bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Cooper John M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses ancient philosophy as a way of life. It first considers the ties linking popular ideas about philosophy to the subject of study that is pursued and taught in philosophy departments by professional philosophers. One aspect of ancient philosophy as a way of life has survived intact in philosophy until today is the prominence among philosophy's varied subfields of ethics or moral philosophy. It argues that the ancient philosophers propose that we live our lives from some set of argued through, rationally worked out, rationally grasped, and rationally defended, reasoned ideas about the world and one's own place within it. To live a life of philosophy is to live committed to following philosophical reason wherever it may lead. The promise is that by doing so—but only by doing so—one will achieve the best possible human life.
The Epicurean and Skeptic Ways of Life
Authors: Cooper John M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the Epicurean and Pyrrhonian skeptic ways of life. It argues that the Epicurean life, however much grounded in the results of philosophical analysis and argument, and however much the psychological motivation provided by firm belief in these results steers Epicureans in living their life, that life cannot be said to involve, in any essential way, the practice of philosophy, that is, of philosophical reflection, analysis, discussion, and argument. The skeptic life, however, beyond its conformism so far as issues of daily life, morality, religion, politics, and so on, may go, also includes a devotion to philosophical discussion and investigation. Skeptics appear to live their lives in a very delicate balance between living as Sextus describes, following his fourfold direction (and also devoting lots of attention to philosophy), and worrying about what would happen to their lives if ever their skill of counterbalancing arguments should fail to undermine an argument of philosophy.
Rigid Designation, Direct Reference, and Indexicality
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the contributions of Saul Kripke and David Kaplan, which are leading elements of a body of work that changed the course of analytic philosophy. It first deals with the views of Kripke. The necessity featured in Naming and Necessity is the nonlinguistic notion needed for quantified modal logic and the modal de re. Kripke's articulation of this notion is linked to his discussion of rigid designation, and metaphysical essentialism. The remainder of the chapter deals with Kaplan, focusing on the tension between logic and semantics; the basic structure of the logic of demonstratives; direct reference and rigid designation; and English demonstratives vs. “dthat”-rigidified descriptions.
1948 as a Jewish World War
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, which emerges from and constantly returns to 1948. For over twenty-five years, ever since Israel's archives made sources from 1948 available for historical research, scholars have striven to understand why Israel emerged victorious in its war against the Palestinians and Israel's neighboring Arab states. There is a broad consensus among scholars that Israel enjoyed relative military strength compared with its Arab foes. Although far smaller in population and land mass than the array of Arab states, Israel was able to field more soldiers, its army was better trained and had higher morale, and, although at a material disadvantage during the war's first months, in time it was able to acquire superior weaponry. In Israel, victory in 1948 was made possible by not only the tenacity and innovative spirit of its fighters, but also the marshaling of credit and capital, both within Israel and throughout the Jewish world.
Epilogue
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This epilogue argues that over the century and a half, from the French revolutionary wars to World War II, Jews in military service were carriers of multiple, overlapping, and at times clashing identities. They often felt a sincere, profound attachment to their homeland and fought with no sense of qualitative difference from their countrymen. Believing that their homeland epitomized toleration and respect for human dignity, Jews in western Europe and North America defined their countries' wars as Jewish wars. Moreover, Jews celebrated their men in uniform not only for their virility and bravery, not only for fulfilling their patriotic duty, but also for boldly asserting their religious particularism. The Jewish soldier at a Sabbath service in the field or a synagogue at home brought glory to his community not simply because he donned his uniform and decorations but because he did so while occupying a manifestly Jewish space.
Dark Markets
Authors: Duffie Darrell
Published: November 2017

Over-the-counter (OTC) markets for derivatives, collateralized debt obligations, and repurchase agreements played a significant role in the global financial crisis. Rather than being traded through a centralized institution such as a stock exchange, OTC trades are negotiated privately between market participants who may be unaware of prices that are currently available elsewhere in the market. In these relatively opaque markets, investors can be in the dark about the most attractive available terms and who might be offering them. This opaqueness exacerbated the financial crisis, as regulators and market participants were unable to quickly assess the risks and pricing of these instruments. This book offers a concise introduction to OTC markets by explaining key conceptual issues and modeling techniques, and by providing readers with a foundation for more advanced subjects in this field. The book covers the basic methods for modeling search and random matching in economies with many agents. It gives an overview of asset pricing in OTC markets with symmetric and asymmetric information, showing how information percolates through these markets as investors encounter each other over time. The book also features appendixes containing methodologies supporting the more theory-oriented of the chapters, making this the most self-contained introduction to OTC markets available.
The Case of Federal Funds Lending
Authors: Duffie Darrell
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows how the intraday allocation and pricing of overnight loans of federal funds reflect the over-the-counter interbank market in which these loans are traded. It provides estimates of how the likelihood that some bank i borrows from some other bank j during a particular minute t of a business day, as well as the interest rate on the loan, depend on the prior trading relationship between these two banks, the extents to which their balances at the beginning of minute t are above or below their normal respective balances for that time of day, their overall levels of trading activities, the amount of time left until their end-of-day balances are monitored for reserve-requirement purposes, and the volatility of the federal funds rate in the trailing 30 minutes.
Party Competition
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

Party competition for votes in free and fair elections involves complex interactions by multiple actors in political landscapes that are continuously evolving, yet classical theoretical approaches to the subject leave many important questions unanswered. This book offers the first comprehensive treatment of party competition using the computational techniques of agent-based modeling. This exciting new technology enables researchers to model competition between several different political parties for the support of voters with widely varying preferences on many different issues. The book models party competition as a true dynamic process in which political parties rise and fall, a process where different politicians attack the same political problem in very different ways, and where today's political actors, lacking perfect information about the potential consequences of their choices, must constantly adapt their behavior to yesterday's political outcomes. This book shows how agent-based modeling can be used to accurately reflect how political systems really work. It demonstrates that politicians who are satisfied with relatively modest vote shares often do better at winning votes than rivals who search ceaselessly for higher shares of the vote. It reveals that politicians who pay close attention to their personal preferences when setting party policy often have more success than opponents who focus solely on the preferences of voters, that some politicians have idiosyncratic “valence” advantages that enhance their electability—and much more.
Spatial Dynamics of Political Competition
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter sets up the core problem of the present volume. To demonstrate that this problem is analytically intractable, it uses results from a subfield of geometry that deals with “Voronoi tessellations” (or tilings) that has powerful applications in many disciplines. Largely unnoticed by political scientists, this work addresses a problem of “competitive spatial location” that is directly analogous to the problem of dynamic competition between a set of political parties competing with each other by offering rival policy programs. One result from this field is that the problem of competitive spatial location is intractable if the space concerned has more than one dimension, implying that there are no formally provable best-response strategies for this. This is an important and widely recognized justification for deploying computational methods, and the study of Voronoi tessellations is a major subfield in computational geometry.
Systematically Interrogating Agent-Based Models
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter develops the methods for designing, executing, and analyzing large suites of computer simulations that generate stable and replicable results. It starts with a discussion of the different methods of experimental design, such as grid sweeping and Monte Carlo parameterization. Next, it demonstrates how to calculate mean estimates of output variables of interest. It does so by first discussing stochastic processes, Markov Chain representations, and model burn-in. It focuses on three stochastic process representations: nonergodic deterministic processes that converge on a single state; nondeterministic stochastic processes for which a time average provides a representative estimate of the output variables; and nondeterministic stochastic processes for which a time average does not provide a representative estimate of the output variables. The estimation strategy employed depends on which stochastic process the simulation follows. Lastly, the chapter presents a set of diagnostic checks used to establish an appropriate sample size for the estimation of the means.
Benchmarking the Baseline Model
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins the investigation of multiparty competition using the baseline model specified in Chapter 3 and methods and procedures specified in Chapter 4. The most significant results concern the representativeness of evolved configurations of party policy positions. In symmetric populations, the ideal points of voters are not best represented by a set of (Hunter) parties who compete for their support by trying to find popular policy positions. Instead, voter preferences are better represented by a set of (Aggregator) parties that do not compete with each other on policy at all but instead seek to represent the policy preferences only of their current supporters. This happens because the dynamics of vote-seeking competition in this setting cause parties to set policy positions closer to the center of the policy space than would be needed for optimal representation—while at the same time avoiding the dead center of the space.
Endogenous Parties, Interaction of Different Decision Rules
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter attempts to develop more realistic and interesting models in which the set of competing parties is a completely endogenous output of the process of party competition. It also seeks to model party competition when different party leaders use different decision rules in the same setting by building on an approach pioneered in a different context by Robert Axelrod. This involves long-running computer “tournaments” that allow investigation of the performance and “robustness” of decision rules in an environment where any politician using any rule may encounter an opponent using either the same decision rule or some quite different rule. The chapter is most interested in how a decision rule performs against anything the competitive environment might throw against it, including agents using decision rules that are difficult to anticipate and/or comprehend.
Nonpolicy Factors in Party Competition
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

Moving beyond the assumption that voters care about only the party policy positions on offer, this chapter models the possibility that they also care about perceived “nonpolicy” attributes of political candidates, such as competence, charisma, honesty. These characterize what have become known as “valence” models of party competition. Voters balance utility derived from each candidate's nonpolicy valence against utility derived from the candidate's policy position. The contribution of valence models has been to explain why all parties do not all converge on regions of the policy space with the highest densities of voter ideal points. Higher valence parties tend to go to regions of the policy space with higher voter densities, while lower valence parties are forced to steer well clear of these parties and pick policy positions in regions with lower voter densities.
A Region of Fragments
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the construction of Boulder Dam. Franklin Roosevelt explained the dam as a manifestation of the transformations the New Deal had set in motion. “The largest generators and turbines yet installed in this country, machinery that can continuously supply nearly two million horsepower of electric energy,” Roosevelt explained, would soon “power factory motors, street and household lights and irrigation pumps.” In so doing, the dam's energy would transform the region and the nation at large; it would create industrial modernity. Ultimately, the construction of Boulder Dam, and the politics surrounding it, signaled a change. It suggested that efforts to turn the energy of the river to human purposes had begun to tie the fates of Phoenix and the Navajo Reservation together. Indeed, Boulder Dam had begun the creation of a new region.
From Baby Farms to Baby M
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the impact of children's changing economic and sentimental value on turn-of-the-twentieth-century baby markets, including profound transformations in the sale and exchange value of “priceless” children in foster care and adoption. Why is it that today's infertile parents eagerly offer thousands of dollars to obtain a baby, but in the late nineteenth century unwanted babies found no buyers? The chapter traces the late-twentieth-century emergence of a controversial surrogacy market. It argues that the socially and morally problematic nature of the surrogacy baby market is not primarily that sacred items are “placed in a contract and sealed by money,” nor even that surrogacy is rigged against poor women. More significantly, surrogacy unequivocally reveals our discriminatory valuation of children. Babies are made on “special order” because children already available on the adoption market are not “good” enough—too old, too sick, or of the wrong skin color. In this respect, surrogacy is only a technical innovation. In fact, it is just the latest stage of a very special adoption market that began in the 1920s.
Fine Tuning the Zelizer View
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the author's response to a complaint from two economic analysts that her conception of money as represented by the paper The Social Meaning of Money neglected general theories of money in favor of emphasizing the constant reintroduction of particularity into monetary transactions. In their paper “Markets and Money in Social Theory: What Role for Economics?,” Fine and Lapavitsas (2000) incorporated the author's critique of neoclassical economics and her empirical work, but not the theoretical basis for either one. The author welcomes their project to draw a different, interesting theory of markets and money from Marx's writing. However, she also says that Fine and Lapavitsas' theoretical enthusiasm for a political economy framework blinds them to the emergence of newer theoretical possibilities over the last decade or so. She responds to their statement in two parts: first, reacting to specific criticisms of her view; and second, outlining alternative ways of explaining markets and monetary transactions.
Do Markets Poison Intimacy?
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the relationship between intimacy and economic activity. Money is widely believed to poison intimate relations, while intimate relations undercut the rational efficiency of economic activity. However, such reasoning ignores a fundamental fact: in everyday life, people constantly mingle intimacy and all sorts of economic activity—production, consumption, distribution, and transfers of assets. Intimate relations between spouses, between lovers, between parents and children, and even between doctors and patients depend on joint economic activity. No loving household would last long without regular inputs of economic effort. What's more, family firms and mom-and-pop stores often thrive despite the everyday mingling of intimacy and economic activity. Something is wrong with the conventional reasoning.
Kids and Commerce
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter documents children's involvement in a variety of economic transactions, including production, consumption, and distribution. While hostile-worlds theories insist that children's innocence should be protected from the ravages of the market, in reality children have active economic lives of a particular kind. Researchers have also so far given much more attention to consumption practices. This chapter reverses the perspective by stressing production and distribution before turning to a briefer sketch of consumption. In each of these sectors we find differentiation of children's economic activities depending on their predominant social relations. It focuses here on three types of relations: with other household members; with agents of organizations outside the household; with other children.
Circuits within Capitalism
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter challenges the widespread assumption that markets ipso facto undercut solidarity-sustaining personal relations. It offers an alternative to the conventional account of interplay between market transactions and personal relations. The analysis brings together seven elements: (1) a sustained critique of radical dichotomies between intimate and impersonal social ties; (2) identification of commercial circuits as bridging structures that facilitate the coexistence of intimate and impersonal social ties; (3) reminders that anthropologists have frequently encountered commercial circuits in supposedly noncapitalist social settings; (4) a review of two areas of economic activity commonly thought to demonstrate (and suffer from) the incompatibility of intimate and impersonal social ties—local monetary systems and caring labor—for evidence of stable coexistence between commercial transactions and interpersonal intimacy; (5) identification of parallels in the formation and operation of commercial circuits within those two areas; (6) arguments that in each area those circuits facilitate the coexistence of commercial transactions and interpersonal intimacy but also generate exclusion and inequality in relation to outsiders; and (7) proposals for further inquiry into relations between commercial circuits and capitalism as such.
Introduction
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of light. In particle language, a beam of light is a stream of photons—small massless particles with energy and momentum that travel at high speeds. In wave language, a beam of light is a series of waves of changing electric and magnetic field strength that have phase, amplitude, and wavelength, and—like photons—travel at high speeds. To intuitively describe what light does, one has to jump back and forth between these two interpretations. Sometimes, the results of experiments with light are more easily predicted or intuited using the mathematics and metaphors appropriate to waves; and sometimes the results are better explained using the mathematics and metaphors appropriate to particles.
Emission
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines light emission. There are only a few ways of making light, the main two categories being (1) thermal radiation, where light emission is related to the temperature of an object, and (2) luminescence, where light emission is related to specific changes in the energy levels of molecules. Other possibilities, such as light produced when matter meets anti-matter, are not likely to matter in biology. With few exceptions, light in the biological world ultimately comes from two sources, the sun and bioluminescence, which are exemplars of the two main mechanisms of light emission. The chapter also looks at mechanoluminescence and sonoluminescence.
Relative Justice
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

When can we be morally responsible for our behavior? Is it fair to blame people for actions that are determined by heredity and environment? Can we be responsible for the actions of relatives or members of our community? This book concludes that there are no objectively correct answers to these questions. Drawing on research in anthropology, psychology, and a host of other disciplines, the book argues that cross-cultural variation raises serious problems for theories that propose universally applicable conditions for moral responsibility. It then develops a new way of thinking about responsibility that takes cultural diversity into account. The book is a novel and accessible contribution to the ancient debate over free will and moral responsibility. It provides a thorough examination of the methodology employed by contemporary philosophers in the debate and a challenge to Western assumptions about individual autonomy and its connection to moral desert.
How to De-Bias Valuation Over the Cycle
Authors: Smit Han , Moraitis Thras
Published: November 2017

It is puzzling to note that while companies seem to rush into acquisitions during global economic booms—even when they are aware of the dangers of overpaying—they appear to lose all interest in dealing when the global economy is sluggish and the market invariably offers bargains. Deal framing in executives' analyses—the way they perceive and model their acquisition or divestment opportunities—can cause them to overestimate acquisition opportunities in hot deal markets, while their dismay in cold markets often induces them to frame deals as representing too high risk, so they hold back from making viable new acquisitions or delay divesting loss-making divisions. Decision biases can play surprisingly strong roles in the valuation analyses of even experienced executives. This chapter focuses on this particular problem: how rational analyses can become infected and lead executives to manipulate their analyses to get the answers they expect or require. It proposes a remedy that goes beyond currently applied valuation models.
Conclusion and Implications
Authors: Smit Han , Moraitis Thras
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the strategic framework that integrates options and competitive games to de-bias decision making, and recaps the main conclusions and strategy implications. It provides empirical evidence that acquisitions are driven by growth options and behavioral economics, discusses examples of option game applications beyond acquisitions, and lists promising directions for future research. Most important, it provides a decision framework for directly integrating finance and acquisition strategy in uncertain environments. The authors hope that this book helps readers apply an options perspective to significant nonfinancial decisions, including such vital life decisions such as the design of one's education strategy or career plan, or more common problems such how to plan holiday journeys. They believe valuable lessons can be learned as the reader applies the insights in this book to a broader set of uncertainty problems, although they are impossible to quantify.
Introduction
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses the consequences of forced migrations for those regions where the established inhabitants were expelled and replaced by new settlers from elsewhere. It particularly studies the city of Wroclaw, the largest city in the German territories ceded to Poland after the war and the largest city ever to experience a total population exchange of this kind. As a large city, Wroclaw is well suited for an investigation of the complex consequences of such a population exchange. Compared to other large Polish cities with a similar history, such as Szczecin and Gdansk, Wroclaw offered decisive advantages. In 1945, Szczecin became a border city, having lost a significant portion of its hinterland as well as its economically crucial connection to Berlin. In Wroclaw, by contrast, established regional relations were preserved because almost all of Silesia became Polish in 1945.
The Pillars of an Imagined Tradition
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how historians like Karol Maleczynski probably has a greater impact on Wroclaw's postwar history than all of the city's mayors prior to 1989 taken together. It was their writings, both popular and scholarly, that shaped the perception of Wroclaw as the “age-old Polish” city. Not least due to Maleczynski's efforts, it was only a few years before studies of local Wroclaw history appeared in a scope that eclipsed everything that had been produced in the previous centuries. But the residents of Wroclaw were not interested in learning everything about their city's past. They wanted to know what was Polish about it, what justified their presence in Wroclaw, and what might kindle the hope within them that one day they would feel at home in this place.
Letters from Poland, September 1939 to January 1940
Authors: Arnold Klaus J. , Duffy Eve M.
Published: November 2017

September 9, 1939

Dearest Lotte,

After an eighteen-hour trip we arrived this morning in a very rural and peaceful area right near the German border by Gross-Wartenberg.1 The trip was tolerable. We now have a seven-kilometer march ahead of us. Where we’ll go from there, no one knows. In any case, we are in the East. We traversed the route I’ve become familiar with, one that I traveled just two months ago as I went on to Oels....
Implications for State Formation and Development
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter recaps on what the book has investigated: the development of a representative form of government and the establishment of a system of public credit in Europe. It has also explored the constraining effects of representative assemblies and the idea that geographic scale hindered the ability to sustain an intensive form of political representation. The chapter examines the implications of the book's findings for three broad debates concerning the role of war in the process of state formation, the possibility of using institutional change to solve commitment problems, and the sources of early modern growth. In particular, it considers the political determinants of economic development within European city-states. The chapter suggests that the same political conditions that were key to the early success of the so-called “states of credit” may have also ultimately set them on a path toward economic decline.
Intersections
Authors: Gikandi Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter moves beyond the critical debates raised in Chapter 1 to provide a more concrete narrative of the coexistence of taste and slavery as aesthetic objects and products of everyday life in the modern world. It explores the link between slavery, consumption, and the culture of taste, all-important conduits for understanding modern identity. With a particular emphasis on changing theories of taste in eighteenth-century Britain, it provides an analysis or reading of the troubled relation between race, ideologies of taste, and the culture of consumption. It examines how slavery enabled the moment of taste; led to fundamental transformations in the self-understanding of modern subjects; and, consequently, resulted in a redefinition of notions of freedom, selfhood, and representation.
Introduction
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides a history of the U.S.–Mexico border. Long before the border existed as a physical or legal reality it began to take form in the minds of Mexicans and Americans who looked to maps of North America to think about what their republics were and what they might someday become. Their competing territorial visions brought the United States and Mexico to war in 1846. Less than two years later, the border emerged from the crucible of that war. With U.S. soldiers occupying the Mexican capital, a group of Mexican and American diplomats redrew the map of North America. In the east, they chose the Rio Grande, settling a decade-old debate about Texas's southern border and dividing the communities that had long lived along the river. In the west, they did something different; they drew a line across a map and conjured up an entirely new space where there had not been one before.
Insiders/Outsiders
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the emergence of an immigration-control apparatus on the boundary line and how political and economic conditions influenced how and against whom the nation-states used it. As U.S. immigration laws increasingly defined Mexicans as outsiders who could not freely cross the boundary line, the divisive power of the border became more apparent. This sense of division between the United States and Mexico and the United States' ongoing attempts to assert its authority over when and how Mexican immigrants cross the border, which reached one peak in the deportations of the Great Depression, continue to define the border today.
The Rising Tide of Equality and Democratic Reform
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the beginnings of the equal rights movement in the 1970s. During this decade, gender—the social and cultural roles associated with a particular sex—became a crucial and widely used term, as millions of women and men began to reconsider all sorts of previously unexamined assumptions about femaleness and maleness. The implications of this kind of rethinking were enormous. The segregation by sex that had pervaded American society no longer looked so natural. Moreover, the weakening of traditional gender hierarchies marked the largest shift of the decade toward formal equality, since it encompassed slightly more than half of American citizens. But other old hierarchies also began to crumble in the 1970s as the reforming spirit of egalitarianism, spilling out from the black freedom struggle of the previous decade, seeped into almost all corners of American life.
The Spread of Market Values
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This chapter tracks the economy of the 1970s as it began to decline after the prosperity of previous decades. Economic growth had defined human history for two hundred years, reaching a peak in the generation after 1945 when world economic growth averaged an extraordinary 5–7 percent per year. Americans rode that growth to a higher standard of living than anyone else. But in the 1970s it all seemed to be flowing away. Unemployment, oil shortages, a plunging stock market, recession, and, above all, inflation were apparently ending these golden years of unparalleled prosperity. Inflation hit everyone, and it hit the poor hardest of all. Persistent inflation undercut dreams and hopes for the future. The economic trauma of the 1970s threatened to destabilize Americans' understanding of how the world worked.
Resistance to the New Hyper-Individualism
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the resistance to the new hyper-individualism of the decade. It shows that not everyone found comfort in the increasingly though not fully entwined enthusiasms for greater human equality and the marketplace that took shape in the 1970s. An unfettered individualism, with all progressively more welcome to participate as autonomous buyers and sellers, was emerging as the central feature of contemporary American culture and gaining traction around the globe, but it deeply troubled certain observers. Some of the objections came from predictable if diverse corners. Socialist revolutionaries from Vietnam to Angola to Nicaragua, for example, saluted equality, at least in principle, but rejected the market and restricted private property. They fought for a collectivist future that they believed would offer greater justice and less exploitation, but it was a fight they clearly would be losing within a decade.
Nonlinear Finite-Amplitude Dynamics
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter modifies the numerical code by adding the nonlinear terms to produce finite-amplitude simulations. The nonlinear terms are calculated using a Galerkin method in spectral space. After explaining the modifications to the linear model, the chapter shows how to add the nonlinear terms to the code. It also discusses the Galerkin method, the strategy of computing the contribution to the nonlinear terms for each mode due to the binary interactions of many other modes. The Galerkin method works fine as far as calculating the nonlinear terms is concerned because of the simple geometry and convenient boundary conditions. The chapter concludes by showing how to construct a nonlinear code and performing nonlinear simulations.
Double-Diffusive Convection
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses double-diffusive convection, with a particular focus on the initial instability and eventual nonlinear evolution. It first considers the “salt-fingering” instability and then the “semiconvection” instability before discussing the possibility that the onsets of these instabilities at marginal stability have an amplitude that oscillates in time. The goal is to find the conditions that would result in a zero growth rate of the oscillation amplitude in order to determine the marginal stability constraint on the Rayleigh numbers for the onset of an oscillating instability. The chapter also shows how, after evolving beyond the onset of the instability, thermal diffusion between the moving parcel and the surroundings can alter the initial linear vertical profile of the horizontal-mean temperature into a “staircase” profile. This evolution of the temperature profile is investigated via nonlinear simulations.
Density Stratification
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the effects of large variations in density with depth, that is, density stratification. It first describes anelastic models for 2D cartesian box and 2D cylindrical annulus geometries, using entropy and pressure as working thermodynamic variables or using temperature and pressure, for both convectively unstable and stable regions. In particular, it considers anelastic approximation and how to formulate the anelastic equations, as well as the anelastic form of mass conservation, momentum conservation with entropy as a variable, internal energy conservation with entropy as a variable, and temperature as a variable. It also discusses possible choices for a reference state, focusing on polytropes, before explaining modifications to the numerical method and presenting the numerical simulations using the anelastic model.
Games of Nature, the Emergence of Organic Form, and the Problem of Spontaneity
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at three distinct cases of natural generativity: (i) the influence of the maternal imagination in fetal development, (ii) spontaneous generation, and (iii) the origins of paleontological forms. It considers Leibniz's position in the history of attempts to account for the emergence of organic order in three broad classes of entity: embryos, worms, and fossils. Insofar as these classes are not generally seen today as giving rise to the same kind of questions, this chapter, more so than in the others, strays for long periods from Leibniz and into the broader context of these natural-philosophical questions in order to properly understand the full rationale of Leibniz's strategies in answering them.
Locality
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the limits of obligation in another context, that of subjects travelling from one commonwealth to another. Like the body of the subject, the physical movement of the traveler implicates another interface between the civic and the natural, this time the relationship between political space and the space of local motion—the space in which all physical beings, not just humans, move. Implicitly, it poses a fundamental political question about the city as a juridical entity: whether such a body is spatially limited, and if so, how it can be that a non-physical body has a spatial location. In this sense, the border between the political and the natural and the border of the commonwealth are mutually under construction.
Mathematical Analysis of Deterministic and Stochastic Problems in Complex Media Electromagnetics
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

Electromagnetic complex media are artificial materials that affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves in surprising ways not usually seen in nature. Because of their wide range of important applications, these materials have been intensely studied over the past twenty-five years, mainly from the perspectives of physics and engineering. But a body of rigorous mathematical theory has also gradually developed, and this is the first book to present that theory. Designed for researchers and advanced graduate students in applied mathematics, electrical engineering, and physics, this book introduces the electromagnetics of complex media through a systematic, state-of-the-art account of their mathematical theory. The book combines the study of well posedness, homogenisation, and controllability of Maxwell equations complemented with constitutive relations describing complex media. The book treats deterministic and stochastic problems both in the frequency and time domains. It also covers computational aspects and scattering problems, among other important topics. Detailed appendices make the book self-contained in terms of mathematical prerequisites, and accessible to engineers and physicists as well as mathematicians.
As If God Existed
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

Religion and liberty are often thought to be mutual enemies: if religion has a natural ally, it is authoritarianism—not republicanism or democracy. This book challenges this conventional wisdom. It argues that political emancipation and the defense of political liberty have always required the self-sacrifice of people with religious sentiments and a religious devotion to liberty. This is particularly the case when liberty is threatened by authoritarianism: the staunchest defenders of liberty are those who feel a deeply religious commitment to it. The book makes its case by reconstructing, for the first time, the history of the Italian “religion of liberty,” covering its entire span but focusing on three key examples of political emancipation: the free republics of the late Middle Ages, the Risorgimento of the nineteenth century, and the antifascist Resistenza of the twentieth century. In each example, the book shows, a religious spirit that regarded moral and political liberty as the highest goods of human life was fundamental to establishing and preserving liberty. It also shows that when this religious sentiment has been corrupted or suffocated, Italians have lost their liberty. This book makes a powerful and provocative contribution to today's debates about the compatibility of religion and republicanism.
Republics Protected by God
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the religious dimension of communes that emerged in northern and central Italy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The assemblies of citizens that gave birth to the communes gathered in churches. Even when public authorities built their own palaces, public council meetings were always preceded by religious ritual. Furthermore, the communes contributed to consecrating the city through paintings and sculptures of the saints, especially those patron saints who had defended the community from external or internal enemies, and hence had an explicitly civic meaning. The cities were religious, and so were the communes. The communes' religious identity and republicanism went hand in hand, and together engendered a republican religion.
The Twilight of Republican Religion
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the decline of republican religion. In the late sixteenth century, while the Florentine experiment with republican government was on the wane, the conviction that Christian religion and republican principles were tightly interconnected was also in decline. In contrast, the idea that to serve the republic one must depart from God, or that to save one's soul one must put aside republican ideals, became more and more widely spread. Evidence of this decline can be found in Guicciardini's reflections in Le cose fiorentine (1528). He reports that the belief that God loves the freedom of peoples is commonly held in Florence, but he cautiously abstains from adopting that opinion as his own. While he censures neither confiding in God nor expressing gratitude to him, he exhorts people to be wise and hope for God's help as a reward for wisdom, rather than as a remedy for recklessness and madness.
A Religion That Instills Hope
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Croce's Storia d'Europa. The Storia d'Europa appeared in a cultural context in which concern over the establishment of totalitarian religions stimulated free consciences to search for salvation in a renewed and rediscovered religious conception of life. It is no surprise that in terms of international public opinion, Storia d'Europa was enthusiastically received. However, the doctrine of the religion of liberty encountered tough opposition from the church in Italy. The journal Civilità Cattolica devoted four articles to the Storia d'Europa to demonstrate that it was an antiphilosophical and antireligious work that attacked “the Catholicism of the church of Rome.” Giovanni Papini (1881–1956), a fervent Catholic and a devout son of the Holy Mother Church, accuses Croce of posing as the prophet of a new religion that sought to destroy Catholicism.
Prelude: Before Augustine
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a prelude into the terms of the Problem of Paganism, as it would be discussed in the West until the end of the seventeenth century. It begins by looking at the earliest Christian reaction to ancient paganism, in the New Testament texts which became points of reference in later discussions. Elements of the Problem of Paganism are found from very early in the Christian tradition: not in the Gospels, set in their firmly Jewish environment, but in the Acts of the Apostles and in Paul's letter to the Romans. The chapter then offers a glimpse of how the problem was addressed by Christians in the ancient world, before Augustine transformed it for the Latin tradition.
Augustine
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter investigates Augustine's role in addressing the Problem of Paganism. After the Sack of Rome in 410 CE, Augustine set out to produce his most ambitious work, a Christian rethinking, not just of the history of Rome, but of the relationship between God and the course of human history. Written in the safety of North Africa, the City of God (CG), begun probably in 412 but not finished until about fourteen years later, is both an intellectual masterpiece and a foundational book for the Problem of Paganism. Although the problem has somewhat different contours for him from those it would take on in the Middle Ages, in the City of God and other works Augustine looks closely at three of the main strands of the problem — wisdom, salvation, and virtue — and takes positions which set the agenda for almost all subsequent discussion.
Aristotelian Wisdom: Unity, Rejection or Relativism
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the rapid assimilation of Aristotle's non-logical writings in the Paris and Oxford universities. Here, the Problem of Paganism assimilated into the very structure of higher education by making one of the constituent faculties of the universities an institution dedicated to knowledge not gained through revelation. Without its having been planned that way, universities each had among their faculties one dedicated, and officially restricted to, pagan knowledge: what could be learned without the help of Christianity, as exemplified pre-eminently in the writings of an Athenian from the fourth century BC. This chapter thus sets out to examine the central discussion among the Arts Masters and the theologians, who supported, differed from, or opposed such arrangements to different degrees.
General Conclusion
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter provides some final insights into the history surrounding the Problem of Paganism. First, the chapter considers how the progress of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in Europe would likewise lead to a natural progression of attitudes from medieval severity to Early Modern toleration. The reality, as the chapter shows, defies such expectations, and this unchangingness is remarkable, because according to almost every historical account, the three centuries involved were a time of epochal change, of the transition to what is called ‘modernity’, and the most emblematic event of the new era, Columbus's voyages, had a direct bearing on the Problem of Paganism. After expounding on this point, the chapter suggests a new way of approaching philosophy from the Long Middle Ages — ‘Historical Synthesis’.
Introduction
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This book examines the alliance dynamics of Cold War East Asia during the period 1949–1969, arguing that disunity, lack of coordination, and intra-alliance rivalry increased both the chance that regional conflicts would occur and the likelihood that existing conflicts would persist and escalate. It shows that, in their formative years, both the U.S.-led alliance system and the Asian communist alliance sent dangerously confusing signals regarding the cohesion, resolve, and intent of their respective blocs. These signals undercut coercive diplomacy in Asia and created conditions for both crisis and war. The book considers two forms of dangerous dynamics among enemy alliances: poor coordination and, in the case of revisionist alliances, the catalyzing effect of ideology and the pursuit of prestige on aggression toward enemies. It also explores the legacies of U.S. Cold War alliances for contemporary Sino-American relations and concludes with a chapter on post-Cold War East Asia.