bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Witold Gombrowicz and the “Polish October”
Authors: Brodsky David
Published: April 2006

Politically, the phrase “Polish October” refers to the installation of a new government in October 1956, along with the hopes this event inspired for a more liberalized regime. In cultural terms, however, the Polish October is analogous to the “Thaw” in the Soviet Union—but much warmer—and it includes a period of about two or three years, roughly from 1955 to 1958, during which intense debate, settling of accounts, and a reevaluation of tradition took place. Socialist Realism was discredited once and for all, and a burst of new publishing occurred. Drawers were emptied of manuscripts by already established writers as well as by those who were making belated debuts, while postwar West European literature appeared in translation. In addition, many forgotten or forbidden works of Polish interwar literature were reissued, and a selective program of publishing emigre works in Poland was initiated.
The Dispersal of the Ingrian Finns
Authors: Matley Ian M.
Published: April 2006

Before the 1917 Revolution, about one hundred and thirty thousand people of Finnish origin lived on Russian territory on the south shore of the Gulf of Finland—from the Narva River in the west to the Neva River in the east, and in the region north of St. Petersburg. Their numbers remained fairly constant during the 1920s and early 1930s, but, after the Second World War, a great decrease was evident in the total Finnish population of the region, with only about twentyfour thousand recorded in the 1970 Soviet census. This drop in population is attributable not only to the ravages of the war but also to movements of people, including deportations that took place during the 1930s and 1940s.
Fairy-Tale Plots and Contemporary Heroes in Early Russian Prose Fiction
Authors: Cox Gary
Published: April 2006

Popular literature often appropriates the structural patterns of folklore. V. P. Adrianova-Peretts has observed that in Russian narrative literature prior to the 1760s it is difficult to draw a distinct line between folklore and formal literature. Discussions of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Russian adventure tales, the first body of original prose fiction to enjoy widespread success in Russia, have traditionally noted use of folkloric motifs, usually citing isolated moments rather than basic, underlying plot structures as examples. In fact, however, the fairytale plot, as outlined by Vladimir Propp in The Morphology of the Fairy Tale, forms the skeleton of most Russian prose tales of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.
Central Planning and Production Instabilities in Eastern Europe
Authors: Anderson Evan E.
Published: April 2006

In Western economies, considerable short-run output instability derives from the individual actions of resource owners to employ and produce and from the actions of consumers to spend and save according to their own best interests. This economic freedom at the lowest level enables firms and individuals to vary their spending between resources, goods, time, and place, and hence to create opportunities for imbalances between the quantity of output which producers would like to sell and the quantity which consumers would like to buy. Thus, shortages and surpluses may be created in the current period which affect the level of production in subsequent periods.

The proponents of central planning argue that a system of state resource ownership and the authority of planners to establish a wages and incomes policy and to allocate productive resources stabilize the behavior of producers and buyers in the economy. It is said to assure a greater homogeneity of economic objectives, rewards, and standards of performance, and offers the opportunity directly to influence the use of resources. With the control of resources, planning has the potential of projecting sector needs and of coordinating the demand and supply in various industries so as to reduce the frequency and severity of short-run adjustments in output.
Taxation, Tax Farming, and Merchants in Sixteenth-Century Russia
Authors: Bushkovitch Paul
Published: April 2006

The merchant is a shadowy if not invisible figure in the accounts of the political and economic life of the Russian state in the sixteenth century. Apart from a few exceptional cases, very little is known of his commercial dealings. His political-administrative activities rarely appear in discussions of the reigns of Ivan the Terrible and his immediate successors. Because few sources survive that permit an investigation of the merchant's place in the Russian economy, some scholars have concluded that the part the merchant played was minor.
The First Serbian Uprising (1804-1813) and the Nineteenth-Century Origins of the Eastern Question
Authors: Meriage Lawrence P.
Published: April 2006

Throughout the nineteenth century a major international issue facing the Great Powers of Europe was the volatile “Eastern Question.” As the Ottoman Empire grew steadily weaker, the question of the future disposition of its extensive territories (some 238,000 square miles in Europe alone in 1800) provoked an intense and prolonged rivalry among those European states with vested political and economic interests in the Near East. With its military power in decline and its frontiers menaced by powerful neighbors, the Ottoman Empire seemed on the verge of collapse at the beginning of the nineteenth century despite its imposing imperial edifice.
Maksim Gor'kii and the Sreda Circle: 1899-1905
Authors: Loe Mary Louise
Published: April 2006

In 1899 a number of young writers formed a literary circle to discuss and analyze their works in progress. They considered themselves to be realists interested in portraying the mood of the intelligentsia and of the lower classes. They called the circle Sreda (“The Wednesdays”) for the day of their weekly meeting in the home of Nikolai Teleshov. Soon after its formation Teleshov invited Maksim Gor'kii to join the circle. At the time Gor'kii was a controversial figure who violently attacked everything the Russian intelligentsia stood for. He insisted that intellectuals would never accomplish their major objective—the liberation of the Russian people from political and economic oppression—unless they first liberated themselves. They had to cease being ineffective and moralistic and had to become selfish and aggressive individualists. Only then could they provide the Russian people with the leadership it desperately needed. Young intellectuals seeking inspiration, excitement, and escape responded enthusiastically to Gor'kii's call for self-liberation and idolized him. Members of the older generation were not so uncritical; they feared him as a harbinger of barbarism, a champion of criminals and outcasts, and an enemy of the intelligentsia.
The Association of Southern Coal and Steel Producers and the Problems of Industrial Progress in Tsarist Russia
Authors: McCaffray Susan P.
Published: April 2006

In 1874 a handful of men met in the Ukrainian town of Khar'kov to establish what eventually became the Association of Southern Coal and Steel Producers. The organization's birth corresponded with that of the great Donbas coal and steel industry, and its story illuminates the exhilaration and the frustration of those who aspired to create an industrial Russia with a liberal face. The association grew prominent over the next forty years, guided by a unique group of men who advocated speedy economic modernization for their country and who embraced such imported liberal visions as private enterprise and individual liberty.
Russophobia and the “Testament” of Peter the Great, 1812–1980
Authors: Resis Albert
Published: April 2006

Spurious documents may not change the course of history. But they do have their consequences—as the history of imperial and Soviet Russia vividly demonstrates. The most notorious modern forgeries spring to mind: “The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion,” “The Sisson Documents,” “The Zinov'ev Letter,” “The Litvinov Journal,” and the oldest and most perdurable of them all, “The 'Testament' of Peter the Great,” his supposed grand plan for Russia to win world domination through conquest of the Near and Middle East. All of these forgeries have had their day and then passed into the lumber room of history—all, that is, except the “Protocols” and the “Testament.” Despite their notoriety, these two forgeries still find proponents today. But it is the most marginal, disreputable, and genocidal elements or states that pass off the “Protocols” as genuine, while some of our most respected officials, scholars, and journalists give credence to the “Testament.”
Crime and Punishment in the Russian Village: Rural Concepts of Criminality at the End of the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Frierson Cathy
Published: April 2006

On 23 April 1873, the peasant Kuz'ma Rudchenko was found near the village of Brusovka. His head was completely crushed, his hands had been chopped off, and the plank that had been used to beat him had been thrust through his anus, piercing the full length of his body and extruding from his gaping mouth. In 1881, in the village of Mukhovitsie, Kiev province, peasants apprehended a thief and sliced the tendons in his right leg and left hand. In the same year and province, in the village of Iazvinkie, the peasants carved a special toothed stake, so that it resembled a series of arrowheads on one shaft. They then shoved it up the rectum of a suspected thief, with the arrows positioned so that he could not remove it.
“Sovietology in One Country” or Comparative Nationality Studies?
Authors: Motyl Alexander J.
Published: April 2006

Stalin must have known better. A non-Russian and the author of Marxism and the National Question, he was surely aware that his slogan of “socialism in one country“ obscured the USSR's profoundly multinational character. To the degree that he really built socialism, Stalin clearly did so not in one country but in many simultaneously. Indeed, not only did the Soviet republics lend one another what Soviet propagandists like to call disinterested proletarian assistance, but some, such as Kazakhstan, the Ukraine, and the countries of Central Asia, may have served as the involuntary base for the “primitive accumulation of capital” as well.
Stories of the Street: Hooliganism in the St. Petersburg Popular Press
Authors: Neuberger Joan
Published: April 2006

At the beginning of the twentieth century St. Petersburg fell victim to a wave of petty crimes and violence. Starting around 1900 the press began to report an increasing number of cases of annoying public rowdiness, drunkenness, rock throwing, shouting of obscenities, and the like. Soon more serious crimes were added to this list: armed assault, robbery, and brawling. None of these crimes was new and they seem to have had little in common with one another, yet they were all lumped together and collectively portrayed as a new urban blight.

This disparate assortment of offenses was dubbedhooliganism, and the word—imported from England where it recently had been coined—was quickly absorbed into Russian usage. Between 1900 and 1905 hooliganism received a substantial amount of attention in the popular press, where by 1905, it had been transformed from a vaguely defined and relatively isolated phenomenon—one crime among many—into a social problem of serious proportions. Hooliganism had become a sign of urban social disintegration and a symbol of the “degeneracy” and “danger” of the urban lower classes.
Tsvetaeva's Onomastic Verse
Authors: Hasty Olga Peters
Published: April 2006

In her artistic philosophy Marina Tsvetaeva insists on the precedence of the word over what it stands for. “Slovo ved' bol'she veshch', chem veshch': ono samo veshch', kotoraia tol'ko znak.” The signifier comes first and the signified trails after it, for the acoustic properties of the word expand its capability beyond mere denotation to poetic creation. The proper name too, far from being a mere representation in Tsvetaeva's view, draws its bearer into a broad range of associations and creates a complex personal universe that can be discovered by means of the poet's “khozhdenie po slukhu.”

From general observations on the importance Tsvetaeva ascribed to names in a variety of works, this paper will proceed to an examination of her 1916 dedication to Aleksandr Blok, “Imia tvoe—ptitsa v ruke.” Analysis of this remarkable poem demonstrates vividly Tsvetaeva's realization of the creative potential of Blok's name. This specific example will provide the basis for a discussion of the broader implications of naming in Tsvetaeva's art.
The Woman's Side: Male Out-Migration and the Family Economy in Kostroma Province
Authors: Engel Barbara Alpern
Published: April 2006

“It isn't the land that attaches a man to the village, it's the family [rodnye].

Prokopovich

In the last decades of Imperial Russia, peasant migrants from all over Russia swelled the ranks of urban dwellers. Impelled by the increasing impoverishment of their villages and the hope of a steady wage, they poured into the cities, some to remain for months or years, others to stay for life. The number of male migrants always exceeded the number of female, although the proportion of women was growing steadily. Even so, the majority of men either remained single or left wives and children in the village.

Thus far, the attention of most social historians has focused on the migrant: his relation to the means of production; the extent to which his experiences in city and factory contributed to the transformation of his consciousness from peasant to proletarian. This approach has yielded rich scholarly results. But, with the exception of the work of Rose Glickman, that scholarship has addressed the peasant migrant almost exclusively as male and regarded his relation to his village primarily as an obstacle on the path to proletarianization.
Writers and Essayists and the Rise of Magyar Nationalism in the 1820s and 1830s
Authors: Deme Laszlo
Published: April 2006

It is a generally accepted fact that the French Revolution took place in the realm of ideas before it started in the streets. The philosophes demolished the old regime prior to 1789 and prepared the public ideologically for a new political order. They also created new ideas about nationhood and redefined the meaning of the term for the French. Hungary experienced the transition from feudalism to civil equality approximately sixty years after France, and Hungarian men of letters played a role similar to that of their French counterparts in the period before the Revolution of 1848. Since Hungary was under Austrian domination, nationalist ideas became of much greater public concern there than they had been in France.

Many aspects of early nineteenth-century Magyar nationalism still need clarification. In this article I shall examine the ideas of Magyar writers and essayists on national identity in the 1820s and 1830s.
Bells and Cupolas: The Formative Role of the Female Body in Marina Tsvetaeva's Poetry
Authors: Forrester Sibelan
Published: April 2006

Like many other Russian women writers, Marina Tsvetaeva did not merely include women's language and physical experience in her poetry; they were central to her concern with poetry and poetic creation. These elements of her work have in recent years evoked an interest from women readers and feminist scholars of Russian literature which is reflected in the number of studies devoted to aspects of her work. Antonina Gove discusses the presence and chronological development of female roles in Tsvetaeva's poetry; Anya Kroth illustrates the importance of gender and specifically androgyny in Tsvetaeva's construction of a dichotomous world-view. Barbara Heldt's landmark study of women in Russian literature, Terrible Perfection, devotes several pages to Tsvetaeva as an autobiographer and a woman poet liberated from the “split selves” of her predecessors.
The Pre-Petrine Law of Property
Authors: Weickhardt George G.
Published: April 2006

The development or lack of development of private property rights in Russia commands interest and significance far beyond the narrow confines of legal history. The institution of private property serves not only as a bulwark of stability but also as a limit to the state's authority. In the words of Richard Pipes, “Ownership of property creates a commitment to the political and legal order since the latter guarantees property rights: it makes the citizen into a co-sovereign, as it were.” Elsewhere Pipes notes that in the west private property “confronted royal power with effective limits to its authority.”
Liturgy and Community Among Old Believers, 1905-1917
Authors: Robson Roy R.
Published: April 2006

Without liturgy there is no Christianity.

–Old Believer Bishop Mikhail

The term Old Believers (or Old Ritualists) refers to a number of groups that arose as a result of Russian church reforms, 1654-1666, when Patriarch Nikon sought to make Russian practices conform to their contemporary Greek counterparts. Conscious of both a departure from tradition and an encroachment of central control over local autonomy, Old Believers endeavored to maintain the rites, symbols and prerogatives of traditional Russian Orthodoxy. With support of the tsar, Nikon began bloody persecutions that lasted, though in lesser degrees, until the decree of religious tolerance in 1905.
Russian Peasant Views of City Life, 1861-1914
Authors: Engel Barbara Alpern
Published: April 2006

In the decades following the emancipation of the serfs, increasing numbers of peasants left their native villages for cities and industrial centers, in response to a growing need for cash and declining opportunities to earn it at home. At least until World War I, the vast majority of these migrants were men; women were the more stable element in the village. In the words of one student of peasant life, women “cling to the family and the land, and need particularly unfavorable circumstances to compel them to move somewhere else.“ Nevertheless, as the nineteenth century drew to a close the economic circumstances that prompted peasant men to leave villages increasingly caused women to leave as well. Like their husbands, fathers and brothers, migrant women often chose urban destinations. At the turn of the twentieth century, there were 650 peasant women per 1,000 peasant men in Moscow, and 368 migrant peasant women for every 1,000 migrant peasant men in St. Petersburg; by 1910, the proportion in St. Petersburg had increased to 480 per 1,000.
Strange Synchronies and Surplus Possibilities: Bakhtin on Time
Authors: Morson Gary Saul
Published: April 2006

We live forward, but we understand backward.

—Kierkegaard

Bakhtin must surely be regarded as the most remarkable modern thinker to examine time in narrative. For him, the problem was no mere exercise in literary theory. Rather, it was a way to examine ultimate questions—or in the Russian phrase, “accursed” questions—about human existence. In this respect, his work is representative of the Russian tradition, in which literature and criticism served as forms of—a skeptic would say, substitutes for—philosophy. In this Russian view, the task of philosophy is to examine the relation of ideas to the way people live. Novels are a supreme form of philosophy because, unlike the terribly thin accounts of life found in philosophical tracts, they offer a rich and “thick” description of human thinking and action.
The “Lenin Levy” and the Social Origins of Stalinism: Workers and the Communist Party in Moscow, 1921-1928
Authors: Hatch John B.
Published: April 2006

Shortly before Lenin's death in early 1924, the Thirteenth Party Conference undertook an ambitious program to recruit thousands of workers into the Communist party. Subsequently known as the Lenin Levy—in memory, ironically, of the party's main adversary of mass worker recruitments—this campaign, which was repeated in 1925 and 1927, marked a key stage in the social and organizational history of the Soviet Communist party, for it brought the party into close contact with the shop floor for the first time since 1917.

Western historians are divided over the significance to be attached to this episode. Many echo the views held by prominent party leftists that worker recruitments were a cosmetic response to the problem of bureaucratism and a convenient means to swamp the party with members obedient to the secretariat.
Between Right and Left: G. la. Sokolnikov and the Development of the Soviet State, 1921-1929
Authors: Oppenheim Samuel A.
Published: April 2006

On 26 November 1921, Lenin sent a note to Viacheslav M. Molotov, for transmission to the Politburo, requesting that it appoint Gregorii Iakovlevich Sokolnikov a member of the Board of the People's Commissariat of Finance (PCF). The next day the Politburo approved this suggestion. Nikolai Krestinskii, the Left Communist who had served as people's commissar of finance since July 1918 and who oversaw the virtual dismantling of that ministry, had become the Soviet diplomatic representative in Germany. Although he would formally hold the title of people's commissar of finance until December 1922, Krestinskii had ceased to play a role in the PCF a year earlier. Sokolnikov quickly took over the ministry, especially after he became deputy commissar in January, at which time Lenin wrote Sokolnikov saying that he was “actually in charge of the most important people's commissariat.” Thus, although Sokolnikov officially became people's commissar of finance only in December 1922, he was de facto, if not de jure, in control from the beginning of 1922.
Poland and the Holy See, 1918-1939
Authors: Pease Neal
Published: April 2006

From 1918 to 1939, a diplomatic partnership between the Holy See and Poland appeared extremely likely. Since 1870 the Vatican had sought to restore the temporal status it had lost during Italian unification. The Lateran accords of 1929 resolved the Roman question and confirmed the disputed sovereignty of the papal enclave. This achievement, however, was only part of the Apostolic See's determined efforts to fortify its international standing in a continent dominated by Protestant, anticlerical, or atheist states. The Vatican seemed to be a natural match for revived Poland, a nation renowned for its fealty to Rome and menaced by Germany and Russia, traditional antagonists of the papacy and champions of totalitarian doctrines that the church regarded as inimical.
Olesha's Zavist': Utopia and Dystopia
Authors: Ehre Milton
Published: April 2006

Utopia and dystopia designate the human dream of happiness and the human nightmare of despair when these are assigned a place (topos) in space or time. Since narrative literature "is essentially an imitation not of persons but of action and life, of happiness and misery," Utopian and dystopian inventions are mere extremes of literature's ongoing story. In realistic fictions, although social circumstances may range from the incidental to the decisive, the story of the movement to happiness or unhappiness is usually told in terms of individual achievement and failure. In the Utopian and anti-utopian scheme deliverance or damnation depend on the place where one has found oneself, whether it is "the good place" or "the bad place." Although Utopias are allegorical constructs of the rational mind, attempting to bring order to the disorder of life, their denial of what is for the sake of what ought to be makes them a species of fantasy literature–a dream of reason.
Old Dogs and New Tricks: Party Elites in the Russian Regional Elections of 1990
Authors: Helf Gavin , Hahn Jeffrey W.
Published: April 2006

Much of the analysis of the results of republican and local elections held in the USSR in 1989-1990 understandably focused on the dramatic victories of candidates and groups committed to a radical reform of the old system. Anti-communist majorities were elected to the parliaments of several republics. The city governments of Moscow, Leningrad and Sverdlovsk fell under the control of activists associated with the self-styled “democratic bloc” and, in summer 1990, Boris Yeltsin was elected to chair the RSFSR Supreme Soviet. Conversely, local party officials suffered embarrassing defeats in the face of competition from popular fronts united under the banner of Democratic Russia. That the Party itself was in disarray over how to respond to these challenges was reflected in the open split between rival platforms at the 28th party Congress in July 1990. Taken together, these events could easily convey the impression that old party elites “lost” the local elections of 1990 and that they lost because they failed to adapt to the new rules of democratic politics.
Silence and Servitude: Bondage and Self-invention in Russia and America, 1780-1861
Authors: Ruttenburg Nancy
Published: April 2006

In an 1881 letter to his would-be Russian translator, Walt Whitman described his sense of a mystical resemblance—improbable yet undeniable—between Russian and America, two nations traditionally regarded as not merely geographically but also culturally marginal to the great nations of Europe:

You Russians and we Americans;—our countries so distant, so unlike at a first glance … and yet in certain features, and vastest ones, so resembling each other. The variety of stock-elements and tongues to be resolutely fused in a common Identity and Union at all hazards— the idea, perennial through the ages, that they both have their historic and divine mission—the fervent element of manly friendship throughout the whole people, surpassed by no other races—the grand ‘expanse of territorial limits and boundaries—the unform'd and nebulous state of many things, not yet permanently settled, but agreed on all hands to be the preparations of an infinitely greater future— the fact that both peoples have their independent and leading positions to hold, keep, and if necessary fight for, against the rest of the world—the deathless aspirations at the inmost centre of each great community, so vehement, so mysterious, so abysmic—are certainly features you Russians and we Americans possess in common.
Civil-Military Relations and the Evolution of the Soviet Socialist State
Authors: Hagen Mark von
Published: April 2006

For the past few years, Soviet historians have fixed their attention on the problem of "alternatives," a shorthand for wide-ranging attempts to free historical thinking from the overly determinist schemes of Stalinist orthodoxy. The question is posed most often as the possibility of a more humane alternative to Stalin and the political order associated with his name. Some historians and publicists, however, have gone beyond the Stalin period to reflect on, for example, how even the 1917 revolutions might have been avoided. The leadership under Mikhail Gorbachev and reformist allies among the intelligentsia have singled out the New Economic Policy, or NEP, as the legitimate socialist forerunner to the present reformist programs. In so doing, they approach consensus with an influential group of western historians, including Stephen Cohen, Moshe Lewin, and Robert Tucker, who have kept alive the memory of Nikolai Bukharin in particular, but a non-Stalinist path to socialism as well.
Chekhov as Ethnographer: Epistemological Crisis on Sakhalin Island
Authors: Popkin Cathy
Published: April 2006

In 1890, Anton Chekhov traveled all the way across Siberia, spending five months in transit and three more in residence, to visit the penal colony on Sakhalin Island. The trip was enormously eccentric—it was dangerous, arduous, ill-advised for someone of Chekhov's delicate constitution and uncharacteristically adventuresome for someone so sedentary. Its eccentricity is heightened by the battery of cavalier explanations advanced by the writer, who justified his trip first as an attempt to erase a portion of his life, then as an effort to produce the only halfyear worth remembering, now as a mere change of pace, then as a pressing need to flee a romantic entanglement, at times as a scientific enterprise, at other times as a symptom of "Sakhalin mania."
Vsevolod Ivanov’s Satirical Novel Y and the Rooster Metaphor
Authors: Brougher Valentina G.
Published: April 2006

It may come as a surprise that the author of the Soviet classic Bronepoezd14-69 (Armored Train 14-69) produced an experimental novel in 1929- 1931, entitled Y, whose satiric spirit, rich texture and philosophical depth suggest a close kinship with such writers as Mikhail Bulgakov and Andrei Platonov. In western criticism, Vsevolod Ivanov has been largely remembered as one of the Serapion Brothers, whose Partizanskie povesti (partisan tales) and short stories (“Dite” [“The Child“] being the best known example) about the civil war in Siberia and central Asia were written in a highly individualistic ornamental style and responded to the call for immediacy and relevance in literature.
Pushkin’s “Journey to Arzrum”: The Poet at the Border
Authors: Greenleaf Monika Frenkel
Published: April 2006

“Mne nenadobno puteshestvovať. la puteshestvuiu v svoem voobrazhenii,” said Aleksandr Pushkin, not quite ingenuously, toward the end of his life. Pushkin’s chronic desire for travel had so often been frustrated or deflected that his loudly lamented exile in the early 1820s to the Caucasus, Crimea, Bessarabia, and Odessa later came to represent, faute de mieux, the peripatetic freedom of his youth. When in 1829 Pushkin and Petr A. Viazemskii were refused permission to travel to Paris, Pushkin embarked instead on the illicit trip south that would become the basis for his literary “Puteshestvie v Arzrum” six years later. In 1836, with a rueful backward glance at the orientalist fashion that he himself had helped to launch in Russian poetry, Pushkin wrote, “Vinovat: ia by otdal vse, chto bylo pisano u nas v podrazhanie l.(ordu) Bai(ronu), za sleduiushchie nezadumchivye i ne-vostorzhennye stikhi, v kotorykh poet zastavliaet geroia svoego vosklitsať druz’iam: Druz’ia! Sestritsy! ia v Parizhe! Ia nachal zhit’, a nedyshať!” (12:93). Perhaps the exuberant first words of an unfinished drama, “Cherez nedeliu budy v Parizhe nepremenno” represent a vestige of that never-to-be-realized desire (7:251-253). In short, if the south served as an escape valve for dreams of uninhibited motion and adventure, it was also a surrogate, marking the boundaries rather than the fulfillment of that freedom. Not surprisingly, then, the theme of the seductive border crossing is central to the “Puteshestvie v Arzrum” (8:1, 463):
The Mongol Origins of Muscovite Political Institutions
Authors: Ostrowski Donald
Published: April 2006

Sources of the first half of the fourteenth century provide evidence that a sharp rift in institutional continuity occurred in Muscovy. This rift constituted a kind of "punctuated equilibrium" in the evolutionary development of the Rus' political system. The political institutional structure inherited from the Vladimir-Suzdal' component of Kievan Rus' ended abruptly, and, concomitantly, a new political structure similar to that of the Kipchak Khanate was established. I contend in this article that the Muscovite princes introduced Mongol political and military institutions into Muscovy on a wide scale during the first half of the fourteenth century.
Rybakov's Deti Arbata: Reintegrating Stalin into Soviet History
Authors: McLaughlin Sigrid
Published: April 2006

The Soviet reappraisal of Stalin that began in 1986 was initially manifest only in the cultural sphere, although more recently it has spread to other domains. Anatolii Rybakov's novel Deti Arbata played a decisive role in preparing the way for a reassessment of Stalin's legacy. Its publication was immediately recognized as “an event of enormous significance,” reflecting the hunger for history and the wish to dethrone Stalin. In fact, the novel became the symbol of glasnost. It is the first novel to portray Stalin as a major character, to draw his psychological and historical portrait, and to demythologize his image. Furthermore, it does so for the first time without khitroglasie. Portraying the first generation of Soviet citizens, the children of the Arbat, it introduces the theme of exile into Soviet literature and sketches the social relations and the social psychology of the people in 1934.
A Catalogue of Commercialism in Nikolai Gogol´'sDead Souls
Authors: Scott Valentino Russell
Published: April 2006

In the comparatively peaceful, tranquil and business-minded Europe of the period after the Congress of Vienna, the world suddenly appeared empty, petty, and boring and the stage was set for the Romantic critique of the bourgeois order as incredibly impoverished in relation to earlier ages–the new world seemed to lack nobility, grandeur, mystery, and, above all, passion

–Albert O. Hirschman,The Passions and the Interests
Engaging Sexual Demons in Marina Tsvetaeva's "Devil": The Body and the Genesis of the Woman Poet
Authors: Chester Pamela
Published: April 2006

To liberate … feelings of loss is the peculiar function of myths of origin, which so invariably speak to our nostalgias

–R. Harrison, Forests

“Devil” is a key piece in Tsvetaeva's “anti-Eden” cycle of autobiographical prose, a phrase I have coined to describe her rewriting of both the creation myth of Genesis and its Russian incarnation in the Arcadian boyhoods of Tolstoi and Aksakov. In the series of memoirs which she wrote in the 1930s, she reworked the male myth to reflect twentieth century female experience and, most importantly, to inscribe her selfdefinition as poet.
Venice and the Slavs of Dalmatia: The Drama of the Adriatic Empire in the Venetian Enlightenment
Authors: Wolff Larry
Published: April 2006

The earliest submission of the Dalmatian cities to Venetian sovereignty, around the medieval millennial year 1000, remained fundamental for the mythology of Venice’s political culture right up to the end of the history of the republic in 1797. Giacomo Diedo, whose history of Venice was published in 1751, focused his attention upon “the first acquisitions of the Venetians in Dalmatia, which then might serve as a base for further advances.” In fact, the coastal cities of Dalmatia would serve Venice in the most literal (and littoral) sense as bases for an imperial commercial domain that advanced beyond the Adriatic to the eastern Mediterranean, but for Diedo, and his eighteenth-century contemporaries, Dalmatia was also an ideological base on which to construct a culturally convenient vision of Venetian empire. The Dalmatians, in order “to secure themselves from the molestations of the barbarians” (the Narentani along the river Neretva), appealed for the protection of Venice, so that the Adriatic armada of the Doge Pietro II Orseolo was welcomed “with acclamations by the inhabitants who saluted him as their liberator.”
Origins of a Gulag Capital: Magadan and Stalinist Control in the Early 1930s
Authors: Nordlander David J.
Published: April 2006

High above Nagaevo Bay, the city of Magadan affords an impressive panorama of rocky cliffs that fall precipitously into the Sea of Okhotsk. Beautiful and serene, the view typifies the natural scenery of this mountainous Pacific coasdine in the farthest reaches of northeastern Russia. But it also belies the tragic history of the region in the Stalin era, when the Soviet government sent upwards of one million prisoners to Magadan for servitude in the hard labor camps of the Kolyma and Chukodsa. In the national consciousness, the city has for many years held a unique and vexing significance, all the more intense because so many thed on the neighboring tundra. Standing as the most notorious center of the gulag, indeed as its "capital," Magadan became synonymous witii the Great Terror.
Parallel Lives: Gogol'’s Biography and Mass Readership in Late Imperial Russia
Authors: Moeller-Sally Stephen
Published: April 2006

Our view of the cultural situation in late imperial Russia is changing. Long set aside as a distinct period in literary and cultural history, the decades embracing the turn of the twentieth century have customarily been described according to two master narratives. The first has tied developments in cultural life to the political struggle between revolution and reaction, and to the history of Russian revolutionary ideology. The second focuses on the evolution of style, recounting the transformation of realism and the concurrent emergence of decadence and modernism. Recent scholarship, however, has begun to reveal the limits of these paradigms by directing attention to fundamental changes in the institutions of Russian literature. Jeffrey Brooks has shown how the Russian reading public expanded and diversified in the wake of the Great Reforms, thus preparing the way for a broadly based popular literature governed by market forces. As technology improved in the areas of printing, transportation and communications, the potential of this new market was increasingly exploited so that by the turn of the century popular literature had risen from its origins as a virtual cottage enterprise to the status of a major industry.
Stalin, Grain Stocks and the Famine of 1932-1933
Authors: Davies R.W. , Tauger M.B. , Wheatcroft S.G.
Published: April 2006

Most western and all Soviet studies of the Stalinist economy have ignored the role played by the stockpiling of grain in the agricultural crisis of the early 1930s. Thus in his major work on Stalinist agriculture published in 1949, Naum Jasny frankly admitted that data were insufficient to reach a conclusion, merely noting that “stocks from former years probably declined during 1932.” Baykov, Dobb, Volin and Nove said nothing about grain stocks. At the time, western commentators did pay some attention to the possibility that the stockpiling of grain exacerbated the famine. In autumn 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria, and in spring 1932 British diplomats reported that Karl Radek had told them that, owing to the threat of war in the far east, enough grain had been stored to supply the army for one year.
Russian Roads to Mecca: Religious Tolerance and Muslim Pilgrimage in the Russian Empire
Authors: Brower Daniel
Published: April 2006

The Russian empire provided Islam a sheltered but precarious place within its borders. Sporadic efforts at forced conversion to Orthodoxy ended in 1773 with Catherine II's edict of religious tolerance, which officially acknowledged the existence of the Muslim community and allowed the free practice of its essential religious rites. Among these, pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) was one of the most sacred. But distrust of Islam and fear of Muslim revolt, fed by an almost paranoid apprehension of pan-Islamic solidarity, were deeply embedded in tsarist policies and attitudes toward pious Muslims.
Chapels and the Ecclesial World of Prerevolutionary Russian Peasants
Authors: Shevzov Vera
Published: April 2006

Russia's peasants and their culture in postreform Russia have enjoyed the attention of an ever-increasing number of scholars over the past two decades. One central aspect of that culture, however, has remained virtually unexplored: Eastern Orthodox Christianity as it was practiced and understood by peasant believers, and especially by peasants who considered themselves members of the official Orthodox Church. At least two explanations may exist for such scholarly neglect. First, historians of Russia have traditionally viewed "official" Orthodoxy as somehow forcibly imposed on the people by secular and ecclesiastical authorities.
UN Peacekeeping Operations: Applicability of International Humanitarian Law and Responsibility for Operations-Related Damage
Authors: Shraga Daphna
Published: April 2006

In the five decades that followed the Korea operation, where for the first time the United Nations commander agreed, at the request of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), to abide by the humanitarian provisions of the Geneva Conventions, few UN operations lent themselves to the applicability of international humanitarian law
Duty and Discretion in International Arbitration
Authors: Park William W.
Published: April 2006

After a long arbitration in New York, a Canadian company wins substantial damages against a British multinational, only to see a federal court vacate the award.1 Two grounds are given for vacatur: the arbitrator was biased, and the arbitrator manifestly disregarded the applicable law. Not deterred, the winning claimant seeks to enforce the award against the defendant’s London bank accounts.

What effect (if any) should a court in England give the American award? Should an English court ignore the arbitrator’s decision or the federal judge’s order? Should the English court make its own investigation into the legitimacy of the vacatur?
Improving the Operation and Functioning of the International Criminal Tribunals
Authors: Mundis Daryl A.
Published: April 2006

Since the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, both International Tribunals have grown tremendously in terms of resources. Despite this growth, the International Tribunals have rendered judgments in only fifteen cases and conducted inordinately long trials—a fault for which, perhaps more than any other, they can be justly criticized. The Secretary- General of the United Nations recently appointed an expert group to review the efficiency of the operation of the International Tribunals and make recommendations for improvement. Following the release of the group's report, the General Assembly requested that the Secretary-General obtain comments from the International Tribunals on the experts’ recommendations. The ICTYjudges, for their part, considered these recommendations in a report to the United Nations setting forth a long-term strategy for improving the operation of the Tribunal.
Foreword
Authors: Wedgwood Ruth , Jacobson Harold K.
Published: April 2006

The aftermath of military conflict can be an occasion for transforming politics and society. In postwar Europe, aided by the Marshall Plan, statesmen such as Jean Monnet and Konrad Adenauer rebuilt the smoking ruins of an international conflict into an economic community with a strong democratic ethos, a common political identity, and a workable social balance. The old rivalries of the continent were abated by joint-security commitments, and the sense of Europe as a political space was strengthened by the human rights standards of the Helsinki process.
Effects of drainage and soil organic content on growth of Spartina alterniflora (Poaceae) in an artificial salt marsh mesocosm
Authors: Padgett David E. , Brown Jeffrey L.
Published: April 2006

An artificial salt marsh mesocosm was constructed using 680‐L polypropylene tanks to determine the effect of soil drainage depth and organic content on growth and rhizome proliferation of the salt marsh smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora. Soil drainage depth had no effect on accumulation of aerial or subsurface plant tissue, but tanks that had 2.5% soil organic content supported enhanced aerial tissue and rhizome growth compared to tanks that contained sand alone. We propose a mathematical model for predicting the mass of photosynthetically significant leaf tissue without cutting and drying leaves. Implications of these findings for salt marsh creation projects are discussed.
Internal transcribed spacer region evolution in Larix and Pseudotsuga (Pinaceae)
Authors: Gernandt David S. , Liston Aaron
Published: April 2006

The nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region has been characterized in the sister genera Larix and Pseudotsuga (Pinaceae). Complete sequences were obtained for seven species of Larix from North America and Eurasia and five species of Pseudotsuga from western North America and eastern Asia. ITS region lengths ranged from 1759 to 1770 bp in Larix and from 1564 to 1571 bp in Pseudotsuga. In both genera, ITS1 is three times as long as the 5.8S plus ITS2 and contains subrepeats as observed in other genera of Pinaceae. Secondary structure models predicted that the subrepeats fold into terminal stem and loop domains. ITS polymorphism detected within individuals of Larix and Pseudotsuga suggests a slow rate of concerted evolution among nrDNA loci. Except for the placement of L. sibirica, phylogenetic analyses of the ITS region agreed with previously reported restriction site analyses of Larix and Pseudotsuga. The data were not consistent with phylogenetic hypotheses for Larix based primarily upon ovulate cone characters, failing to support a derivation of the North American L. laricina from a short‐bracted Eurasian lineage. The phylogenetic hypothesis did not conflict with a stepping stone model of evolution for Pseudotsuga, but a basal lineage could not be inferred for either genus.
Wood biomechanics and anatomy of PACHYCEREUS PRINGLEI
Authors: Niklas Karl J. , Molina‐Freaner Francisco , Tinoco‐Ojanguren Clara , Paolillo Dominick J.
Published: April 2006

We report the longitudinal, biomechanical, and anatomical trends observed for tissue samples drawn from the parallel aligned, prismatic woody vascular bundles running the length of a Pachycereus pringlei plant measuring 5.22 m in height. The main vertical stem of this plant was cut into five segments (labeled A through E in the acropetal direction) measuring ∼1.02 m in length. Four of the 14 vascular bundles in each segment were surgically removed to obtain 20 vascular bundle segments that were tested in bending to determine their stiffness measured in the radial ER and tangential ET direction. We also determined the lignin content of representative samples of wood.

A nonlinear trend in stiffness was observed: ER and ET were highest in segments B or C (1.67 GN/m2 and 1.09 GN/m2, respectively), lower in segment A (ER = 1.18 GN/m2 and ET = 0.35 GN/m2), and lowest in segment E (ER = 0.03 GN/m2 and ET = 0.20 GN/m2). Similar longitudinal trends were seen for axial tissue volume fraction and fiber wall thickness, which achieved their highest values in segment B (69.8% and 6.59 μm, respectively). Wood stiffness also correlated significantly with cell wall lignin content: with respect to segment B (which had the highest lignin content, and was thus used as the standard reference for percent lignin content), lignin content, was 15, 60, 85, and 43% in segments E, D, C, and A, respectively. Fiber cell length, which increased toward the base of the stem and toward the vascular cambium in the most proximal vascular bundle segment, did not correlate with ER or ET.

Basic engineering principles were used to calculate stem stresses resulting from self‐loading and any wind‐induced bending moment (produced by drag forces). Calculations indicated that the less stiff wood produced in segment A eliminates a rapid and potentially dangerous increase in stresses that would otherwise occur in segments B or C. The less stiff wood in segment A also reduces the probability of shear failure at the cellular interface between the wood and surrounding tissues in this portion of the stem.

We conclude that P. pringlei wood stiffness is dependent on the volume fraction and lignification of axial tissues, less so on fiber wall thickness, and that wood development in this species is adaptively responsive to self‐loading and differentially applied external mechanical forces