bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Task perception as a mediating variable: A contribution to the validation of instructional knowledge
Authors: Luyten Lieve , Lowyck Joost , Tuerlinckx Francis
Published: February 2003

Background. From the perspective of the cognitive mediational paradigm, we focus in this study on students’ conceptions of the relationship between instructional interventions and learning: ‘ instructional knowledge’. Aims. Task perception has been investigated as a procedural manifestation of instructional knowledge. Four research questions directed the study: (1) how do students perceive a task; (2) by which structure can the relations between categories of task perception be represented; (3) do students differ in their task perception; and (4) is there a significant relationship between students’ task perception and the learning activities they plan and/or execute. Sample. The sample consisted of 149 university freshmen in educational sciences. Methods. Students were confronted with a concrete task in a natural setting. Correlations were searched for by phi coefficient. Hierarchical classes analysis was used to search for hierarchical relations and inter‐individual differences. Goodman‐Kruskal λ was calculated to estimate the association between students’ task perception and the learning activities they planned and executed. The questionnaire and the design of the coding systems were first tried out in a pilot study. Results. Students’ task perception can be described in 11 categories. Correlations between those categories were low, but a simple hierarchical structure was discovered. Students can be distinguished according to their task perception into eight groups. Finally, the results indicate a statistically significant association between students’ task perception and the learning activities they plan and execute. Conclusions. The study provides additional evidence to involve ‘ instructional knowledge’ and students’ task perception as part of it, as mediating variables in future research.
A self‐determination approach to the understanding of motivation in physical education
Authors: Ntoumanis Nikos
Published: February 2003

Background. It is widely acknowledged that Physical Education (PE) can play a potentially important role in enhancing public health by creating positive attitudes toward exercise and by promoting health‐related fitness programmes. However, these initiatives will have limited success if students are not motivated to participate actively in their PE lessons. Aim. A sequence of motivational processes, proposed by Vallerand (1997), was tested in this study. The sequence has the form 'social factors→psychological mediators→types of motivation→consequences’. Sample. Participants were 424 British students aged 14‐16 years from Northwest England. Method. Questionnaires were used to measure cooperative learning, self‐referenced improvement, and choice of tasks (social factors), perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness (psychological mediators), intrinsic motivation, identification, introjection, external regulation, and amotivation (types of motivation), and boredom, effort, and future intention to exercise (consequences). Results. A SEM analysis showed that perceived competence was the major psychological mediator. Intrinsic motivation was related to positive consequences, whereas external regulation and amotivation were predictors of negative consequences. A multisample analysis indicated that the model was largely invariant across gender. Conclusions. The findings underline the importance of perceived competence and intrinsic motivation in compulsory PE.
Stress and strain in teaching: A structural equation approach
Authors: Van Dick Rolf , Wagner Ulrich
Published: February 2003

Background. School teaching seems to be particularly stressful. The stress model of Lazarus and colleagues and its adaptation to educational settings by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe is the basis for an analysis of antecedents and consequences of teacher stress. Aims. The first aim was to test the theoretical model of teacher stress on a large sample using structural equation statistics (study I). The results should then be cross‐validated and the model enlarged by additional operationalisations (study II). Samples. Heterogeneous samples of German school teachers (study I:N = 356, study II: N = 201). Methods. In study I, standardised questionnaires measuring workload and mobbing as stressors, physical symptoms as stress reactions, and social support and self‐efficacy as moderating variables. In addition to these concepts, coping strategies, burnout and absenteeism were assessed in study II. Results. The structural equation modelling in study I revealed that the predications of the stress model hold true: Workload and mobbing lead to stress reactions, whereas principal support reduces the perception of workload and mobbing. Global support and self‐efficacy moderate the relationships between the variables. These results were confirmed in study II and the model was enlarged by burnout and coping strategies. With all concepts, 12% of the variance of absenteeism can be explained. Conclusions. Limitations of the studies, using cross‐sectional data and self‐reported measures are discussed. Practical implications for improving the situation are provided.
Collaborative writing: The effects of metacognitive prompting and structured peer interaction
Authors: Yarrow Fiona , Topping Keith J.
Published: February 2003

Background. The structured system for peer assisted learning in writing named Paired Writing (Topping, 1995) incorporates both metacognitive prompting and scaffolding for the interactive process. Aim. This study sought to evaluate the relative contribution of these two components to student gain in quality of writing and attitudes to writing, while controlling for amount of writing practice and teacher effects. Sample. Participants were 28 ten‐ and eleven‐year‐old students forming a problematic mixed ability class. Methods. All received training in Paired Writing and its inherent metacognitive prompting. Students matched by gender and pre‐test writing scores were assigned randomly to Interaction or No Interaction conditions. In the Interaction condition, the more able writers became ‘ tutors’ for the less able. In the No Interaction condition, the more able writers acted as controls for the tutors and the less able as controls for the tutees. Over six weeks, the paired writers produced five pieces of personal writing collaboratively, while children in the No Interaction condition did so alone. Results. On pre‐ and post‐project analyses of the quality of individual writing, all groups showed statistically significant improvements in writing. However, the pre‐post gains of the children who wrote interactively were significantly greater than those of the lone writers. There was some evidence that the paired writers also had more positive self‐esteem as writers. Conclusion. The operation and durability of the Paired Writing system are discussed.
Classroom contexts: Connections between class size and within class grouping
Authors: Blatchford Peter , Baines Ed , Kutnick Peter , Martin Clare
Published: February 2003

Background. There has been a vigorous debate for many years about the educational effects of class size differences, but even if differences have an impact on pupils’ academic progress this still leaves unanswered important questions about what mediates the effect. Aims. This paper is informed by a classroom contextual perspective, and examines associations between class size and within class groupings (in terms of size and number of groups, adult presence in groups, and type of interaction between grouping members). Age differences in these relationships are also explored. Samples. The quantitative study is based on analysis of 3157 groupings, from 672 Reception, Year 2 and Year 5 classes in 331 schools. The qualitative study was based on 12 classes in 8 case study schools, and questionnaire responses completed by over 100 class teachers. Methods. Links between size of class and within class groupings were examined on the basis of a ‘ grouping mapping survey’, in which teachers at a given time in the school day provided information on group size and number, adult presence, and type of interaction between pupils, and complementary qualitative analyses of data from teacher‐completed questionnaires, and interviews. Results. The number of groups in a class increased with the size of the class. Over all three year groups, small classes had on average just over three groups, while large classes approached six groups. The size of groups in the class decreased with size of class. In class sizes over 25, pupils were more likely to be in a large group of 7‐10, while in classes under 25 they were more likely to be in whole class groupings. Qualitative analyses showed that teachers felt that groups of 7‐10 pupils had negative educational effects, for example, in terms of the quality and quantity of teaching and children's concentration and contribution in groups. Conclusions. Results suggest that the effects of class size can be best seen as through the size and number of groups, which will then have implications for learning experiences. So while debate about size of class has often been in terms of reduced size of class resulting in pupil academic gains, it is also important educationally to consider within class grouping size and number, and their effects.
Boys starting school disadvantaged: Implications from teachers’ ratings of behaviour and achievement in the first two years
Authors: Childs Garry , McKay Michael
Published: February 2003

Background. Consistent evidence indicates that low socio‐economic status (SES) acts as an important stressor and vulnerability factor for children's school learning. However, specific mechanism(s) of this process are still not well understood. Aim. This study was a follow‐up of the classroom learning behaviour and perceived achievement of low and middle income children after two years at school, who had previously been rated soon after starting school. It examined whether teachers’ ratings displayed predictive stability over that period, and whether significant differences evident at age 5 in SES and gender were still operative at age 7. Sample. Two samples, of low income (N = 85) and middle income (N = 63) children, were rated following school entry (mean age 5 years 3 months) and rated again after two years at school. Method. The children were rated at both points by their regular classroom teachers using the Learning Behaviours Scale (Stott et al., 1998) with subscales of Distractible, Apprehensive and Uncooperative, together with ratings of academic achievement and their personal perception of each child. Results. SES was found to be a very limited predictor for the learning behaviour subscale ratings and for teachers’ personal perceptions at both ages 5 and 7. SES did significantly predict expected Academic Achievement at age 5, but this effect disappeared completely by age 7. Conversely, within the two defined groups, Low Income boys were found to display significantly poorer learning behaviours at age 5, especially in terms of distractible behaviour, compared with Middle Income boys and with girls generally. This pattern was maintained over the next two years of their schooling. The effect of SES was thus demonstrated more powerfully in between‐group differences than by means of regression. The findings emphasised the persistence of teachers’ initial negative impressions about distractible ‘ hard to manage’ boys from low SES families. Conclusion. The outcomes of this study suggest that low SES boys commenced school significantly disadvantaged by a pattern of perceived distractible behaviour in particular, and that this perception continued to operate over the next two years of their schooling. Such a pattern implied that these boys were perceived by their teachers, from early in their school careers, as being demanding and difficult to teach. Once teachers gave certain boys a label it appeared to 'stick’. SES per se was thus not the main risk factor. It was primarily the effect of boys’ greater activity level, distractibility, and initial inability to 'settle’ to classroom routines, which seemed to be particularly associated with certain lower SES child‐rearing practices. These behaviours had a serious negative impact on the children's teachers and the way they responded to them.
Ability grouping in secondary schools: Effects on pupils’ self‐concepts
Authors: Ireson Judith , Hallam Susan , Plewis Ian
Published: February 2003

Background. Current pressure on secondary schools to increase ability grouping has raised concerns about the impact of setting on pupils’ self‐concepts. Evidence from previous research is conflicting. A multidimensional measure and multilevel modelling promise to clarify the effects. Aims. This paper aims to examine the effects of structured ability grouping on year 9 pupils’ self‐concepts. Samples. The sample comprises over 3000 year 9 pupils (aged 13‐14 years) in 45 mixed secondary comprehensive schools in England. The schools represent three levels of ability grouping in the lower school (years 7 to 9). Methods. Pupils responded to a multidimensional self‐concept scale measuring academic and general facets of the self‐concept. Measures of attainment were collected in English, mathematics and science. Multilevel modelling was used to examine the effect of the type of school on the general facets of the pupils’ self‐concept and the effects of setting in each curriculum subject on the academic facets of the self‐concept. Results. Pupils’ general self‐concept was higher in the group of schools with moderate levels of setting. The degree of setting in mathematics and science had no effect on the corresponding academic self‐concepts but setting in English tended to lower the self‐concepts of the higher attaining pupils and raise the self‐concepts of lower attaining pupils. Gender differences were consistent with previous research, with boys having significantly higher self‐concept scores than girls, except in English. These findings indicate that the degree of stratification in schools can have an impact on adolescents’ self‐esteem and views of themselves in school.
Changes in conceptions of learning for Indigenous Australian university students
Authors: Boulton‐Lewis Gillian M. , Wilss Lynn , Lewis David C.
Published: February 2003

Background. Conceptions of learning have been investigated for students in higher education in different countries. Some studies found that students’ conceptions change and develop over time while others have found no changes. Investigating conceptions of learning for Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander university students is a relatively new area of research. Aims. This study set out to investigate conceptions of learning for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander university students during the first two years of their undergraduate degree courses in three Australian universities. Conceptions for each year were compared. Knowing more about learning as conceived by this cultural group may facilitate more productive higher educational experiences. Sample. The sample comprised 17 students studying various degrees; 11 were male and 6 were female. Ages ranged from 18 to 48 years; mean age was 26 years. Method. This was a phenomenographic, longitudinal study. Individual semistructured interviews were conducted each year to ascertain students’ conceptions of learning. Conceptions for second year were derived independently of those from first year. A comparative analysis then took place to determine any changes. Results. These students held conceptions of learning that were similar to those of other university students; however there were some intrinsic differences. On a group level, conceptions changed somewhat over the two years as did core conceptions reported by some individual students. Some students also exhibited a greater awareness of learning during their second year that resulted in three dimensions of changed awareness. Conclusions. We believe the changed conceptions and awareness resulted from learning at university where there is some need to understand and explain phenomena in relation to theory. This brought about new understandings which allowed students to see their own learning in a relational sense.
Generalisability and classical test theory analyses of Koppitz's Scoring System for human figure drawings
Authors: Rae Gordon , Hyland Patricia
Published: February 2003

Background. Scoring systems to evaluate children's human drawings for intellectual maturity have been found to have good intra‐ and inter‐scorer reliability. However, there is some evidence (McCarthy, 1944) that such scores may not be stable over time. Aim. The aim of the study was to investigate raters and occasions as potential sources of error in children's Draw‐a‐Person scores using generalisability and classical test theory. Sample. The sample consisted of 85 school children (45 girls and 40 boys) aged between 8 years 1 month to 9 years and 7 months. Method. The Koppitz Draw‐A‐Person (1968) test was administered as a class test on two occasions with exactly a two‐week interval between the occasions. All the children's drawings were scored by the same four raters. Results. Generalisability analyses of the Koppitz scores indicated that the variance component for raters and its interaction with both persons and occasions was very small, suggesting that very little measurement error was associated with the raters. However, the estimated variance component for the interaction of persons by occasions was substantial. With four raters and two occasions the generalisability coefficient was .47. These results were consistent with the classical test theory analysis which indicated generally high inter‐rater reliabilities but a low test‐retest reliability, based on a composite of the four raters. Conclusion. If satisfactory levels of reliability/generalisability are to be achieved with the Koppitz scoring system children have to be tested on several occasions.
An examination of situational interest and its sources
Authors: Chen Ang , Darst Paul W. , Pangrazi Robert P.
Published: February 2003

Background. Situational interest is articulated theoretically as a construct associated with five dimensional sources: novelty, challenge, attention demand, exploration intention, and instant enjoyment. Aims. This study aimed to examine the influence of the dimensional sources on situational interest. It was hypothesised that the dimensional sources function differently to contribute to situational interest and that the influence of a source might be mediated by others. Sample. Two samples of 7th, 8th, and 9th grade students were used in the study. There were 281 students (57% male, 43% female) in the first sample and 191 (47% male, 53% female) in the second. Method. Students in Sample A evaluated situational interest and the dimensional sources in tasks of analysing jogging and gymnastic stunts on video. Those in Sample B evaluated them in tasks of learning basketball. Correlation and regression analyses and path analyses were used to test the theoretical model. Results. Instant Enjoyment determined situational interest. Exploration and Novelty had positive influences on situational interest via enhancing Instant Enjoyment. Challenge showed little influence. The path analyses for both samples confirmed the inter‐dimensional mediation effects of the sources. Conclusion. The analysed data support the hypotheses. The dimensional sources had unequal influences on situational interest and the mediation effects among themselves at times strengthened or weakened each other's influences. The findings suggest that to increase situational interest, educators should offer students ample exploratory opportunities during student‐task interaction that can lead to instant enjoyment for learning.
Optimism, hostility, and adjustment in the first year of high school
Authors: Boman Peter , Yates Gregory C. R.
Published: February 2003

Background. The period of transition to high school is marked by large variations in student adjustment patterns. Many students make successful adjustments but others do not and are at risk of developing hostile attitudes towards their school environment. Aims. This study sought to investigate the role of optimism and pessimism in predicting the extent of hostility students express towards school. Sample. The sample consisted of 102 students who completed questionnaires at the beginning of the school year, and also in the last term of their first year at high school. Methods. Students responded to questionnaires assessing their levels of (a) dispositional optimism and pessimism, (b) personal expectancies for the occurrence of specific negative events, and (c) depression and anxiety. Additional data concerning hostility to school, perceived classroom involvement, and student adjustment (self‐reported and teacher‐reported) to school measures were collected at the end of the year. Results. In general, the girls reported greater levels of positive adjustment than boys. It was found that optimism together with expectations of negative events accounted for 21% of the variance in school hostility. In addition, optimism was significantly related to classroom involvement and to students’ self‐reported adjustment. Teachers’ ratings of student adjustment were related only to gender. Only 15 (12 male, 3 female) of the 102 students were clearly hostile towards the school. Conclusions. We conclude that young people are vulnerable to adjustment problems when levels of dispositional optimism are not sufficiently strong to counteract high expectations about the possibility of specific negative events occurring.
Predicting early grade retention: A longitudinal investigation of primary school progress in a sample of rural South African children
Authors: Liddell Christine , Rae Gordon
Published: February 2003

Background. One hundred and fifty rural South African children, newly enrolled in Grade 2 in 1994, were retraced in 1998 when they were scheduled to have entered Grade 7. Only 39% of the cohort had progressed smoothly to Grade 7; more than a third (36%) had left their original primary school, and 25% had been retained at least once. Aims. The present study investigated factors that were measurable at the start of Grade 2 which proved useful in predicting subsequent retention. Method. Details of children's academic progress from Grade 1 in 1993 through all subsequent years including 1998 were collected. Predictor variables included age at school entry, sex of child, nutritional status, academic achievement in Grade 1, cognitive test status at Grade 2, teacher assessments of children's behaviour, and biographical variables such as caregiver education and household size. Results. Rural children's experience of primary school was relatively disrupted. For those who remained in the same school, a relatively good predictive model for retention was built, with Grade 1 academic achievement as well as caregiver education, and cognitive test scores being important predictors. Conclusions. Results corroborate those of developed world studies, in showing that early academic achievement is a strong predictor of retention. In addition, they highlight the importance of early curriculum mastery ‐ rather than broader cognitive skills ‐ for smooth progression through school.
Approaches to study of three Chinese national groups
Authors: Smith Swee Noi
Published: February 2003

Background. Although numerous studies have examined the learning approaches of Chinese students, very few comparative studies have been carried out with Chinese students from different nations. Aims. The present research was designed to identify differences in study approach between Chinese university students drawn from Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Samples. The sample consisted of 192 Chinese students with 89 students from Malaysia (43 males and 46 females), 65 students from Hong Kong (41 males and 24 females), and 38 students from Singapore (12 males and 26 females). Method. All students completed Entwistle and Ramsden's (1983) Approaches to Studying Inventory by rating on a 4‐point Likert scale how well each of the 64 items described their own learning behaviour. Results. The hypotheses that, in comparison with their respective counterparts, Malaysian Chinese students would identify themselves as being more dependent in their learning, Singaporean students as being more adept in presenting ideas/concepts in a clear and systematic fashion, and Hong Kong students as being more anxious in their learning approach, were all supported. However, the hypothesis that Hong Kong students would be more strategic in their learning approach than their national counterparts was not supported. Conclusions. Based on the significant differences in learning approaches noted among the different Chinese subgroups, caution must therefore be taken against forming fixed conceptualisations of cultural characteristics and considerable care be given in sample definition and selection in cross‐cultural research.
Identifying and assessing the conceptions of teaching of secondary school physics teachers in China
Authors: Lingbiao Gao , Watkins David
Published: February 2003

Background. Recent research indicates that how lecturers think about the nature of teaching influences both the way they teach and the way their students learn and ultimately the learning outcomes they achieve. Such research has primarily been conducted at the tertiary level in Western countries and its relevance for school teaching and in non‐Western contexts has yet to be demonstrated. Aims. Study 1 aimed to develop a model of the conceptions of teaching of Chinese secondary school teachers of physics and an instrument to assess these conceptions. Study 2 then tested the reliability and within‐construct validity of responses to the latter and the relationships between teaching experience and gender and teaching conceptions were investigated. Sample. The interview sample in Study 1 comprised 18 teachers of physics in Guangdong, China. The instrument was administrated to 450 physics teachers from the province in Study 2. Method. An in‐depth emic approach involving both interviews and classroom observations was utilised to develop the model. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the fit of responses to the instrument to the proposed model. Results. Five lower order conceptions (Knowledge Delivery, Exam Preparation, Ability Development, Attitude Promotion, and Conduct Guidance) and two higher order orientations (Moulding and Cultivating) were identified. Responses to the instrument were found to be of satisfactory internal consistency reliability and to fit the expected underlying factor model. Neither teaching experience nor gender was found to be related to conceptions of teaching. Conclusions. The model developed differed in some respects from those found in the Western tertiary literature due probably to cultural factors which emphasise more an affective, moral view of teaching and to a school contextual emphasis on exams. The instrument developed had very adequate psychometric properties and seems promising as a tool for assessing teaching conceptions in future research within China and across cultures.
Learning‐related behaviours versus cognitive ability in the academic performance of Vincentian children
Authors: Durbrow Eric H. , Schaefer Barbara A. , Jimerson Shane R.
Published: February 2003

Background. The few studies of children's academic performance in developing countries have largely focused on effects of early risks and cognitive ability and usually neglected other factors such as attention and anxiety. Previously, we reported that scores on the Learning Behaviour Scale (LBS) and the Revised Behaviour Problem Checklist (RBPC) were correlated with academic scores and achievement test scores for village children in St Vincent, the West Indies. Aims. We examined the stability of LBS and RBPC scores and their ability to predict academic and achievement scores in the same population. Sample. Vincentian village children, ages 6‐12, participated in the study: 65 participated in the one‐year sample and 68 participated in the two‐year sample. Method. Children completed a curriculum‐based achievement test and the Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices. Teachers completed the LBS and an adjusted RBPC and reported children's academic scores in 1998 and 1999. Results. LBS scores were stable over one year and RBPC scores were stable over two years. LBS, RBPC, and Raven scores predicted achievement and academic scores. For both academic scores and achievement test scores, the greatest improvement in prediction came when the RBPC's attention and anxiety subscales were added to regression models. Conclusions. Results provide additional support for the finding that Caribbean village children's academic performance is greatly influenced by attention and anxiety problems, not just their cognitive ability. Despite cultural differences, LBS and RBPC scores were as predictive of academic performance in this population as in American populations. The best way to improve academic performance for these children may be to reduce attention problems.
The shortened Study Process Questionnaire: An investigation of its structure and longitudinal stability using confirmatory factor analysis
Authors: Fox Robin A. , McManus I.C. , Winder Belinda C.
Published: February 2003

Background. The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) is a widely used measure of learning approach and was proposed to have three orientations: surface, deep, and achieving, each with an underlying motive and strategy. Aims. This study aimed to examine the factor structure and longitudinal stability over five to seven years of a modified shortened 18‐item version of the SPQ. Samples. A total of 1349 medical students completed the shortened SPQ at application and in their final year of medical school. Three additional cohorts of students completed the shortened SPQ during their third and fourth year of medical school (sample size: 194, 203, 174). Method. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the dimensionality and longitudinal stability of the shortened SPQ. Results. Like the full 42‐item version, the shortened SPQ has six subscales and the data are best fit by three second order shared indicator factors (surface, deep and achieving) and a single higher order composite deep‐achieving factor. The longitudinal analysis found 26.8%, 26.3%, and 18.7% of the non‐attenuated variance of the surface, deep and achieving factor scores in the final year is predicted from the shortened SPQ completed at application to medical school. Conclusions. The shortened 18‐item SPQ has the same six subscales as the full SPQ as well as three second order shared indicator factors (surface, deep, achieving) and one higher order deep‐achieving factor similar to that suggested by Biggs (1987). The longitudinal analysis supports this hypothesis and suggests that these learning approaches are partly stable during medical school undergraduate training and partly modifiable under the influence of the educational environment.
Improving text comprehension strategies in upper primary school children: A design experiment
Authors: de Corte Erik , Verschaffel Lieven , Van De Ven An
Published: February 2003

Background. With respect to the acquisition of competence in reading, new standards for primary education stress more than before the importance of learning and teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies that facilitate text comprehension. Therefore, there is a need to design a research‐based instructional approach to strategic reading comprehension. Aims. The design experiment aimed at developing, implementing and evaluating a research‐based, but also practically applicable learning environment for enhancing skilled strategy use in upper primary school children when reading a text. Four text comprehension strategies (activating prior knowledge, clarifying difficult words, making a schematic representation of the text, and formulating the main idea) and a metacognitive strategy (regulating one's own reading process) were trained through a variety of highly interactive instructional techniques, namely modelling, whole class discussion, and small group work in the format of reciprocal teaching. Sample. Participants in the study were four experimental 5th grade classes (79 children) and eight comparable control classes (149 pupils). Method. The effects of the learning environment were measured using a pretest‐post‐test‐retention design. Multilevel hierarchical linear regression models were used to analyse the quantitative data of a Reading Strategy Test, a standardised Reading Comprehension Test, a Reading Attitude Scale, a Transfer Test and an interview about strategy use during reading. Results. The data of the Reading Strategy Test, the Transfer Test and the interviews about strategy use showed that the experimental group out‐performed the control group in terms of the strategy adoption and application during text reading. Whilst the experimental group also scored higher on the Reading Comprehension Test than the control group, the difference was not significant. Conclusions. This design experiment shows that it is possible to foster pupils’ use and transfer of strategic reading comprehension skills in regular classrooms by immersing them in a powerful learning environment. But this intervention does not automatically result in improvement of performance on a standardised reading comprehension test.
Multiple‐goal pursuit and its relation to cognitive, self‐regulatory, and motivational strategies
Authors: Suárez Riveiro Jose Manuel , Cabanach Ramon Gonzalez , Arias Antonio Valle
Published: February 2003

Background. The topic of academic goals has provided very important information about students’ motivation. Traditional research has described several mutually exclusive goals that elicit different motivational patterns. Nevertheless, goal‐orientation research has reported the possibility that more than one goal may operate simultaneously. Aim. The purpose of this study was to characterise multiple‐goal groups of students, who use various types of cognitive, self‐regulatory, and motivational strategies. Sample. Participants were 595 Spanish‐speaking university students at the University of A Coruña. Method. In order to examine the relationships between goal orientations and strategies, a Pearson correlational analysis was performed. Then, a cluster analysis was performed to identify potential subgroups of students with more than one simultaneously operative goal. Finally, a one‐way test was conducted to determine whether the multiple‐goal clusters differed in any of the nine strategies. Results. Only those students who reported high task orientation tended to exhibit more frequent use of cognitive and self‐regulatory strategies. Nevertheless, this does not mean that learning processes are only optimised by task orientation. When multiple‐goal adoption was considered, students who developed the most positive self‐regulation were characterised by their focus on learning, but also by their desire to avoid being judged negatively by others. Conclusions. Students should not adopt only task goals, which are sometimes overvalued, but also other kinds of goals that allow them to manage their learning and make it more flexible in each situation. This aspect characterises self‐regulated learning, which is defined not only by cognitive and behavioural regulation but also by motivational regulation.
Children and road safety: Increasing knowledge does not improve behaviour
Authors: Zeedyk M. Suzanne , Wallace Linda , Carcary Bill , Jones Katy , Larter Karen
Published: February 2003

Background. Programmes designed to teach children about road safety have often failed to assess their effectiveness in terms of either an increase in chilren's knowledge or an improvement in children's behaviour. Aim. The two studies reported here sought to address both issues, by focusing on the abilities of Primary 1 children (5 years old). Sample. A total of 120 Primary 1 children within the age range 4‐5 years old participated in this study, drawn from three different primary schools within an educational district of Scotland. Methods. In the first study the effects of three different road safety interventions were tested, all of which employed commercially marketed products: 1) a three‐dimensional model of the traffic environment; 2) a road safety board game; and 3) illustrated posters and flip‐chart materials. In the second study the transfer of knowledge to children's behaviour in a real‐life traffic environment was tested, using a subsample of 47 children who had taken part in the first study. Results. Results from the first study showed, surprisingly, that all three interventions were effective in increasing children's knowledge about safe and dangerous locations at which to cross the street, and that this knowledge was retained for a period of six months. Study 2, however, showed that increased knowledge did not result in improved traffic behaviour. Children who had received training performed no better than children in a control group. Conclusion. These findings highlight the need to distinguish between children's road safety knowledge and their behaviour, particulary for teachers and parents, who may mistakenly believe that children who know more will be safer on the road.
Goal importance within planned behaviour theory as ‘ the’ predictor of study behaviour in college
Authors: Sideridis Georgios D. , Kaissidis‐Rodafinos Aggelos
Published: February 2003

Background. The theory of planned behaviour has been rarely used for the explanation of student study behaviour and achievement. Although successful, the theory has been criticised for not including important cognitions, so goal importance was added in the present study. Goal importance refers to the weight‐importance an individual assigns towards achieving a specific goal (Hollenbeck & Williams, 1987). Aims. The purpose of Study 1 was to explain the study behaviour habits of first year college students, using a) Ajzen and Madden's (1986) theory of planned behaviour, and b) planned behaviour with the addition of goal importance. The purpose of Study 2 was to replicate the findings of Study 1. Samples. The sample of Study 1 included 149 first year students of an American College located in northern Greece. Study 2 included 85 first year students of the same institution. Methods. The students in Study 1 were given a questionnaire four weeks prior to the end of the spring 1998 semester, and those in Study 2 in the autumn of 1998, including all elements of the theory of planned behaviour and goal importance. The data were modelled using Covariance Structural Modelling (CSM) and EQS 5.7b (Bentler, 1998). Results. The planned behaviour model was not well supported in Study 1 providing a Comparative Fit Index (CFI) of .83. However, when goal importance was included in the equation, the resulting structural model produced a CFI of .94. The final structural model of Study 1 was re‐tested with the sample of Study 2 and produced a CFI = .95. Conclusions. Findings suggest that goal importance is the causal agent in directing all elements necessary to achieve high levels of study behaviour. Future studies should examine the role of goal importance with other behaviours as well.
Co‐operative learning processes of students: A longitudinal multilevel perspective
Authors: Terwel Jan , Gillies Robyn M. , Van den Eeden Pieter , Hoek Dirk
Published: February 2003

Background. This article describes the outcomes of a longitudinal, multilevel observational study in which the relationship between the processes of co‐operation and giving explanations was compared between classes trained in communication skills and classes that were untrained. Aims. This study examined the effects of training in basic communication skills on the processes of co‐operation and giving explanation in co‐operative groups. In particular, the study investigated: (a) How the processes of co‐operation and giving explanations develop over time; (b) How the underlying processes of co‐operation and giving explanations are related; (c) Which factors at the student and class level facilitate or hinder these processes. Sample. The study involved 192, Year 6 primary school children (mean age = 134.3 months) who worked in four‐person, mixed ability, gender‐balanced groups on a social studies unit of work for 12 weeks. Results. The students in the trained classes were more co‐operative and gave more explanations to each other than their peers in the untrained classes. Giving solicited explanations could be traced back to co‐operation and this process was enhanced by ability. In other words, the higher the individual ability levels of the students, the more co‐operation was transformed into giving solicited explanations. Furthermore, over and above the effects of student ability, the higher the class’ ability level, the more explanations the students gave. Conclusion. The results of this study are useful in explaining why high‐ability students benefit more from co‐operative learning than low‐ability students and why solicited explanations are more effective than unsolicited explanations. By opening the black box of co‐operative learning, our analysis enables us to attribute the effects of co‐operative learning to peer interactions with more able peers and this is promoted by class ability level. These factors have been mentioned in the literature as a possible explanation of ‘ contextual effects’ but not investigated empirically.
The psychological assessment of learning potential
Authors: Lauchlan Fraser , Elliott Julian
Published: February 2003

Background. The paper considers the construct of learning potential (or dynamic assessment) and its use in the psychoeducational assessment of children with learning difficulties. Aims. The principal research aim was to examine the extent to which learning potential (dynamic) assessment can predict which children with severe learning difficulties will gain most from a structured programme of cognitive intervention. Sample. The sample consisted of 30 children (mean age 9 years) based in a school for children with moderate/severe learning difficulties. Methods. Half of the children were assessed both before and after the delivery of a 15‐month cognitive intervention programme undertaken by the first author. The other half took part in the assessments but continued with their usual classroom programme. Assessments included the use of both dynamic and static measures. On the basis of the assessments, students were divided into high and low potential groups and comparison of gains after the intervention was undertaken. Results. The measurement of learning potential appeared to predict subsequent performance in some, but not all, areas. Those who were most likely to make gains were those children deemed as ‘ high potential’ who also received the cognitive intervention. Conclusions. The value of learning potential assessment was not clearly demonstrated. The implications of the results are explored and, in particular, the authors warn of the dangers of drawing upon the results of learning potential measures in an inappropriate fashion. (school) psychologists, the complexity of the measures, ongoing debates validity and applicability and the pressures from resource managers for clearcut psychometric results have tended to deter all but the practitioner.
Effects of a cognitive acceleration programme on Year I pupils
Authors: Adey Philip , Robertson Anne , Venville Grady
Published: February 2003

Background.Cognitive Acceleration has shown evidence of long‐term far transfer with young adolescents. This paper reports a new application of the principle to 5‐ and 6‐year‐olds in a disadvantaged inner city area.

Aims.To investigate the effect of a cognitive intervention programme on the cognitive development of children in Year 1 of primary schools.

Sample.Approximately 300 children in 14 Year 1 classes in 10 schools for the experimental group and 170 children in 8 classes in 5 matched schools as controls.

Method.Quasi‐experimental pre‐test post‐test with experimental and matched control groups. One of the pre‐ and post‐tests was intended to probe for transfer. Children in experimental classes experienced a set of 29 activities designed to promote cognitive conflict and encourage social construction and metacognition over one school year.

Results.The experimental group overall made significantly greater gains in cognitive development over the period of the experiment than the controls, in both direct (effect size 0.47) and transfer (effect size 0.43) tests, although when genders were considered separately, experimental boys' greater gains than controls did not reach significance. There was no interaction with various social and linguistic variables.

Conclusion.In the context of this study, a cognitive intervention programme can have a significant immediate effect on the rate of children's cognitive development. Further work will investigate the longevity of this effect.
Parents' and pupils' causal attributions for difficult classroom behaviour
Authors: Miller Andy , Ferguson Eamonn , Moore Eleanor
Published: February 2003

Background. Studies of causal attributions for difficult pupil behaviour in schools have tended to focus on the perspectives of teachers.

Aims. The present study examines the causal attributions made by parents for difficult behaviour in classrooms. It reveals the structure of these attributions and serves as a direct comparison to a previous study of pupils' attributions (Miller, Ferguson, & Byrne, 2000) and, more indirectly, with the teacher studies.

Sample. The participants were 144 parents (106 mothers and 38 fathers) whose children all attended the same inner city school.

Method. A questionnaire was constructed following three initial small group interviews with parents to identify the wide range of factors they viewed as potential causes of difficult classroom behaviour. This was then administered to all the parents of children attending the same inner‐city primary school.

Results. Factor analysis indicated that parents' attributions for misbehaviour were best represented by three factors: (1) ‘fairness of teachers’ actions', (2) ‘pupil vulnerability to peer influences and adverse family circumstances’, and (3) ‘differentiation of classroom demands and expectations’. While there were no differences between parents in terms of gender or ethnicity, they did see the first two factors as more significant contributors to pupil misbehaviour than the third.

Conclusion. There is both agreement and conflict between parents' attributions and those made by pupils and by teachers. The implementation of policy initiatives, such as home‐school agreements and Pastoral Support Programmes, risk exacerbating tensions and difficulties if these differences in attributions are not acknowledged and acted upon.