bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paramilitary Populism
Authors: Ballvé Teo
Published: September 2020

This chapter highlights the cultural politics of paramilitaries' revanchist state project by detailing their attempt to build an electoral political movement. It focuses on Urabá Grande, a coalition which formed the electoral wing of the paras' state-oriented war of position. Urabá Grande was an effort to give lasting institutional form to the political, economic, and military power the bloc had gained on the battlefield. It also reflects the broader way in which the paras and their allied politicians all over the country presented themselves as the defenders and saviors of Colombia's supposed forgotten regions, promising to bring an end to what they called the regions' abandonment by the state. The paras built a powerful brand of agrarian populism by fusing the discourse of state absence with the politics of Colombian regionalism. As an instance of the frontier effect, paramilitary populism turned statelessness into an affirmative political project of regional affirmation and state formation that tried to reconcile their narrow self-interests with practices of grassroots political participation.
Introduction
Authors: Ballinger Pamela
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of Italian decolonization and refugeedom. Throughout the nearly two decades in which Italian decolonization unfolded, Italian authorities uniformly insisted that Italy could barely absorb its own citizen refugees, let alone those coming from other states. Italian authorities and international actors spent over a decade and a half debating the identity and refugee status of migrants from former Italian lands in Africa and the Balkans. Indeed, these individuals stimulated extensive debate over what it meant to be Italian, to be a refugee, and what sort of Italy would house these national refugees. Using the experiences of Italians repatriated “home” in the wake of decolonization, this book traces both the genesis of the postwar international refugee regime and the consequences of one of its key omissions: the ineligibility from international refugee status and protection of those migrants scholars have labeled “national refugees” or, in contemporary parlance, internally displaced persons.
Empire as Prelude
Authors: Ballinger Pamela
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the history of migration in Italy. Migration has preoccupied both the Italian state and students of Italy since Italian unification in 1861. From almost the beginning of its existence, the Italian state had been concerned with protecting its emigrants, on the one hand, and seeking to contain the potentially disruptive effects of migration, on the other. As life for Italians in former territories in Africa or the Balkans became untenable, the Italian state found itself tasked with humanitarian and political responsibilities defined in contradistinction to and in dialogue with those assumed by the postwar intergovernmental refugee regimes. At the same time, however, the Italian state's response to flows from the lost possessions involved nongovernmental and intergovernmental actors—often in novel ways. The chapter then brings the insights of international history and recent findings on internationalisms to bear on understandings of Italian state-making in both its national and imperial forms. It also looks at the competing and entangled models of colonialism.
Displaced Persons and the Borders of Citizenship
Authors: Ballinger Pamela
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines how Italy's loss of empire and debates over classifying displacees produced a binary citizenship regime whose primary differentiation lay between citizens and aliens. Though the citizen/alien distinction seems commonsensical and unremarkable today, it was rearticulated in postwar Italy through the process of reckoning with the dual displacements of decolonization and war. The chapter studies these post-1945 transformations, first offering a brief discussion of the development of Italian citizenship codes during the era of imperial expansion before turning to detailed analysis of those displaced persons whose statuses challenged and tested the limits of Italian republican citizenship, as well as the incipient category of international refugee. In theory, the distinctions that emerged after 1945 in Italy between citizen and foreigner—like those between national refugee and international refugee—were clear. However, in practice there existed a good deal of ambiguity and debate as to who should or would help Italy's “own” refugees. These debates over assistance reflected deeper dilemmas over determining just who among the displaced counted as an Italian.
Conclusion
Authors: Ballinger Pamela
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter explains that despite Italy's spectacular postwar economic growth, Italian officials repeatedly invoked the twin specters of Italian surplus population and the pressing needs of its “own” refugees to argue for Italy's unsuitability as a country of permanent resettlement. In light of the complicated entanglements between the international and national regimes of refugee assistance, it is no coincidence that the Geneva Convention that laid out the definition of the international refugee came into being during the same period as major Italian legislation that consolidated the Italian state's responsibilities to its own displaced citizens. Nor is it coincidence that as a signatory to the Geneva Convention on Refugees, Italy was among those few states that adopted the geographic reservation exclusive to European refugees. Moreover, the arrival in the 1950s and 1960s of Italian refugees from the territories of other decolonizing powers merely reinforced the Italian government's stance that its priorities for assistance must lie with its own citizens. Even with the close of Italy's formal decolonization in 1960, the classifications for migrants coming from the lost territories—repatriates and refugees—possessed continuing salience.
Wartime Repatriations and the Beginnings of Decolonization
Authors: Ballinger Pamela
Published: September 2020

This chapter recounts the large-scale wartime repatriations of civilians from Italian overseas territories. From the very start, demographic colonization aimed at establishing sizable and permanent settler populations in various parts of the empire had necessitated policies of both voluntary and involuntary repatriation of individual colonists and settler families. Reasons for such individual repatriations ranged from illness, to inability to work, to “immoral” behavior that could damage fascist prestige in the colonies and encourage insubordination on the part of fellow colonists. In contrast to such individual movements, the removal of Italian civilians from Italy's African territories carried out between 1940 and 1943 took place under the banner of state-sponsored humanitarianism. Once Italy joined the conflict, a number of repatriations occurred on so-called hospital ships. The three missions from Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI) to Italian ports carried out between 1942 and 1943 on the “white ships” or navi bianche—four transatlantic cruise ships painted white with the red cross—remain the best known of such efforts and brought approximately 27,778 citizens back to the peninsula.
Introduction
Authors: Lupton Danielle L.
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of reputation for resolve and why leaders care about their reputations. Leaders worry about their reputations for resolve because they believe certain reputations, such as a reputation for irresolute action, will make them and their states more vulnerable to international threats; but other reputations, such as a reputation for resolute action, will make them and their states more secure. While reputations are perceptions actors hold about each other, resolve is about an actor's determination, “firmness, or steadfastness of purpose.” Reputation for resolve, therefore, is the belief others hold about an actor's willingness to stand firm and face costs, based on that actor's past behavior. Reputations for resolve can help explain when international crises and disputes start, which actors are most likely to face international threats, and who will win international conflicts. The chapter then looks at the debate on how much reputations matter in international politics.
A Reputation for Irresolute Action
Authors: Lupton Danielle L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter studies how Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev viewed the resolve of President John F. Kennedy, looking at Khrushchev's decision making surrounding the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. According to evidence made available from declassified and translated Soviet archives, as well as information drawn from additional sources, Kennedy quickly formed a reputation for irresolute action largely because of his repeated failure to back up his strong rhetoric with firm action and his wavering support of the Bay of Pigs invasion early during his tenure. While Kennedy rather quickly established a poor reputation for resolve, it was difficult for him to alter this reputation. Throughout the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and during the early stages of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev continued to doubt Kennedy's firmness and determination, despite the president's repeated attempts to signal his resolve. Declassified Soviet documents further indicate that Kennedy was able to change this negative perception of his resolve during the Cuban Missile Crisis only by presenting a consistently resolute position and altering his signals of strategic interest. Thus, it was Kennedy's communication of high strategic interest in Cuba combined with his resolute behavior during the missile crisis that enabled him to alter his poor reputation.
Conclusion
Authors: Lupton Danielle L.
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter summarizes the findings of the experiments and case studies in the previous chapters, discussing their implications for the study of reputation for resolve and the debate between reputation supporters and skeptics. The evidence from across the experiments and case studies shows that leaders can indeed acquire individual reputations for resolve. While these reputations are rooted in a leader's statements and behavior, they can be influenced by certain contextual factors—primarily a preexisting state reputation for resolve and the state's strategic interest in an issue under dispute. Yet, these two contextual factors influence leader reputations by interacting with a leader's own statements and behavior. Moreover, these leader-specific reputational assessments can affect the negotiating and crisis bargaining strategies individual leaders pursue. Leaders, therefore, are not wrong to care about their personal reputations for resolve or to believe that their reputations for resolve influence international politics. The chapter then explains how policymakers can best communicate their resolve to make themselves and their states less vulnerable to international threats.
Countering Harmful Tax Practices
Authors: Hakelberg Lukas
Published: September 2020

This chapter shows that the Clinton administration promoted an international campaign against underregulated financial centers. It did so because it was concerned about the impact of tax havens on the perceived fairness of the US tax system, international financial stability, and the US sanctions regime. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), however, made the strategic mistake to tackle tax evasion by individuals and tax avoidance by multinationals in a single project, creating opposition from business associations in the United States and elsewhere. Instead of credibly linking noncompliance with OECD recommendations to economic sanctions, the Clinton administration thus accepted the severe dilution of the harmful tax competition initiative's anti-avoidance elements even before the Bush administration took office in 2001. A nested comparison of two unilateral tax initiatives moreover reveals that the Clinton administration generally failed to pass regulations curbing tax avoidance but succeeded in passing regulations against tax evasion.
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in Bosnia and Timor-Leste
Authors: Westendorf Jasmine-Kim
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents the case studies that underpin the analysis of the long-term impacts of sexual exploitation and abuse. It develops a detailed account of the context, nature, and scale of sexual misconduct during peace operations in Bosnia and Timor-Leste, drawing extensively on primary research in the two countries. The behaviors spanned all four types of misconduct and were perpetrated by a variety of uniformed and civilian interveners, including peacekeepers and non-UN personnel associated with the international community's presence in each country. They confirm many of the trends identified in the previous chapter about patterns of perpetration and contributing factors. However, this analysis also demonstrates that the ways in which local communities experience sexual exploitation and abuse is grounded in historical experience, cultural norms, and, in many ways, the particular forms of material deprivation and conflict-related sexual violence experienced, with significant variation between what was considered inappropriate behavior in the two countries.
Legitimacy in Crisis
Authors: Westendorf Jasmine-Kim
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the macro- and institutional-level impacts of sexual exploitation and abuse. It shows that sexual misconduct in individual missions has far-reaching impacts that reduce international capacities to engage effectively in peace operations and diminish the perceived legitimacy of the international community engaged in peacekeeping and peacebuilding, thereby undermining the international community's capacity to pursue the broader aspirational goals that animate peacekeeping. Sexual misconduct also seeds conflict between different organizational or peacekeeping units as a result of perceived misbehaviors and undermines the morale of peacekeepers and humanitarians. This can result in reduced financial and other support for peace operations and related work and provide fodder for anti-intervention campaigners. Tracking the international responses to the 2015 peacekeeper sexual abuse scandal in the Central African Republic and the 2018 Oxfam sexual exploitation scandal in Haiti, the chapter also explores the global political implications of such scandals.
Medium
Authors: Brescia Ray
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the medium—the mode of communication a group uses to communicate and organize. It reviews the advent of the printing press, the post office, the telegraph, the transcontinental railroad, the telephone, the radio, and the television, revealing that with the emergence of each of these innovations, a mass movement or movements rose up in their wake. Communications technology, in the form of the steam printing press, combined with the reach of the postal system, helped spur abolitionist efforts. Indeed, just as the abolitionist movement was gaining strength, this new technology helped fuel the advocacy of the movement and strengthen its power and reach. The chapter explores this connection between communications technology and social movements in U.S. history, from the events leading up to the American Revolution through the successes of the civil rights movement.
The Great Divide
Authors: Brescia Ray
Published: September 2020

This chapter recounts the radical change in communications technology that helped launch many organizations that abandoned the translocal organizing structure because the most modern means of communication available to them—the computerized mailing list—made it easy for them to do so. Unlike the Civil Rights Movement—which was built on networks of cells of grassroots groups spread out through the country and coordinated, loosely, by national organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)—the new movements, for the most part, utilized the ability to engage in mass mailing to create national organizations divorced from grassroots networks. Mass mailing would then shape social movements for two generations and the next forty years. This forty-year period also saw two different phenomenon unfold: one socioeconomic and one social. There was both a dramatic increase in economic inequality as well as a decrease in generalized trust.
Putting the Matrix to Work
Authors: Brescia Ray
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter shows that lasting social change must come from networked activists whose efforts are boosted and amplified by technology and who promote an inclusive and positive message. Modern communication technologies—the video and telephone conference, e-mail—can help groups organize and communicate, build trust, bridge across organizations to link networks and increase network effects, lower the costs of organizing, and coordinate messages and actions for maximum social impact. Thus, technology is at the heart of not just a group's message, but also the network through which that organizing occurs. The chapter then addresses some of the downsides of digital technologies and the potential threats they pose to social movement success. The fact that digital tools are so easy to use means they can sap movements of their participants, not by helping such movements overcome the free rider problem, but by making, if not “free” riders, perhaps “fake” riders. This problem is sometimes referred to as “slacktivism,” or the “Facebook model of political engagement”: the notion that individuals may engage with a movement by liking a Facebook post or forwarding a tweet with a hashtag in it and feel they have done their part for the movement. Similarly, the ease with which one can use these tools to generate and activate popular action can also lead to antidemocratic activities.
Nursing’s Expertise
Authors: Trotter LaTonya J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the status and identity of the nurse practitioner (NP), which was not fully resolved until the mid-1980s. Nursing did eventually rally around NPs, so that today there is little question over which profession they belong to. The chapter then situates who the NPs of Forest Grove Elder Services understood themselves to be within nursing's larger political and existential fight for an identity apart from medicine. NPs may have been created to provide routine care, but in becoming the providers of the poor, disabled, or otherwise medically marginalized, they have been asked to meet a fairly high bar of expertise. Ultimately, the Grove and its NPs were on the front lines of an enduring fight to both expand nursing's reach and maintain its separateness from medicine. While nursing has not been above marshaling claims of interchangeability when it appeals to policy makers, its advocates have also understood that its professional independence depends upon nursing maintaining work and knowledge that exist apart from medicine.
New Boundaries, New Relationships
Authors: Trotter LaTonya J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter evaluates how the presence of the nurse practitioner (NP) does not just signal changes in nursing work; it portends changes in medical work. Although real tensions exist between nurses and physicians, broadly speaking, they have worked collegially alongside one another for well over a century. This collegiality has endured despite significant changes in what both physicians and nurses do for patients. Its endurance, however, has been predicated on the one thing that has not changed: the power relations between the two. It is the difference in authority, and not just the difference in work, that undergirds the stability of the relationship between the two professions. The NP threatens to disrupt that stability. When registered nurses (RNs) become NPs, they are not just learning new skills; they are crossing lines of authority that they had previously learned to treat as constitutive of their profession. The chapter then looks at the voices and experiences of the NPs of Forest Grove Elder Services. Their narrated and actual practices negotiated physician authority in very different ways.
The Contraction of Social Work
Authors: Trotter LaTonya J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes the contraction of social work as intrinsic to understanding the story of nursing's expansion. The Forest Grove Elder Services' mandate of coordination and comprehensive management seemed like the perfect setting to showcase social work's expertise. Moreover, the Grove was mandated to hire social workers—a rarity in outpatient health care. Despite its having all the right organizational conditions, the doors of legitimacy never seemed to open for social work. Exploring how this occurred provides an opportunity to consider the relationship between nursing's professional gains and social work's losses. The chapter then shows how the logics and structural conditions that legitimate nursing's expansion are related to those that justified social work's contraction. Physician absence is undoubtedly a necessary condition for nursing's expansion; however, it is not a sufficient one. One must also understand how the NPs' incorporation of social and organizational problems into the clinic came to make more sense than having them resolved within social work.
Taking a Parallel Path
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses how Leo Wharton got into the film industry. Leo's earliest documented stage appearance was in 1893, in the play The Fairies' Well. After a few years of itinerant acting, Leo was able to secure steadier employment at the Hopkins Grand Opera in Saint Louis, where his brother Ted was already performing. As part of Colonel Hopkins's theatrical company, Leo assumed various stage roles in the popular daylong “continuous performance” programs that Hopkins pioneered, which combined live drama and between-the-acts vaudeville. Leo's first known (and first credited) film appearance was in the title role of Lincoln in Abraham Lincoln's Clemency (1910), a photoplay produced by Ted Wharton for Pathé. The role not only garnered good reviews for his sympathetic performance and even for his resemblance to the revered figure whom he was portraying; it also led to an offer as a director for Pathé, the studio for which Ted was then working. There, Leo began directing similar shorts, such as the period historical drama The Rival Brothers' Patriotism (1911). Since early movie audiences seemed especially fond of marital comedies, Leo produced several shorts in 1913 that revolved around wedding-day complications. While these and other short pictures that Leo produced for Pathé were often predictable in their plotting and formulaic in their execution, they were nonetheless popular with audiences and profitable for Pathé. Moreover, they established his reputation in the industry.
Exploiting Elaine
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the serial The Exploits of Elaine (1914). The fictional Elaine Dodge, an enterprising young woman who dedicates herself to solving the mystery of her father's death at the hands of an anonymous villain, would help to shape and advance the Wharton brothers' film career. As Pathé-Hearst's The Perils of Pauline (1914) neared its conclusion, newspaper tycoon and movie producer William Randolph Hearst was determined to create a new serial that would afford his popular star Pearl White an exciting encore. That serial was The Exploits of Elaine, which was expected to be a landmark venture for Hearst. In turn, for the Whartons, the chance to be associated with Hearst's enterprise seemed an unparalleled opportunity, one that would allow them to move beyond short pictures and to make their own singular contribution to the increasingly popular serial genre.
Establishing Roots in Renwick Park
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter looks at the new Wharton Studio facility that the Wharton brothers established at Renwick Park (now Stewart Park), at the southern tip of Cayuga Lake. With its lake frontage, gardens, bandstand, pavilions, open air theater, carousel, miniature steam railroad, and trolley connections, the site seemed ideal for their purposes. Best of all, the new facility would give the brothers the space they sorely needed and the opportunity to expand their operation. Once the renovations at the new Renwick Park studio were almost complete and the filming of the third segment of the Elaine serial was finished, the Whartons began planning their next projects. The most ambitious was Get-Rich-Quick-Wallingford, later released under the title The New Adventures of J. Rufus Wallingford (1915). The fourteen-part serial comedy was based on the “Get-Rich-Quick-Wallingford” stories by popular author George Randolph Chester. It was the success of their serial pictures that then inspired the Whartons to try their hand at something new: the production of a feature film. The chapter then considers the film versions of the plays Hazel Kirke (1916), The City (1916), and The Lottery Man (1916).
Unraveling Myra’s Mysteries
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter studies The Mysteries of Myra (1916). Although the Wharton brothers apparently abandoned some of the shorter pictures that they had been considering, early in the new year of 1916, they began preparations for The Mysteries of Myra. Pioneering in both subject and execution, The Mysteries of Myra aimed to avoid the hackneyed melodramatic lines of many early serials by offering instead what one contemporary reviewer called “a wonderful new theme that compels attention because of the puzzling thoughts regarding mental telepathy and spirits presented in a manner which follows authenticated scientific discoveries.” In other words, the serial purported to demonstrate the way that science had become powerful enough to “prove” the existence of the unscientific. Myra had other cultural reverberations as well. In addition to reflecting the unconventional “New Woman” type that had come into vogue in the 1910s, Myra Maynard was also emblematic of another early twentieth-century type in America popular culture: the adolescent girl as a liminal figure who, as she comes of age, uncannily mediates between the living and the dead. The scenario for the serial was written by Charles W. Goddard, a veteran of serial pictures who had scripted The Perils of Pauline and whose association with the Whartons dated back to their first Elaine serial production in 1914. On the Myra scripts, Goddard collaborated closely with American investigator of psychic phenomena Hereward Carrington, who supplied most of the occult story lines.
Staring into The Eagle’s Eye
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter recounts how, despite serious financial woes and impending bankruptcy, the Wharton brothers pressed forward with a new serial. Using the profits from their feature The Great White Trail, they entered into a contract with the recently retired chief of the United States Secret Service William J. Flynn and, with much ado, began making preparations for the filming of a multipart patriotic picture, The Eagle's Eye (1918). Their first serial production since the Hearst-backed Patria, it had a similarly nationalistic theme, and it would, they believed, restore them to prominence and solvency. Whereas Patria indulged Hearst's conspiracy theories about a Mexican–Japanese alliance intent on invading the United States at its western border, The Eagle's Eye was based on actual German spy plots that Flynn had discovered and thwarted. While The Eagle's Eye was the only feature picture that the brothers produced in 1918, they completed another short propaganda film of considerable merit: The Mission of the War Chest.
Heading West
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes how the once close relationship between the Wharton brothers irreparably broke. In late spring of 1919, after he and Ted parted ways, Leo Wharton left New York and headed west—not to Los Angeles but to Texas, which he hoped would become part of a film community that might rival Hollywood. At San Antonio Motion Pictures, he believed that he would have the opportunity to produce the kinds of feature films that he had long wanted to make. The demise of San Antonio Motion Pictures, however, effectively marked the end of Leo's film career. Ted Wharton, who left Ithaca less than a year after his brother Leo did, also traveled west. But whereas Leo had sought fame and success in Texas, Ted moved to Hollywood, which was rapidly evolving into the film capital of the United States. Almost immediately, Universal—by then well known for its popular westerns—hired him to work on the production of The Moon Riders (1920). Sadly, little more is known about the Whartons' final years. Nevertheless, a close examination of their careers restores Ted and Leo Wharton to the classical narrative of early filmmaking and reveals their profound impact on the early serial picture and their influence on later popular genres.
Introduction
Authors: Hawkins Michael C.
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides a background of the Philippine Village exhibit at the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. Despite the supposedly comprehensive nature of the Philippine display, the exhibit was ultimately called upon to serve two sometimes divergent scientific and pedagogical functions. On the one hand, the Philippine Village was a self-contained exhibit, set apart as an inclusive continuum of indigenous types ranging from the “head-hunting,” “dog-eating,” savage Igorots to the highly civilized Philippine Scouts and Constabulary. By viewing these communities in quick successive comparison, onlookers could draw broad lessons from the “demotic” differences in dress, materials, cultural customs, and habits. The Philippine exhibit was also meant to be an interactive display promoting a sense of otherization and cultural affirmation. This book examines a particularly soft spot in the subjective and contested colonial discourse between colonizer and colonized at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition—that of the Philippine Muslims, also known as Moros. The chapter then describes the Moro Village, which was constructed to effectively commodify and exoticize the mundane aspects of Moro life.
Nostalgia and the Familiar Savage
Authors: Hawkins Michael C.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses how both the Philippine and the Moro villages were designed and constructed to demonstrate the “deficiencies of the past,” which was marked by savagery. This stark comparison provided a pedagogical context meant to guide patrons toward affirmative conclusions regarding American state and industrial power. Yet, despite these aims, fairgoers brought their own deeply ambivalent feelings about modernity, which they channeled into unexpected demands for nostalgic indulgence. The chapter then considers the two broad characteristics that served to define the Moros as familiar historic subjects to nostalgic Americans. First, the Moros were seen as industrious, with a particular disposition toward innovation and the acquisition of wealth. Second, fairgoers were also tantalized by the more taboo aspects of savagery. Many Americans were particularly fascinated by Moro slavery and polygamy.
Conclusion
Authors: Hawkins Michael C.
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter assesses how, despite the unprecedented investment in colonial exhibition and advertisement, many felt that the Philippine Village was “a serious political failure.” Although this may have been the case for the Philippine exhibit generally, it was certainly not the case for the Moros. Rather than “surrendering” to the “inherited Fair tropes,” the Moros appealed to them, inhabited them, appropriated and reappropriated them, and substantially influenced the ways in which these tropes were represented and interpreted. Hence, although the Philippine exhibit may have failed to meet expectations, the Moro Village largely exceeded them. The Moro exhibit proved quite profitable financially as well, and the Moros achieved significant recognition in the form of formal awards and medals. Although the success or failure of the exhibit can be debated, the exposition of these Moros was unquestionably overshadowed by a darkly poignant supposition of inevitable demise. The very act of curating the live exhibit set in motion a process which can be referred to as performative extinction.
1680–1682: Everything Is Difficult
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the arrival of French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, at Kaskaskia. Of the Roman Catholic religious orders that labored in New France during the time of La Salle, the Jesuits were the most influential. With the Jesuits now situated as sole representative to King and Cross at Kaskaskia, and by extension the Illinois Country, Claude-Jean Allouez and his Jesuit associates were prepared to do whatever was necessary to keep secular influences away from the lands and the people whose souls the order worked so diligently to save. This included turning the Illinois Indians against La Salle. Without the support of the Illinois, there was little chance that La Salle's enterprise could succeed, because the explorer's royal patent permitted him to trade only in bison hides, and the Illinois were bison hunters. In addition, it appears that Allouez was prepared to turn Native American against Native American. The chapter then considers why the Iroquois attacked the Illinois at Kaskaskia, and what the implications were for La Salle and French policy in the West.
1692–1712: The Rock Is Abandoned
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter assesses how, for the decade following the French withdrawal from Starved Rock, Lake Peoria would become the primary focus for French traders and missionaries. Most of the Illinois subtribes, including the Kaskaskia and Peoria, also became well established at Lake Peoria. With the Indians and the French gone, the land in the Starved Rock area began to heal. Human activity at Starved Rock between 1691 and 1712 appears to have been very limited, as are any surviving records that could provide knowledge of the site's occupation. Occasionally, a party of canoe men or Indians passed the once-famous Rock, and some of them surely told of what they had once observed there. One of the more interesting accounts occurred in November of 1698, when four canoes en route to the Mississippi from Michilimackinac passed Starved Rock. At that time, three missionaries of the Société des Missions Étrangères (Society of the Foreign Missions)—Fathers Jean-François Buisson de St. Cosme, Antoine Davion, and François Jolliet de Montigny—made their way down the Illinois River, guided by none other than Henri Tonti. St. Cosme's perceptions recorded in his journal are interesting as they provide insight into his concerns regarding the deteriorating relations between the French and the Mesquakie.
1712–1730: Starved Rock and the Fox Wars
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the conflict between the Peoria and the Mesquakie Indians, hostilities that historians today call the Fox Wars. To counter potential British inroads into French trade turf, and to nullify the effects of illegal traders in Wisconsin, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac invited the Mesquakie to settle near his new post at Detroit, in the Lower Peninsula, where other regional tribes had previously settled. Unfortunately for the tribe, by the time the first Mesquakie group—led by a chief named Pemoussa—arrived at Detroit in 1712, Cadillac was no longer commandant of the post. Soon after the Mesquakie had settled near the fort, they created unrest by stealing livestock and taunting other tribes. Later, an Illinois chief named Makouandeby threatened the Mesquakie; this would inspire the Mesquakie to attack the Illinois for years to come. Mortal enmity was now sealed between the Mesquakie and their allies and the French and their Indian allies. Makouandeby's insults were added to a long list of grievances that the tribe held against the French and now, against the Illinois. This affront to Mesquakie honor was yet another reason why the Fox Wars grew to become so violent. It ensured that the Starved Rock Peoria would become targets of Mesquakie wrath and reprisals.
1730–1776: We Leave, Never to Return
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes the events in Starved Rock from 1730 to 1776. By 1732, nearly all Peoria Indians were living at villages in the Illinois Valley, at either Starved Rock or at Lake Peoria. For the Illinois, especially the Peoria and possibly some Cahokia living at Starved Rock, it appeared that the Mesquakie threat had been extinguished. Rather than continue their campaign of genocide against the Mesquakie, the French administration decided to utilize its resources where they were needed most—in the lower Mississippi Valley against the fierce Chickasaw tribe, who were allies and trade partners of the British. Meanwhile, in Europe, the French became embroiled in a conflict with the British known as the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), a conflict that spilled over to North America, where it is commonly and incorrectly called the French and Indian War. By 1777, the Potawatomi were firmly ensconced in the Illinois Country. Like the Potawatomi, the Mascouten and Kickapoo Indians also moved into Illinois. None of these groups, however, established themselves at Starved Rock.
1777–1840: The Big Knives Will Be in Control
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter recounts that while the Potawatomi, Odawa, and Ojibwe were migrating into Illinois, the American colonists in the eastern reaches of North America were fighting for their national independence from the British. The war ended in 1783 with the victorious Americans founding a new nation. Four years later, the US government organized a swath of land that included parts of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan into what is known as the Northwest Territory. Located within the boundary of this new jurisdiction was Starved Rock, which officially became part of the Northwest Territory in 1787. In 1823, the first Americans settled in the Starved Rock area. The chapter then looks at the Black Hawk War in 1832. The conflict began as a Sauk Indian response to American settlers moving onto lands ceded in 1804. Ultimately, treaties and land cession agreements written by representatives of the US government were intended to swindle the tribes; they denied basic due process rights to the Indians.
1886–1911: It Will Always Be Sitting Here, Beautiful
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter details how Chicago businessman Ferdinand Walther purchased Starved Rock from Daniel Hitt to turn it into a private park that included a “first class health and summer resort.” Walther's hotel opened in June of 1891. Despite the success of the venture, the improvement of the site, the satisfaction of the guests, and the positive impact on the local economy, the clamor for land to be set aside for public use continued to grow. Citizens of Illinois wanted public ownership of the site. Further, with an interest in safeguarding the natural beauty of the Rock, the public wanted to eliminate the risk of destruction that was inherent in private ownership of the land. On December 20, 1911, the property was officially transferred to the State of Illinois. The State of Illinois then used the next five months preparing to open the new state park. Starved Rock State Park was first opened under state management on May 1, 1912.
Alien Anarchism
Authors: Zeidel Robert F.
Published: September 2020

This chapter investigates the Haymarket Square rally in 1886, which solidified the presumed connection between aliens and undesirable worker radicalism. Reaction to the Molly Maguires and the Great Railroad Strike had established the practice of blaming immigrants and associated foreign ideologies for the industrial era's loss of workplace harmony, but the stigma did not prevent employers from fulfilling their growing labor needs by hiring large numbers of alien workers. Those recruited regularly included strikebreakers whose presence angered established workers. Through the early 1880s, laborers—not capitalists—tended to harbor animosity toward recent arrivals. When the Haymarket affair renewed and intensified fears of working-class violence, employers resorted to the pattern of implicating the immigrants who labored at their mills, mines, and factories, even as they continued to employ them.
The State of State Authority
Authors: Lee Melissa M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter defines state authority. To exercise state authority is to govern: to make and enforce rules and regulations, and to provide services. Today’s states are expected to regulate, enforce, tax, protect, and provide, and to do so evenly across the full extent of their territories. When the state governs all of its territory, its authority is consolidated. When the state’s authority is limited, contested, or absent altogether in particular parts of its territory, those spaces are undergoverned or ungoverned from the perspective of the state. The chapter then offers an empirical window into the state of state authority in the world, introducing an original measure of state authority. This measure proxies for state authority by estimating the accuracy of age information collected in population censuses. The accurate reporting of age data depends crucially on state authority and state presence; inaccuracies are therefore indicative of state weakness. This measure is used to examine variation in the spatial extent of state authority over territory both within countries and across countries in the developing world. The chapter also illustrates conditions in ungoverned and undergoverned spaces and contrasts the welfare consequences of weak state authority with consolidated state control.
Suburban and Urban Schools
Authors: Rury John L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes the development of educational systems in the United States through much of the twentieth century, and changes in metropolitan life following the Second World War. Patterns of suburban development varied somewhat by region, a process that held important implications for the organization of schooling. In the end, however, there was considerable convergence in the general process of suburbanization. Distinctions between central city and suburban communities became commonplace, especially in larger metropolitan regions. Educational inequities generally paralleled these developments, with few exceptions. By the later 1970s it was quite clear that a new national model of suburban advantage had taken hold—one that has continued to be evident largely to the present.
Conflict in Suburbia
Authors: Rury John L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter offers an account of developments on the Kansas side of the border, focusing specifically on the rise of the Shawnee Mission School District. Johnson County became known for the high quality of its schools and attracted the greatest concentration of college-educated adults in the area. This came to represent a significant advantage with respect to the performance of local schools. The district encountered difficulties, however, in achieving consolidation, as wealthy patrons in fashionable communities rejected proposals to join with less-affluent residents in other parts of the area. An act of the legislature eventually forced creation of the district—the only one in the state to require this step. This episode reflected the effects of localism within the suburban context, where status distinctions between communities could make common interests difficult to recognize or acknowledge.
Local Disasters, Government Actors, and National Policy
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W.
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of Hurricane Agnes, which swept through New York and Pennsylvania in late June of 1972. National trends influenced the federal and local response to the disaster. Hurricane Agnes struck the United States less than five months before the 1972 presidential election, and Richard Nixon's response to Hurricane Agnes was one variable in that election, which charted the course of American politics for the next three decades. In order to win reelection in 1972, President Nixon enacted the most substantial disaster aid package in history to that time, termed the Agnes Recovery Act, which he was convinced was the key to winning New York and Pennsylvania. The chapter then explains that local leaders played a crucial role in responding to the crisis in their communities and in flood recovery operations and rebuilding. Often neglected in studies of natural disaster policy is the way in which local leadership from government and the private sector interacted with representatives of the federal government to restore order and implement change. The chapter also introduces the Federal Office of Emergency Management (FEMA).
Agnes Makes Landfall
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W.
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on Hurricane Agnes, which struck the United States in June of 1972 and affected the lives of tens of thousands of people from Florida to New York. The thirty-two trillion gallons of water that fell on New York and Pennsylvania caused devastation that left buildings and homes in ruins and property damage estimated to be in the billions of dollars. The flood also left some people homeless and some without electrical power, telephones, fresh drinking water, or sewers. Many were isolated from the outside world as roads and bridges collapsed or buckled due to flooding. Survival was the goal of the communities during the first seventy-two hours of the disaster. Political and economic recovery became the focus of civic leaders in the weeks after, but the trauma of that summer also called for psychological healing. Mired in mud and misery, bereft of property and employment, the people of New York and Pennsylvania looked to their local, state, and federal governments for help and answers.
Without Warning and Defenseless
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W.
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes how the public also vented anger and frustration at agents of government whose job it was to protect people before a natural disaster occurred. The public was incensed at having received no warnings from the National Weather Service (NWS) and demanded to know why their local civil defense organizations had failed in the midst of the crisis. The public expected to hold someone responsible for the death and the destruction of property. Assigning blame is an integral component of American democracy; in order for change to occur, the electorate must assign responsibility when the government fails so they can pressure officials into improving public policy. In response to the public outrage, elected officials conducted a series of hearings into what went wrong before and during the Hurricane Agnes disaster. State senator Bill Smith, who was unable to get Governor Nelson Rockefeller to agree to a special legislative session, teamed up with Senate majority leader Warren Anderson to hold special hearings into government failures during the disaster. These investigations would show just how tattered the disaster safety net had become in the days before Hurricane Agnes.