizenship, and equality. Moreover, the speech is not entitled to protection because of its political character, for political speech is best understood as discourse among individuals who recognize one another as free and equal persons and citizens — a view that derives support from Locke, Hegel, Meiklejohn, and Habermas. Hate speech denies recognition to others and thereby violates the basic rules of public discourse and debate.
Incitement and the Regulation of Hate Speech in Canada: A Philosophical Analysis
Authors: Sumner L. W.
Published: May 2009

Every liberal democracy approaches the regulation of hate speech in its own particular way. This chapter draws on the experience and the particularities of the hate speech laws that have been in place in Canada since 1970. But it also brings to the issue a principled framework for locating the boundaries of free speech, one which derives from John Stuart Mill and has subsequently been operationalized by the Canadian Supreme Court. The discussion concludes that while the best-known piece of Canadian hate speech legislation cannot be justified under this framework, a lesser-known offence has a better chance of success. In the distinction between these offences there are important lessons to be learned for the boundaries of free speech.
Cumulative Jurisprudence and Hate Speech: Sexual Orientation and Analogies to Disability, Age, and Obesity
Authors: Heinze Eric
Published: May 2009

Non-discrimination norms in human rights instruments generally enumerate specified categories for protection, such as race, ethnicity, sex, or religion, etc. They often omit express reference to sexual minorities. Through open-ended interpretation, however, sexual minorities subsequently become incorporated. That ‘cumulative jurisprudence’ yields protections for sexual minorities through norms governing privacy, employment, age of consent, or freedoms of speech and association. Hate speech bans, too, are often formulated with reference to traditionally recognised categories, particularly race and religion. It might be expected that the same cumulative jurisprudence should therefore be applied to include sexual minorities. This chapter challenges that approach. Hate speech bans suffer from inherent flaws. They either promote discrimination by limiting the number of protected categories, or, by including all meritorious categories, would dramatically limit free speech. Sexual minorities within longstanding, stable, and prosperous democracies should generally enjoy all human rights, but should not necessarily seek the protections of hate speech bans.
Blasphemy and Incitement to Religious Hatred: Free Speech Dogma and Doctrine
Authors: Hare Ivan
Published: May 2009

This chapter begins by setting out the historical justifications for laws of blasphemy. It explains how increasing secularization and diversity of religious belief have progressively undermined the justification for protecting religion at all or only the established church from attack. It then analyses how blasphemy came to be abolished in a number of jurisdictions, most recently in England, and how laws on incitement to religious hatred have been introduced in parallel. The chapter concludes that there is no justification for either laws on blasphemy or incitement to religious hatred in a state which is committed to freedom of political expression.
Religious Speech that Undermines Gender Equality
Authors: Evans Carolyn
Published: May 2009

The struggle for gender equality has often been in direct conflict with religious teachings and other forms of speech enunciated by religious leadership. This chapter addresses the issue of religious speech that offends the value of gender equality and the question of how a liberal state should respond to such speech. It develops an argument that attempts to take seriously the legitimate claims of both religious speakers and women who are committed to gender equality, while also acknowledging that these two groups are not mutually exclusive. The chapter commences with some examples of religious hate speech that is harmful to notions of gender equality. It then outlines two models of speech (one liberal and one religious) and explains why neither gives adequate support to religious women who live in communities where religious speech that undermines gender equality is commonplace. Drawing on both religious freedom principles and feminist theory, the chapter argues that the liberal state should respond to religious speech that promotes gender inequality by the adoption of certain policies that empower women inside religious communities, enabling transgressive speech and refusing to give legitimacy to women-hating speech (even if not directly banning it).
Incitement to, and Glorification of, Terrorism
Authors: Barendt Eric
Published: May 2009

The Terrorism Act 2006 introduced into UK law a new offence of encouragement of terrorism. Statements which are likely to be understood as a direct or indirect encouragement or other inducement to the commission of terrorist acts may be caught by the offence. One clause in the Act was particularly controversial: it provides that among the statements likely to be understood as indirectly encouraging an act of terrorism are those glorifying such acts, at least where members of the public would reasonably infer that they should emulate them. This chapter examines the free speech arguments relevant to the new offence of encouragement of terrorism, in particular whether the offence is compatible with the freedom of political speech required by a commitment to liberal democracy.
The Holocaust Denial Decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents a Holocaust denial case involving a 1994 decision by the German Constitutional Court. Decided before the amendment of section 130, the case did not concern a criminal conviction, but rather arose out of an administrative proceeding. The complainant was the Munich/Upper-Bavarian section of the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), a small right-wing party not represented in the Bundestag, the federal parliament. The NPD had planned a public meeting in the city of Munich where David Irving was supposed to speak. According to the announcement by the NPD, the speech would deal with the alleged Jewish blackmailing of German politics by exploiting the Holocaust. The municipal authorities of Munich, who had been notified of the planned assembly by the NPD, issued an order prohibiting Irving, other speakers, and the participants of the assembly from denying the persecution of Jews during the Third Reich.
Extreme Speech and American Press Freedoms
Authors: Bodney David J.
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the American constitutional framework for addressing the challenge of extreme speech, with particular emphasis on the rights of the press. It argues that American media's usage of extreme speech is regulated less by laws than by market factors and evolving norms of civility. Today more than ever, the media endeavours to produce what sells. Advertisers are matched with audiences to maximize profits in a rapidly changing media marketplace. Adaptation to the World Wide Web presents a serious challenge to traditional media outlets.
Extreme Speech and the Democratic Functions of the Mass Media
Authors: Rowbottom Jacob
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the democratic justification for media freedom. The approach taken towards the media in relation to extreme speech is distinguished from that taken towards the individual. The media may require some protection to pursue its watchdog function when reporting speech that is illegal when advocated by an individual. However, some restraints may be imposed on the media in relation to extreme speech that is legal when spoken by a citizen. This chapter has approached the issue from one particular angle: the justification of media freedom by reference to its democratic functions and how this may permit some regulations that enhance those goals.
1 Introduction: Referendums in a European Context
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

This introductory chapter establishes the importance of direct democracy to the process of European integration. It provides an overview of referendums on European integration, outlining the origins and implications of the use of direct democracy in Europe. It categorizes EU referendums into three types: membership referendums, treaty ratification referendums, and single‐issue referendums. Thereafter, it lays out how the ideas of this book fits into the current academic and policy debates about referendums and presents the research design and an overview of the main arguments and findings.
4 Campaign Effects in Referendums
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines how the campaign context influences voting behaviour in referendums on Europe. Based on analysis of media coverage, opinion polls, and elite polarization, the chapter evaluates how the campaign context shapes political participation and vote choices. The key finding is that as the intensity of the referendum campaign increases, voters will rely more heavily on sophisticated criteria, such as attitudes and issue position, and political elites will find it more difficult to persuade citizens to vote a certain way. Moreover, intense campaigns also mobilize individuals to participate in referendums. Hence, the campaign environment in EU referendums acts as both an informer and a mobilizer and influences patterns of behaviour.
8 Campaign Dynamics in the Referendums on the European Constitution
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

This chapter explores the perhaps most significant votes on Europe so far: the referendums on the European Constitutional Treaty in 2005. The chapter examines the two failed referendums in France and the Netherlands and addresses the questions: Why did the French and the Dutch reject the Constitutional Treaty? Why did the governments fail the task of convincing voters? What was the role of the campaign? Based on systematic research of the campaigns and analyses of the survey data, this chapter provides a comprehensive account of campaign dynamics and voting behaviour in these referendums that ultimately led to the downfall of the European Constitution. The analyses show that the campaigns played an important role in framing certain issue attitudes, such as social issues in France and culture and identity concerns in the Netherlands. These no‐votes thus reflected concerns over specific aspects of European project rather than simply anti‐EU sentiments and protest voting.
5 Historical Fingerprints? A Taxonomy of Norwegian Innovation
Authors: Castellacci Fulvio , Clausen Tommy H. , Nås Svein Olav , Verspagen Bart
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents an empirical analysis of the patterns of innovation, economic structure, and industrial dynamics that characterize the Norwegian system at present. It investigates whether the three historical paths of Norwegian economic development identified in Chapter 2 have left ‘fingerprints’ on the present characteristics of the Norwegian innovation system. It argues that these paths have favoured the strengthening of a resource-based economic structure, and this represents one important factor to explain the low innovation intensity that characterizes the Norwegian system at present. The empirical analysis identifies three major sectoral patterns of innovation, which by and large reflect the development of the three historical paths: science-based innovators, low-intensity innovators, and resource-based innovators. In contrast to previous findings in the industrial dynamics literature, the chapter finds the former group of industries to be less entrepreneurial than commonly assumed, and the latter type of industries to be more turbulent and competitive than it is the case in other countries.
13 Industrial R&D Policy in Norway: Who Gets the Funding and What are the Effects?
Authors: Clausen Tommy H.
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents an empirical analysis of contemporary Norwegian innovation policy with a particular emphasis on research and development (R&D). It investigates whether and to what extent the ‘national champions' strategy’ identified in the historical analysis in Chapter 4 persists in more recent policymaking. In the analysis, it is found that national champions are more inclined to get access to both development and research subsidies from Norwegian technology programs. The results also suggest that subsidies for ‘research’ within firms increase firm-financed R&D spending while subsidies for ‘development’ substitute such R&D.
Introduction to Reactive Gas Dynamics
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

The high enthalpy gas flows, associating high velocities, and high temperatures, are the scene of physical and chemical processes such as molecular vibrational excitation, dissociation, ionization, or various reactions. The characteristic times of these processes are of the same order of magnitude as aerodynamic characteristic times so that these reactive media are generally in thermodynamic and chemical non-equilibrium. This book presents a general introductory study of these media. In a first part their fundamental statistical aspects are described, starting from their discrete structure and taking into account the interactions between elementary particles: the transport phenomena, relaxation, and kinetics as well as their coupling are thus analysed and illustrated by many examples. The second part of the work is devoted to the macroscopic aspects of the reactive flows including shock waves, hypersonic expansions, flows around bodies, and boundary layers. Experimental data on vibrational relaxation times, vibrational populations, and kinetic rate constants are also presented. Finally, experimental aspects of reactive flows, their simulation in shock tube and shock tunnel are described as well as their applications, particularly in the aero-spatial domain.
Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium Collisional Regimes
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

This chapter defines collisional regimes of gaseous flows, including equilibrium and non-equilibrium situations which are described with Euler equations. It examines monatomic and diatomic gas flows, with particular attention to vibrationally non-equilibrium flows of pure gases and gas mixtures. Boltzmann and Treanor distributions are also discussed. The evolution equations of vibrational populations or mean vibrational energy are presented, in particular for the case of the harmonic oscillator model and Landau-Teller equation. General cases of reactive flows are examined and reaction rate constants are defined for reacting gases including or not internal energy. In the appendices, physical models for internal energy modes, properties of the Maxwell distribution, and particular vibrational relaxation equations are presented for pure gases and gas mixtures.
General Aspects of Gas Flows
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

This chapter reviews the Navier-Stokes equations for a gaseous system in vibrational and/or chemical non-equilibrium, and proposes various forms. The equations are written in a dimensionless form so that dimensionless numbers are defined, characterizing the relative influence of the physical processes involved in the equations. Typical particular flows are presented such as one and two-dimensional flows, isentropic, and dissipative flows. Problems related to gas-solid and gas-liquid interfaces, flow stability, entropy and global balances, dimensional analysis, and magnetohydrodynamics are also briefly discussed.
Facilities and Experimental Methods
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

This chapter describes the main facilities used for the study of non-equilibrium flows, especially shock tubes and shock tunnels. The principles of shock tube operation are first reviewed and the disturbing processes, such as boundary layer effects, finite duration of diaphragm opening and transition are analysed. The main practical shock tube configurations are described as well as general measurement methods of pressure, density, and heat flux. Various flow vizualizations obtained in shock tube are shown. The description, operation, and calibration of free piston shock tunnels are presented, the source flow effects are analysed, and shock-interface interactions are discussed. A few results of heat flux measurements carried out in real flight are compared with computational results, emphasizing the catalytic properties of the walls.
Relaxation and Kinetics in Shock Tubes and Shock Tunnels
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

The first part of this chapter presents experimental data on vibrational relaxation times and vibrational populations obtained in shock tubes and shock tunnels. The corresponding methods of measurement such as interferometry, Raman diffusion spectroscopy, infra-red absorption, and emission are described. The TV and VV relaxation times and non-equilibrium vibrational populations deduced from these measurements are then analysed, and measurements of accommodation and exchange coefficients are described. In the second part, values of dissociation rate constants for various species are proposed. Time-resolved spectra of radiating species (CN, C2) behind strong shock waves are presented; they allow for the analysis of the kinetics of mixtures characteristic of planetary atmospheres. Experimental results of shock stand-off distances over blunt bodies obtained in shock and gun tunnels are compared to computed results. Experimental data on chemical catalycity are discussed. Finally, in the appendices, kinetic models for relaxing and/or reactive mixtures, simulation methods of emission spectra, and precursor radiation measurement in shock tube are discussed.
5 What it means (not) to know (number) agreement
Authors: Schütze Carson T.
Published: May 2009

This chapter explores how a language-acquiring child might ‘not know’ agreement. Ways in which such a child could be non-adultlike include inoperability of universal principles, incorrect parameter settings, incomplete/incorrect knowledge of inflectional forms, imperfect execution of grammatical computations, and production difficulties. Distinguishing these is illustrated with English and Swahili transcripts.
7 Variable vs. consistent input: comprehension of plural morphology and verbal agreement in children
Authors: Miller Karen , Schmitt Cristina
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents an experimental study that tests Chilean and Mexican children's comprehension of nominal plural morphology and subject-verb agreement. The main results of the study are that children exposed to reliable input associate the plural morpheme to an interpretation of ‘more than one’ by at least four years of age, while children exposed to variable and unreliable input are delayed in their comprehension of plural morphology. Instead, these children rely on subject-verb agreement when assigning number to nouns. The results of this research strongly indicate that variable and unreliable input delays the acquisition of grammatical morphology that is affected by that variability.
9 When movement fails to reconstruct
Authors: Guilliot Nicolas , Malkawi Nouman
Published: May 2009

This chapter on resumption argues for an account for reconstruction based syntactically on the presence of copies resulting from movement or ellipsis, and semantically on copy interpretation as indefinite or definite. Such analysis provides a straightforward explanation to major syntactic and semantic properties of resumption: availability of reconstruction within islands, lack of pair-list readings.
12 The diversity of dative experiencers
Authors: RÁkosi GyÖrgy
Published: May 2009

This chapter argues that two types of lexical dative experiencers need to be distinguished. Regular dative experiencer arguments are merged in unaccusative structures, but a natural class of unergative predicates optionally license low dative experiencer adjuncts and assign them a theta role. The differences between the two dative types are discussed and explained in a lexicalist framework.
17 Acquisition of plurality in a language without plurality
Authors: Munn Alan , Zhang Xiaofei , Schmitt Cristina
Published: May 2009

Mandarin Chinese has no marking for either plurality or definiteness on bare nominals, but has a portmanteau morpheme -men which encodes both plurality and definiteness. This chapter shows that the distinct properties of -men are learned at different times, and that the younger children have a strong bias to treat definite NPs, whether bare or with -men, as generic.
5 The Construction of an Asset Index
Authors: Moser Caroline , Felton Andrew
Published: May 2009

This chapter applies principal components analysis to panel data from urban Ecuador (collected over 1978-2004) and constructs an asset index to measure asset accumulation. The chosen assets are: physical capital (including housing); financial/productive capital; human capital and social capital (natural capital is not included as this is an urban study). It is shown that grouping a large number of assets into a smaller number of dimensions facilitates an intermediate level of analysis. By examining how households allocate their resources using an asset index, the analysis of specific poverty mechanics is possible without examining an overwhelming quantity of individual variables. Asset indices are an important complement to pure income data because they paint a clearer picture of the strategies households in various income groups have employed to acquire different types of assets, and because they provide clues to poverty alleviation.
7 Poverty in Time
Authors: Davis Peter
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the usefulness of a life history method for analysing poverty dynamics in developing country contexts, using findings from a study in the Kushtia district in Bangladesh. Among the advantages of using life history methodology in studies of poverty dynamics include a much longer and more detailed interview which can take place without boring the respondent, mainly because of the fascination we all have with life histories when they are discussed and depicted. A life history approach also allows for a different type of analysis to occur. Lifecycle patterns can be identified, patterns of complex causation emerge, and individual episodes of crisis, coping, and opportunity can be seen within the interrelated and wider context of national, community, and family trajectories.
9 Bringing Politics Back into Poverty Analysis
Authors: Harriss John
Published: May 2009

This chapter argues that most poverty research is working with a model of knowledge from the natural sciences: that is to say, there are objective facts to be discovered; methods for uncovering these facts improve over time as better techniques are discovered and employed; and, predictive theories that can be universally applied across all societies will eventually emerge. However, this approach is doomed to disappointment, because the focus is on measurement and on the characteristics of individuals and households with very little attention to the structural processes that move people in and out of poverty. It highlights similarities between the new asset-based approaches and research during the 1970s on agrarian differentiation and class formation.
12 Investments, Bequests, and Public Policy
Authors: Quisumbing Agnes R.
Published: May 2009

This chapter focuses on the factors that impede the transfer of human and physical capital (assets), forms of wealth for which there is more empirical evidence. Section 12.2 uses a conceptual framework of wealth transfers to highlight barriers the poor may face in transferring wealth to the next generation. Section 12.3 illustrates various aspects of the conceptual framework using empirical evidence from developing countries, focusing on: (1) the role of credit constraints in preventing optimal investments in human capital and asset transfers; (2) the role of gender differences in schooling and assets in perpetuating unequal lifetime incomes; and (3) the role of the marriage market and assortative matching in perpetuating asset inequality across families and across generations. Section 12.4 examines the scope for public policy in relieving constraints to the poor in accumulation and transferring wealth to the next generation.
13 Questioning the Power of Resilience
Authors: Boyden Jo , Cooper Elizabeth
Published: May 2009

This chapter addresses the question of whether studies of resilience are useful for research and practice concerning children's poverty and the life course and intergenerational transmission of poverty. Based on a review of the increasing exercise of the resilience concept in various fields of research, it is argued that resilience has not yet been demonstrated as a valid analytical tool for poverty research. So far resilience has achieved neither a sufficiently functional definition nor a credible theory by which to identify its existence.