bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE ROLE OF APOLIPOPROTEIN A-IV IN THE REGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE
Authors: Tso Patrick , Liu Min , John Kalogeris Theodore , Thomson Alan BR
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Apolipoprotein A-IV (apo A-IV) is a glycoprotein synthesized by the human intestine. In rodents, both the small intestine and liver secrete apo A-IV, but the small intestine is the major organ responsible for the circulating apo A-IV. Intestinal apo A-IV synthesis is markedly stimulated by fat absorption and appears not to be mediated by the uptake or reesterification of fatty acids to form triglycerides. Rather, the formation of chylomicrons acts as a signal for the induction of intestinal apo A-IV synthesis. Intestinal apo A-IV synthesis is also enhanced by a factor from the ileum, probably peptide tyrosine-tyrosine. The inhibition of food intake by apo A-IV is mediated centrally. The stimulation of intestinal synthesis and the secretion of apo A-IV by lipid absorption are rapid; thus, apo A-IV likely plays a role in the short-term regulation of food intake. Other evidence suggests that apo A-IV may also be involved in the long-term regulation of food intake and body weight. Chronic ingestion of a high-fat diet blunts the intestinal apo A-IV response to lipid feeding and may explain why the chronic ingestion of a high-fat diet predisposes both animals and humans to obesity.
REPERFUSION INJURY AFTER LIVER PRESERVATION FOR TRANSPLANTATION
Authors: Lemasters and John J. , Thurman Ronald G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Preservation injury remains an obstacle to greater utilization of liver transplantation therapy. Livers can be preserved a maximum of 24 h in University of Wisconsin solution. After longer times, reperfusion precipitates endothelial cell killing and activation of Kupffer cells (liver macrophages). Together, Kupffer cell activation and endothelial cell killing cause microcirculatory disturbances, leukocyte and platelet adhesion, and a systemic inflammatory response after graft implantation. Down-regulation of Kupffer cells with calcium blockers or pentoxifylline improves graft survival, whereas priming with lipopolysaccharide or alcohol worsens survival. Flushing grafts after storage with Carolina rinse solution containing antioxidants, adenosine, calcium blocker, energy substrates, and glycine at pH 6.5 decreases endothelial cell killing, reduces Kupffer cell activation, and improves graft survival. Understanding of the roles of different cells in storage/reperfusion injury forms the basis for strategies to prolong organ storage, improve graft function, and reduce failure of fatty grafts from alcoholic donors.
COMPUTATIONAL APPROACH TO THE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF FULLERENES AND THEIR DERIVATIVES
Authors: Andreoni Wanda
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  A critical review is presented of results obtained with different computational methods (mainly ab initio) on C60, C70, and specific fullerene derivatives, also in comparison with experimental data. From the discussion of diverse systems, the (often underestimated) complexity of their physical and chemical behavior emerges, and hence the importance of an accurate description and the need for a careful inspection of the experimental data, with which comparison is often intrinsically difficult. The ambition of this review is to help establish a basis not only for a nonsuperficial reading of the existing literature, but also for a constructive approach with computations to the challenge posed by recent promising applications of fullerenes in nanotechnology, optoelectronics, and biology.
Motion and Disorder in Crystal Structure Analysis: Measuring and Distinguishing Them
Authors: Bürgi H. B.
Published: July 2002

Dynamic processes in crystalline solids are reflected in the atomic displacement amplitudes determined, together with the atomic coordinates, by crystal structure analysis. The interpretation of such amplitudes poses two severe problems: (a) The relative phases of the atomic displacements are lost; and (b) the amplitudes may reflect disorder in the structure and systematic error in the diffraction experiment in addition to motion, but the three contributions cannot be separated on the basis of measurements at a single temperature. Several approximate ways to solve these problems, e.g. rigid-body and segmented-rigid-body analysis, are reviewed together with their limitations. A more recent approach that represents a significant advance with respect to both difficulties is also described: Crystal structures are determined over a range of temperatures; the mean square amplitude quantities are interpreted by taking explicit account of their temperature dependence, i.e. by exploiting the difference in behavior of a microscopic oscillator in the low-temperature, quantum regime and in the high-temperature, classical regime. A distinction between low-frequency and high-frequency motion, disorder, and systematic error becomes possible with this model; this is illustrated with the help of case studies.
PHOTOFRAGMENTTRANSLATIONALSPECTROSCOPY OFWEAKLYBOUNDCOMPLEXES: Probing The Interfragment Correlated Final State Distributions
Authors: Oudejans L , Miller RE
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The vibrational predissociation dynamics of weakly bound complexes is well known to be highly nonstatistical. In particular, the associated photofragment final state distributions are often far from statistical, consequently reflecting the nature of the dissociation process. For binary complexes consisting of two molecules, a complete description of the final state of the system must include the associated interfragment correlations, specifically between their internal states. Information of this type is imprinted in the translational energies of the fragments, which can be measured using a number of recently developed translational spectroscopy methods. These data can provide detailed insights into the nature of the bond rupture process, as well as accurate values for the dissociation energy of the complexes. The focus of the present review is on experiments that provide correlated final state distributions for weakly bound binary complexes. Where possible, comparisons with theoretical calculations are made.
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF ANGIOTENSIN AND ITS RECEPTORS
Authors: Matsusaka T. , Ichikawa I.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Angiotensin receptors are present in a number of organs and systems including heart, kidney, gonad, and placenta; pituitary and adrenal glands; the peripheral vessels, and the central nervous system. This octapeptide exerts diverse effects that include induction of cell hypertrophy and/or hyperplasia and a stimulation of hormone synthesis and ion transport in the heart, kidney, and adrenal, primarily through type 1 (AT1) receptors. In the kidney, several heterogeneous cell populations—endothelial, epithelial, and vascular—carry AT1 receptors. Some studies suggest that AT2 receptors are also functional, but the cell type carrying this receptor and the nature of its specific function have not been fully elucidated. Although studies indicate that AT1 receptors are affected in response to physiological and pathophysiological manipulations, the functional significance of these modulations remains largely uncertain. Nevertheless, recent human genetic studies indicate that polymorphisms in AT1 receptors, as well as in other angiotensin-related genes, have significant impact on organ remodeling processes of the heart and the kidney.
CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BASIS FOR ELECTRICAL RHYTHMICITY IN GASTROINTESTINAL MUSCLES
Authors: Horowitz Burton , Ward Sean M. , Sanders Kenton M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Regulation of gastrointestinal (GI) motility is intimately coordinated with the modulation of ionic conductances expressed in GI smooth muscle and nonmuscle cells. Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) act as pacemaker cells and possess unique ionic conductances that trigger slow wave activity in these cells. The slow wave mechanism is an exclusive feature of ICC: Smooth muscle cells may lack the basic ionic mechanisms necessary to generate or regenerate slow waves. The molecular identification of the components for these conductances provides the foundation for a complete understanding of the ionic basis for GI motility. In addition, this information will provide a basis for the identification or development of therapeutics that might act on these channels. It is much easier to study these conductances and develop blocking drugs in expression systems than in native GI muscle cells. This review focuses on the relationship between ionic currents in native GI smooth muscle cells and ICC and their molecular counterparts.
IONIC CONDUCTANCES IN GASTROINTESTINAL SMOOTH MUSCLES AND INTERSTITIAL CELLS OF CAJAL
Authors: Farrugia G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Ion channels are the unitary elements that underlie electrical activity of gastrointestinal smooth muscle cells and of interstitial cells of Cajal. The result of ion channel activity in the gastrointestinal smooth muscle layers is a rhythmic change in membrane potential that in turn underlies events leading to organized motility patterns. Gastrointestinal smooth muscle cells and interstitial cells of Cajal express a wide variety of ion channels that are tightly regulated. This review summarizes 20 years of data obtained from patch-clamp studies on gastrointestinal smooth muscle cells and interstitial cells, with a focus on regulation.
EVOLUTION OF THE VERTEBRATE CARDIO-PULMONARY SYSTEM
Authors: Farmer C. G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Vertebrate lungs have long been thought to have evolved in fishes largely as an adaptation for life in hypoxic water. This view overlooks the possibility that lungs may have functioned to supply the heart with oxygen and may continue to serve this function in extant fishes. The myocardium of most vertebrates is avascular and obtains oxygen from luminal blood. Because oxygen-rich pulmonary blood mixes with oxygen-poor systemic blood before entering the heart of air-breathing fishes, lung ventilation may supply the myocardium with oxygen and expand aerobic exercise capabilities. Although sustained exercise in tetrapods is facilitated by septation of the heart and the formation of a dual pressure system, a divided cardio-pulmonary system may conflict with myocardial oxygenation because the right side of the heart is isolated from pulmonary oxygen. This may have contributed to the evolution of the coronary circulation.
Diapause
Authors: Renfree M. B. , Shaw G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Embryonic diapause, or delayed implantation as it is sometimes known, is said to occur when the conceptus enters a state of suspended animation at the blastocyst stage of development. Blastocysts may either cease cell division so that their size and cell numbers remain constant, or undergo a period of very slow growth with minimal cell division and expansion. Diapause has independently evolved on many occasions. There are almost 100 mammals in seven different mammalian orders that undergo diapause. In some groups, such as rodents, kangaroos, and mustelids, it is widespread, whereas others such as the Artiodactyla have only a single representative (the roe deer). In each family the characteristics of diapause differ, and the specific controls vary widely from lactational to seasonal, from estrogen to progesterone, or from photoperiod to nutritional. Prolactin is a key hormone controlling the endocrine milieu of diapause in many species, but paradoxically it may act either to stimulate or inhibit growth and activity of the corpus luteum. Whatever the speciesspecific mechanisms, the ecological result of diapause is one of synchronization: It effectively lengthens the active gestation period, which allows mating to occur and young to be born at times of the year optimal for that species.
NEGLECTED ASPECTS OF THE STUDY OF THE PRESIDENCY
Authors: Hart John
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The state of the academic study of the American presidency has been under constant review for the past 20 years. Attention was originally directed to deficiencies in the level of empirical knowledge about the presidency, but this was soon overtaken by greater concern with the methodological, conceptual, and theoretical underpinnings of presidency scholarship. Significant advances have now been made in the epistemology of presidency scholarship. This chapter returns to the earlier concern and identifies the structural constraints encountered by researchers in this field and the major areas of scholarly neglect. It seeks to shift further discussion about the state of presidency research to the fundamental causes of that neglect.
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND POLITICS
Authors: Jackman Robert W. , Miller Ross A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review evaluates the most recent studies of social capital in political science and argues that they have strayed considerably from the original treatment of social capital, which casts it as endogenous. Recent treatments have recast social capital as a feature of political culture and thereby treat values as exogenous. These two approaches emanate from incompatible premises and have fundamentally different implications. Thus, efforts to combine the two approaches are rendered unproductive by inevitable inconsistencies of internal logic. Moreover, empirical tests of the exogenous social capital approach are deficient: They are selective in their use of data and employ ad hoc procedures at crucial junctures. We therefore urge a return to the treatment of social capital as endogenous.
DEMOCRACY AND DICHOTOMIES: A Pragmatic Approach to Choices about Concepts
Authors: Collier David , Adcock Robert
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Prominent scholars engaged in comparative research on democratic regimes are in sharp disagreement over the choice between a dichotomous or graded approach to the distinction between democracy and nondemocracy. This choice is substantively important because it affects the findings of empirical research. It is methodologically important because it raises basic issues, faced by both qualitative and quantitative analysts, concerning appropriate standards for justifying choices about concepts. In our view, generic claims that the concept of democracy should inherently be treated as dichotomous or graded are incomplete. The burden of demonstration should instead rest on more specific arguments linked to the goals of research. We thus take the pragmatic position that how scholars understand and operationalize a concept can and should depend in part on what they are going to do with it. We consider justifications focused on the conceptualization of democratization as an event, the conceptual requirements for analyzing subtypes of democracy, the empirical distribution of cases, normative evaluation, the idea of regimes as bounded wholes, and the goal of achieving sharper analytic differentiation.
Consociational Democracy
Authors: Andeweg Rudy B.
Published: July 2002

Consociationalist theory served initially as an explanation of political stability in a few deeply divided European democracies. It argued that in these countries, the destabilizing effects of subcultural segmentation are neutralized at the elite level by embracing non-majoritarian mechanisms for conflict resolution. The theory was extended as new consociational democracies were discovered, as the related but broader concept of “consensus democracy” was introduced, and as a normative component was added, recommending consociational engineering as the most promising way to achieve stable democracy in strongly segmented societies. Consociationalism has always been controversial, but rather than one great debate about its validity, there have been many small debates about the countries, the concepts, the causes, and the consequences associated with consociationalism. These debates can become more fruitful if consociational theory is formulated less inductively and at a higher level of abstraction, and if the critics of consociationalism focus more on its principles and less on the operationalizations provided by its most important theorist, Arend Lijphart. The erosion of social cleavages in many consociational democracies raises the question of whether the very logic of consociationalism should lead to a prescription of more adversarial politics in those countries.
Political Traditions and Political Change: The Significance of Postwar Japanese Politics for Political Science
Authors: Richardson Bradley , Patterson Dennis
Published: July 2002

The extensive literature on postwar Japanese politics often stresses unique phenomena representative of Japanese exceptionalism, even though both Japanists and specialists on other areas of the world would profit from integrating Japanese political studies with broader comparative themes. This review seeks to correct a tendency toward scholarly isolation by addressing four themes in Japanese postwar experience and relating them to comparative political science research on other countries and regions. The four themes are styles of electoral mobilization, informalism and process as factors in party organization, power and performance in postwar policy making, and post-1993 electoral institution change.
EXPERIMENTALMETHODS INPOLITICALSCIENCE
Authors: McDermott Rose
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This article reviews the use of experiments in political science. The beginning section offers an overview of experimental design and measures, as well as threats to internal and external validity, and discusses advantages and disadvantages to the use of experimentation. The number and placements of experiments in political science are reviewed. The bulk of the essay is devoted to an examination of what we have learned from experiments in the behavioral economics, political economy, and individual choice literatures.
CROSS-CULTURAL SOCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Authors: Bond Michael Harris , Smith Peter B.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review considers recent theoretical and empirical developments in cross-cultural studies within social and organizational psychology. It begins with a description of the importance and the difficulties of universalizing psychological science. It then continues with an examination of theoretical work on both the internal-proximal and the external-distal constraints that mediate culture's influence on behavior. Influences on social cognition are documented by describing research on self-concept, self-esteem, emotions, attribution processes, person perception, interpersonal attraction, and justice. Group processes are addressed in the areas of leadership, decision-making, and negotiation, and research in organizational psychology is examined with respect to work motivation and work behavior. The review concludes that considerable improvement is evident in recent cross-cultural research. However, future research must include a broader range of cultures and attend more closely to the levels at which cultural effects should be analyzed, and cultural samples must be unpackaged in more psychologically useful ways.
PSYCHOLOGY IN CANADA
Authors: Adair J. G. , Paivio A. , Ritchie P.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This chapter reviews how psychology in Canada evolved over half a century to become the most popular discipline in universities and a respected health-care and helping profession. The organization, journals, and funding of the scientific discipline are described. The importance of DO Hebb's research as the stimulus and foundation for discipline growth and significant research contributions to basic processes is identified. The multicultural mosaic of Canadian society and early research on second-language learning are shown to have influenced cross-cultural and social research. Canadian research contributions to basic processes and to the social and health sciences are reviewed. Although late to begin in Canada, clinical research and the profession of psychology are shown to have substantially developed over the past two decades. With large numbers of quality researchers and practitioners, psychology has a bright future in Canada.
Personnel Selection: Looking Toward the Future--Remembering the Past
Authors: Hough Leaetta M. , Oswald Frederick L.
Published: July 2002

This chapter reviews personnel selection research from 1995 through 1999. Areas covered are job analysis; performance criteria; cognitive ability and personality predictors; interview, assessment center, and biodata assessment methods; measurement issues; meta-analysis and validity generalization; evaluation of selection systems in terms of differential prediction, adverse impact, utility, and applicant reactions; emerging topics on team selection and cross-cultural issues; and finally professional, legal, and ethical standards. Three major themes are revealed: (a) Better taxonomies produce better selection decisions; (b) The nature and analyses of work behavior are changing, influencing personnel selection practices; (c) The field of personality research is healthy, as new measurement methods, personality constructs, and compound constructs of well-known traits are being researched and applied to personnel selection.
TOBACCO DEPENDENCE TREATMENTS: Review and Prospectus
Authors: Shiffman S. , Mason K. M. , Henningfield J. E.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Cigarette smoking continues to place an enormous burden on US health systems. The treatment of tobacco-dependent persons is vital to the public health, since unmitigated smoking could lead to the development of disease and premature death in as many as 20 million current smokers in the United States. Much of this tobacco-related morbidity and mortality could be prevented by the application of existing treatments, as well as newer ones. Access to safe and effective treatments was significantly expanded in 1996, when two forms of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), the nicotine gum and patch, became available for over-the-counter sale. Expanded access has led to significantly increased utilization and quitting. Even with these advances, however, the scope of this tobacco dependence demands that we explore alternative treatment strategies, including exposure reduction therapy (ERT) as a possible option for smokers not currently making quit attempts. In this review, we present principles to guide the development of such a therapy, and for its application, should it be proven effective.
Preventing Obesity in Children and Adolescents
Authors: Dietz William H. , Gortmaker Steven L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  In this review, we address the natural history of obesity in children, the most promising family- and school-based approaches to the prevention of obesity, and the barriers and opportunities associated with secondary prevention. In childhood, the most important periods of risk appear to be the periods of adiposity rebound and adolescence. Caution regarding the period of adiposity rebound is still warranted, because it is not yet clear that early rebound is attributable to changes in body fat. Families and schools represent the most important foci for preventive efforts in children and adolescents. One productive approach is to proceed from an examination of factors that affect energy balance to the identification of more proximal influences on those factors. This approach may help to narrow the strategies necessary to prevent or treat childhood obesity. For example, television viewing affects both energy intake and energy expenditure, and therefore represents a logical target for interventions. Anticipatory guidance by pediatricians may offer an effective mechanism by which to change parental attitudes and practices regarding television viewing. A similar process is used to emphasize the potential influence of school-based interventions directed at changes in food choices and sedentary behavior.
The Importance of the Normality Assumption in Large Public Health Data Sets
Authors: Lumley Thomas , Diehr Paula , Emerson Scott , Chen Lu
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  It is widely but incorrectly believed that the t-test and linear regression are valid only for Normally distributed outcomes. The t-test and linear regression compare the mean of an outcome variable for different subjects. While these are valid even in very small samples if the outcome variable is Normally distributed, their major usefulness comes from the fact that in large samples they are valid for any distribution. We demonstrate this validity by simulation in extremely non-Normal data. We discuss situations in which in other methods such as the Wilcoxon rank sum test and ordinal logistic regression (proportional odds model) have been recommended, and conclude that the t-test and linear regression often provide a convenient and practical alternative. The major limitation on the t-test and linear regression for inference about associations is not a distributional one, but whether detecting and estimating a difference in the mean of the outcome answers the scientific question at hand.
Law and Inequality: Race, Gender… and, of Course, Class
Authors: Seron Carroll , Munger Frank
Published: July 2002

This chapter discusses the concept of class in an important subfield, the sociology of law. Class, a pivotal institution of society, was central to the earliest studies of legal institutions and of law and inequality in particular. More recently, class has played a less important role. This chapter argues for the continuing importance of class and provides examples of its potential use in contemporary sociolegal research. The first part reviews early work that employed class and instrumental models of the state. Grounded, anti-formal models of law provided a contrasting view. Following wider trends in the discipline, sociology of law turned from structural models to theories of law as an ideology, and most recently, as reviewed in the second part, to law as an element of consciousness and experience. While acknowledging the value of contemporary research that documents a deeply textured, paradoxical, and nuanced analysis of the role of law in society, the third part argues for theorizing the link between experience and context, including the role of social class, and presents a research agenda for a sociology of law, where the relationship between law and class is considered both as institution and experience.
Computer Networks as Social Networks: Collaborative Work, Telework, and Virtual Community
Authors: Wellman Barry , Salaff Janet , Dimitrova Dimitrina , Garton Laura , Gulia Milena , Haythornthwaite Caroline
Published: July 2002

When computer networks link people as well as machines, they become social networks. Such computer-supported social networks (CSSNs) are becoming important bases of virtual communities, computer-supported cooperative work, and telework. Computer-mediated communication such as electronic mail and computerized conferencing is usually text-based and asynchronous. It has limited social presence, and on-line communications are often more uninhibited, creative, and blunt than in-person communication. Nevertheless, CSSNs sustain strong, intermediate, and weak ties that provide information and social support in both specialized and broadly based relationships. CSSNs foster virtual communities that are usually partial and narrowly focused, although some do become encompassing and broadly based. CSSNs accomplish a wide variety of cooperative work, connecting workers within and between organizations who are often physically dispersed. CSSNs also link teleworkers from their homes or remote work centers to main organizational offices. Although many relationships function off-line as well as on-line, CSSNs have developed their own norms and structures. The nature of the medium both constrains and facilitates social control. CSSNs have strong societal implications, fostering situations that combine global connectivity, the fragmentation of solidarities, the de-emphasis of local organizations (in the neighborhood and workplace), and the increased importance of home bases.
The Savings and Loan Debacle, Financial Crime, and the State
Authors: Calavita K. , Tillman R. , Pontell H. N.
Published: July 2002

The savings and loan crisis of the 1980s was one of the worst financial disasters of the twentieth century. We argue here that much financial fraud of the sort that contributed to this debacle constitutes “collective embezzlement,” and that this collective embezzlement may be the prototypical corporate crime of the late twentieth century. We further argue that the state may have a different relationship to this kind of financial fraud than to manufacturing crime perpetrated on behalf of corporate profits. In the conclusion, we suggest that an understanding of the relationship between financial fraud and state interests may open up new regulatory space for the control of these costly crimes. Our data come from a wide variety of sources, including government documents, primary statistical data on prosecutions, and interviews with regulators.
Culture and Cognition
Authors: DiMaggio Paul
Published: July 2002

Recent work in cognitive psychology and social cognition bears heavily on concerns of sociologists of culture. Cognitive research confirms views of culture as fragmented; clarifies the roles of institutions and agency; and illuminates supra-individual aspects of culture. Individuals experience culture as disparate bits of information and as schematic structures that organize that information. Culture carried by institutions, networks, and social movements diffuses, activates, and selects among available schemata. Implications for the study of identity, collective memory, social classification, and logics of action are developed.
Was it Worth the Effort? The Outcomes and Consequences of Social Movements
Authors: Giugni Marco G.
Published: July 2002

Research on social movements has usually addressed issues of movement emergence and mobilization, yet has paid less attention to their outcomes and consequences. Although there exists a considerable amount of work on this aspect, little systematic research has been done so far. Most existing work focuses on political and policy outcomes of movements, whereas few studies address their broader cultural and institutional effects. Furthermore, we still know little about the indirect and unintended consequences produced by movements. Early studies have dealt with the effectiveness of disruptive and violent actions and with the role of several organizational variables for movement success. More recently, scholars have begun to analyze movement outcomes in their political context by looking at the role of public opinion, allies, and state structures. A comparative perspective promises to be a fruitful avenue of research in this regard.
THE DARK SIDE OF ORGANIZATIONS: Mistake, Misconduct, and Disaster
Authors: Vaughan Diane
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  In keeping with traditional sociological concerns about order and disorder, this essay addresses the dark side of organizations. To build a theoretical basis for the dark side as an integrated field of study, I review four literatures in order to make core ideas of each available to specialists in the others. Using a Simmelian-based case comparison method of analogical theorizing, I first consider sociological constructs that identify both the generic social form and the generic origin of routine nonconformity: how things go wrong in socially organized settings. Then I examine three types of routine nonconformity with adverse outcomes that harm the public: mistake, misconduct, and disaster produced in and by organizations. Searching for analogies and differences, I find that in common, routine nonconformity, mistake, misconduct, and disaster are systematically produced by the interconnection between environment, organizations, cognition, and choice. These patterns amplify what is known about social structure and have implications for theory, research, and policy.
Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: A Review of Theories and Research
Authors: Buchmann Claudia , Hannum Emily
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review examines research on education and inequality in developing regions. In tracing the progress of this field of inquiry, it focuses on empirical studies of educational inequality in four broad areas: macro-structural forces shaping education and stratification; the relationship between family background and educational outcomes; school effects; and education's impact on economic and social mobility. It assesses the contributions of research in Africa, Asia, and Latin America to the general study of education and social stratification and the theoretical leverage gained from examining stratification processes in developing regions of the world. Finally, the review discusses recent developments that hold promise for addressing the knowledge gaps that remain; these include utilizing relatively new data sources and methods in comparative, cross-national studies and greater collaboration between researchers who study strikingly similar questions but remain segregated due to their focus on either industrialized or developing societies.
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Enhances Cardiac Allograft Arteriosclerosis
Authors: Lemström Karl B. , Krebs Rainer , Nykänen Antti I. , Tikkanen Jussi M. , Sihvola Roope K. , Aaltola Eva M. , Häyry Pekka J. , Wood Jeanette , Alitalo Kari , Ylä-Herttuala Seppo , Koskinen Petri K.
Published: July 2002

Background

—

Cardiac allograft arteriosclerosis is a complex process of alloimmune response, chronic inflammation, and smooth muscle cell proliferation that includes cross talk between cytokines and growth factors.

Methods and Results

—

Our results in rat cardiac allografts established alloimmune response as an alternative stimulus capable of inducing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNA and protein expression in cardiomyocytes and graft-infiltrating mononuclear inflammatory cells, which suggests that these cells may function as a source of VEGF to the cells of coronary arteries. Linear regression analysis of these allografts with different stages of arteriosclerotic lesions revealed a strong correlation between intragraft VEGF protein expression and the development of intimal thickening, whereas blockade of signaling downstream of VEGF receptor significantly reduced arteriosclerotic lesions. In addition, in cholesterol-fed rabbits, intracoronary perfusion of cardiac allografts with a clinical-grade adenoviral vector that encoded mouse VEGF
164
enhanced the formation of arteriosclerotic lesions, possibly secondary to increased intragraft influx of macrophages and neovascularization in the intimal lesions.

Conclusions

—

Our findings suggest a positive regulatory role between VEGF and coronary arteriosclerotic lesion formation in the allograft cytokine microenvironment.
Prevention of Inflammation-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction
Authors: Kharbanda Rajesh K. , Walton Benjamin , Allen Meredith , Klein Nigel , Hingorani Aroon D. , MacAllister Raymond J. , Vallance Patrick
Published: July 2002

Background
—

Inflammation and infection may initiate and promote atherosclerosis or its complications by adverse effects on the vascular endothelium. The mechanisms by which aspirin reduces cardiovascular risk might involve anti-inflammatory actions or direct effects on the endothelium in addition to its antiplatelet action. We investigated the role of aspirin in modulating endothelial dysfunction induced by an experimental inflammatory stimulus.

Methods and Results
—

An inflammatory response was generated in healthy volunteers by Salmonella typhi vaccination. Venous occlusion plethysmography was used to assess resistance vessel responses (16 hours before and 8 hours after vaccination) to the endothelium-dependent dilator bradykinin (BK) and the endothelium-independent dilator glyceryl-trinitrate (GTN). Twelve subjects were randomized to receive either aspirin 1.2 g orally or placebo 2 hours before vaccination. After vaccination alone there was suppression of the response to BK in the placebo group (
P
=0.01), with no change in response to GTN. In the aspirin group there was no change in the response to either BK or GTN after vaccination. Aspirin treatment prevented vaccine-induced elevation of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist but enhanced the generation of tumor necrosis factor-α compared with placebo. In an additional 5 individuals, local intrabrachial aspirin (10 mg/min for 15 minutes) failed to restore responses to BK after vaccination.

Conclusions
—

Experimental inflammation produces endothelial dysfunction, which can be prevented by pretreatment with aspirin. Locally administered aspirin does not reverse vaccine-induced endothelial dysfunction once established. The protective effects of aspirin on inflammation-induced endothelial dysfunction may be through modulation of the cytokine cascade.
The Legalization of International Monetary Affairs
Authors: Simmons Beth A.
Published: July 2002

For the first time in history, international monetary relations were institutionalized after World War II as a set of legal obligations. The Articles of Agreement that formed the International Monetary Fund contain international legal obligations of the rules of good conduct for IMF members. Members were required to maintain a par value for their currency (until 1977), to use a single unified exchange-rate system, and to keep their current account free from restrictions. In this article I explore why governments committed themselves to these rules and the conditions under which they complied with their commitments. The evidence suggests that governments tended to make and keep commitments if other countries in their region did so as well. Governments also complied with their international legal commitments if the regime placed a high value on the rule of law domestically. One inference is that reputational concerns have a lot to do with international legal commitments and compliance. Countries that have invested in a strong reputation for protecting property rights are more reluctant to see it jeopardized by international law violations. Violation is more likely, however, in the face of widespread noncompliance, suggesting that compliance behavior should be understood in its regional context.
The Institutional Foundations of Intergovernmentalism and Supranationalism in the European Union
Authors: Tsebelis George , Garrett Geoffrey
Published: July 2002

We present a unified model of the politics of the European Union (EU). We focus on the effects of the EU's changing treaty base (from the Rome to Amsterdam Treaties) on the relations among its three supranational institutions—the Commission of the European Communities, the European Court of Justice, and the European Parliament—and between these actors and the intergovernmental Council of Ministers. We analyze these institutional interactions in terms of the interrelationships among the three core functions of the modern state: to legislate and formulate policy (legislative branch), to administer and implement policy (executive branch), and to interpret policy and adjudicate disputes (judicial branch). Our analysis demonstrates that the evolution of the EU's political system has not always been linear. For example, we explain why the Court's influence was greatest before the passage of the Single European Act and declined in the following decade, and why we expect it to increase again in the aftermath of the Amsterdam Treaty. We also explain why the Commission became a powerful legislative agenda setter after the Single European Act and why its power today stems more from administrative discretion than from influence over legislation.
Alternatives to “Legalization”: Richer Views of Law and Politics
Authors: Finnemore Martha , Toope Stephen J.
Published: July 2002

The authors of “Legalization and World Politics” (International Organization, 54, 3, summer 2000) define “legalization” as the degree of obligation, precision, and delegation that international institutions possess. We argue that this definition is unnecessarily narrow. Law is a broad social phenomenon that is deeply embedded in the practices, beliefs, and traditions of societies. Understanding its role in politics requires attention to the legitimacy of law, to custom and law's congruence with social practice, to the role of legal rationality, and to adherence to legal processes, including participation in law's construction. We examine three applications of “legalization” offered in the volume and show how a fuller consideration of law's role in politics can produce concepts that are more robust intellectually and more helpful to empirical research.
Bad Loans to Good Friends: Money Politics and the Developmental State in South Korea
Authors: Kang David C.
Published: July 2002

Why has the literature on Asian development not addressed the issue of money politics in South Korea? How can we reconcile the view of an efficient developmental state in South Korea before 1997 with reports of massive corruption and inefficiency in that same country in 1998 and 1999? Politics is central to the answer. In this study I make two arguments. First, money politics was extensive in South Korea both during and after the high-growth era. Second, political—not economic—considerations dominated policymaking. This study explains both past and present and compares the patterns of money politics in the early post-independence era with those that arose after the democratic transition in 1987. While during the Park era a balance of power between businessmen and politicians kept corruption from spinning out of control, the transition to democracy altered the basic business-state relationship, allowing business to exert greater influence over policy decisions. The political hypothesis advanced in this study suggests a new direction for our research about the developmental state.
Entrenching the Yoshida Defense Doctrine: Three Techniques for Institutionalization
Authors: Chai Sun-Ki
Published: July 2002

Japan's level of defense expenditure relative to the size of its economy has long been uniquely low among the major industrialized countries. As of 1995, Japan's expenditures stood at 0.96 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Even adding to this the approximately 0.3 percent of GDP devoted to pensions for retired personnel, the level of spending is considerably less than that of major Western states such as the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Germany, as well as industrialized Asian states such as South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore. Furthermore, these relative magnitudes have remained reasonably stable over the past few decades.
Toward a Positive Theory of International Institutions: Regulating International Aviation Markets
Authors: Richards John E.
Published: July 2002

The regulation of postwar international aviation markets suggests that existing approaches to international institutions cannot adequately account for important elements of international institution building. In particular, scholars have neglected how domestic politics shapes the incentives of national governments to create and maintain international institutions and the impact of domestic politics on the scope and functions of international institutions. Drawing on positive theories of regulation and the literature on property rights, I argue that national politicians use international institutions to increase the wealth available for domestic redistribution. In short, national politicians create and maintain international institutions to maximize domestic political support. I present a domestic political model that explains how, when, and why national politicians create international institutions. The model is applied to the creation of institutions governing international aviation markets in the late 1940s and the reformulation of these institutions over the past two decades.
A New Statecraft? Supranational Entrepreneurs and International Cooperation
Authors: Moravcsik Andrew
Published: July 2002

Does informal intervention by high officials of international organizations decisively influence the outcomes of multilateral negotiations? In the words of two leading international lawyers, can “faceless international bureaucrats, unelected and without power of purse or sword” really influence the decisions of powerful nation-states? Are we seeing the emergence of a “new statecraft” grounded in international networks managed by supranational political entrepreneurs?
To Sample or Not to Sample? The 2000 Census Controversy
Authors: Anderson Margo , Fienberg Stephen E.
Published: July 2002

Controversy and litigation surround the plan to use dual-systems estimation and sampling for the U.S. 2000 census. This article analyzes this conflict in terms of the history and technical development of the census, and attempts to create a basis for its resolution.
Holistic Polyhedrons: A New Concept of Making Mobile Members
Authors: Kwauk Mooson
Published: July 2002

This note illustrates how to utilize the geometric interiors and exteriors of the ridges, corners and surfaces of polyhedrons in creating unique configurations of mobile members.
The Raising Analysis of Relative Clauses: A Reply to Borsley
Authors: Bianchi Valentina
Published: July 2002

Borsley (1997) criticizes the raising analysis of relative clauses revived by Kayne (1994) in the framework of antisymmetry theory. Most of his remarks concern the analysis of English headed relative clauses.

This article presents a revised version of Kayne's proposal that provides an answer to these criticisms. It is argued that the raising approach is indeed tenable and that the analysis of this empirical domain is fully consistent with the restrictiveness of the antisymmetry theory.
Empirical Tests of the Gradual Learning Algorithm
Authors: Boersma Paul , Hayes Bruce
Published: July 2002

The Gradual Learning Algorithm (Boersma 1997) is a constraint-ranking algorithm for learning optimality-theoretic grammars. The purpose of this article is to assess the capabilities of the Gradual Learning Algorithm, particularly in comparison with the Constraint Demotion algorithm of Tesar and Smolensky (1993, 1996, 1998, 2000), which initiated the learnability research program for Optimality Theory. We argue that the Gradual Learning Algorithm has a number of special advantages: it can learn free variation, deal effectively with noisy learning data, and account for gradient well-formedness judgments. The case studies we examine involve Ilokano reduplication and metathesis, Finnish genitive plurals, and the distribution of English light and dark /l/.
Reconstruction, Binding Theory, and the Interpretation of Chains
Authors: Fox Danny
Published: July 2002

This article investigates interactions between the scope of QPs and the restrictions imposed by binding theory. It presents new evidence that Condition C applies at (and only at) LF and demonstrates that this condition can serve as a powerful tool for distinguishing among various claims regarding the nature of LF and the inventory of semantic mechanisms. The conclusions reached are these: (1) Scope reconstruction is represented in the syntax (semantic type-shifting operations are very limited). (2) Ā-chains have the following properties: (a) Scope reconstruction results from deleting the head of the chain and interpreting a copy at the tail. (b) Non-scope-reconstruction results from interpreting the head of the chain with a copy of the restrictor at the tail (unless this option is impossible, as in antecedent-contained deletion, in which case the copy is changed to a variable as in standard notations). (c) VP adjunction is an intermediate landing site. (3) A-chains are different in a way that at the moment requires a stipulative distinction.
The View from the Periphery: The English Comparative Correlative
Authors: Culicover Peter W. , Jackendoff Ray
Published: July 2002

The English comparative correlative construction (e.g., The more you eat, the fatter you get) embeds like an ordinary CP, and each of its clauses displays an ordinary long-distance dependency. However, the connection between the two clauses is not ordinary: they are connected paratactically in syntax, but the first clause is interpreted as if it were a subordinate clause. The construction's mixture of the general and the idiosyncratic at all levels of detail challenges the distinction between “core” and “periphery” in grammar and the assumption that some level of underlying syntax directly mirrors semantic structure.