bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Arts and Minds
Authors: Howes Anton
Published: January 2021

From its beginnings in a coffee house in the mid-eighteenth century, the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce has tried to improve British life in every way imaginable. It has sought to influence how Britons work, how they are educated, the music they listen to, the food they eat, the items in their homes, and even how they remember their own history. This book is the remarkable story of an institution unlike any other—a society for the improvement of everything and anything. The book shows how this vibrant and singularly ambitious organisation has evolved and adapted, constantly having to reinvent itself to keep in step with changing times. The Society has served as a platform for Victorian utilitarian reformers, purchased and restored an entire village, encouraged the planting of more than sixty million trees, and sought technological alternatives to child labour. But this is more than just a story about unusual public initiatives. It is an engaging and authoritative history of almost three centuries of social reform and competing visions of a better world-the Society's members have been drawn from across the political spectrum, including Adam Smith, Edmund Burke, and Karl Marx. The book reveals how a society of public-spirited individuals tried to make their country a better place, and draws vital lessons from their triumphs and failures for all would-be reformers today.
Peculiar Genius
Authors: Howes Anton
Published: January 2021

The chapter draws attention to the Anti-French sentiment in Britain that reached a fever pitch in 1756 when the two nations embarked on the Seven Years' War. It narrates how the Association of Anti-Gallicans, the Royal Society of Arts' predecessors, reacted to the declaration of war by seizing a couple of French ships and rescuing a handful of its English prisoners. It also describes how the Society used its premiums in order to secure essential materials for the waging of war, which often complemented the efforts of the government. The chapter identifies the members of the Society that were in close proximity to the centers of power and connected with the growing British state as officials and politicians or as merchants and manufacturers. It also mentions Stephen Hales, who suggested that naval improvements should be one of the Society's priorities.
Jack of All Trades
Authors: Howes Anton
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the Royal Society of Arts' founders by 1754, which had largely been aristocrats, clergymen, and natural philosophers, with the middle classes overwhelmingly represented by well-off merchants and artisans. It analyzes the scientific advances over the century that spawned new industries as scientists and inventors discovered new fuels, alloys, and chemical compounds. It also covers the emergence of a class of more specialized professionals, such as chemists that implemented or advised on the latest scientific advances. The chapter talks about professional inventors that changed Britain by concentrating their efforts on making improvements without having to then make money from the products of their new machines and techniques. It cites “Inventor seeks capitalist” as the common advertisement in the pages of nineteenth-century newspapers by inventors looking for someone to fund their patent.
The Greatest Beauty for the Greatest Number
Authors: Howes Anton
Published: January 2021

This chapter introduces Henry Cole, who was heavily influenced by the ideas of the philosopher Jeremy Bentham and became the conduit for utilitarianism into the Royal Society of Arts. It analyzes Bentham's proposed alternative that based everything on a fundamental guiding principle of achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It also mentions utilitarian reformers inspired by Bentham that introduced improvements for the benefit of “the masses” or the “people.” The chapter talks about Rowland Hill, a utilitarian reformer who tried to create a national prepaid postage system. It examines Hill's scheme to replace the messy postal system that favoured only the rich and powerful by promoting a flat rate so that any letter weighing under an ounce might be sent to anywhere in the country for just a penny.
Electoral Memory
Authors: Bruter Michael , Harrison Sarah
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines psychological models of visual, auditory, and haptic memory, in order to derive new hypotheses regarding what one could expect citizens to remember from past elections, and how one can imagine those memories to influence their future behaviour. Reliable recollections of how people have voted in the past is the least likely component of electoral memory. Even when this is absent, voters may rather be crucially influenced by a whole range of memories of their interaction with the system and with others. In many ways, this reinforces the centrality of electoral experience in the model, because it shows that while institution-centric academic expectations of electoral memory have been disappointed, their absence does not mean that citizens have no memory at all, but instead that it is precisely the accumulation of their electoral experiences over time which builds up into a memorial collage. The chapter thus reframes the concept of electoral memory by posing questions pertaining to what type and which aspects of elections voters remember, and how that cumulative memory influences their future electoral experiences, perceptions, and behaviour.
Elections and Emotions
Authors: Bruter Michael , Harrison Sarah
Published: January 2021

This chapter evaluates the emotions that citizens experience during elections, and in particular when they are in the polling booth. It relies not only on their self-perceptions, but also on implicit measures whereby the words that occur to them in electoral contexts are considered, and even on direct observations of the emotions that citizens physically display as they vote. Elections are indeed highly emotional experiences, to the point of potentially bringing many citizens to tears. On the whole, the emotions elicited by elections are overwhelmingly positive. In many ways, elections make people happy even when politics leaves them frustrated or annoyed. The chapter then considers how electoral emotions vary across types of voter, and notably how elections are typically much more emotional for first-time voters than for the rest of the population, thereby shedding new light on the crucial nature of the first vote.
So What Are Jews For?
Authors: Sutcliffe Adam
Published: January 2021

This chapter reviews the question on what Jews are for. It talks about the anxiety over the long-term viability of Judaism that threatened to overwhelm the question across much of the Jewish world in the late twentieth century. It describes the European Jewish life in the aftermath of the Holocaust that was shadowed by a sense of dutiful traditionalism and anxiety over the continued presence of antisemitism. The chapter also analyzes the temptation and increasing ease of assimilation that was perceived as a threat to Jewish continuity in Europe, in the United States, and elsewhere in the New World. It points out how it was clear to some Jewish leaders, while faced with the prospect of a “vanishing diaspora,” that the postwar focus on communal survival lacked the inspirational power to renew Jewish life.
Overview
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter provides an overview of equivariant cohomology. Cohomology in any of its various forms is one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century. A functor from topological spaces to rings, cohomology turns a geometric problem into an easier algebraic problem. Equivariant cohomology is a cohomology theory that takes into account the symmetries of a space. Many topological and geometrical quantities can be expressed as integrals on a manifold. Integrals are vitally important in mathematics. However, they are also rather difficult to compute. When a manifold has symmetries, as expressed by a group action, in many cases the localization formula in equivariant cohomology computes the integral as a finite sum over the fixed points of the action, providing a powerful computational tool.
Spectral Sequences
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on spectral sequences. The spectral sequence is a powerful computational tool in the theory of fiber bundles. First introduced by Jean Leray in the 1940s, it was further refined by Jean-Louis Koszul, Henri Cartan, Jean-Pierre Serre, and many others. The chapter provides a short introduction, without proofs, to spectral sequences. As an example, it computes the cohomology of the complex projective plane. The chapter then details Leray's theorem. A spectral sequence is like a book with many pages. Each time one turns a page, one obtains a new page that is the cohomology of the previous page.
Equivariant Cohomology of S2 Under Rotation
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter shows how to use the spectral sequence of a fiber bundle to compute equivariant cohomology. As an example, it computes the equivariant cohomology of S2 under the action of S1 by rotation. The method of the chapter only gives the module structure of equivariant cohomology. Suppose a topological group G acts on the left on a topological space M. Let EG → BG be a universal G-bundle. The homotopy quotient MG fits into Cartan's mixing diagram. One can then apply Leray's spectral sequence of the fiber bundle MG → BG to compute the equivariant cohomology from the cohomology of M and the cohomology of the classifying space BG.
General Properties of Equivariant Cohomology
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses the general properties of equivariant cohomology. Both the homotopy quotient and equivariant cohomology are functorial constructions. Equivariant cohomology is particularly simple when the action is free. Throughout the chapter, by a G-space, it means a left G-space. Let G be a topological group and consider the category of G-spaces and G-maps. A morphism of left G-spaces is a G-equivariant map (or G-map). Such a morphism induces a map of homotopy quotients. The map in turn induces a ring homomorphism in cohomology. The chapter then looks at the coefficient ring of equivariant cohomology, as well as the equivariant cohomology of a disjoint union.
The Lie Derivative and Interior Multiplication
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter reviews two operations on differential forms, the Lie derivative and interior multiplication. These are necessary to the definition of invariant forms, horizontal forms, and basic forms in the construction of the Cartan model. The chapter then looks at the Lie derivative of a vector field and of a differential form. The Lie derivative of a differential form is defined in a similar way to the Lie derivative of a vector field, but the chapter uses the pullback instead of the pushforward to compare nearby values. One can rearrange the product formula so that it becomes the global formula for the Lie derivative. Meanwhile, the interior multiplication is also called the contraction.
Fundamental Vector Fields
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter addresses fundamental vector fields. The concept of a connection on a principal bundle is essential in the construction of the Cartan model. To define a connection on a principal bundle, one first needs to define the fundamental vector fields. When a Lie group acts smoothly on a manifold, every element of the Lie algebra of the Lie group generates a vector field on the manifold called a fundamental vector field. On a principal bundle, the fundamental vectors are precisely the vertical tangent vectors. In general, there is a relation between zeros of fundamental vector fields and fixed points of the group action. Unless specified otherwise (such as on a principal bundle), a group action is assumed to be a left action.
Outline of a Proof of the Equivariant de Rham Theorem
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter offers an outline of a proof of the equivariant de Rham theorem. In 1950, Henri Cartan proved that the cohomology of the base of a principal G-bundle for a connected Lie group G can be computed from the Weil model of the total space. From Cartan's theorem it is not too difficult to deduce the equivariant de Rham theorem for a free action. Guillemin and Sternberg presents an algebraic proof of the equivariant de Rham theorem, although some details appear to be missing. Guillemin, Ginzburg, and Karshon outline in an appendix of be missing. Guillemin, Ginzburg, and Karshon outline in an appendix of a different approach using the Mayer–Vietoris argument. A limitation of the Mayer–Vietoris argument is that it applies only to manifolds with a finite good cover. The chapter provides a proof of the general case with no restrictions on the manifold and with all the details.
Localization in Algebra
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter provides a digression concerning the all-important technique of localization in algebra. Localization generally means formally inverting a multiplicatively closed subset in a ring. However, the chapter focuses on the particular case of inverting all nonnegative powers of a variable u in an ℝ[u]-module. Localization of an ℝ[u]-module with respect to a variable u kills the torsion elements and preserves exactness. The chapter then looks at the proposition that localization preserves the direct sum. The simplest proof for this proposition is probably one that uses the universal mapping property of the direct sum. The chapter also considers antiderivations under localization.
The Topology of a Group Action
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the topology of a group action. It proves some topological facts about the fixed point set and the stabilizers of a continuous or a smooth action. The chapter also introduces the equivariant tubular neighborhood theorem and the equivariant Mayer–Vietoris sequence. A tubular neighborhood of a submanifold S in a manifold M is a neighborhood that has the structure of a vector bundle over S. Because the total space of a vector bundle has the same homotopy type as the base space, in calculating cohomology one may replace a submanifold by a tubular neighborhood. The tubular neighborhood theorem guarantees the existence of a tubular neighborhood for a compact regular submanifold. The Mayer–Vietoris sequence is a powerful tool for calculating the cohomology of a union of two open subsets. Both the tubular neighborhood theorem and the Mayer–Vietoris sequence have equivariant counterparts for a G-manifold where G is a compact Lie group.
A Crash Course in Representation Theory
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter studies representation theory. In order to state the equivariant localization formula of Atiyah–Bott and Berline–Vergne, one will need to know some representation theory. Representation theory “represents” the elements of a group by matrices in such a way that group multiplication becomes matrix multiplication. It is a way of simplifying group theory. The chapter provides the minimal representation theory needed for equivariant cohomology. A real representation of a group G is a group homomorphism. Every representation has at least two invariant subspaces, 0 and V. These are called the trivial invariant subspaces. A representation is said to be irreducible if it has no invariant subspaces other than 0 and V; otherwise, it is reducible.
Rationale for a Localization Formula
Authors: Tu Loring W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter offers a rationale for a localization formula. It looks at the equivariant localization formula of Atiyah–Bott and Berline–Vergne. The equivariant localization formula of Atiyah–Bott and Berline–Vergne expresses, for a torus action, the integral of an equivariantly closed form over a compact oriented manifold as a finite sum over the fixed point set. The central idea is to express a closed form as an exact form away from finitely many points. Throughout his career, Raoul Bott exploited this idea to prove many different localization formulas. The chapter then considers circle actions with finitely many fixed points. It also studies the spherical blow-up.
Introduction
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: January 2021

This chapter covers the philosophical literature on the problem of free will and moral responsibility. It sketches the basic, intuitive problem and explains some terms, such as determinism, compatibilism, and incompatibilism. It talks about P. F. Strawson's “Freedom and Resentment,” in which he aims to resolve an age-old dispute about moral responsibility and free will. The chapter explains how Strawson addresses the problem regarding the scientific thesis of determinism that poses a threat to moral responsibility and freedom. It also points out that according to the thesis of determinism, the complete physical state of the world at any one point in time determines the complete physical state of the world at all other points in time. It emphasizes that the world is deterministic if determinism is true of it.
Strawson’s Strategy
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: January 2021

This chapter reviews P. F. Strawson's aim to adjudicate and reconcile the debate between a gloomy incompatibilist about moral responsibility and determinism, whom he calls “the pessimist,” and a consequentialist compatibilist, whom he calls “the optimist.” It explains the optimist's argument that the practices of holding one another responsible are justified by their good consequences, whether or not determinism is true. It points out that by engaging in such practices, people secure important social goods. The chapter analyzes why the pessimist finds the attempted justification of optimists on the practices of holding one another responsible as appalling. It addresses the justification of practices of blaming and punishing through the appeal of their good consequences.
The Remaining Objections
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: January 2021

This chapter brings to light more of P. F. Strawson's underlying metaethical picture of the remaining objections. It addresses the pessimists' continued dissatisfactions from the firm conviction that there are conditions not just on the possibility or workability, but on the moral legitimacy of relating to others in the ordinary way or circumstances. It analyzes the pessimist's belief that it is unfair to hold someone responsible when their action was out of their control, when they lacked alternative possibilities, or when their behavior was forced or fated. The chapter also discusses the belief that if determinism is true, then every person is always in the condition to lack control or possibilities. It also explains how ordinary relating can be morally illegitimate if determinismis true.
Conclusion
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: January 2021

This chapter summarizes P. F. Strawson's thoughts about people's natural and nonrational commitment to engage in characteristically interpersonal relationships. It expands Strawsons' views that the quality of people' wills toward others matter to them, that people put some set of demands on the quality of others' wills, and that people will react in certain ways when those demands are violated or exceeded. It also describes how people typically engage with others in a characteristically interpersonal way. The chapter explains how the exact demands and reactions, as well as details of people's ordinary interpersonal relationships are a natural fact and a product of life as it actually happens. It also illustrates the ways people sometimes characteristically suspend interpersonal relating when circumstances are extreme or when someone is incapable of engaging in it.
A Theory of Political Change
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B.
Published: January 2021

This chapter outlines a theory of political change. This theory conceives of party competition as a constant struggle between dominant parties, the key players on the political market trying to defend their market power, and challenger parties, acting as disruptive political entrepreneurs trying to challenge this dominance through innovation. The chapter then explores the interplay of the three main conceptual building blocks: dominance, innovation, and transformation. Innovation is the process through which political parties introduce a new or previously ignored policy issue and aim to discredit dominant parties by employing antiestablishment rhetoric. Political parties will only engage in innovation when the potential benefits of doing so outweigh the costs. Challenger parties, especially those within permissive electoral systems, are most likely to engage in innovation, because of the costs and potential electoral risks to dominant parties associated with mobilizing issues different than the ones they traditionally do. Parties that wish to innovate are likely to choose issues that allow for a high degree of appropriability, issues that are not easily subsumed within the dominant dimension and that may internally split dominant parties.
Antiestablishment Rhetoric
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B.
Published: January 2021

This chapter studies antiestablishment rhetoric. Antiestablishment rhetoric is not only used by many political entrepreneurs to paint themselves as outsiders, but is also a core feature of populism. Populist parties aim to distinguish themselves from the political mainstream not only by advocating anti-immigration or anti-EU stances, but also by attacking the mainstream political parties. Yet the chapter shows that antiestablishment rhetoric is a strategy used not only by populist parties, but by other political parties as well. It then situates the use of antiestablishment rhetoric in the book's more general argument about party strategy and its theory of political change. Antiestablishment rhetoric by political parties is predominantly aimed at attacking the competence of competitors, and is especially used by challenger parties.
Future Scenarios
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B.
Published: January 2021

This chapter summarizes the main arguments and findings of the book by defining two key principles that guide political change in Europe. These two principles are the principle of contestability and the principle of appropriability. The principle of contestability focuses on the likelihood that a party can gain a larger share of the political market if it offers a product of greater value to voters. The principle of appropriability concerns the extent to which a successful innovator can capture the benefits resulting from its innovation. The chapter then outlines three different scenarios for the future of European politics. It also highlights topics which were not addressed in this book, but are nonetheless important areas for future research. Finally, the chapter discusses important normative considerations about the stability and resilience of democratic institutions.
Modeling Populations of Adaptive Individuals
Authors: Railsback Steven F. , Harvey Bret C.
Published: January 2021

Ecologists now recognize that the dynamics of populations, communities, and ecosystems are strongly affected by adaptive individual behaviors. Yet until now, we have lacked effective and flexible methods for modeling such dynamics. Traditional ecological models become impractical with the inclusion of behavior, and the optimization approaches of behavioral ecology cannot be used when future conditions are unpredictable due to feedbacks from the behavior of other individuals. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to state- and prediction-based theory, or SPT, a powerful new approach to modeling trade-off behaviors in contexts such as individual-based population models where feedbacks and variability make optimization impossible. This book features a wealth of examples that range from highly simplified behavior models to complex population models in which individuals make adaptive trade-off decisions about habitat and activity selection in highly heterogeneous environments. The book explains how SPT builds on key concepts from the state-based dynamic modeling theory of behavioral ecology, and how it combines explicit predictions of future conditions with approximations of a fitness measure to represent how individuals make good—not optimal—decisions that they revise as conditions change. The resulting models are realistic, testable, adaptable, and invaluable for answering fundamental questions in ecology and forecasting ecological outcomes of real-world scenarios.
Raymond
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter details Natalia Ilyinichna Tcherniak's first meeting with Raymond Sarraute in 1923 when he askedto borrow her lecture notes to catch up after being ill. It mentions their marriage eighteen months later, just immediately after sitting for their final exams. It also points out that unlike Nathalia, Raymond enjoyed legal study since his father was a lawyer, and he himself went on to become an avocat at the court of appeal. The chapter emphasizes how Natalia never used her father's name again after taking Raymond's surname on their marriage in 1925. It describes her transition from the Russian-born Natalia Tcherniak to an entirely French-sounding Nathalie Sarraute.
Jewish by Decree, 1939–42
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter begins with the threat of an impending war that might jeopardize the publication of Nathalie Sarraute's Tropisms in 1938. It details how Nathalie acquired a lifelong habit of writing in cafés after she gave up her room in the rue de la Tombe-Issoire. It discusses Nathalie's experience of witnessing the arrival of tanks when the Germans reached La Baule, which left a trace in her writing and provided an analogy for the imposition of intellectual orthodoxy in her novel “The Golden Fruits.” The chapter recounts the suicide of Nathalie's father-in-law in order to protect her family from anti-Semitic measures after he was asked if his late wife was Jewish. It also points out how Nathalie never alluded to Raymond Sarraute of his father's death during his imprisonment in in Drancy, supposing it was personal grief for her loss.
In Hiding, 1942–44
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the continuous imposition of anti-Semitic measures on all parts of everyday life for Jews in the Occupied Zone by the summer of 1942. It recounts Raymond Sarraute's return from Drancy after being cleared of any suspicion of Jewishness and the practical measures he came up with to keep his wife, Nathalie Sarraute, out of harm's way. It talks about Nathalie and her family's stay at a gardener's cottage in the village of Janvry, which Raymond visits on the weekend after he resumed his legal practice. The chapter details how Nathalie resumed her writing in the café two doors along from the cottage, where completed what she later described as a sequel to “tropisms.” It mentions Raymond's participation in various Resistance groups, including one supported by the lawyers at the Paris Bar.
Saint-Germain-des-Prés, 1944–47
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks into how Nathalie Sarraute's literary fortunes were turned when she encountered Jean-Paul Sartre again after the Liberation. It describes Nathalie's meeting with Sartre at the Café de Flore, which was one of the venues in Saint-Germain that served as headquarters for Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir during and after the Occupation. It narrates how Nathalie found Sartre as a rare interlocutor with whom to discuss her writing, such as the “Portrait of an Unknown Man,” which she had been working on since 1940. The chapter analyzes Sartre's discussion on Jewish identity as the projection of an anti-Semitic viewpoint, which influenced Nathalie as she herself had been made Jewish by the Occupation. It also reviews Nathalie's “tropisms,” which explored the susceptibility of the individual to the image of himself in the eyes of an interlocutor.
The Elephant’s Child, 1947–49
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter talks about the completion of Nathalie Sarraute's manuscript on “Portrait of an Unknown Man,” which she delivered to Simone de Beauvoir at the Café de Flore. It mentions how Beauvoir took Nathalie's manuscript to Jean Paulhan instead of Camus, making it the third time that Nathalie's manuscript was submitted to Paulhan's editorial scrutiny and eventually rejected. It also recounts Jean-Paul Sartre's composition of the preface for the “Portrait of an Unknown Man” as he realized Nathalie would have problems convincing a publisher to take it. The chapter describes the personal animus between Nathalie and Beauvoir that gradually hardened into outright hostility. It discloses how Nathalie was particularly sensitive to the unequal nature of her relations with Beauvoir and confronted her after she delivered her manuscript to Paulhan.
A Reading Public, 1963–66
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter recounts the literary prize Nathalie Sarraute won in May 1964 after seven years as a judge of literary prizes. It discloses that Nathalie won the International Publishers' Prize for her novel “The Golden Fruits.” It also explains that the award was overseen by a committee of prestigious representatives from France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, and Italy and was intended to promote avant-garde literature by authors of any nationality whose existing body of work will have a lasting influence on the development of modern literature. The chapter talks about Nathalie's regular contact with the Belgian literary and art critic, René Micha, who was preparing an article about her for the “National revue française” (NRF). It details the exchange of letters between Nathalie and Micha, in which Nathalie expressed appreciation of his critical acumen.
Plays on Stage, 1972–88
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses Nathalie Sarraute's writing for the theatre as she entered her seventies, which provided her with concerns that took the language of the tropism in new directions. It details Nathalie's play “Izzum,” which was staged by theatre director Claude Régy at the Espace Pierre-Cardin, solidifying Nathalie's growing reputation as a dramatist. It also explains how Régy's conception of theatre was particularly well suited to Nathalie's writing and facilitated the transition from an auditory to a scenic medium. The chapter mentions Nathalie's play “It Is There” as the last of the plays to be produced by Régy. It also discusses “For No Good Reason” that became Nathalie's best-known and best-loved work for the stage.
The Way In
Authors: Bobker Danielle
Published: January 2021

This chapter outlines the broad historical and conceptual foundations for the focused explorations on the closet. It analyzes the domestic privacy and modern selfhood that has overshadowed the closet's origins as a site of politicized intimacy and its flexibility as a locus of interpersonal relations in eighteenth-century Britain. It also assesses how the emergence of democratic social feelings has generally directed attention away from the closet and toward more obviously heterogeneous scenes of sociability, such as the coffee house. The chapter considers the closet's peculiar aptness as a setting and symbol of social transition. It explains how the closet is widely recognized as a place where reciprocal feelings could flourish against a backdrop of rigid status distinctions and how it revealed the exhilarating and also uncomfortable new processes and prospects of inclusion.
Theories
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses the practice approach that locates itself within the same theoretical tradition but emphasizes different aspects of influential contributions. It looks into the meta-concepts that provided analytic tools, rather than the culturally circumscribed applications to which they were put. It also mentions Émile Durkheim's categories of sacred and profane as fundamentally different aspects of reality. The chapter studies the practice approach that emphasizes Durkheim's discussion of the rituals in which people engage to create, maintain, and empower divisions. It explains how structuring processes refer to a series of actions that unfold over time and do so within the constraints of circumstances, resources, and previous activities. It also analyzes the theoretical contributions associated with the shift from classificatory concepts to structuring processes.
Introduction
Authors: Havrelock Rachel
Published: January 2021

This chapter shows the trajectory of biblical interpretation that leads to Democrats, Iranians, and Palestinians alike in figuring the dreaded and fearful “them” that is to be opposed at all turns. It tells the story of how the biblical figure of Joshua entered modern political life. It helps understand specific moments like Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's address to Congress or the contrasting notion that Barack Obama's election indicated the onset of the Joshua Generation by moving through the Book of Joshua itself, siting alternate readings of the biblical text, and pointing out the history of its Israeli interpretation. The chapter analyzes the political currency of the idea of a Promised Land. As it provides a cultural genealogy of the term “occupation” in Hebrew, the chapter also assesses the rhetoric of war and its relationship to social reality.
Reading and Not Reading The Faerie Queene
Authors: Nicholson Catherine
Published: January 2021

“I am now in the country, and reading in Spencer's fairy-queen. Pray what is the matter with me?” The plaint of an anonymous reader in 1712 sounds with endearing frankness a note of consternation that resonates throughout The Faerie Queene's reception history, from its first known reader, Spenser's friend Gabriel Harvey, who urged him to write anything else instead, to Virginia Woolf, who insisted that if one wants to like the poem, “the first essential is, of course, not to read” it. For more than four centuries critics have sought to counter this strain of readerly resistance, but rather than trying to remedy the frustrations and failures of Spenser's readers, this book cherishes them as a sensitive barometer of shifts in the culture of reading itself. Indeed, tracking the poem's mixed fortunes in the hands of its bored, baffled, outraged, intoxicated, obsessive, and exhausted readers turns out to be an excellent way of rethinking the past and future prospects of literary study. By examining the responses of readers from Queen Elizabeth and the keepers of Renaissance commonplace books to nineteenth-century undergraduates, Victorian children, and modern scholars, this book offers a compelling new interpretation of the poem and an important new perspective on what it means to read, or not to read, a work of literature.
Introduction
Authors: Nicholson Catherine
Published: January 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene. It is the peculiar and discomfiting genius of The Faerie Queene to call reading into question. Few works have a greater capacity to inspire pleasure, few do more to tax readers' patience, and none, perhaps, has a stronger propensity to fill them with self-doubt. Written at a moment when right reading was at once a stringently regulated ideal and a “complex and protean enterprise,” The Faerie Queene invests the work of interpretation with extraordinary, even existential, power: in the densely coded, relentlessly violent world of Spenser's poem, learning to read in the precise fashion that a particular text or occasion requires is the means to narrative survival. Its intricacy and immensity may be overwhelming, but they yield a fractal-like distribution of interest: famously difficult to comprehend, The Faerie Queene is nonetheless susceptible of interpretation at every scale.
Half-Envying
Authors: Nicholson Catherine
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses the degree to which Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene not only responds to reading “characterologically” but solicits it, as an offering to and claim upon the reader whose interest Spenser was most anxious to secure. The Faerie Queene is not a tightly plotted prose narrative, and its intended reader was no figment of Spenser's imagination. On the contrary, she was a living ruler on whose favor the poet's livelihood depended and to whom, on at least one occasion, he read parts of his uncompleted poem aloud. These well-known facts are related in nonobvious ways: Queen Elizabeth's engrossment in The Faerie Queene is the poem's motivating and sustaining fiction, as well as the scene of an imagined catastrophe it must labor to forestall. In claiming Elizabeth as inspiration and ideal reader, Spenser's poem participates in a collective fiction of the queen's willing self-subjection to her chastely devoted male subjects, a fiction whose seditious and erotic subtexts were at perpetual risk of contaminating the official narrative.
A Hierarchy of Turing Degrees
Authors: Downey Rod , Greenberg Noam
Published: January 2021

Computability theory is a branch of mathematical logic and computer science that has become increasingly relevant in recent years. The field has developed growing connections in diverse areas of mathematics, with applications in topology, group theory, and other subfields. This book introduces a new hierarchy that allows them to classify the combinatorics of constructions from many areas of computability theory, including algorithmic randomness, Turing degrees, effectively closed sets, and effective structure theory. This unifying hierarchy gives rise to new natural definability results for Turing degree classes, demonstrating how dynamic constructions become reflected in definability. The book presents numerous construction techniques involving high-level nonuniform arguments, and their self-contained work is appropriate for graduate students and researchers. Blending traditional and modern research results in computability theory, the book establishes novel directions in the field.
The hierarchy of totally α‎-c.a. degrees
Authors: Downey Rod , Greenberg Noam
Published: January 2021

This chapter investigates the hierarchy of totally α‎-c.a. degrees. It demonstrates precisely when this hierarchy collapses (Theorem 3.6) and refines this hierarchy when one considers totally less than α‎-c.a. degrees (Theorem 3.25). The chapter then looks at uniform versions of the classes. The array computable degrees were a uniform version of the totally ω‎-c.a. degrees, in that the previous chapter took a single computable bound on the mind-change function of approximations of functions in the degree. This chapter finds the right formulation that generalises this to define uniformly totally α‎-c.a. degrees, and shows (Theorem 3.20) how they fit in the hierarchy.
The Romanticism of Defeat
Authors: Shklar Judith N.
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks into the possibility of pure Romanticism no longer existing in the present day, while the “unhappy consciousness” flourishes as never before. It talks about how Romanticism does not express itself today in spontaneous outbursts of feeling, noting that the change in tone has not brought Romanticism an inch closer to traditional philosophy. It also mentions how the unhappy consciousness has become acutely aware of itself as the realization that God is dead and how it analyzes its condition with a detachment unknown to the earlier romantics. The chapter examines the distance between the unique self, the increase of the surrounding world, and the unhappy consciousness that openly admits its sense of meaninglessness in the present. It discusses the survival of aesthetic idealism in its negative form as a basis for social criticism.
What Are Rights?
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on the general agreement that rights are an aspect of humanity and are intertwined in the promotion of human rights. It clarifies that rights are not dependent on characteristics such as race, nationality, or gender, nor do they depend on a person's presence within the territory of a particular political entity. It also explains that rights are ethical norms with a legal content that requires that they should be honored and enforced by public institutions. The chapter addresses disputes over rights that question which norms warrant universal legal enforcement. It talks about the Declaration of Independence as the most sweeping concept of rights, which not only included “Life” and “Liberty” but also the “pursuit of Happiness.”
Conclusion
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: January 2021

This chapter concludes that international trade and trade policies are frequently the object of condemnation rather than approbation. It explains how the condemnation are often the result of misconceptions about the benefits of international trade, the impact of trade policies, and the role and function of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Though the last few decades have been marked by a general reduction in trade barriers, the matter is not settled because the pressures to weaken the commitment to open markets never abate. The chapter emphasizes on difficult policy choices at the intersection of trade policy and climate change that could hold key battles over the world trading system in coming years. It also highlights the several benefits of world trade and the contribution of trade to the welfare and prosperity of billions of people around the world.
Food and Famine
Authors: Kaell Hillary
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores shock imagery in late nineteenth-century missions and the First World War. When war struck, relief organizations proliferated on a scale that far outstripped previous humanitarian interventions. Among the tools they mobilized was sponsorship. The chapter discusses two programs: Near East Relief (NER) and Fatherless Children of France (FCF). Like many equivalent organizations, they operated out of New York City, were non-sectarian, and championed by elite donors. The chapter then focuses on new visual media, especially photography, that bolstered U.S. Christians' ability to incorporate absent/present children into the intimate spaces of family life, while honing a god's eye view of the world. It considers this visual media together with visceral (embodied) techniques as collaborative tools in emergency relief.
Materialism and Consumption
Authors: Kaell Hillary
Published: January 2021

This chapter studies how the circulation of gifts and money raises fraught questions about U.S. “materialism” and the unjust global distribution of “abundance.” It starts in the 1960s to 1980s, beginning with a shift in how U.S. Christians conceived of materialism. The chapter then explores three popular anti-materialist tactics related to choosing a child to sponsor, small and homespun gifts, and the rhetorical transfiguration of consumer objects into emotions like joy and love. It also draws on the author's contemporary fieldwork at Operation Christmas Child to consider the continued role of objects as points of contact in Christian globalism. Ultimately, U.S. Christians seek to overcome their anxieties about materialism by embracing materiality—the gifts, donations, and other objects of love that seem to provide the surest way to manifest and circulate Love across the world.
Trust and Aspiration
Authors: Kaell Hillary
Published: January 2021

This chapter traces how Christian sponsorship organizations adapt secular audit culture. It begins by exploring how sponsors frame aspirations for foreign children's futures. The chapter then turns to modes of verification. Since sponsors cannot personally verify the results of their giving, they expect detailed facsimiles in the form of audits, graphs, and Better Business Bureau or Charity Navigator reports. Yet very few sponsors actually consult these documents. Instead, they and the organizations they support cultivate multifaceted modes of trust-creation using measures of success that might at first seem divergent, such as financial audits, answered prayers, and children's smiles. Sponsors also rely on aspirational talk and on affective participatory techniques. The chapter concludes with a short section about sponsors' hopes and fears for the world as a whole. Throughout, it underlines God's bridging power: U.S. Christians view the (Holy) Spirit and (divine) Love as the forces that keep Christian organizations honest, animate sponsor–child relationships, and move human beings toward successful outcomes.
Globalism, Made and Remade
Authors: Kaell Hillary
Published: January 2021

This concluding chapter argues that one can pinpoint a broad pattern in U.S. Christianity: globalism operates in the unstable space between God-scale immensity and human-scale particularity. It is the dialogical relation between immensity and particularity that gives globalism its tensile strength and creates highly effective tools for engaged empathy, as attested by the billions of dollars that American individuals give to overseas projects each year. Christian globalism yearns for a certain kind of future. In its modern American form, these expectant hopes are inseparable from intimate human relations that are understood as an expression of, and channel for, the ultimate relation of human beings to their common Creator. This is what has driven U.S. Christians at home to support children abroad for more than 200 years. These are the aspirations, sometimes ineffable, often bodily and concrete, that make and remake global subjects.
The University and the Global Knowledge Society
Authors: Frank David John , Meyer John W.
Published: January 2021

The university is experiencing an unprecedented level of success today, as more universities in more countries educate more students in more fields. At the same time, the university has become central to a knowledge society based on the belief that everyone can, through higher education, access universal truths and apply them in the name of progress. This book traces the university's rise over the past hundred years to become the cultural linchpin of contemporary society, revealing how the so-called ivory tower has become profoundly interlinked with almost every area of human endeavor. The book describes how, as the university expanded, student and faculty bodies became larger, more diverse, and more empowered to turn knowledge into action. Their contributions to society underscored the public importance of scholarship, and as the cultural authority of universities grew they increased the scope of their research and teaching interests. As a result, the university has become the bedrock of today's information-based society, an institution that is now implicated in the solution to every conceivable problem. But, as the book also shows, the conditions that helped spur the university's recent ascendance are not immutable: eruptions of nationalism, authoritarianism, and illiberalism undercut the university's universalistic and rationalistic premises, and may threaten the centrality of the university itself.
The Expanded University and the Knowledge Society
Authors: Frank David John , Meyer John W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter depicts the elaborated and porous interface between the university and society, paying special attention to the expanded number and range of linkages. It analyzes how people and knowledge flow from nodes in the university into arenas in society. It reviews the main lines of expansion that run from the university to the knowledge society. The chapter talks about the evolving modern and hyper-modern societies that constantly expand the academic arena, such as creating more universities, sending more people to those universities, and creating more tasks for the knowledge system to manage. It also discusses contemporary societies that are rationalized problem factories.