bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Occupation and industry on death certificates of long‐term chemical workers: Concordance with work history records
Authors: Olsen Geary W. , Brondum Jack , Bodner Kenneth M. , Kravat Brandi A. , Mandel Jack S. , Mandel Jeffrey H. , Bond Gregory G.
Published: April 2007

This study evaluated the concordance between occupation and industry listed on death certificates with actual work history information for a group (n = 5,882) of long‐term (10 years or more) workers at a chemical company. Match rates were calculated as the percent of death certificate occupation and company entries that were confirmed by work history data using 3‐digit 1980 U.S. Census Bureau group codes. The concordance rate for industry differed by employment status at death: employed, 94.9%; inactive, 30.8%; and retired, 91.1%. Concordance on occupation was analyzed for employed (n = 467) and retired (n = 932) subjects who had computerized work histories (randomly done prior to the study) and who had matched on the company on the death certificate. Concordance ranged from 0 to 50% for the first job, to 50 to 70% for the last job, longest job, and longest job in the last 10 years of company employment. The most consistent predictor of concordance was job duration. Misclassification was reviewed by occupational category. Results from this and other investigations lead to the inevitable conclusion that usual occupation data from death certificates are grossly inadequate for studies of occupational risks.
Investigation of a lung cancer cluster in the melt shop of an ontario steel producer
Authors: Finkelstein Murray M. , Wilk Nancy
Published: April 2007

Workers' concerns about an excess of cancer in an electric arc steelmaking operation were investigated. In comparison with men who had worked elsewhere in the plant, an increased risk of lung cancer death was observed among men who had been employed in the melt shop. The hypothesis that the association might be related to occupational exposures is supported by the persistence of the association when the hypothesis‐generating cases were removed from the analysis (p = 0.063) and by a significant trend in the risk of lung cancer with years of exposure in the melt shop. No air sampling had been performed in earlier years. Current environmental analyses in the melt shop found no polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (detection limit: 0.001 mg/m3), and silica levels were below 0.1 mg/m3. The carcinogenic metals arsenic and chromium were detected, but their concentrations in earlier years are unknown.
Morbidity and mortality in talc‐exposed workers
Authors: Wergeland Ebba , Andersen Aage , Berheim Anders
Published: April 2007

Cancer incidence and cause‐specific mortality were studied in a male cohort of 94 talc miners and 295 talc millers, exposed to non‐asbestiform talc with low quartz content. No excess risk was found compared with national age‐specific incidence. Six cases of lung cancer occurred versus 6.49 expected (miners: observed 2, expected 1.27; millers: observed 4, expected 5.22). There were 3 deaths due to non‐malignant respiratory disease against 10.9 expected (miners: observed 1, expected 2.5; millers: observed 2, expected 8.4). Mesothelioma, tuberculosis, or pneumoconiosis were not recorded as causes of death. Pneumoconiosis was noted as a contributory cause in three cases (silicosis two, talcosis one). Further follow‐up will reduce any potential impact of “healthy worker” selection.
Brain cancer mortality at a manufacturer of aerospace electromechanical systems
Authors: Park Robert M. , Silverstein Michael A. , Green Margaret A. , Mirer Franklin E.
Published: April 2007

Standardized proportional mortality ratios and mortality odds ratios were calculated for 583 deaths between 1950 and 1986 among employees who had worked for at least 10 years at a facility manufacturing missile and aircraft guidance systems. There was a statistically significant excess of brain cancer proportional mortality (PMR = 16/3.8 = 4.2, p = .00001). Among hourly employees, 12 brain cancer deaths occurred for 2.7 expected (PMR = 4.4, p = .00005). The PMR for brain cancer increased from 1.8 (p = .45) among hourly workers with less than 20 years to 8.7 (p = .000003) in those with more than 20 years employment. Work in “clean rooms,” where gyroscopes were assembled, was associated with the brain cancer excess but did not fully account for it. Among 105 deceased hourly women, all three brain cancer deaths occurred among gyro assemblers working in clean rooms, and the risk increased with duration in clean rooms. Although the proportion of brain cancer deaths among hourly men with clean‐room experience was similar to that for women, only three of the seven male brain cancer deaths occurred in this group. The suspect agents include gyro fluids and chlorofluorocarbon solvents.
Occupational exposures to styrene in denmark 1955‐88
Authors: Jensen Allan Astrup , Breum Niels Oluf , Bacher Jens , Lynge Elsebeth
Published: April 2007

An assessment of the occupational exposure to styrene and associated chemicals in Denmark was carried out by retrieving all measurements from the archives of the Danish National Institute of Occupational Health. A total of 2,528 air samples containing styrene had been collected from 256 workplaces during the years 1955‐88 and analyzed by the chemical laboratory at the Institute. The mean for all samples was 265 mg/m3. The concentration decreased from 714 mg/m3 in the early period (1955‐70) to 172 mg/m3 in the late period (1981‐88). Spraying and unspecified lay‐up and production of boats, carriages, and stationary containers were associated with the highest concentration. A total of 34 chemicals were measured. The most frequent co‐contaminant to styrene was acetone, which was measured in 2,263 samples with a mean concentration of 131 mg/m3. Dichloromethane was measured in 208 samples with a mean concentration of 51 mg/m3, xylene in 148 samples with a mean concentration of 49 mg/m3, and toluene in 116 samples with a mean concentration of 113 mg/m3. The study was undertaken to analyze historical styrene concentrations in air to aid in the selection of industrial cohorts to be included in epidemiologic studies.
Dermal absorption potential of industrial chemicals: Criteria for skin notation
Authors: Fiserova‐Bergerova V. , Pierce J. Thomas , Droz P. O.
Published: April 2007

A dermal penetration rate (flux), predicted from physical properties of 132 chemicals, is suggested as an index of the dermal absorption potential of industrial chemicals. The prediction is designed for organic nonelectrolytes. Two reference values are recommended as criteria for skin notation: 1 dermal absorption potential, which relates to dermal absorption raising the dose of nonvolatile chemicals or biological levels of volatile chemicals 30% above those observed during inhalation exposure to TLV‐TWA only—dermal absorption of chemicals belonging to this category should be considered when data obtained by biological monitoring are interpreted; and 2 dermal toxicity potential, which relates to dermal absorption that triples biological levels as compared with levels observed during inhalation exposure to TLV‐TWA only. Chemicals belonging in this category should carry a skin notation. The toxicity criteria may not be valid for chemicals whose TLVs are based on preventing irritation and discomfort.
Concentration adjustment of spot samples in analysis of urinary xenobiotic metabolites
Authors: Trevisan Andrea
Published: April 2007

The reliability of the adjustment for the reduction of concentration‐dilution effects in urinalysis of spot specimens was evaluated; 95.4% of spot specimens showed a crea‐tinine concentration between 0.5 and 3 g/liter, whereas 59.8% showed a specific gravity between 1.010 and 1.030. Only 6% of the specimens exceeded the specific gravity of 1.035 corresponding to a creatinine concentration of 3 g/liter. Therefore, an acceptable value for specific gravity in spot specimens of 1.035 is proposed. Although either specific gravity or creatinine provides a reliable mean of adjustment, creatinine is preferred because it has fewer physiological confounding factors.
Mortality from lung cancer among workers employed in formaldehyde industries
Authors: Blair Aaron , Stewart Patricia A. , Hoover Robert N.
Published: April 2007

A historical cohort of 26,561 workers employed in ten facilities was assembled to evaluate cancer risks associated with exposure to formaldehyde. Historical exposures to formaldehyde by job, work area, plant, and calendar time were estimated using monitoring data available from participating plants, comments from long‐term workers and company officials, exposure evaluations from walk‐through surveys conducted by project industrial hygienists, and results from monitoring specifically performed for this project. A previous report of findings from this study noted a 30% excess mortality from lung cancer among wage workers. The relative risk for lung cancer (whether estimated by SMRs or SRRs) 20 or more years after first exposure did not generally rise with increasing exposure to formaldehyde. Various estimates of exposure were investigated including duration, intensity, peak, cumulative, and average, and by exposures lagged by 5, 10, 20, and 30 years. The excess did not appear to arise gradually, but emerged suddenly among workers whose total cumulative exposure was less than 0.1 ppm‐years. Slightly positive, but nonsignificant, exposure‐response associations between lung cancer and level of formaldehyde occurred in only a few out of a large number of comparisons (e.g., for persons hired before the start dates for the study and for workers also exposed to particulates). There was a lack of consistency among the various plants for risk of lung cancer, with six plants having elevated SMRs and four plants having deficits. Mortality from lung cancer was more strongly associated with exposure to other substances including phenol, melamine, urea, and wood dust than with exposure to formaldehyde. Workers exposed to formaldehyde without exposure to these substances did not experience an elevated mortality from lung cancer. The risk did not increase with cumulative levels of formaldehyde among those exposed to other substances and there was a slightly negative trend for those exposed to formaldehyde alone. Although some role for formaldehyde, particularly in association with other substances, in the excess of lung cancer seen among these workers cannot be ruled out, these findings suggest that exposure to phenol, melamine, urea, wood dust or other exposures also occurring in the area where these substances were used (i.e., production of resin and molding compounds) may play a more primary role. This association should be further evaluated in other studies that include workers from resin and molding compound operations.
Limitations of hospital discharge diagnoses for surveillance of extrinsic allergic alveolitis
Authors: Kipen Howard M. , Tepper Allison , Rosenman Kenneth , Weinrib David
Published: April 2007

Hospital discharge diagnoses were used to identify all inpatient cases of extrinsic allergic alveolitis (EAA) from 1979 to 1982 in New Jersey. Of 170 reported cases, the hospital records of 48 were available for review. Based on published criteria for the diagnosis of EAA, only three cases (6%) could be classified as probable EAA, while 10 (21%) were possible cases, and 34 (73%) were not EAA. Limitations were apparent in the accuracy of discharge coding and also in the accuracy of the physician's diagnosis. These findings should promote caution among investigators using unvalidated reports based on ICD‐9 hospital coding of EAA. Implications for reporting of other occupational lung diseases are discussed.
Smoking patterns by occupation and duration of employment
Authors: Levin Lynn I. , Silverman Debra T. , Hartge Patricia , Fears Thomas R. , Hoover Robert N.
Published: April 2007

Lifetime patterns of smoking and occupation based on personal interviews were examined among 3,627 white men and 1,200 white women who were randomly selected from ten areas in the United States during the period 1977–1978. These individuals participated in the control series of the National Bladder Cancer Study. We estimated, based on Axelson's method, the extent to which smoking habits for given occupational groups would confound the estimated relative risk for lung cancer for 62 occupations among men and 18 occupations among women. Among men, confounding by smoking resulted in a 30% or greater increased risk of lung cancer in only three occupational groups—namely, stationary engineers and power station operators (relative risk (RR) = 1.6), printers (RR = 1.3), and fishermen and sailors (RR = 1.3). A decrease in lung cancer risk of 0.8 or less due to smoking habits was observed among the clergy (RR = 0.5) and chemical workers (RR = 0.7). Among women, a 30% increase or greater in the risk of lung cancer based on smoking habits alone was found for food service workers (RR = 1.5), building managers and administrators (RR = 1.3), telephone and telegraph operators (RR = 1.3), and operatives (RR = 1.3). A risk ratio of 0.8 or less was observed for those women employed as farmers (RR = 0.5) and teachers (RR = 0.8). Smoking habits by duration of employment were also examined for 38 occupations among men. The largest increase in the risk of lung cancer based on the smoking habits among long‐term workers was only 1.3 and was observed for those men employed 20 or more years as painters and as electricians. These findings suggest that the smoking patterns, in only a few occupational groups that we evaluated, confound estimates of the relative risk by more than 30%, and for most occupational groups under investigation in this study, confounding by smoking alone did not produce trends in relative risks by duration of employment.
Would a federal judicial science board improve toxic tort litigation?
Authors: Brennan Troyen A.
Published: April 2007

Over the past two decades, courts have struggled with technical and scientific evidence regarding the causal connection between exposure to hazardous substances and disease states. Judges' and juries' inability to understand the uncertainty inherent in lexicological evidence of causation has led to decisions which are incorrect from a scientific point of view. These problems are exacerbated by the “battle of experts,” which is the traditional method for presenting scientific evidence to courts. Alternative means for presenting scientific evidence to courts, such as court‐appointed experts and use of panels of expert scientists, are theoretically superior to the existing adversarial process. A Federal Judicial Science Board could coordinate the use of court‐appointed experts and science panels and make them more attractive alternatives to courts struggling with issues of toxic causation.
Prologue: Agricultural occupational and environmental health: Policy strategies for the future
Authors: Donham Kelley J.
Published: April 2007

The conference “Agricultural Occupational and Environmental Health: Policy Strategies for the Future” documented for the public record the epidemic of occupational and environmental deaths, diseases. and injuries experienced by America's farm families and agricultural workers. The confcrcnce also gave life to a process aimed at rcducing those harards.

The outcome of long‐range objectives of lowering death, injury, and disease rates in our agricultural population will not be known for several years. However, there was unanimous consensus that the major short‐range objectives were achieved. Extensive regional and national media coverage helped meet the goal of Cacilitating public awareness of the issues. In addition, a prioritized policy agenda, soundly based on recentscientific information, was produced. This agcnda was the product of collaboration between the scientific community, Carm constituency groups, farm equipment and chemical manufacturers, and representatives from state and federal governments.

Primary changes resulting from thc conference include an increase in general awareness and a sense of urgency that agricultural health problems must he addressed. In addition, the conference spawned a new organization called the National Coalition for Agricultural Safety and Health (N‐CASH) to help assure a vibrant continuation of confcrencc issues. This coalition will live on to help disseminate the spirit, information, and specific policy recommendations of the conference to the public sector and private institutions.

Two years of planning and work by I8 individuals occurred even before the start of the conference. During the conference. 176 individuals put in an equivalent of three and a hall person years of work. However, the work is just beginning. This effort is justified if it results in one less death or serious injury in a farm family.
Epidemiologic studies of cancer in agricultural workers
Authors: Pearce Neil , Reif John S.
Published: April 2007

The incidence of cancer in agricultural workers is generally low, in part due to the low prevalence of cigarette smoking in this group. However, agricultural workers have elevated risks for several specific cancer types including leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, non‐Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and cancers of the lip, stomach, prostate, brain, and connective tissue. Two major groups of risk factors have been proposed as causes of hematologic malignancies in agricultural workers. The first group includes various agricultural chemicals. In particular, several studies have found increased risks of malignant lymphoma and soft tissue sarcoma in persons exposed to phenoxy herbicides. However, the evidence is inconsistent and there is a wide variation in relative risk estimates. The second group of risk factors includes various animal viruses. There is currently little evidence concerning the zoonotic nature or human carcinogenicity of these viruses. However, leads have been suggested by recent evidence of increased risks of hematologic malignancies in abattoir workers, veterinarians, and meat inspectors. A third hypothesis, for which little evidence is currently available, is that agricultural work may involve prolonged antigenic stimulus leading to lymphoproliferation. The factors responsible for the increased risks for cancers other than hematologic malignancies are not well understood but may also involve exposure to chemicals or viruses.
Scope and magnitude of injuries in the agricultural workplace
Authors: Purschwitz Mark A. , Field William E.
Published: April 2007

Agricultural work injury data are less available than data for other industries, so an overview of existing data is provided. Agriculture has the highest annual work death rate of all industries, 52 per 100,000 workers, which is five times the combined rate for all industries. Tractor‐related injuries are the leading types of fatal injuries; injuries involving agricultural machinery, animals, and trucks are the leading types of non‐fatal injuries. Victims of fatal accidents range in age from less than 1 year to over 90. Research needs are discussed, including the need for comprehensive surveillance.
A methodology for the collection of supplemental information on agricultural fatalities
Authors: Seltzer Barbara L. , Murphy Dennis J. , Yesalis Charles E.
Published: April 2007

Due to the lack of a standardized methodology to identify agriculturally related fatalities and the inaccuracy of data from death certificates, NSC's and NIOSH's estimates of the level of agriculturally related fatalities conflict, and the validity of both is subject to criticism. A follow‐up survey with the next of kin of 107 potential agricultural fatalities, from a pool of 150 Pennsylvania cases, has been conducted. This paper details the methods and success in gaining supplemental information. Next of kin were generally willing to provide the information (67%), with both telephone (66%) and mail (68%) methods generating comparable levels of cooperation. The optimal time frame for finding current addresses and telephone numbers as well as for gaining cooperation appeared to be about 1 year after the fatality. However, a retrospective investigation of up to 3 years past the anniversary of the fatality produced an acceptable rate of cooperation. How the collected data compares with fatality data for agriculture published by NSC and NIOSH has been addressed in another paper.
1983 occupational injury hospital admissions in Iowa: A comparison of the agricultural and non‐agricultural sectors
Authors: Fuortes Laurence J. , Merchant James A. , van Lier Stephanie F. , Burmeister Leon F. , Muldoon Joann
Published: April 2007

An occupational injury surveillance project was conducted in 15 of Iowa's 99 counties. Trained abstractors reviewed the medical records of persons admitted for trauma to hospitals during 1983. Based on these chart reviews, subsequent mail‐out questionnaires and phone contacts were made, and rate estimates for occupational injury hospitalization for farmers and non‐farmers were generated.

The 1980 U.S. census data for occupation and market area data for the sample hospitals were used for the rate calculations. Approximately 14.7% of hospitalizations for trauma in the sample area were for work‐related injuries. Farmers were hospitalized for occupational injuries at a rate of 1,521/100,000 compared to non‐farmers at a rate of 497/100,000.

There were no significant differences in the mean number of days per hospitalization for farmers versus non‐farmers, (7.4 days for farmers and 6.7 days for non‐farmers). Based on the questionnaire data, farmers were much less likely to receive any form of remuneration for injury, (odds ratio = 0.26, p < 5 × 10−6). Farmers also reported less time off from work, with a mean of 79 days compared to non‐farmers with a mean of 289 days.
Preventing respiratory disease in swine confinement workers: Intervention through applied epidemiology, education, and consultation
Authors: Donham Kelley J. , Merchant James A. , Lassise Deborah , Popendorf William J. , Burmeister Leon F.
Published: April 2007

A combined epidemiological and intervention study was conducted on 207 swine confinement farmers with matched comparison subjects. The objectives of the study were to define, in detail, the nature and disease determinants in this exposed group and to explore methods of disease prevention. This 5 year prospective study included three annual medical assessments of workers and complementary work environment assessments. Between the first and second assessment periods, an in‐depth educational intervention was conducted. An industrial hygiene consultation intervention was conducted between the second and third measurement periods. Outcome measurements included changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behavior following educational intervention. Additionally, the outcomes measured included changes in medical and environmental assessment over the 3 year assessment periods. Results of the baseline respiratory symptoms assessment are reported here. Nearly 20% of swine confinement workers reported chronic cough, and 25% reported phlegm (American Thoracic Society questionnaire). Both symptoms were significantly more prevalent in the confinement workers compared to a blue collar comparison group, but only phlegm production was more prevalent compared to nonconfinement farmers. Work‐related symptoms were reported much more frequently than chronic symptoms (e.g., 87% of confinement workers reported work‐related cough). Bronchitis as well as airways reactivity were all significantly more prevalent in confinement workers compared to nonconfinement workers. Smoking seemed to have an additive effect with confinement exposure. Bronchitis and chest tightness symptoms were reported to be more severe upon return to work after an absence of 7 days or more. Finally, 34% of workers reported episodes of organic dust toxic syndrome.
Cohort studies of immunologic lung disease among Wisconsin dairy farmers
Authors: Marx James J. , Guernsey Judith , Emanuel Dean A. , Merchant James A. , Morgan Donald P. , Kryda Michael
Published: April 2007

Traditionally, hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) or farmer's lung disease (FLD) was thought to be the major occupational respiratory problem of farmers. In recent years, other acute conditions, particularly organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS), have been recognized as significant features of the agricultural respiratory disease picture. The differences between HP and ODTS are discussed in this article. A cohort of workers on 90 dairy farms has been under study since 1975. Prevalence of FLD was calculated at 4.2/1,000. Extensive immunologic testing of this group was conducted. Serum antibody reactivity to farmer's lung antigens was related to chronic symptoms of bronchitis and occupational asthma, but not FLD. Serology may be thought of as a measure of exposure, but not FLD.
Work‐related respiratory disorders among finnish farmers
Authors: Terho Erkki O.
Published: April 2007

Several research projects on work‐related respiratory diseases have been conducted in Finland. One of the largest, “Farmers' Occupational Health Programme,” was conducted by the Social Insurance Institution of Finland during 1973‐1983 in cooperation with Kuopio Regional Institute of Occupational Health and the National Board of Health. The main objective of the program was to develop a model for occupational health services for farmers. As a part of the program, postal surveys were conducted in 1979 and 1982. The surveys allowed an analysis of both the prevalence and the mean annual incidence of asthma, farmer's lung, and chronic bronchitis as well as of background variables related to the diseases. More than every tenth farmer suffered from these respiratory diseases. The occurrence of chronic bronchitis (the most common disease) was, in general, related to farming types in which grain crops (including animal feeds) were handled. Chronic bronchitis was most prevalent among farmers who worked in piggeries, implying a combined effect of grain dusts, dusts of animal origin, and development of the disease. Atopy predisposed to and had an additive effect with smoking on chronic bronchitis.
Presence of endotoxins in different agricultural environments
Authors: Olenchock Stephen A. , May John J. , Pratt David S. , Piacitelli Laurie A. , Parker John E.
Published: April 2007

Gram‐negative bacterial endotoxins are contaminants of dusts from agricultural products. They represent a potential health hazard for farmers working in many different processes. However, the occurrence of endotoxins has not been well characterized in the various farming operations. Therefore, two farming activities with potential for generating airborne endotoxins were studied: 1) chopping of baled corn stalks or straw for bedding in New York State, and 2) oat bin unloading in Alabama. Actual airborne endotoxin levels in dusts obtained during bedding chopper operations far exceeded [90 endotoxin units (EU)/m3] the level at which acute pulmonary function decrements occur in cotton dust‐exposed individuals. Endotoxin contamination of laboratory‐generated dust from an oat sample likewise exceeded these levels. This study documents the presence of potentially hazardous exposures to endotoxins in two common farm processes, which expands the knowledge of airborne endotoxin exposures on the farm.
Environmental epidemiology of non‐Hodgkin's Lymphoma in Eastern Nebraska
Authors: Weisenburger Dennis D.
Published: April 2007

The incidence of non‐Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) is increased in many counties in eastern Nebraska. Histologic analysis has revealed a twofold increase in the clinically aggressive, diffuse large cell subtype of NHL. To investigate the possible association between NHL and agricultural exposures, a population‐based case‐control study was conducted in eastern Nebraska in 1985. Telephone interviews were conducted with 201 men having histologically confirmed NHL and 725 controls. Among men, the use of the herbicide 2,4‐D was associated with a 50% increased risk of NHL (OR 1.5, 95% CI 0.9, 2.4). Personal exposure to 2,4‐D more than 20 days per year increased the risk threefold (OR 3.3, 95% CI 0.5, 22.1). Several classes of insecticides were also associated with increased risk: organophosphates (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.1, 3.1), carbamates (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.0, 3.2), and chlorinated hydrocarbons (OR 1.4, 95% CI 0.8, 2.3). As a result of intense agrichemical use, extensive contamination of shallow groundwater by nitrate and atrazine has also occurred in eastern Nebraska. A twofold increased incidence of NHL is present in counties with greater than 20% of the wells contaminated by nitrate (> 10 ppm) and in counties with intense fertilizer use. These findings suggest that NHL in eastern Nebraska may be related to the use of pesticides and nitrogen fertilizers.
Pesticide illness surveillance: Review of the national pesticide hazard assessment program
Authors: Wagner Sheldon L.
Published: April 2007

Regarding consultations on pesticide exposures by Oregon State University, the following information is summarized: 1) source of queries; 2) locations of exposure; 3) types of chemicals; and 4) nature of the illnesses. The majority of queries involve nonagricultural exposures in the home and workplace. Principal sources of referral are from the National Pesticide Telecommunications Network (toll‐free number), state departments of agriculture, and state extension services. In addition to illnesses, the system also responds to press releases such as those that occurred after the withdrawal of chlordane. Previously unsuspected clinical problems have been reported (suggesting new areas of research need), including cases associated with long‐acting organophosphates, such as chlorpyrifos, and with the pyrethroids.
Neurotoxic concerns of human pesticide exposures
Authors: Davies John E.
Published: April 2007

While the human effects of acute pesticide poisoning are well known, significant data gaps exist with regard to what is known about some of the chronic effects, particularly neurotoxic and behavioral aspects of organophosphate exposures. The extent of this concern is particularly high in Europe where these issues are being addressed by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Development Programme. These agencies are sponsoring a ten‐nation, international study of chronic neurologic and neurotoxic sequelae. In the United States, evidence for chronic neurologic effects have come from case studies, clusters of neurologic disease, or from specific epidemiologic studies. For both toxicologic and epidemiologic reasons, it is essential that the neurobehavioral potential of low‐level, prolonged exposure to pesticides and pesticide mixtures be more thoroughly investigated. Workers exposed to pesticides are one of the largest occupational populations at risk in the world. The effects of these occupational exposures on the worker's nervous system and behavior are just beginning to be investigated.
Occupational health among migrant and seasonal farmworkers: The specific case of dermatitis
Authors: Schenker Marc B. , McCurdy Stephen A.
Published: April 2007

Occupational health studies of agricultural workers have generally excluded migrant and seasonal farmworkers, and this population experiences a high degree of health risk from agricultural exposures. A survey of dermatologic disorders among migrant and seasonal farmworkers will be used to illustrate this point. Data from a recent field study are presented to illustrate epidemiologic approaches to studying dermatologic disorders in farmworkers and risk factors for dermatitis. This study suggests there is generally a high health risk to agricultural workers and this study also suggests methods to investigate other acute and chronic diseases among agricultural workers.
Technical workshop report: Working group I: Occupational health and safety strategies for agriculture
Authors: Dosman James A.
Published: April 2007

The six workshops in this subgroup—Injuries, Respiratory Diseases, Acute Chemical Toxicity, Cancer, and Health Surveillance—competently outlined the principal health and safety issues in agriculture, documenting the increased and unacceptable morbidity and mortality in farmers and their families. It became evident that although research knowledge is just now unfolding, sufficient data exist to permit comprehensive program planning for research and prevention. It is necessary that famers and their families be considered an occupational grouping and that specific programs aimed at ongoing risk assessment and early diagnosis are important. At the same time, a more broadly based approach to rural family life enhancement is essential, including the following: 1) education; 2) prevention; 3) family life enhancement; and 4) research. Because of the scope and nature of the problem, program development should include a multidisciplinary approach that involves the local community, state government, university (professional) resources, farm/organizations, and industry.
Farmers' health care—worldwide
Authors: Höglund Sverker
Published: April 2007

This review will summarize the current state of preventive health care systems for farmers in the world. It is obvious that well‐organized occupational health care systems for farmers occur sporadically in only a few countries, and generally are in the initial stages of development. Large cooperative farms and plantations may have industrialized occupational health care. In some countries in Europe, e.g., France and Austria, Farmers' organizations may include a certain amount of health and safety activity within their social insurance systems for farmers. Moreso than in other places, the Scandinavian countries have tried different approaches to provide comprehensive health services among farmers. Regardless of the kind of system, it is obvious from experiences worldwide that agriculture is a risky occupation and farmers are exposed to numerous hazards which may result in injuries, work‐related diseases, and death. It is promising to note an increased interest in this situation from many parts of the world.
Farmers' health and safety programs in Sweden
Authors: Höglund Sverker
Published: April 2007

In 1977, the Swedish Farmers' Federation initialed a pilot project of preventive occupational health services to farmers. After a few years it was decided that this occupationspecific service, Farmers' Preventive Health Service (Lantbrukshälsan), should be permanently established within the federation of farmers. Today, 33 special regional centers have been established around Sweden, providing occupational health services to famers, farm workers, and others occupied in farm‐related enterprises. At another 30 locations collaboration has been established with other existing health care centers. Farmers must pay a fee to become a member of the organization and to provide affiliation is voluntary. Today about 40,000 farmers are members. The main goal of the Farmers' preventive health service (FPHS) is to prevent work‐related injuries and illnesses and to provide clinical services to farmers for occupational medical problems.

Every second year a health check‐up is performed; during the years in between other services such as farm visits, first aid courses, and sessions on prevention/amelioration of back and neck problems are provided. A team of occupational nurses, physiotherapists, agricultural safety engineers, doctors, and secretaries work together to provide comprehensive services. This integrated medical‐technical approach to service provision is a prerequisite to successful intervention for the many occupational hazards which may cause damage to health. Respiratory problems related to inhalation of organic dust, pesticide exposures, allergies, and orthopedic diseases are important. Psychosocial work‐related problems seem to be increasing among farmers.
Farmers' occupational health program in Finland, 1979‐1988: From research to practice
Authors: Husman Kaj , Notkola Veijo , Virolainen Ritva , Nuutinen Jyrki , Tupi Kirsti , Penttinen Jyrki , Heikkonen Jalmari
Published: April 2007

The Kuopio Regional Institute of Occupational Health, in collaboration with the Social Insurance Institution and the National Board of Health, conducted and evaluated a national model for the famers' occupational health services. In January 1985 the National Board of Health instructed the Finnish municipal health centers to start the provision of Farmers' occupational health services based on the recommendation given by the research group. The service was evaluated by experiments carried out during 1982, 1985, and 1986. The main problem in function of the services was that the health hazards (exposures) were difficult to observe and evaluate. The system of how the occupational health nurse evaluates the working conditions should be further developed.

The efficiency of the services was studied by postal inquiries in 1982 and 1986. Farmers' knowledge about the appropriate means of reducing hazardous exposures had increased significantly due to the occupational health services.

At the local level, the main problem in providing services for occupational farmers is that health centers do not have the resources to offer services for all farmers at the same time. Altogether by the end of 1986, about 30% of all active farmers in Finland (45,000 farmers) were willing to have occupational health services, which is voluntary for self‐employed farmers.
The bassett farm safety and health project
Authors: Pratt David S.
Published: April 2007

The Bassett Farm Safety and Health Project was started in 1980 when Drs. May and Pratt made clinical observations on respiratory illnesses in farmers. The initial work involved the investigation of clinical syndromes associated with dust exposures and, from there, environmental dust studies. The current scope of work of The Farm Safety and Health Project includes three major components: research, education, and patient care. The research activities currently include studies into the analysis of injuries on farms, hearing loss in a randomly selected population, and estimating the annual incidence of Silo Filler's Disease in New York State. Educational activities currently include a statewide hearing conservation project, and the provision of numerous education materials for farmers and farm workers. The clinical activities include the establishment of an occupational medicine clinic in the fall of 1988, designed specifically for evaluation and treatment of agricultural workers with occupation‐related illness and injuries.
Practice‐based agromedicine: The need for client‐centered research
Authors: Schuman Stanley H.
Published: April 2007

During recent years, several client calls received from Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service office and private physicians have required client‐oriented investigations. These have practical implications for preventive medicine and public service. The challenges for differential diagnosis across disciplines are not for the faint‐of‐heart or the narrow thinking specialist. Examples of incidents that have signaled a problem and resulting research projects are: 1) anaphylactic cardiovascular response to red imported fire ant venom (statewide morbidity survey); (2) unexplained contact dermatitis in tomato harvesters and floral designers (immunodermatologic study and statewide survey of florists); (3) concerns over two unexplained cancer deaths at an experimental agricultural research station (farmer's mortality study); (4) a household outbreak of organophosphate poisoning (statewide hospital morbidity survey); and (5) a woman in early pregnancy exposed to misapplication of chlordane in her house (literature review and update on trends in U.S. birth defects). These examples reflect a broad but responsive interdisciplinary approach to the needs of the clients of the South Carolina Agromedicine Program.
Safety programs of the farm safety association in Ontario, Canada
Authors: Reed Jane
Published: April 2007

The Ontario Farm Safety Association, established in 1973 under the Workers' Compensation Act, provides safety education services to the agricultural community to reduce injuries and fatalities. With a staff of 14, various programs are administered including health and safety seminars, inspections, technical consulting, specialized agricultural safety publications and audio‐visual materials, statistical gathering and analysis, as well as elementary school programs.
The farm family perception of occupational health: A multistate survey of knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and ideas
Authors: Thu Kendall , Donham Kelley J. , Yoder Denise , Ogilvie Linda
Published: April 2007

It is vitally important to integrate the views and concerns of the farm family into the process of policy development. If the input is not there, policy planners could implement programs that are philosophically separated from the farm families' concerns and attitudes. This would destroy credibility and future farmer support of any new program development.

From May of 1988 to April of 1989, a phone and mail survey of approximately 1,500 farmers and spouses was conducted to assess knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors regarding agricultural safety and health. The survey was conducted in Iowa, New York, South Carolina, and Washington state.

Preliminary results from Iowa and New York indicated that: 1) farmers value highly, and are concerned with, occupational health and safety issues; 2) farmers report that their major concerns include stress, trauma and respiratory problems; 3) farmers would like access to an occupational health and safety service; and 4) any new farm health and safety programs must include farmer input to ensure practicality, applicability, and acceptance.
A case for social marketing and education for acceptance and implementation of preventive health and occupational safety measure programs for rural communities
Authors: Rowley Beverley Davies
Published: April 2007

The environment in which acceptance and implementation of preventive health and occupational safety occurs is not conducive to the message being heard, nor are people acting upon the message. Diffusion of innovation and community development models are explored for possible approaches to health education in the rural community. In particular, the community‐oriented primary care approach to medical practice is discussed. In addition, the responsibility of the rural community is outlined.
Continuing importance of nitrate contamination of groundwater and wells in rural areas
Authors: Johnson Carl J. , Kross Burton C.
Published: April 2007

The contamination of groundwater and rural drinking water supplies by nitrates from livestock and human excrement, other organic waste, or chemical fertilizers is a potential hazard throughout the world. Infant illness and death from nitrate‐induced methemoglobinemia is probably often misdiagnosed, perhaps as sudden infant death syndrome, and certainly contributes to the national infant death rate statistics. A 1950 report listed 144 cases of infant methemoglobinemia with 14 deaths in one 30‐month period in Minnesota. Infant deaths resulting from misdiagnosis of this preventable, treatable intoxication were still occurring as recently as 1986 in South Dakota. In this state, about 39% of dug or bored wells were unsafe due to high nitrate content, compared with 22% of drilled wells and 16% of driven wells. Properly constructed wells more than 30 m deep are more likely to be safe. Groundwater concentrations of nitrate may be unsafe for consumption, and standards are needed to regulate such contamination. Such standards could serve as guidelines and could be enforceable in the case of water systems dependent on wells.
Nitrate‐N in the soil profile and tile drainage water as influenced by tillage
Authors: Randall Gyles W.
Published: April 2007

Conservation tillage systems facilitate the infiltration of greater amounts of precipitation into the soil profile by reducing surface runoff. Concern has developed among some scientists because higher infiltration and percolation rates are often linked to potentially higher leaching losses of agricultural chemicals. Soil samples were taken in 1 foot increments to a depth of 5 feet to ascertain the accumulation and distribution of nitratenitrogen (NO3‐N) in the soil profile as influenced by tillage. Two long‐term tillage studies on fine‐textured, clay loam soils were sampled in July and November 1977 following 2 years of limited rainfall. Nitrate‐N accumulation in the 0 to 3 foot profile in late July was reduced by 75% (no tillage) to 38% (chisel plow) compared with the conventional moldboard tillage system in this 8‐year‐old study. Accumulation in the 0 to 5 foot profile after harvest was 751, 546, 345, and 198 Ib NO3‐N/A for the moldboard plow, chisel‐plow, disk‐, and no‐tillage systems, respectively. Another 3 year study showed accumulations of 625, 619, 468, and 391 pounds NO3‐N/A after harvest with the moldboard plow, ridge‐plant, chisel‐plow, and no‐tillage systems, respectively. These data indicate that tillage can have substantial effects on the accumulation of NO3 in soils and that additional research is needed to determine the mechanisms responsible for these differences.
Some issues in risk assessment for agricultural chemicals
Authors: Rodricks Joseph V. , Rachman Nancy J.
Published: April 2007

Risk assessment is now a significant feature of most environmental risk management programs, in both industry and government. The purpose of this paper is to describe the elements of risk assessment, their strengths and limitations, and their relationship to other activities, including research and risk management. Risk assessment issues to be examined are those especially important to the agricultural community, including problems of high‐risk subpopulations, exposure through unauthorized pathways (e.g., those resulting from groundwater contamination or pesticide misuse), and inadequacies in toxicity and residue data bases.
Current trends and new directions in crop protection
Authors: Menn Julius J.
Published: April 2007

Synthetic agricultural chemicals will continue to be the major component in protecting food and fiber crops from attack by insects, fungi, and weeds. This trend will most likely continue through the end of this century and possibly beyond. The discovery and introduction of potent new pesticides such as the sulfonylurea and imidazolinone herbicides and synthetic pyrethroid insecticides have demonstrated that excellent weed and insect control can be achieved with minute amounts of chemical per treated unit area in comparison to older chemicals. In some instances, these reductions approached two orders of magnitude. Further improvements in delivery systems and formulations have also contributed to reductions in the chemical load in the environment. However, increased regulatory demands; environmental concerns; developing resistance in key pests; increasing costs of research, development, manufacturing, and selling; and even a smaller number of basic producers, all in concert impact heavily on future developments in chemical pesticides.

We can expect also that, within the next decade, there will be an increasing number of introductions of biological pesticides, including microbials and biochemicals derived from microbiological sources. These new products—including mycoherbicides, mycofungicides, and biological insecticides—are expected to become prominent control measures in the intermediate time span (10‐20 years), to be supplemented in the longterm by products and transgenic plants derived from recombinant DNA technology.
Pancoast and the image of silicosis
Authors: Cherniack Martin G.
Published: April 2007

In the two decades following the First World War, American occupational medicine was consumed in cataloguing the pneumoconioses, and no physician was more prominent than Henry K. Pancoast of the University of Pennsylvania. In a landmark trial following the worst silicosis outbreak in the United States at Gauley Bridge, West Virginia, Pancoast testified for the defense, attributing the disease to tuberculosis. Pancoast was not an isolated commentator, as the prominence of the cases attracted some of the country's leading authorities on occupational medicine. Pancoast's error, as well as the accuracy of some of his colleagues, clarifies an important occupational disease in its epidemic period. There is also a less historically specific exposition of the impact of professional involvement in social policy, liability, and compensation.