bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Silicon nanophotonics
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan
Published: May 2012

Silicon nanophotonics deals with unique luminescence properties of silicon nanocrystals sized approximately from one to several nanometers. These nanocrystals have the potential to become active medium in future light-emitting devices or even in a silicon laser. First, spontaneous photoluminescence in porous silicon and silicon nanocrystals is described and some preparative methods of these nanostructures are briefly mentioned. Then recent experimental data about search for optical gain in Si nanocrystals are critically considered. Peculiar luminescence behaviour of active planar waveguides made of Si nanocrystals is demonstrated. Selected ways of how to achieve electroluminescence in Si nanocrystals embedded in an insulating matrix are shown. Attractive combination of Si nanocrystals with Er3+ ions for lasing in the near infrared region is pointed out. Finally, possible biological applications of luminescent Si nanocrystals are briefly outlined.
Spectroscopy of single semiconductor nanocrystals
Authors: Pelant Ivan , Valenta Jan
Published: May 2012

Spectroscopy of single semiconductor nanocrystals deals in detail how to remove the inevitable inhomogeneous spectral broadening when, as it is common, an ensemble of nano-object is investigated. At first, dedicated experimental set-ups applied to acquire luminescence spectra from individual nanocrystals like wide-field micro-spectroscopy and scanning techniques (laser confocal microscope, scanning near-field optical microscope, scanning tunnelling optical microscope) are discussed. Then suitable sample preparation methods are outlined. Next, a number of representative examples of exceptional phenomena observed in individual luminescence spectra are analyzed: hidden fine structure, spectral diffusion, Stark effect, and luminescence polarization from nanocrystals and nanowires. Luminescence intermittency–blinking is discussed at length including statistical processing of the data. Finally, methods to measure photon statistics from individual nanocrystals are explained and nanocrystals are seen as sources of non-classical photon flux.
8 Aemilius Paullus Sees Greece: Travel, Vision, and Power in Polybius
Authors: Russell Amy
Published: May 2012

This chapter analyses Polybius' fragmentary account of Aemilius Paullus' trip around Greece in 168 bce. The episode, located at the join between the two halves of Polybius' work, provides a rare early insight into the relationship between Roman power and Greek culture from the Greek perspective. Polybius emphasises Paullus' desire to see the Greek world, and vision is consistently emphasised. Two models of vision in the context of travel can be discerned in the text, one in which vision is an imperialist, possessive act and a second in which it is a reverent learning process reminiscent of the Greek theoria. The tension between the two models allows for the mutual construction of Greek and Roman identity, and positions Paullus the traveller as the historian's alter ego.
15 From Polybius to the Parthenon: Religion, Art, and Plunder
Authors: Williams Jonathan
Published: May 2012

One particular passage of Polybius (9.10) has come to play a recurring role in contemporary legal literature and public debate on the law and practice of cultural property protection in time of war. This chapter asks whether Polybius has been appropriately cited as an early voice arguing for the protection of ‘art’ and ‘cultural property’ in time of war. More broadly, it looks at some of the similarities and divergences between analogous debates on the issues of spoliation and repatriation in antiquity and the present and, in common with other recent commentators, concludes that religion, not culture, was the dominant theme in antiquity.
Institutional Processes: What Impact on Developing Members?
Authors: Rolland Sonia E.
Published: May 2012

The much-touted transition from the power-based system of the GATT to the law-based framework of the WTO has largely focused on dispute settlement; yet there are a number of other critical processes in play at the WTO that both foster and impede regulatory outcomes for developing countries. This chapter asks how the organizational and decision-making processes at the WTO affect developing countries' representation and participation. The premise for this enquiry is that effective participation is sine qua non to members' ability to influence outcomes. Indirectly, the way in which an organization affords its members the opportunity to influence outcomes is also a test of the organization's legitimacy. This chapter analyzes the impact of decision-making procedures on the representation of developing members, the ability of the negotiation process to foster developing countries' substantive trade interests, and the impact of emerging quasi-administrative bodies at the WTO on developing members' participation.
The other side of European identity: elite perceptions of threats to a cohesive Europe
Authors: Matonytė Irmina , Morkevičius Vaidas
Published: May 2012

This chapter investigates elites’ perceptions of potential external and internal threats to a cohesive Europe (enlargement of the EU to include Turkey, close relationships between some EU countries and the United States, interference of Russia in European affairs, increase in nationalism, immigration from non-EU states, negative effects of globalization on welfare, and economic and social differences among the EU member states). Results show nationalism and socio-economic differences to be perceived as the highest threats. Significant differences are found between perceptions of elites from EU founding member states and the new post-socialist EU member states; the perception of threats is not systematically stronger among political elites than among economic elites, although elites’ left–right political identification is a powerful predictor. Threat perception is also related to elites’ visions of Europe and articulated along three lines: cultural heritage, socio-economic order, and governance. Elites’ trust in the EU institutions decreases their perception of threats.
Patterns of regional diversity in political elites’ attitudes
Authors: Lazić Mladen , Jerez-Mir Miguel , Vuletić Vladimir , Vázquez-García Rafael
Published: May 2012

This chapter examines whether differences in attitudes toward the process of EU integration among members of political elites in various European countries are patterned and to what extent common regional, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of certain country groups influence these attitudes. Results show elites from Southern Europe to be the main proponents of further EU integration, while Eastern European elites are the most cautious. Variables with the strongest influence are economic development (measured by GDP per capita), the prevalent religious denomination (respondents from predominantly Protestant countries are less ready to support stronger EU integration than those from mostly Catholic countries), ethnic homogeneity (increasing level of homogeneity reduces elites’ orientation towards stronger EU integration), and the existence of separatist experience (elites from countries with recent independence by secession are less oriented toward EU integration than those from countries without secession problems).
Elites of Europe and the Europe of elites: a conclusion
Authors: Best Heinrich
Published: May 2012

This chapter presents a synopsis of the main results of the ‘Europe of Elites’. These strongly support the elitist character of European integration while challenging the idea of a coherent ‘Eurelite’: cognitive, emotive, and conative dimensions of elites’ Europeanness vary between countries and few elite members are prepared to award the EU the concept of statehood. Where the integrity of the state was endangered, where Protestantism prevails, and where the state has an important role in acquiring and redistributing EU subventions, political elites are reluctant to endorse further EU integration. While a strong responsiveness between elite sectors attunes national elites concerning European matters, large elites–masses gaps are found, particularly in the ‘conative’ dimension of Europeanness regarding future steps towards European integration. The concluding observation is that the ‘Europe of Elites’ is a multifarious and polycephalic entity, shaped by differentials within and between elite sectors, elites and non-elites, and––foremost––between national settings.
3 The Challenge of Revolutionary America
Authors: Marshall Peter J.
Published: May 2012

In terms of power, the new America posed no threat to the British empire. Its republican principles were, however, seen as a challenge to the British political order. American republicanism was generally interpreted in Britain in terms of the early assertions of popular power within the states. These were dismissed as totally incompatible with the ordered liberty guaranteed by the balanced powers of the British constitution, whose strengths seemed to be vindicated in the political turmoil in Britain at the end of the war. A torrent of publications in newspapers and pamphlets, with some government encouragement, denounced American innovations and affirmed the virtues of British governance. After the war American political arrangements continued to be depicted as producing weak government subject to popular whim, at least until the results of the Convention of 1787 produced some reassessment.
9 The Swing to the South
Authors: Marshall Peter J.
Published: May 2012

In the closing stages of the American war Britain gave priority to the defence of the West Indies, regarded as a British asset of the utmost national importance, over efforts to subdue the mainland colonies. The war had posed acute problems for the islands, but they quickly regained much of their prosperity through their slave‐worked plantation agriculture. Jamaica remained Britain's most valued colony. Although the Florida colonies had been surrendered to Spain at the peace, British governments were still interested in expanding Britain's stake in the Caribbean and around the Gulf of Mexico. The settlement of loyalists from the southern colonies in the Bahamas was supported, trade with the Spanish colonies was encouraged and plans for disrupting the Spanish empire by inciting Indian and creole revolts were revived in 1790 at the prospect of war with Spain.
Gender, Violence, and the Past in Edda and Saga
Authors: Clark David
Published: May 2012

This book is the first study to investigate both the relation between gender and violence in the Old Norse Poetic Edda and key family and contemporary sagas, and the interrelated nature of these genres. Beginning with an analysis of Eddaic attitudes to heroic violence and its gendered nature through the figures of Guðrún and Helgi, the study broadens out to the whole poetic compilation and how the past (and particularly the mythological past) inflects the heroic present. This paves the way for a consideration of the comparable relationship between the heroic poems themselves and later reworkings of them or allusions to them in the family and contemporary sagas. Accordingly, the study moves on to consider the use of Eddaic allusion in Gísla saga’s meditation on violent masculinity and sexuality, assesses the impact of the Church on attitudes to revenge in family and contemporary sagas, and finally explores the scapegoating of women for male violence in the contemporary sagas. Although the Eddaic poems themselves present a complex and conflicting attitude to vengeance, revenge and other forms of violence are in later texts regularly associated with the past, often represented by Eddaic figures. Moreover, saga authors often attempt to construct a national narrative which shows moderation and peace-making as the only viable alternative to what is seen as the traditional destructive model of vengeance. Nevertheless, the picture the sagas present is far from uniform, rather being one of conflicting voices as the attractions of heroic violence for many prove difficult to resist. The book’s thematic concentration on gender/sexuality and violence, and its generic concentration on Poetic Edda and later texts which rework or allude to it, enable a diverse but coherent exploration of both key and neglected Norse texts and the way in which their authors display a dual fascination with and rejection of heroic vengeance
Dyspnoea
Authors: Harle Ingrid , Dudgeon Deborah
Published: May 2012

This chapter presents a case study to illustrate the necessary skills, attitudes, and knowledge needed to manage dyspnoea. It addresses several questions such as: What is dyspnoea? What is the underlying pathophysiology? How common is this condition? What are the risk factors for the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)? What abnormalities might you see on a chest X-ray of a person with COPD? What pulmonary function tests should be ordered to make or confirm a diagnosis of COPD? What are the management goals in COPD?
Mouth care
Authors: Dion Dominique , Lapointe Bernard , Tyler Martin T.
Published: May 2012

This chapter illustrates via a case study the necessary skills, attitudes, and knowledge needed to manage oral problems in cancer patients. It examines several questions such as: How common and important are oral problems in cancer patients? How to advise the patient on maintaining optimal oral hygiene? How to manage the problem of xerostomia? What are the predisposing factors for candidiasis? How to diagnose this condition?
Nausea and vomiting
Authors: de Kock Ingrid
Published: May 2012

This chapter contains a case study to display the desired skills, attitudes, and expertise required to manage nausea and vomiting in cancer patients. It considers several questions such as: What are the more common causes of nausea and vomiting in palliative care patients? How to decide on the appropriate treatment for the patient's nausea? Which anti-emetic to choose for the patient? How to manage the patient's hypercalcaemia of malignancy?
Anxiety and depression
Authors: Solty Heidi , Li Madeline , Rodin Gary
Published: May 2012

This chapter explains with the help of case studies the desired skills, attitudes, and knowledge needed to diagnose and manage anxiety and depression in palliative care. It discusses the prevalence and risk factors for anxiety and depression in palliative care, and the clinical significance of untreated anxiety and depression. It considers several questions such as: What psychiatric diagnoses could be considered for the patient? Is sadness a normal part of the process of dying? How to understand the patient's wish to go to sleep and not wake up? How to approach patients who express a desire for hastened death? How to assess suicidality?
Sleep disorders
Authors: Lapointe Bernard
Published: May 2012

This chapter provides a case study to show the desired skills, attitudes, and knowledge required to diagnose and manage sleep disorders in palliative patients. It addresses a number of questions such as: How common are sleep disorders? Why should we pay close attention to the patient's disrupted sleep? How to diagnosis a patient's sleep disorder? What other medical conditions are associated with sleep disorders?
End-stage renal disease
Authors: Davison Sara
Published: May 2012

This chapter includes case studies which illustrate the necessary skills, attitudes, and knowledge required to manage end-stage renal disease (ESRD). It considers some questions such as: How frequent a problem is ESRD in the general population? What is the expected survival of the patient if she starts dialysis? What are the common causes of pain in patients with ESRD? How does ESRD interfere with the metabolism of analgesics? Would it influence the choice of analgesic? How common is depression in dialysis patients?
Spinoza on Philosophy, Religion, and Politics
Authors: James Susan
Published: May 2012

Susan James offers an interpretation of a work that is itself about interpretation Spinoza's Theologico‐Political Treatise. By setting the Treatise in its seventeenth‐century Dutch context, and identifying the wide range of philosophical, theological, hermeneutic, historical, and political debates to which Spinoza was responding, she elucidates the character of his argument and the ends it was designed to achieve. Although the Treatise engages with many opponents, the most central because most powerful were the conservative theologians of the Dutch Reformed Church and their political allies, who continued to oppose Cartesian philosophy throughout Spinoza's lifetime, and resisted what was known as the freedom to philosophize. Appealing both to philosophical arguments that he develops in more detail in the Ethics, and to a theory of biblical interpretation, Spinoza aims to comprehensively discredit the Church's theological doctrines. At the same time, he sets out to undercut its political commitment to a mixed constitution where power is divided between secular and religious authorities. In the United Provinces, Spinoza claims, the best way to secure freedom is to uphold a republican form of government in which the people are sovereign, and where, within certain limits, individuals are free to worship and philosophize as they wish. At first glance, the sinuous argument of the Treatise appears to lack unity, and many commentators focus on one part of it at the expense of others. Once its context is taken into account, however, it emerges as an integrated defence of philosophical, religious, and political freedom, firmly situated within the framework of Spinoza's philosophical system.
True Religion
Authors: James Susan
Published: May 2012

Spinoza now sets out to explicate the religious doctrine taught by Scripture and to reinforce his claim that it does not threaten the division between theology and philosophy or challenge the freedom to philosophize. Following a line of ecumenically inclined writers (Arminians, Socininans and Mennonites among them), the Treatise advocates a minimal theology. All that the Bible teaches is that we must love our neighbours by treating them justly and charitably. Biblical doctrine is thus compatible with religious pluralism and does not pronounce on philosophical matters. This chapter examines Spinoza's nuanced defence of this position. It explores the affective basis of his account of a truly religious life, identifies the distinctive role that he allots to tenets of faith, and traces the challenges he mounts to the theology of the Dutch Reformed Church.
Theology and Philosophy
Authors: James Susan
Published: May 2012

Spinoza is now in a position to conclude that, contrary to the view held by the Voetians, philosophy and theology are distinct and ‘neither is the handmaid of the other’. Philosophy aims at truth, theology at obedience, and since these are separate goals there need be no conflict between them. His argument builds on positions developed by Dutch Cartesians; but unlike these writers, Spinoza significantly diminishes the domain of theology and enlarges that of philosophy. The Treatise consequently faces the objection that, although it presents theology and philosophy as equal, it implicitly makes philosophy the more powerful of the two. This chapter explains the nature of this asymmtery by relating it to a Ciceronian account of honestas. According to Spinoza, theology provides an imperfect, imaginatively based account of the true honestas or virtue that only philosophers can fully achieve. Thus conceived, philosophy becomes a form of religion.
Life in a Republic: The Lessons of Theology
Authors: James Susan
Published: May 2012

Working out how to devise a balance of power that will uphold liberty and security is the central task of politics; but modern republics can learn how to do this by turning to historical examples, such as the ancient Hebrew Republic founded by Moses and already extolled by Dutch writers such as Grotius and Cunaeus. Through an elaborate analysis of the Hebrew constitution and the history of the Hebrew state, Spinoza draws a number of morals and applies them to the Dutch Republic. He defends the benefits of popular sovereignty. He points to the advantages of a regime in which divine and civil law are one. Following in the footsteps of De La Court, he warns his compatriots of the dangers of monarchy, and he itemizes the dangers of a mixed constitutions where power is divided between States and Stadtholder.
The Role of Taxes in Compensation Schemes and Structured Finance
Authors: Ceriani Vieri , Manestra Stefano , Ricotti Giacomo , Sanelli Alessandra
Published: May 2012

This chapter investigates the effects of the tax system on the economic factors that triggered the financial crisis. We examine two specific cases in which the tax regime interacted with these factors, reinforcing them. First, we focus on certain aspects of the tax treatment of performance-based remuneration of managers, which, coupled with other provisions, may have fostered an ever-increasing use of these instruments, resulting in overemphasis of short-term profitability and incentive to excessive risk taking. Second, the securitization process, which played a key role in the outbreak of the financial crisis, was accompanied by opportunities for tax arbitrage and reduction of the overall tax wedge paid by investors, through offset of incomes that are ordinarily taxed at different rates; a de facto exemption of CDS premiums received by non-residents supplemented the tax arbitrage.
The Effects of Fiscal Consolidation on Short-Term Growth: A Review and Implications for the UK
Authors: Bilicka Katarzyna Anna , Devereux Michael P. , Fuest Clemens
Published: May 2012

This chapter analyses the economic situation in the UK as it attempts to recover from the financial and economic crisis that began in 2008. In particular, we focus on the probability that the fiscal consolidation, introduced by the new coalition government in 2010, is likely to be expansionary or contractionary. To analyse this we first briefly survey the large economic literature on the impact of government borrowing on economic growth. We identify the key factors that empirical evidence suggests affect the probability that a fiscal consolidation will be expansionary. We then examine these factors in the context of the UK to identify whether they are favourable or not towards the consolidation being expansionary.
System Justification Theory and Research: Implications for Law, Legal Advocacy, and Social Justice
Authors: Blasi Gary , Jost John T.
Published: May 2012

This chapter reviews theory and research on System Justification Theory (SJT) and summarizes key implications for law, lawyers, and social justice advocacy. According to SJT, lawyers should attend to all relevant social orders and implicit as well as explicit biases in selecting jurors and developing advocacy strategies. The theory identifies important obstacles to social change, including changes in the law and legal scholarship. This chapter highlights some of the ways in which system justification motives result in behaviors that are unanticipated by current models of legal thinking. It discusses the persuasive power of “reframing,” whereby advocates can deploy narrative to exacerbate or diminish the system-justifying motives of legal and public policy decision-makers.
Whatever Works
Authors: Eichhorst Werner , Marx Paul
Published: May 2012

The chapter compares employment structures in five Continental European welfare states, with a focus on private services. Despite a common trend to overcome institutional employment barriers by creating a more divided labor market, a closer look reveals considerable differences between national patterns of standard and non-standard work. We identify five transformative pathways towards a more flexible and cheaper use of labor in Continental European welfare states: 1. defection from permanent contracts, 2. from full-time employment, 3. from dependent employment, 4. growing wage dispersion, and 5. government-sponsored labor cost reductions. The chapter shows that by relying on one or several of these options, each country developed a distinct solution for the labor cost problem in the service sector, which corresponds to a particular form of dualization.
Responses to Labor Market Divides in Small States Since The 1990s
Authors: Obinger Herbert , Starke Peter , Kaasch Alexandra
Published: May 2012

In this chapter, Herbert Obinger, Peter Starke, and Alexandra Kaasch analyze various policy responses to labor market divides in three small open economies (Austria, New Zealand, and Sweden). They argue that different welfare state regimes generate distinctive patterns of insider-outsider divides and that the three countries developed quite different, albeit mainly path-dependent coping strategies. In other words, none of the three countries significantly departed from previous labor market policies in response to growing labor market inequalities.
Economic Dualization in Japan and South Korea
Authors: Peng Ito
Published: May 2012

Labor market dualization is not unique to Europe, but rather a pervasive global phenomenon. Like some countries in Europe, Japan and South Korea have been gradually liberalizing their labor markets since the 1990s in response to increased global competition, economic crisis, and social and industrial structural changes. In both countries, significant changes have been made to employment and social welfare systems as state, employers, and labor negotiate to protect core workers while maintaining national economic competitiveness. These reforms have resulted in partial labor market flexibilization, increased economic dualization, and compensatory welfare state expansion. This chapter examines the political economy of labor market transformation in the two East Asian countries of Japan and South Korea and their implications for understanding the universal phenomenon of economic dualization in the 21st century.
Solidarity or Dualization?
Authors: Clegg Daniel
Published: May 2012

Despite being considered to have rather similar political economies, patterns of unemployment benefit adjustment were different in Belgium and France in the 1980s and 1990s. In France the unemployment insurance system retained generous earnings-related benefits but became increasingly exclusive, with many unemployed people thus being forced to rely on institutionally distinct second-tier benefit schemes. In Belgium, by contrast, unemployment protection remained integrated and inclusive, but gradually mutated into a flat-rate benefit system providing only basic protection. This chapter explores the political dynamics behind the contrasting institutional and distributive choices in the unemployment benefit reforms of these two otherwise similar countries, in the process shedding light on the politics of welfare state dualization more generally. It suggests that the inherited institutional features of welfare systems structure the preferences of key social and political actors in ways that are likely to generate diverse social policy responses to common economic and social challenges.
Why Religion? Why Now?
Authors: Hehir J. Bryan
Published: May 2012

This chapter discusses the paradox embodied by the main theme of this volume: religion and world politics. The text in this book, explicitly or implicitly, refers to the emergence or resurgence of religion in international affairs. Yet, the paradox is that the scholars in this volume and in other sources who speak of a return or a resurgence of religion have a valid point. In reality religion has never been absent from international affairs. But the study of world politics—particularly the formal discipline of international relations—and the practice of world politics—particularly formal interstate diplomacy—have both treated religion as inconsequential, a reality which could be ignored by scholars or diplomats without any diminishment of their understanding of the world. Sorting out the paradox of this volume requires a determination of why religion has been marginalized in the past, what factors have brought about its “resurgence” in fact and in theory, and how the relationship of religion and international affairs should be pursued in theory and practice.
Religion, Democracy, and the “Twin Tolerations”
Authors: Stepan Alfred
Published: May 2012

Are all, or only some, of the world's religious systems politically compatible with democracy? This is, of course, one of the most important and heatedly debated questions of our times. This chapter contributes to this debate from the perspective of comparative politics. More specifically, it discusses three questions, the answers to which should improve our understanding of this critical issue. First, what are the minimal institutional and political requirements that a polity must satisfy before it can be considered a democracy? Second, how have a set of longstanding democracies—the fifteen countries in the European Union (EU)—actually met these requirements, and what influential misinterpretations of the Western European experience with religion and democracy must we avoid? Third, what are the implications of the answers to our first two questions for polities heavily influenced by such cultural and religious traditions as Confucianism, Islam, and Eastern Orthodox Christianity—traditions that some analysts, starting from a civilizational as opposed to an institutional perspective, see as presenting major obstacles to democracy?
What Religion Offers for the Politics of Transitional Justice
Authors: Philpott Daniel
Published: May 2012

Over the past generation, a global wave of countries have undertaken what has come to be known as transitional justice—efforts to address the injustices of a past period of civil war, genocide, or dictatorship, whether through trials, truth commissions, reparations, apologies, forgiveness, or the building of memorials and monuments. The religious have played a pivotal role in developing and spreading a paradigm for transitional justice—reconciliation—that they espouse disproportionately though not exclusively. But what kind of influence have the religious and the paradigm of reconciliation actually had in the politics of transitional justice? And what factors make certain religious actors influential? This chapter looks closely at religious actors' efforts to shape official policies, especially governments' choices for truth commissions or trials.
Navigating in the Fog
Authors: Barton Frederick D. , Hayden Shannon , von Hippel Karin
Published: May 2012

Religion features prominently in many of the major foreign policy challenges facing the new Obama administration, notably in Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Somalia, and of course, the Middle East as a whole. Yet beyond the experts, most government officials and implementing partners still do not have the requisite tools nor necessary understanding of the issues to factor religion into policy and practice in an appropriate manner. This chapter discusses U.S. engagement with religion in two parts. The first outlines the difficulties and challenges in conflict zones, and discusses the legal issues that arise. The second proposes concrete recommendations, which are intended to help clarify guidance and harmonize practice. Because conflict zones are complex and fluid environments, and religion can be interpreted very differently in each situation, it is not possible to develop a generic framework that can be applied in all contexts. Aid workers, soldiers, diplomats, and other practitioners need new tools, but they must also be prepared to work with ambiguity and to rely on their own judgment.
The cysteine-rich proteins of beet necrotic yellow vein virus and tobacco rattle virus contribute to efficient suppression of silencing in roots
Authors: Andika Ida Bagus , Kondo Hideki , Nishiguchi Masamichi , Tamada Tetsuo
Published: May 2012

Many plant viruses encode proteins that suppress RNA silencing, but little is known about the activity of silencing suppressors in roots. This study examined differences in the silencing suppression activity of different viruses in leaves and roots of Nicotiana benthamiana plants. Infection by tobacco mosaic virus, potato virus Y and cucumber mosaic virus but not potato virus X (PVX) resulted in strong silencing suppression activity of a transgene in both leaves and roots, whereas infection by beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) and tobacco rattle virus (TRV) showed transgene silencing suppression in roots but not in leaves. For most viruses tested, viral negative-strand RNA accumulated at a very low level in roots, compared with considerable levels of positive-strand genomic RNA. Co-inoculation of leaves with PVX and either BNYVV or TRV produced an increase in PVX negative-strand RNA and subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) accumulation in roots. The cysteine-rich proteins (CRPs) BNYVV p14 and TRV 16K showed weak silencing suppression activity in leaves. However, when either of these CRPs was expressed from a PVX vector, there was an enhancement of PVX negative-strand RNA and sgRNA accumulation in roots compared with PVX alone. Such enhancement of PVX sgRNAs was also observed by expression of CRPs of other viruses and the well-known suppressors HC-Pro and p19 but not of the potato mop-top virus p8 CRP. These results indicate that BNYVV- and TRV-encoded CRPs suppress RNA silencing more efficiently in roots than in leaves.
A single mutation in capsid protein VP1 (Q145E) of a genogroup C4 strain of human enterovirus 71 generates a mouse-virulent phenotype
Authors: Zaini Zainun , McMinn Peter
Published: May 2012

We modified the capsid protein of a human enterovirus 71 (HEV71) belonging to subgenogroup C4 (HEV71-C4) to generate a mouse virulent strain, based on the genetic information derived from our previous subgenogroup B3 mouse-adapted virus. Infectious clone-derived mutant virus populations containing the capsid protein mutations VP1-Q145E and VP1-Q145G were generated by site-directed mutagenesis of an infectious clone of a subgenogroup C4 strain. Viruses expressing the VP1-Q145E were virulent in 5-day-old BALB/c mice with 100 % mortality rate observed. Skeletal muscle appears to be the primary site of replication of this virus with limb muscle showing severe myositis. Virus was also isolated from spleen, liver, heart and brain of infected mice. This study demonstrates that introducing a key mutation into the HEV71 VP1 capsid protein is able to generate a mouse virulent HEV71 strain from a different genogroup as well as providing an alternative strategy for the generation of mouse virulent HEV71.
A Constitutive Expressed Phosphate Transporter, OsPht1;1, Modulates Phosphate Uptake and Translocation in Phosphate-Replete Rice
Authors: Sun Shubin , Gu Mian , Cao Yue , Huang Xinpeng , Zhang Xiao , Ai Penghui , Zhao Jianning , Fan Xiaorong , Xu Guohua
Published: May 2012

A number of phosphate (Pi) starvation- or mycorrhiza-regulated Pi transporters belonging to the Pht1 family have been functionally characterized in several plant species, whereas functions of the Pi transporters that are not regulated by changes in Pi supply are lacking. In this study, we show that rice (Oryza sativa) Pht1;1 (OsPT1), one of the 13 Pht1 Pi transporters in rice, was expressed abundantly and constitutively in various cell types of both roots and shoots. OsPT1 was able to complement the proton-coupled Pi transporter activities in a yeast mutant defective in Pi uptake. Transgenic plants of OsPT1 overexpression lines and RNA interference knockdown lines contained significantly higher and lower phosphorus concentrations, respectively, compared with the wild-type control in Pi-sufficient shoots. These responses of the transgenic plants to Pi supply were further confirmed by the changes in depolarization of root cell membrane potential, root hair occurrence, 33P uptake rate and transportation, as well as phosphorus accumulation in young leaves at Pi-sufficient levels. Furthermore, OsPT1 expression was strongly enhanced by the mutation of Phosphate Overaccumulator2 (OsPHO2) but not by Phosphate Starvation Response2, indicating that OsPT1 is involved in the OsPHO2-regulated Pi pathway. These results indicate that OsPT1 is a key member of the Pht1 family involved in Pi uptake and translocation in rice under Pi-replete conditions.
Environmental Stresses of Field Growth Allow Cinnamyl Alcohol Dehydrogenase-Deficient Nicotiana attenuata Plants to Compensate for their Structural Deficiencies
Authors: Kaur Harleen , Shaker Kamel , Heinzel Nicolas , Ralph John , Gális Ivan , Baldwin Ian T.
Published: May 2012

The organized lignocellulosic assemblies of cell walls provide the structural integrity required for the large statures of terrestrial plants. Silencing two CINNAMYL ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE (CAD) genes in Nicotiana attenuata produced plants (ir-CAD) with thin, red-pigmented stems, low CAD and sinapyl alcohol dehydrogenase activity, low lignin contents, and rubbery, structurally unstable stems when grown in the glasshouse (GH). However, when planted into their native desert habitat, ir-CAD plants produced robust stems that survived wind storms as well as the wild-type plants. Despite efficient silencing of NaCAD transcripts and enzymatic activity, field-grown ir-CAD plants had delayed and restricted spread of red stem pigmentation, a color change reflecting blocked lignification by CAD silencing, and attained wild-type-comparable total lignin contents. The rubbery GH phenotype was largely restored when field-grown ir-CAD plants were protected from wind, herbivore attack, and ultraviolet B exposure and grown in restricted rooting volumes; conversely, it was lost when ir-CAD plants were experimentally exposed to wind, ultraviolet B, and grown in large pots in growth chambers. Transcript and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-time-of-flight analysis revealed that these environmental stresses enhanced the accumulation of various phenylpropanoids in stems of field-grown plants; gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis revealed that the lignin of field-grown ir-CAD plants had GH-grown comparable levels of sinapaldehyde and syringaldehyde cross-linked into their lignins. Additionally, field-grown ir-CAD plants had short, thick stems with normal xylem element traits, which collectively enabled field-grown ir-CAD plants to compensate for the structural deficiencies associated with CAD silencing. Environmental stresses play an essential role in regulating lignin biosynthesis in lignin-deficient plants.
Endoplasmic Reticulum-Quality Control Chaperones Facilitate the Biogenesis of Cf Receptor-Like Proteins Involved in Pathogen Resistance of Tomato
Authors: Liebrand Thomas W.H. , Smit Patrick , Abd-El-Haliem Ahmed , de Jonge Ronnie , Cordewener Jan H.G. , America Antoine H.P. , Sklenar Jan , Jones Alexandra M.E. , Robatzek Silke , Thomma Bart P.H.J. , Tameling Wladimir I.L. , Joosten Matthieu H.A.J.
Published: May 2012

Cf proteins are receptor-like proteins (RLPs) that mediate resistance of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) to the foliar pathogen Cladosporium fulvum. These transmembrane immune receptors, which carry extracellular leucine-rich repeats that are subjected to posttranslational glycosylation, perceive effectors of the pathogen and trigger a defense response that results in plant resistance. To identify proteins required for the functionality of these RLPs, we performed immunopurification of a functional Cf-4-enhanced green fluorescent protein fusion protein transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana, followed by mass spectrometry. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) heat shock protein70 binding proteins (BiPs) and lectin-type calreticulins (CRTs), which are chaperones involved in ER-quality control, were copurifying with Cf-4-enhanced green fluorescent protein. The tomato and N. benthamiana genomes encode four BiP homologs and silencing experiments revealed that these BiPs are important for overall plant viability. For the three tomato CRTs, virus-induced gene silencing targeting the plant-specific CRT3a gene resulted in a significantly compromised Cf-4-mediated defense response and loss of full resistance to C. fulvum. We show that upon knockdown of CRT3a the Cf-4 protein accumulated, but the pool of Cf-4 protein carrying complex-type N-linked glycans was largely reduced. Together, our study on proteins required for Cf function reveals an important role for the CRT ER chaperone CRT3a in the biogenesis and functionality of this type of RLP involved in plant defense.
Examination of the Distribution of Arsenic in Hydrated and Fresh Cowpea Roots Using Two- and Three-Dimensional Techniques
Authors: Kopittke Peter M. , de Jonge Martin D. , Menzies Neal W. , Wang Peng , Donner Erica , McKenna Brigid A. , Paterson David , Howard Daryl L. , Lombi Enzo
Published: May 2012

Arsenic (As) is considered to be the environmental contaminant of greatest concern due to its potential accumulation in the food chain and in humans. Using novel synchrotron-based x-ray fluorescence techniques (including sequential computed tomography), short-term solution culture studies were used to examine the spatial distribution of As in hydrated and fresh roots of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata ‘Red Caloona’) seedlings exposed to 4 or 20 µm arsenate [As(V)] or 4 or 20 µm arsenite. For plants exposed to As(V), the highest concentrations were observed internally at the root apex (meristem), with As also accumulating in the root border cells and at the endodermis. When exposed to arsenite, the endodermis was again a site of accumulation, although no As was observed in border cells. For As(V), subsequent transfer of seedlings to an As-free solution resulted in a decrease in tissue As concentrations, but growth did not improve. These data suggest that, under our experimental conditions, the accumulation of As causes permanent damage to the meristem. In addition, we suggest that root border cells possibly contribute to the plant’s ability to tolerate excess As(V) by accumulating high levels of As and limiting its movement into the root.
Arabidopsis ECERIFERUM9 Involvement in Cuticle Formation and Maintenance of Plant Water Status
Authors: Lü Shiyou , Zhao Huayan , Des Marais David L. , Parsons Eugene P. , Wen Xiaoxue , Xu Xiaojing , Bangarusamy Dhinoth K. , Wang Guangchao , Rowland Owen , Juenger Thomas , Bressan Ray A. , Jenks Matthew A.
Published: May 2012

Mutation of the ECERIFERUM9 (CER9) gene in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) causes elevated amounts of 18-carbon-length cutin monomers and a dramatic shift in the cuticular wax profile (especially on leaves) toward the very-long-chain free fatty acids tetracosanoic acid (C24) and hexacosanoic acid (C26). Relative to the wild type, cer9 mutants exhibit elevated cuticle membrane thickness over epidermal cells and cuticular ledges with increased occlusion of the stomatal pore. The cuticular phenotypes of cer9 are associated with delayed onset of wilting in plants experiencing water deficit, lower transpiration rates, and improved water use efficiency measured as carbon isotope discrimination. The CER9 protein thus encodes a novel determinant of plant drought tolerance-associated traits, one whose deficiency elevates cutin synthesis, redistributes wax composition, and suppresses transpiration. Map-based cloning identified CER9, and sequence analysis predicted that it encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase homologous to yeast Doa10 (previously shown to target endoplasmic reticulum proteins for proteasomal degradation). To further elucidate CER9 function, the impact of CER9 deficiency on interactions with other genes was examined using double mutant and transcriptome analyses. For both wax and cutin, cer9 showed mostly additive effects with cer6, long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase1 (lacs1), and lacs2 and revealed its role in early steps of both wax and cutin synthetic pathways. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the cer9 mutation affected diverse cellular processes, with primary impact on genes associated with diverse stress responses. The discovery of CER9 lays new groundwork for developing novel cuticle-based strategies for improving the drought tolerance and water use efficiency of crop plants.
Selenium Distribution and Speciation in the Hyperaccumulator Astragalus bisulcatus and Associated Ecological Partners
Authors: Valdez Barillas José R. , Quinn Colin F. , Freeman John L. , Lindblom Stormy D. , Fakra Sirine C. , Marcus Matthew A. , Gilligan Todd M. , Alford Élan R. , Wangeline Ami L. , Pilon-Smits Elizabeth A.H.
Published: May 2012

The goal of this study was to investigate how plant selenium (Se) hyperaccumulation may affect ecological interactions and whether associated partners may affect Se hyperaccumulation. The Se hyperaccumulator Astragalus bisulcatus was collected in its natural seleniferous habitat, and x-ray fluorescence mapping and x-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy were used to characterize Se distribution and speciation in all organs as well as in encountered microbial symbionts and herbivores. Se was present at high levels (704–4,661 mg kg−1 dry weight) in all organs, mainly as organic C-Se-C compounds (i.e. Se bonded to two carbon atoms, e.g. methylselenocysteine). In nodule, root, and stem, up to 34% of Se was found as elemental Se, which was potentially due to microbial activity. In addition to a nitrogen-fixing symbiont, the plants harbored an endophytic fungus that produced elemental Se. Furthermore, two Se-resistant herbivorous moths were discovered on A. bisulcatus, one of which was parasitized by a wasp. Adult moths, larvae, and wasps all accumulated predominantly C-Se-C compounds. In conclusion, hyperaccumulators live in association with a variety of Se-resistant ecological partners. Among these partners, microbial endosymbionts may affect Se speciation in hyperaccumulators. Hyperaccumulators have been shown earlier to negatively affect Se-sensitive ecological partners while apparently offering a niche for Se-resistant partners. Through their positive and negative effects on different ecological partners, hyperaccumulators may influence species composition and Se cycling in seleniferous ecosystems.
Tioguanine in the treatment of refractory coeliac disease – a single centre experience
Authors: Tack G. J. , van Asseldonk D. P. , van Wanrooij R. L. J. , van Bodegraven A. A. , Mulder C. J.
Published: May 2012

Background

Refractory coeliac disease type I is a complicated form of coeliac disease characterised by primary or secondary resistance to a gluten‐free diet with persisting or reoccurring intestinal villous atrophy and symptoms of malabsorption. Besides corticosteroids, azathioprine has been advocated for the treatment of refractory coeliac disease type I. However, tioguanine (TG) might be better tolerated and more efficacious owing to a simpler metabolism towards bioactivation.

Aim

To evaluate tolerability and effectiveness of the nonconventional thiopurine derivative TG in refractory coeliac disease type I.

Methods

Refractory coeliac disease type I patients treated with TG between June 2001 and November 2010 with a follow‐up period of at least 1 year were included. Adverse events, laboratory values, 6‐thioguanine nucleotide concentrations and rates of both clinical and histological response were evaluated at baseline and during follow‐up.

Results

Twelve adult refractory coeliac disease type I patients were included. The median TG treatment duration was 14 months. Ten patients tolerated TG treatment on the long term, whereas two patients withdrew treatment due to adverse events. No nodular regenerative hyperplasia of the liver was observed. During follow‐up clinical and histological response was observed in 83% and 78%, respectively. Corticosteroid dependency decreased by 50%.

Conclusion

Tioguanine appears to be a convenient drug for the treatment of refractory coeliac disease type I based on higher histological and similar clinical response rates as compared with historical conventional therapies.