bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The predatory mite Hypoaspis miles: temperature dependent life table characteristics on a diet of sciarid larvae, Bradysia paupera and B. tritici
Authors: Ydergaard S. , Enkegaard A. , Brødsgaard H. F.
Published: October 2003

Life table characteristics of Hypoaspis miles Berlese (Acarina: Hypoaspidae) fed on a mixture of Bradysia paupera Tuomikoski (Diptera: Sciaridae) and B. tritici Coquillet larvae were investigated in laboratory experiments at 4 temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30 °C) for development time, juvenile mortality, sex ratio, preoviposition period, oviposition period, postoviposition period, age‐specific fecundity, and adult longevity. Juvenile development time decreased with increasing temperature from 46 days at 15 °C to 10 days at 30 °C. The lower temperature threshold was 9.9 °C and development required 205 °D. Juvenile mortality decreased from 52% at 15 °C to 3% at 25 °C and then increased to 24% at 30 °C. Preoviposition period varied with temperature from 12 days at 15 °C to 3 days at 25 °C and then increased to about 4 days at 30 °C. Oviposition period decreased with increasing temperature from 58 days at 15 °C to 25 days at 30 °C. The mean number of eggs per female per day increased from 0.4 at 15 °C to 2.3 at 25 °C and decreased to 1.3 at 30 °C. Age‐specific fecundity was described by a temperature dependent model from which the maximum daily fecundity rate could be estimated to be attained at 25.6 °C. Female longevity was significantly shorter than for males, and decreased from 90 days at 15 °C to 34 days at 30 °C. Sex ratio was female‐biased at all 4 temperatures and increased with temperature up to 25 °C, decreasing at 30 °C. Estimates of net reproductive rate, intrinsic rate of increase, finite rate of increase, mean generation time and doubling time were obtained. The rm‐value increased with temperature from 0.031 day−1 at 15 °C to 0.133 day−1 at 25 °C, after which it decreased to 0.112 day−1 at 30 °C. The study showed that H. miles can develop and reproduce at temperatures between 15 and 30 °C. H. miles and sciarids have approximately the same optimum temperature and thresholds for development and reproduction and H. miles can be used for biological control of sciarids within the temperature range where the pest occurs.
Intracellular Recognition of Lipopolysaccharide by Toll-like Receptor 4 in Intestinal Epithelial Cells
Authors: Hornef Mathias W. , Normark Birgitta Henriques , Vandewalle Alain , Normark Staffan
Published: October 2003

Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 has recently been shown to reside in the Golgi apparatus of intestinal crypt epithelial m-ICcl2 cells, colocalizing with internalized lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Here we demonstrate that disruption of the integrity of the Golgi apparatus significantly reduced LPS-mediated nuclear factor κB activation. Also, the TLR4 adaptor protein MyD88 and the serine/threonine kinase IRAK-1 were rapidly recruited to the Golgi apparatus upon stimulation. LPS-mediated activation required lipid raft formation and intact clathrin-dependent internalization. In contrast to macrophages, prevention of ligand internalization by use of LPS-coated beads significantly impaired recognition by epithelial cells. The localization of TLR4 to the Golgi apparatus was abrogated by expression of a genetically modified form of the TLR4 binding chaperone gp96. Thus, our data provide evidence that in contrast to the situation in macrophages, LPS recognition in intestinal epithelial cells may occur in the Golgi apparatus and require LPS internalization.
Differential Regulation of Interleukin (IL)-12 p35 and p40 Gene Expression and Interferon (IFN)-γ–primed IL-12 Production by IFN Regulatory Factor 1
Authors: Liu Jianguo , Cao Shanjin , Herman Lisa M. , Ma Xiaojing
Published: October 2003

Interleukin (IL)-12 is a heterodimeric cytokine consisting of the p40 and p35 chains encoded on separate chromosomes. Coordinated expression of the two constituent genes is crucial for appropriate immune responses in timing, location, and magnitude. Interferon (IFN)-γ priming of IL-12 production by macrophages represents an important physiological process in vivo for escalated cellular response to microbial infections. We provide evidence that IFN regulatory factor (IRF)-1–deficient macrophages have a selective impairment in mRNA synthesis of IL-12 p35 but not the p40 gene, and a strong deficiency in the production of IL-12 p70 but not p40. We demonstrate that the levels of IL-12 p35 protein stimulated by IFN-γ and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) correspond to those of its mRNA, and that the nuclear factor κB signaling pathway is essential for the induction of IL-12 p35 transcription by LPS. IRF-1 plays a major role in the transcriptional activation of the IL-12 p35 gene, but not of the p40 gene, by physically interacting with an inverted IRF element within the IL-12 p35 promoter upon IFN-γ activation. Moreover, IRF-1–mediated transcriptional activation of the p35 promoter requires the cooperation of two adjacent Sp1 elements. Thus, IRF-1 acts as a critical component of IFN-γ signaling in the selective activation of IL-12 p35 transcription in synergy with LPS-mediated events.
Human Decidual Natural Killer Cells Are a Unique NK Cell Subset with Immunomodulatory Potential
Authors: Koopman Louise A. , Kopcow Hernan D. , Rybalov Basya , Boyson Jonathan E. , Orange Jordan S. , Schatz Frederick , Masch Rachel , Lockwood Charles J. , Schachter Asher D. , Park Peter J. , Strominger Jack L.
Published: October 2003

Natural killer cells constitute 50–90% of lymphocytes in human uterine decidua in early pregnancy. Here, CD56bright uterine decidual NK (dNK) cells were compared with the CD56bright and CD56dim peripheral NK cell subsets by microarray analysis, with verification of results by flow cytometry and RT-PCR. Among the ∼10,000 genes studied, 278 genes showed at least a threefold change with P ≤ 0.001 when comparing the dNK and peripheral NK cell subsets, most displaying increased expression in dNK cells. The largest number of these encoded surface proteins, including the unusual lectinlike receptors NKG2E and Ly-49L, several killer cell Ig-like receptors, the integrin subunits αD, αX, β1, and β5, and multiple tetraspanins (CD9, CD151, CD53, CD63, and TSPAN-5). Additionally, two secreted proteins, galectin-1 and progestagen-associated protein 14, known to have immunomodulatory functions, were selectively expressed in dNK cells.
Lipopolysaccharide or Whole Bacteria Block the Conversion of Inflammatory Monocytes into Dendritic Cells In Vivo
Authors: Rotta Gianluca , Edwards Emmerson W. , Sangaletti Sabina , Bennett Clare , Ronzoni Simona , Colombo Mario P. , Steinman Ralph M. , Randolph Gwendalyn J. , Rescigno Maria
Published: October 2003

Monocytes can develop into dendritic cells (DCs) that migrate to lymph nodes (LNs) and present antigens to T cells. However, we find that this differentiation is blocked when monocytes accumulate subcutaneously in response to bacteria or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The inhibition of DC differentiation is mediated by the bacteria and in conjunction with inflammatory cells recruited at the site of injection. Inhibition of migratory DC development was reversed in Toll-like receptor (TLR)4-mutated mice when LPS, but not whole bacteria, was injected, suggesting that TLR4 is one but not the only mediator of the inhibition. The block imposed by bacteria was partly relieved by the absence of interleukin (IL)-12 p40, but not by individual absence of several cytokines involved in DC differentiation or in inflammation, i.e., IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 p35, and interferon γ. Consistent with the inability of monocytes to yield migrating DCs, and the finding that other DCs had limited access to particulate or bacterial antigens, these antigens were weakly presented to T cells in the draining LN. These results illustrate that bacteria-associated signals can have a negative regulatory role on adaptive immunity and that local innate responses for containment of infectious bacteria can at least initially supersede development of adaptive responses.
A Critical Role for OX40 in T Cell–mediated Immunopathology during Lung Viral Infection
Authors: Humphreys Ian R. , Walzl Gerhard , Edwards Lorna , Rae Aaron , Hill Sue , Hussell Tracy
Published: October 2003

Respiratory infections are the third leading cause of death worldwide. Illness is caused by pathogen replication and disruption of airway homeostasis by excessive expansion of cell numbers. One strategy to prevent lung immune–mediated damage involves reducing the cellular burden. To date, antiinflammatory strategies have affected both antigen-specific and naive immune repertoires. Here we report a novel form of immune intervention that specifically targets recently activated T cells alone. OX40 (CD134) is absent on naive T cells but up-regulated 1–2 d after antigen activation. OX40–immunoglobulin fusion proteins block the interaction of OX40 with its ligand on antigen-presenting cells and eliminate weight loss and cachexia without preventing virus clearance. Reduced proliferation and enhanced apoptosis of lung cells accompanied the improved clinical phenotype. Manipulation of this late costimulatory pathway has clear therapeutic potential for the treatment of dysregulated lung immune responses.
Molecular Mimicry between Helicobacter pylori Antigens and H+,K+–Adenosine Triphosphatase in Human Gastric Autoimmunity
Authors: Amedei Amedeo , Bergman Mathijs P. , Appelmelk Ben J. , Azzurri Annalisa , Benagiano Marisa , Tamburini Carlo , van der Zee Ruurd , Telford John L. , Vandenbroucke-Grauls Christina M.J.E. , D'Elios Mario M. , Del Prete Gianfranco
Published: October 2003

Autoimmune gastritis and Helicobacter pylori–associated gastric atrophy develop through similar mechanisms involving the proton pump H+,K+–adenosine triphosphatase as autoantigen. Here, we report that H. pylori–infected patients with gastric autoimmunity harbor in vivo–activated gastric CD4+ T cells that recognize both H+,K+–adenosine triphosphatase and H. pylori antigens. We characterized the submolecular specificity of such gastric T cells and identified cross-reactive epitopes from nine H. pylori proteins. Cross-reactive H. pylori peptides induced T cell proliferation and expression of T helper type 1 functions. We suggest that in genetically susceptible individuals, H. pylori infection can activate cross-reactive gastric T cells leading to gastric autoimmunity via molecular mimicry.
Thrombospondin 1 Is an Autocrine Negative Regulator of Human Dendritic Cell Activation
Authors: Doyen Virginie , Rubio Manuel , Braun Deborah , Nakajima Toshiaru , Abe Jun , Saito Hirohisa , Delespesse Guy , Sarfati Marika
Published: October 2003

Thrombospondin 1 (TSP) elicits potent antiinflammatory activities in vivo, as evidenced by persistent, multiorgan inflammation in TSP null mice. Herein, we report that DCs represent an abundant source of TSP at steady state and during activation. Human monocyte-derived immature dendritic cells (iDCs) spontaneously produce TSP, which is strongly enhanced by PGE2 and to a lesser extent by transforming growth factor (TGF) β, two soluble mediators secreted by macrophages after engulfment of damaged tissues. Shortly after activation via danger signals, DCs transiently produce interleukin (IL) 12 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α, thereby eliciting protective and inflammatory immune responses. Microbial stimuli increase TSP production, which is further enhanced by IL-10 or TGF-β. The endogenous TSP produced during early DC activation negatively regulates IL-12, TNF-α, and IL-10 release through its interactions with CD47 and CD36. After prolonged activation, DCs extinguish their cytokine synthesis and become refractory to subsequent stimulation, thereby favoring the return to steady state. Such “exhausted” DCs continue to release TSP but not IL-10. Disrupting TSP–CD47 interactions during their restimulation restores their cytokine production. We conclude that DC-derived TSP serves as a previously unappreciated negative regulator contributing to arrest of cytokine production, further supporting its fundamental role in vivo in the active resolution of inflammation and maintenance of steady state.
Msh2 ATPase Activity Is Essential for Somatic Hypermutation at A-T Basepairs and for Efficient Class Switch Recombination
Authors: Martin Alberto , Li Ziqiang , Lin Diana P. , Bardwell Philip D. , Iglesias-Ussel Maria D. , Edelmann Winfried , Scharff Matthew D.
Published: October 2003

Somatic hypermutation (SHM) and class switch recombination (CSR) are initiated by activation-induced cytidine deaminase–mediated cytidine deamination of immunoglobulin genes. MutS homologue (Msh) 2−/− mice have reduced A-T mutations and CSR. This suggests that Msh2 may play a role in repairing activation-induced cytidine deaminase–generated G-U mismatches. However, because Msh2 not only initiates mismatch repair but also has other functions, such as signaling for apoptosis, it is not known which activity of Msh2 is responsible for the effects observed, and consequently, many models have been proposed. To further dissect the role of Msh2 in SHM and CSR, mice with a “knockin” mutation in the Msh2 gene that inactivates the adenosine triphosphatase domain were examined. This mutation (i.e., Msh2G674A), which does not affect apoptosis signaling, allows mismatches to be recognized but prevents Msh2 from initiating mismatch repair. Here, we show that, similar to Msh2−/− mice, SHM in Msh2G674A mice is biased toward G-C mutations. However, CSR is partially reduced, and switch junctions are more similar to those of postmeiotic segregation 2−/− mice than to Msh2−/− mice. These results indicate that Msh2 adenosine triphosphatase activity is required for A-T mutations, and suggest that Msh2 has more than one role in CSR.
Elimination In Vivo of Developing T Cells by Natural Killer Cells
Authors: Schott Eckart , Bonasio Roberto , Ploegh Hidde L.
Published: October 2003

Natural killer cells gauge the absence of self class I MHC on susceptible target cells by means of inhibitory receptors such as members of the Ly49 family. To initiate killing by natural killer cells, a lack of inhibitory signals must be accompanied by the presence of activating ligands on the target cell. Although natural killer cell–mediated rejection of class I MHC–deficient bone marrow (BM) grafts is a matter of record, little is known about the targeting in vivo of specific cellular subsets by natural killer cells. We show here that development of class I MHC–negative thymocytes is delayed as a result of natural killer cell toxicity after grafting of a class I MHC–positive host with class I MHC–negative BM. Double positive thymocytes that persist in the presence of natural killer cells display an unusual T cell receptor–deficient phenotype, yet nevertheless give rise to single positive thymocytes and yield mature class I MHC–deficient lymphocytes that accumulate in the class I MHC–positive host. The resulting class I MHC–deficient CD8 T cells are functional and upon activation remain susceptible to natural killer cell toxicity in vivo. Reconstitution of class I MHC–deficient BM precursors with H2-Kb by retroviral transduction fully restores normal thymic development.
Maximal operators on spaces of homogeneous type
Authors: Pradolini Gladis , Salinas Oscar
Published: October 2003

We avoid the assumption given in the work of C. Pérez and R. Wheeden (2001) to prove boundedness properties of certain maximal functions in a general setting of the spaces of homogeneous type with infinite measure. In addition, an example shows that the result can be false if the space has finite measure.
A classification of rapidly growing Ramsey functions
Authors: Weiermann Andreas
Published: October 2003

Letffbe a number-theoretic function. A finite setXXof natural numbers is calledff-large ifcard(X)≥f(min(X))card(X)\geq f(min(X)). LetPHfPH_fbe the Paris Harrington statement where we replace the largeness condition by a correspondingff-largeness condition. We classify those functionsfffor which the statementPHfPH_fis independent of first order (Peano) arithmeticPAPA. Ifffis a fixed iteration of the binary length function, thenPHfPH_fis independent. On the other handPHlog∗PH_{\log ^*}is provable inPAPA. More precisely letfα(i):=|i|Hα−1(i)f_\alpha (i):= {\lvert i \rvert }_{H_\alpha ^{-1}(i)}where∣i∣h\mid i\mid _hdenotes thehh-times iterated binary length ofiiandHα−1H_\alpha ^{-1}denotes the inverse function of theα\alpha-th memberHαH_\alphaof the Hardy hierarchy. ThenPHfαPH_{f_\alpha }is independent ofPAPA(forα≤ε0\alpha \leq \varepsilon _0) iffα=ε0\alpha =\varepsilon _0.
There is no separable universal 𝐼𝐼₁-factor
Authors: Ozawa Narutaka
Published: October 2003

Gromov constructed uncountably many pairwise nonisomorphic discrete groups with Kazhdan’s property

(
T
)

\mathrm {(T)}

. We will show that no separable

I
I

1

\mathrm {II}_1

-factor can contain all these groups in its unitary group. In particular, no separable

I
I

1

\mathrm {II}_1

-factor can contain all separable

I
I

1

\mathrm {II}_1

-factors in it. We also show that the full group

C
∗

C^*

-algebras of some of these groups fail the lifting property.
Moufang loops and alternative algebras
Authors: Shestakov Ivan
Published: October 2003

Let

O

\mathbf {O}

be the algebra

O

\mathbf {O}

of classical real octonions or the (split) algebra of octonions over the finite field

G
F
(

p
2

)
,
 
p
>
2

GF(p^2),\ p>2

. Then the quotient loop

O

∗

/

Z
∗

\mathbf {O}^*/Z^*

of the Moufang loop

O

∗

\mathbf {O}^*

of all invertible elements of the algebra

O

\mathbf {O}

modulo its center

Z
∗

Z^*

is not embedded into a loop of invertible elements of any alternative algebra.
Rap1 Affects the Length and Heterogeneity of Human Telomeres
Authors: Li Bibo , de Lange Titia
Published: October 2003

Telomere length is controlled in part by cis-acting negative regulators that limit telomere extension by telomerase. In budding yeast, the major telomere length regulator scRap1 binds to telomeric DNA and acts to inhibit telomere elongation in cis. Because the human Rap1 ortholog hRap1 does not bind to telomeric DNA directly but is recruited to telomeres by TRF2, we examined its role in telomere length control. The data are consistent with hRap1 being a negative regulator of telomere length, indicating functional conservation. Deletion mapping confirmed that hRap1 is tethered to telomeres through interaction of its C terminus with TRF2. The telomere length phenotypes of hRap1 deletion mutants implicated both the BRCT and Myb domain as protein interaction domains involved in telomere length regulation. By contrast, scRap1 binds to telomeres with its Myb domains and uses its C terminus to recruit the telomere length regulators Rif1 and Rif2. Together, our data show that although the role of Rap1 at telomeres has been largely conserved, the domains of Rap1 have undergone extensive functional changes during eukaryotic evolution. Surprisingly, hRap1 alleles lacking the BRCT domain diminished the heterogeneity of human telomeres, indicating that hRap1 also plays a role in the regulation of telomere length distribution.
Consent and Its Counterfeits
Authors: Feinberg Joel
Published: October 2003

The dilemmas of legal paternalism arise in their most complicated forms in two‐party cases. Legislatures using a soft paternalistic strategy often enact laws, for instance, in the cases of suicide, drug sales, prostitution, etc., in which the reason for disallowing X's consent as a defense for Y's criminal conduct is that X's agreement must be overruled for his own good, which the state presumes to know better than he. Where actual consent can be determined at little cost, mere presumed dispositional consent will not be sufficient to transfer any responsibility to Y for X's act, or to deprive Y of his rightful grievance after the fact. Feinberg examines the nature and effect of consent, and considers when consent is problematic, in the light of the soft paternalist strategy in two‐party cases.
Failures of Consent: Coercive Offers
Authors: Feinberg Joel
Published: October 2003

Coercive offers rearrange a person's options in such a way as that he “has no choice” but to comply or else suffer an unacceptable consequence. They are offers because the proposer does not threaten any harm beyond what would happen anyway without his gratuitous intervention. Examining the related problems of noncoercive enticements, exploitation, unequal bargaining positions, and the applicability of coercion to criminal law problems, Feinberg maintains that a third party is justified in interfering forcibly with actions of X on Y's behalf if and only if those actions are harmful or dangerous to Y, and either Y has not consented to them or his consent was not sufficiently voluntary to be valid.
Failures of Consent: Defective Belief
Authors: Feinberg Joel
Published: October 2003

Deficient or mistaken information is another factor that can reduce or vitiate the voluntariness of consent. A person's consent may be nonvoluntary because of a misunderstanding over what is being agreed to, ignorance or mistake about background facts, mistaken expectation of future occurrences, limits to the assumption of risk, and fraud/deception. The chapter concludes with a treatment of these issues with respect to the problem of informed consent in medicine.
Failures of Consent: Incapacity
Authors: Feinberg Joel
Published: October 2003

In addition to force and defective beliefs, there are forms of moral and legal incapacity that may make an individual incapable of validly consenting to specific agreement because of various internal deficiencies of his own. Voluntariness‐reducing incapacity may be either volitional or cognitive, and it may be the product of either external factors or undeveloped or impaired faculties. The voluntariness‐reducing incapacities can be divided in respect to their durability into two major classes, those thought to be permanent impairments and those deemed merely temporary, and a third overlapping category for alternating or recurring impairments.
The Choice of Death
Authors: Feinberg Joel
Published: October 2003

The most important example of the influence of distraction or impairment on the voluntariness of consent is also the most difficult: the deliberate choice of one's own death made by a person who is incapable of killing, or unwilling to kill, himself. Feinberg devotes his chapter to the examination of the question of how the request for death made by an acutely suffering or depressed person can be voluntary enough for an enlightened criminal law to recognize it as ground for a kind of justified homicide.
“The Ethics of Belief” Reconsidered
Authors: Haack Susan
Published: October 2003

Addresses the relation between epistemic and moral duty. Argues against what the writer calls the special case thesis, according to which epistemic appraisal is merely an instance of moral appraisal. Argues also against the correlation thesis, which asserts that the appropriateness of a positive (negative) epistemic appraisal entails the appropriateness of a positive (negative) moral appraisal. Accepts, however, the overlap thesis, according to which some epistemically unjustified beliefs deserve an unfavorable moral appraisal. Regarding the Clifford‐James debate, argues that it is always epistemically wrong, but not always morally wrong, to believe on the basis of insufficient evidence.
Epistemic Justification and Normativity
Authors: Fumerton Richard
Published: October 2003

Is epistemic justification normative? Discusses four ways of justifying a positive answer, none of which the writer thinks succeed: epistemic justification is normative because it is (1) analogous to moral normativity, (2) a matter of following rules; (3) a matter of trying to achieve certain goals; and (4) analyzable in terms of blame and praise. The chief problem of explaining what makes epistemic justification normative is, according to the writer, cognitivism: the view that epistemic judgments describe objective features of the world. If cognitivism in epistemology is correct, it is hard to understand why epistemic judgments should be different from nonnormative judgments that describe objective reality.
Reflective Knowledge in the Best Circles
Authors: Sosa Ernest
Published: October 2003

In response to the well‐known circularity problems posed by Descartes and Moore, recommends externalist virtue epistemology, according to which a true belief amounts to knowledge if its truth is not an accident, i.e. if it was produced by apt faculties. Starting with the recognition of instances of perceptual knowledge produced by apt faculties, we can infer that our perceptual faculties must be reliable. Such reasoning invites the objection that in parallel fashion, the owner of a crystal ball can rely on his crystal ball itself to argue for its reliability. Replies that although things might be parallel as far as justification and internal coherence are concerned, a crucial difference arises when we consider the reliability of the sources in question: whereas our perceptual faculties are reliable and thus produce knowledge, the crystal ball is unreliable and thus fails to give its user knowledge. Acknowledges, however, that the exercise of apt faculties produces merely animal knowledge, and thus advocates what he calls “virtue perspectivism”: the view that reflective knowledge – a higher achievement than the acquisition of mere animal knowledge – arises only when we succeed in understanding how we know.
Culture
Authors: Kort Wesley A.
Published: October 2003

Culture mediates relations between Christian principles, beliefs or norms, and reality. Tied closely to language, culture is crucial to the work of relating Christianity to reality. Since cultures vary and change, Christian worldviews will differ according to location and time. Without a viable culture, Christianity cannot be related to daily reality and will be misunderstood or misused.
Idols, Idolatry, and Unnecessary Suffering
Authors: Fenn Richard K.
Published: October 2003

Secularization weakens the fascist potential of any social system and undermines the claims of world religions to represent universal forms of obligation. In such a context, a religionless Christianity may acquire new and expanded relevance. Secularity requires being fully aware of the bearing of the past and the future on the present moment. In secularized societies, religion may persist, but it will be increasingly understood as a set of cultural fictions that are optional and transparent rather than obligatory and mysterious. Especially in times of crisis, societies will become fascinated by individuals who seem to embody a wide range of occult possibilities.
Starting on the Path to Secularity
Authors: Fenn Richard K.
Published: October 2003

Secularization has democratized the legitimate interpretation of personal experience and strengthened the authority of the individual over and against the church and the state. Since the thirteenth century, the church has been losing its monopoly on the interpretation of spiritual experience in dreams and visions and in encounters with the dead. A highly complex and secularized society has multiple and open channels for encounters between the living and the dead. Democratic politics and natural science have their origins in movements to demystify and popularize discourse about the dead and about the unconscious.
Religious Life and Devotions
Authors: Haliczer Stephen
Published: October 2003

In rejecting the Protestant doctrine of justification by grace alone, the Counter‐Reformation reinforced the necessity of good works as the means toward salvation. This led women mystics to develop elaborate expressions of devotion to the Eucharist and Christ's Passion and even to miraculously receive the stigmata. Further, as belief in purgatory grew, the mystics assumed responsibility for interceding for the tormented souls, and they looked to the Virgin Mary as their own protector and mother. Visions abounded that may have been caused by dissociative disorder developed in childhood, physical and mental illness, and sleep deprivation.
Between Power and Impotence
Authors: Haliczer Stephen
Published: October 2003

Unlike most women in Spanish society, women mystics achieved some recognition and were frequently consulted by the nobility. ‘Approved’ mystics tended to have greater access to male aristocracy, while female nobles sought out ‘false’ mystics. Further, in general, the ‘false’ mystics tended to relate to persons of lesser social standing, particularly in ecclesiastical circles. The mystics served as advisors on moral conduct and spiritual matters, and they also interceded on behalf of those in trouble and performed healings. However, mystics remained entrenched in male‐dominated society and church and were rarely permitted public recognition through preaching or missionary work.
Motivation and Agency
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: October 2003

What is motivation, and what is its place in the lives of intelligent agents? This is Mele's guiding question. His search for an answer is sensitive to the theoretical concerns of philosophers of mind and action and moral philosophers, and is informed by empirical work in psychology. Mele defends answers to a web of questions about motivation and human agency, including the following: Will an acceptable moral theory make warranted conceptual or metaphysical demands of Kantian or other kinds on a theory of human motivation? Where does the motivational power of practical reasoning lie? How are reasons for action related to motivation? What do motivational explanations of different kinds have in common? What room will an acceptable view of the connection between motivational strength and intentional action leave for self‐control? Will a proper account of motivated, goal‐directed action be a causal account, and can a causal theory of the nature and explanation of action accommodate human agency par excellence? His answers collectively provide a distinctive, detailed, comprehensive, causal theory of human agency.
Motivation and Desire
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: October 2003

Introduces some terminology and important distinctions. Terms defined include “action–desire,” “motivational base,” and “motivation‐encompassing attitudes.” Among the distinctions drawn are: occurrent vs. standing desires, intrinsic vs. extrinsic desires, and desires vs. intentions. Other topics examined include direction of fit and the connection between motivation and desire.
Goal‐Directed Action
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: October 2003

Argues for a constraint on a proper theory of motivation – namely, that proper motivational explanations of goal‐directed actions are causal explanations. The chapter criticizes the thesis that acceptable teleological explanations of actions are not causal explanations and it offers a solution to a problem that deviant causal chains pose for a causal theory of action.
Attitudes That Essentially Encompass Motivation to Act
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: October 2003

Offers an analysis of a paradigmatic species of motivational attitude, one that essentially encompasses motivation to act, as action–desires and intentions do. It is argued that attitudes of this kind have, essentially, a functional connection to intentional action that beliefs lack. A subsidiary thesis is that so‐called “negative actions” do not undermine the analysis offered because, in fact, they divide into non‐actions and positive actions misdiagnosed as negative ones. The main support for the idea that there are truly negative actions – namely, that sometimes it is intentional on a person's part, and for a reason, that he does not do something – is explained away.
Human Agency Par Excellence
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: October 2003

Rebuts an objection David Velleman has raised against what he calls “the standard story of human action.” It is argued that the objection is misguided. The chapter reinforces the significance of various aspects of the causal theory of human agency developed in this book and shows more fully and explicitly how that theory applies to the upper range of human action, or what may be regarded as human action par excellence.
Introduction
Authors: Foot Philippa
Published: October 2003

The aim of the book is to determine the category to which the moral evaluation of human actions belongs. This involves making certain distinctions in the logical grammar of evaluations. Drawing upon Peter Geach's distinction, argues that ‘predicative’ adjectives and ‘attributive’ adjectives are logically different: a predicative adjective, such as ‘red’, operates independently of any noun to which it is attached, whereas an ‘attributive’ adjective, such as ‘good’, depends radically on that which is said to be good. The general thesis is that moral judgement of human actions and dispositions is one of those genres of evaluation that is characterized by the fact that its objects are living things.
Immoralism
Authors: Foot Philippa
Published: October 2003

Foot discusses Nietzsche's immoralism in the light of the foregoing account of moral evaluation. She begins with a preliminary account of Plato's response to immoralism in the first two books of the Republic. Foot distinguishes three theses in Nietzsche that may be called ‘immoralist’: the denial of free will, the attack on Christian or ‘pity’ morality, and the denial of intrinsic badness in acts; she discusses only the latter two. Regarding the attack on Christian morality, Foot argues that Nietzsche got the facts about human life wrong; regarding the claim that an act was right or wrong only in relation to the nature of the person who performs the act, Foot argues that this is a poisonous doctrine that has no sound basis in psychology. She concludes that Nietzsche's revaluation of all values might be valid for a different species, but cannot be valid for human beings.
Abstract Ideas
Authors: Winkler Kenneth P.
Published: October 2003

If representation is resemblance, how we do we think of groups or classes of things? According to a tradition Berkeley opposed—a tradition represented by Locke—we do so by forming abstract or incomplete ideas. I show that Berkeley's opposition does not depend on his own personal failure to form abstract images, but on what he took to be the impersonal or objective impossibility of abstract objects. Berkeley himself accounts for general thinking not in terms of abstract or incomplete ideas, but in terms of our selective attention to ideas both concrete and determinate. Contentful thought about the natural world is impossible without ideas as objects, Berkeley believes, but ideas do not, in his view, completely fix the content of our thought.
Cause and Effect
Authors: Winkler Kenneth P.
Published: October 2003

Berkeley holds that only spirits can be causes. I trace this conclusion to his belief that minds or spirits are able to render their effects intelligible in a way that unthinking things cannot. Causes and their effects are not (or not always) necessarily connected, in Berkeley's view, but there is more to causation than constant conjunction or regular association.
The Possibility of Incarnation
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

The Council of Chalcedon declared that one individual, Jesus Christ, had two natures – divine and human. His divine nature must be regarded as consisting of the essential divine properties plus the specific properties essential to the second member of the Trinity. The human nature must be regarded not as a substance, but as the contingent properties analysed in Ch. 1 that make someone human. New Testament and later‐Christian doctrine require that we understand the two collections of properties as instantiated somewhat separately from each other, so that Christ has two minds, a divine one and a human one, the human one not being fully aware of the divine one. Although Christ could have done no wrong, he could – but (according to Christian doctrine) did not – yield to temptation to do less than the best.
Semantics for Belief
Authors: Stalnaker Robert C.
Published: October 2003

A defence of a straightforward semantics for statements of the form ’x believes that P’ that takes the belief relation to be a relation between a believer and a possible‐worlds proposition. The apparatus developed in Ch. 4, ’Assertion’, is extended using the notion of a propositional concept, and of the diagonal proposition determined by a propositional concept to explain puzzle cases in which beliefs about identities are ascribed.
On What's in the Head
Authors: Stalnaker Robert C.
Published: October 2003

A criticism of internalism (and a defence of externalism) about the content of propositional attitudes. It is argued that the hypothesis that there is a notion of narrow content that might be used to characterize intentional mental states is a substantive hypothesis. There is little reason to believe that the hypothesis is true, or that we need a notion of narrow content to explain the relevance of propositional attitudes to the explanation of behaviour. Characterizations of narrow content by Jerry Fodor and by Daniel Dennett are criticized. Different ways in which the content of an attitude may be causally relevant are distinguished.
Narrow Content
Authors: Stalnaker Robert C.
Published: October 2003

The two‐dimensional modal framework deployed in Chs. and 6 is used to describe some puzzles about belief discussed in two papers by Brian Loar, and some theoretical ideas that he develops in response to those puzzles. I argue that Loar's notion of realization conditions, which he distinguishes from truth conditions, can be identified with my notion of a diagonal proposition. The main claim is that while the framework lends support to some of Loar's explanations of the examples, it does not yield a notion of narrow content.
Mental Content and Linguistic Form
Authors: Stalnaker Robert C.
Published: October 2003

Contrasts possible‐worlds propositions with more fine‐grained structured propositions that build linguistic or quasi‐linguistic form into the contents of thought. The main argument is that the hypothesis that structured propositions are the objects of intentional mental states can be justified only if one's account of what mental states are, and how their content is determined, explains the role of the linguistic structure in distinguishing between different mental states. Several different ways in which linguistic structure might be involved in intentional mental states are distinguished. It is argued that neither an account of intentionality that presupposes a language of thought nor an account that makes linguistic expression essential to intentionality can be justified.
The Problem of Logical Omniscience, II
Authors: Stalnaker Robert C.
Published: October 2003

This second exploration of the problem of logical omniscience uses a simple abstract model of a community of knowers, developed by theoretical computer scientists, to help sharpen the problem. Knowers are modelled by processors in a distributed system, such as a computer network, and knowledge is defined in terms of the information about the system as a whole that is carried by the individual components. A number of different strategies for distinguishing between available and merely implicit knowledge in this setting are explored. No solution is defended; the aim is only to bring out the problem and put it in context.
Indeterminism and Antirealism
Authors: Davidson Donald
Published: October 2003

Gives an insight into the richness of Davidson's contributions to the realism–anti‐realism debate, here with regards to the factuality of propositional‐attitude talk. Davidson argues that anti‐realism is best understood in epistemological terms, as a stance that commits ontologically in the light of what can be known. He concludes that, generally, one should not have anti‐realist attitudes as understood here towards propositional attitudes and, in particular, argues that one does not have to give up belief in first‐person authority, even if one accepts Quine's indeterminacy thesis.
The Second Person
Authors: Davidson Donald
Published: October 2003

The author argues that language is necessarily a social phenomenon. The argument draws heavily on considerations advanced in favour of the thesis that meaning something requires understanding, and being understood by, a second person. Davidson denies that it is necessary for successful communication between X and Y that X speaks as Y; in substitution of this requirement, Davidson proposes a three‐way speaker–speaker–world relation he labels ‘triangulation’, which is not constituted by syntax but by common stimuli and responses.
The Emergence of Thought
Authors: Davidson Donald
Published: October 2003

This chapter is concerned with the cognitive development of the pre‐conceptual mental life of an infant through to the psychologically fully equipped mind of a child or adult. Davidson argues that known natural languages do not possess the linguistic potential to describe this development, mainly because our current vocabularies are impotent for the task at hand. Furthermore, Davidson argues, it is not clear what would satisfy the felt need for such a vocabulary.
A Coherence Theory of Truth and Knowledge
Authors: Davidson Donald
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, a set of replies to Richard Rorty's then‐pragmatist criticisms, Davidson defends a coherence theory of truth that is not incompatible but in fact yields a correspondence theory. He argues that the common ground for the theories are considerations of meaning and the objective truth‐conditions that state when meanings are given. Coherence, then, is supposed to be a test for both truth and the judgement that objective truth‐conditions are justified, yielding what Davidson calls a ‘non‐confrontational’ correspondence and a realist stance in all departments involved.
The Fine and the Beautiful
Authors: Janaway Christopher
Published: October 2003

Considers the role Plato assigns to beauty, and whether for him beauty is connected with what we now call ‘aesthetic pleasure’. The Greek kalon, often translated as ‘beautiful’, can also be rendered as ‘fine’, and applies to a kind of value that is not exclusively aesthetic. A discussion of the dialogue Hippias Major reveals many of the connotations of kalon. Also looks at Plato's most famous treatment of the topic in Socrates’ speech in the Symposium. The high value Plato assigns to beauty should not be taken, however, to single out aesthetic value, nor should it be thought that he regards art as any specially privileged source of beauty.
The Fact of Moral Evil; and Free Will
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

Part 3 (chs. 7–11) of this book shows how God has to allow the possibility of bad things if he is to provide the good things described in Part 2. First, he has to allow creatures to freely choose what is bad. Although it is implausible to suppose that all possible creatures would suffer from ‘transworld depravity’, as Plantinga supposes, creatures do need bad desires (temptations) if they are to have a choice between good and bad.
The Evils of Sin and Agnosticism
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

If humans are to have the opportunity to choose to love God, they must have the opportunity to choose to reject him—to sin. Agnosticism gives humans, the opportunity to choose freely to do good or evil without any awareness of God's presence making it too easy to do good. Death is not a bad state, but the end of a good state; and there are considerable advantages in human mortality. Though it is good that death should be followed by a life after death, it is good that this should not be too evident to humans.
Practical Reasoning
Authors: Harman Gilbert
Published: October 2003

Intentions are distinct real psychological states, not mere constructs out of beliefs and desires. One intends to do something only if one believes one will do it. Positive intentions are to be distinguished from negative and conditional intentions. All intentions are self‐referential and are to be distinguished from beliefs by means of differences between theoretical reasoning, which directly modifies beliefs, and practical reasoning, which directly modifies intentions. One can sometimes adopt intrinsic desires at will and one may pursue a plan in order to give significance to earlier acts.
Relativistic Ethics: Morality as Politics
Authors: Harman Gilbert
Published: October 2003

A ‘naive view’ of morality says it is based on certain moral demands that everyone accepts, or at least has reasons to accept as demands on everyone, and on which all moral reasons depend. The naive view must be rejected because there are no substantive moral demands satisfying those conditions. Moral conventionalism or ‘morality as politics’ is the best replacement for the naive view. Other conceptions of morality retain less of the content of the naive view and tend toward unrealistic accounts of what morality requires. Extremely agent‐centred theories, as in certain forms of existentialism, practically abandon morality as a social enterprise, as do extremely critic‐centred theories, like certain forms of emotivism and Hare's theory, which are best seen as rejecting the moral ought in favour of the ought of evaluation.
Moral Philosophy Meets Social Psychology: Virtue Ethics and the Fundamental Attribution Error
Authors: Harman Gilbert
Published: October 2003

Results in social psychology cast doubt on the existence of robust character traits of the sort that people normally take for granted, and the sort that virtue ethics must appeal to. We should try to stop thinking in terms of character traits.
Moral Agent and Impartial Spectator
Authors: Harman Gilbert
Published: October 2003

A standard objection to impartial spectator theories of morality is that they offer an aesthetic, critic‐centred conception of morality, and so cannot adequately account for moral motivation and the way morality presents itself to an agent. The issue arose in the eighteenth century for Hutcheson, Hume, and Smith. Smith provided an elegant account of why agents might be motivated to act in ways that impartial spectators would approve of, an account that is premised on an insightful critique of Hume's theory of sympathy.
Testimony
Authors: Goldman Alvin I.
Published: October 2003

Whether a simple reporting practice produces positive changes in knowledge, or V‐value, depends on what reports a message sender sends, who actually receives them, what the receivers’ antecedent degrees of belief are, and how they revise their degrees of belief as a function of the reports. Does any belief‐revision practice have a general propensity to improve a hearer's degrees of knowledge? Assuming objective conditional probabilities, revising degrees of belief by Bayesian conditionalization yields (objectively) expected increases in degrees of knowledge (V‐value), as long as subjective likelihoods match objective likelihoods. This general theorem applies to the special case of reasoning from social communications. As a separate subtopic, theories of justification for testimonial belief are briefly reviewed.
Argumentation
Authors: Goldman Alvin I.
Published: October 2003

Argumentation is a structured series of speech acts, and norms of good argumentation therefore differ from norms of good argument, such as deductive validity. Some norms of factual argumentation are “folk rules” of conversation (overlapping with Gricean principles), and are vindicated by their tendency to advance the cause of knowledge. Argumentative norms have the prospect of increasing knowledge not simply because conformity with them increases the probability of convincing the audience, but because conformity increases the chance of convincing the audience of truths. The veritistic approach explains why so‐called fallacies have that status, and is otherwise shown to be superior to alternative approaches to good argumentation.