bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geophysics as an Aid to the Small Water Well Contractor
Authors: Linck C. J.
Published: July 2006

In this paper geophysical techniques, as used in ground‐water exploration are subdivided into “bore‐hole” and “surface” methods. The former include the commonly used electrical and gamma‐ray logging and the less commonly used hole calipering and current meter logging. Also included with this classification, but important enough to be considered separately, is the field of water‐level measurements. The surface techniques discussed include electrical resistivity and refraction seismograph exploration.

Because of the type of data which they yield the surface methods are most economical where much area is to be explored and large quantities of water are needed. These factors limit the use of the techniques by small water well contractors in domestic water well work. These same contractors, on the other hand, can gain real economic advantages, in many cases, by use of one or more of the bore‐hole methods.

Geophysical methods properly used can do much to guide the water well contractor. It is extremely important, however, that their use be carefully directed because in the past, where geophysical methods have failed, it has often been due to the incorrect application of the technique, rather than a failure of the technique.
Saline Ground Water in Southern Floridaa
Authors: Sherwood C. B. , Klein Howard
Published: July 2006

Southern Florida is known for its abundant but seasonal rainfall, and its large quantities of ground water; however, parts of its principal aquifers contain water of inferior quality. Coastal aquifers that yield fresh water for municipal supplies, industry, and irrigation, are subject to sea‐water encroachment as water use increases. In inland locations, parts of these aquifers contain salty remnants from ancient inundating seas. The highly productive artesian Floridan aquifer contains saline water throughout southern Florida. The rapid development of south Florida will eventually require greater use of saline water resources.

In the Naples area of southwestern Florida large quantities of moderately saline water in an inland area can be developed by shallow wells or can be drained westward to replenish the aquifer in the coastal area. Accelerated flushing caused by increased drainage and water use should gradually improve the quality of the water in the aquifer in the inland area.

Irrigational and industrial use of water from the Floridan aquifer are increasing in areas where the mineralization is not critical. In the future it may be used to maintain water levels in parts of the Everglades National Park during periods of prolonged drought, to sustain the ecology, and to control fires. In coastal Miami it may prove feasible to inject artesian water into the shallow Biscayne aquifer to cut off the tongue of encroaching sea water. Development of artesian water poses the problem of possible contamination of shallow aquifers by leakage through corroded well casings or into uncased zones.
Modern Water‐Well Drilling Techniques in Use in the United Kingdoma
Authors: Snewin Stow George Raymond
Published: July 2006

The paper describes the main water‐well drilling systems used in the United Kingdom, with some details of the tools used and the principles of operation.

Limitations as regards diameter and depth for various systems and their suitability for drilling different strata are discussed. The materials customarily employed for lining wells and for making sand screens are mentioned. The usual method of measuring the deflexion from the vertical is outlined.

Methods of developing or improving the yields of wells, and inspections by television cameras are described.
Saline Ground Water — A Little Used and Unmapped Resourcea
Authors: Poole J. L.
Published: July 2006

Vast quantities of saline ground water await new commercial uses and economical demineralization processes for recognition as a valuable resource.

Saline ground water is more widely distributed than any other natural resource, occurring throughout the United States and in geologic formations ranging from the oldest to the youngest.

The Coastal Plain has the greatest reserve of fresh water in the country, but at depths ranging from a few feet to about 3,500 feet most of the fresh‐water aquifers also contain large quantities of brackish water. Paleozoic formations in the east‐central United States have long been producers of saline water as commercial brines and in association with oil and gas. The volume of saline ground water perhaps exceeds the fresh ground‐water supply in the Great Plains Region. The greater part of the Western Mountain Region is generally deficient in fresh ground water; however, saline water is present in highly permeable deposits in numerous closed basins and along saline streams. In each of these major ground‐water regions small to very large amounts of saline water can be pumped from wells ranging from a few tens of feet to several thousand feet in depth.

Knowledge of saline water distribution is general and inadequate, having been attained as a by‐product of investigations of fresh‐water supplies. This knowledge should be expanded as technological advances in demineralization processes enhance the importance of saline water for potential supply in numerous water‐deficient areas.
Ground‐Water Conditions in the Carrizo Sand in Texasa
Authors: Scalapino R. A.
Published: July 2006

The Carrizo sand aquifer of Eocene age furnishes water to wells in a belt extending from the Rio Grande in South Texas northeastward to Louisiana, a distance of 500 miles. It is one of the most important water‐bearing formations in Texas, and has a large potential for additional development of ground water.
Water from the Cretaceous Sands in Cochran County, Texasa
Authors: Rayner F. A.
Published: July 2006

During recent years an ever‐increasing number of oil operators in West Texas have been faced with the problem of securing relatively large amounts of water to stimulate additional oil production from the region's waning oil reservoirs. Such operations are termed secondary recovery, or in particular, water flooding, which consists of forcing and stripping oil from the voids of the oil reservoirs by the injection of water through retired oil wells. As previously mentioned, this process requires relatively large amounts of water of a quality compatible with the oilfield equipment and the oil reservoir.

From 1949 through 1959, in a 30‐county West Texas area, secondary oil recovery operations have increased from 14 to 223 projects. As of January 1960, in the Southern High Plains from Hockley and Cochran Counties, southward through Midland and Ector Counties, there were 96 source wells producing about 12,000 acre‐feet of water annually for water‐flooding operations.
Transmissibility Determination by the Bail‐Test Methoda
Authors: Lennox D. H. , Jones J. F.
Published: July 2006

The determination of aquifer transmissibility by the bail‐test method can be considerably simplified if proper attention is paid to the regular spacing of bailer cycles. The transmissibility calculation will then depend on the evaluation of the difference between two numbers, instead of on the evaluation and summation of a large set of numbers, one number for each bailer cycle. The mathematical development on which this method is based is given briefly and a table listing the sums of the reciprocals of the natural numbers, which is used in the simplified determination, is also presented.

The formula for the recovery of the water level after repeated bailing of a well completed in a confined aquifer (Skibitzke, 1958) may be written (Ferris et al., 1962):
Progress Report on Development of the California State Water Projecta
Authors: Golze A. R.
Published: July 2006

My subject does not deal directly with either wells or ground water ‐ it does report to you the present (October, 1963) status of construction of one of the world's greatest projects in water resource development. What is the California State Water Project? What areas will it serve? What progress is being made? The answers are the story told in this paper.

The magnitude of the project is measured in terms of quantity of water, money and time. The amount of water is four million acre‐feet, estimated to meet the needs of the deficient areas it will serve until at least 1990. The cost is $1,750,000,000. The time is nine years from now to begin the delivery of water to the southernmost communities on the State's system.
Educational Facilities in Ground‐Water Geology and Hydrology in the United States and Canada, 1963
Authors: Walton W. C.
Published: July 2006

Increased activity in the fields of ground‐water geology and hydrology has focused attention on the academic preparations required of a geologist or engineer planning to enter the field of ground water. In an effort to improve understanding of the educational facilities available in the United States and Canada, the Research Committee of the Technical Division of the National Water Well Association is periodically inquiring into the status of these facilities.

To arrive at a better understanding of the formal course work in ground water, a seven‐item questionnaire was circulated to appropriate educational institutions in May 1960. A report, “Educational and Academic Research Facilities in Ground‐Water Geology and Hydrology in the United States and Canada”, was published in May 1961 summarizing the information obtained from returned questionnaires. A similar survey was made in May 1963 to obtain data on advancements in educational facilities in ground water since 1960.

This report, a contribution of the Technical Division of NWWA, is based on questionnaires completed in 1963 and provides statistical data on university and college facilities in the field of ground water. Detailed information is presented on 1) course work, 2) textbooks, 3) degrees granted, 4) descriptions of departments offering course work, 5) course instructors and 6) student training and employment. Recent advancements in educational facilities are summarized. It is hoped that the statistical and descriptive information embodied in this report will provide a suitable background for those who wish to assess the adequacy of available educational facilities in ground‐water geology and hydrology.
Salt‐Water Movement in the Principal Artesian Aquifer of the Savannah Area, Georgia and South Carolinaa
Authors: McCollum M. J.
Published: July 2006

The Savannah area obtains most of its water supply from the principal artesian aquifer. The aquifer consists of limestones of middle and late Eocene age. Unflushed salty water is present in the lower water‐yielding zones of the aquifer in the eastern part of the area and sea water is entering the upper water‐yielding zones in the northeastern part of the area. The salty water in the lower zones and the upper zones is moving slowly toward Savannah because a cone of depression created by pumping has reversed the natural hydraulic gradient.
The Role of Ground Water in Comprehensive River Basin Planninga
Authors: Morgan Russell
Published: July 2006

The role of ground water in comprehensive river basin planning has been neither a significant one nor a consistent one. The improved use of ground‐water storage is one of the major goals in improving the stewardship of our water resources. While present policies and general procedures are adequate for the attainment of this goal, basic data and detailed techniques need to be further developed before ground water can assume a more significant role in water resources planning. The development of these and the solution of problems attending the use of ground‐water resources will come in time with the assistance of all parties interested in the wise use of our ground‐water resources. The development of techniques for fully integrating ground‐ water resources into comprehensive river basin planning must be accompanied by the development and implementation, at all governmental levels, of sound ground‐water management policies. Progress toward their accomplishment may seem barely perceptible at times but the present high level of interest in all of the nation's water resources bodes well for an early date when optimum use of our ground‐water resources can be planned and developed.
The Effectiveness of Michigan's Oil and Gas Conservation Law in Preventing Pollution of the State's Ground Watersa
Authors: Eddy Gerald E.
Published: July 2006

With the exception of a few special cases, there has been no pollution of fresh ground water from oil wells, gas wells and dry holes drilled in Michigan since 1925. This is especially significant since water for over 90 percent of Michigan's rural population and about 70 percent of the total population, exclusive of the Detroit metropolitan area, is supplied by ground‐water sources. The most classic exception is in the Saginaw Valley where abandoned wells drilled for salt, coal and oil remain unplugged. Special emphasis is given to the proper plugging of wells as the most important phase of the program to protect fresh water.

The present protective oil and gas conservation law– Public Act 61 of 1939 – is good. Its flexibility allows needed rules and regulations to be adopted as the necessity arises without having to go to the legislature.
Computer Processing of Hydrologic and Geologic Dataa
Authors: Johnson A. I.
Published: July 2006

The computer is a tool to extend our capabilities for using the ever‐increasing mass of available scientific information. Hydrologic and geologic data are being assembled in great quantity and the quantity and complexity of data collected in the future undoubtedly will increase.

This paper points out some of the applications that have been used for computer processing of data in solving hydrologic and geologic problems. As a specific example of the progress that has been made in this field, the ADP work of the U. S. Geological Survey is summarized.

A Survey committee recently developed 16 punchcards, a well‐schedule form for recording and coding data in the field, and a manual of instructions for machine‐processing of hydrologic data. During 1964, three Water Resources offices of the Survey started experimental use of the well‐inventory and water‐quality cards and forms, and the Hydrologic Laboratory began use of punchcards and evaluation of microfilm aperture cards for storage of information. For those who are considering use of ADP in processing of hydrologic and geologic data, the paper concludes with a discussion of items to consider prior to initiation of a system. A list of references providing greater detail on application of ADP systems is included.
Water Rights and Regulation in the Eastern Statesa
Authors: Ellis H. H.
Published: July 2006

There are numerous ramifications to consider in discussing water rights and laws. In this discussion meaningful impressions concerning water rights and related laws in the 31 States lying east of Texas and the Dakotas are presented. Research is still in progress and a number of the statements are necessarily tentative.c

Although legislation of various types has been enacted, court‐made rules still provide the primary basis for the water rights laws of most eastern States. This means rules developed by the reported decisions of the State appellate courts. In Louisiana, however, unlike the common‐law States, the Civil Code provides the primary basis for its laws (see Borton, Mark E. and Ellis, Harold H., “Some Legal Aspects of Water Use in Louisiana,” La. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 537, June, 1960). Bear in mind that these general rules often vary from State to State and that they may be modified by voluntary contractual arrangements, the exercise of eminent domain, prescriptive rights, legislation, and various other complicating factors. Furthermore, the laws of most States are unsettled regarding a number of questions, and several court decisions are of elderly vintage and hence might be modified under current conditions.

Water supplies, natural or developed, all may be more or less interrelated. But rights to use them may vary according to their particular designation as classified by the courts for various purposes. Some common classifications of natural water supplies include natural watercourses, diffused surface water, percolating ground water, and underground streams.
Hydrologic Aspects of Disposal of Oil‐Field Brines in Texasa
Authors: McMillion L. G.
Published: July 2006

Lack of effective control of brine pollution at the State level in Texas has hindered development of an inventory of the effects of oil‐field brine disposal on the diverse geologic and hydrologic environments in which ground water occurs. In Texas, where 35 per cent of the nation's crude oil is produced, the volume of brine production and the widespread distribution of its points of origin complicate the initiation of unified control programs. Brine production and disposal figures for calendar year 1961 showed that a total of 2,236,599,746 barrels of salt water were produced from approximately 67,000 oil and gas leases throughout the State. In that year 460,892,427 barrels of salt water were reportedly disposed of into unlined earthen pits, which contribute directly to pollution of fresh water either by seepage or overflow; and 1,536,543,715 barrels were injected into the subsurface where inadequate well‐completion methods may constitute a longer‐range problem than surface disposal.

Brine‐pollution control programs must regulate standards for the whole range of oil‐field operation including exploration, well completion, brine disposal during the productive phase, and well plugging and abandonment. To be effective, these programs must equate the objective of maximum oil and gas conservation and development with acceptable standards of oil‐field operation to provide safeguards for usable water supplies.
Ground‐Water Geology of West Coleman, Alberta, Canada
Authors: Nielsen G. L.
Published: July 2006

In an investigation of a high water‐table problem in the west part of Coleman, Alberta, ground‐water temperatures were found to vary by as much as 12 degrees F at different points within a one‐quarter square mile area. Analysis of their distribution, together with ground‐water chemistry, and configuration of the water table itself led to discovery of three distinct sources contributing ground water to the townsite. They are: Cordilleran glacial deposits north of the town, an abandoned coal mine underlying the town, and the Crowsnest River. The permeability distribution showed that a major direction of ground‐water movement is along a former course of the Crowsnest River, although the river was channelled to a different location more than fifty years ago.
Influence of Forest Cover on Snowpack and Ground‐Water Rechargea
Authors: Urie D. H.
Published: July 2006

Measurements of ground‐water recharge in sand drift aquifers in northern lower Michigan show that winter and spring precipitation provides a major portion of the annual water yield. In general, the accumulation of snow beneath forest canopies varied inversely with crown density during the winters of 1962 and 1963. Pine plantations with crown densities of over 80 percent in winter had 1.8 inches less water in the snowpack than neighboring deciduous forests, at the time of maximum accumulation. Ground‐water recharge during the melt period was proportionally lower beneath the pine forests where snow accumulation was least. The difference in snowmelt recharge was a major factor in the smaller annual water yields measured under these pine forests.
“Iron Water” from Wells: Causes and Preventiona
Authors: Broom M. E.
Published: July 2006

Chemical analyses of ground‐water samples taken from differing depths in a four‐county area in east Texas showed a general stratification with respect to dissolved iron, pH and hardness. On the basis of this stratification the waters of the ground‐water reservoir were divided into a shallow zone of oxidation, A; a deep zone of reduction, C; and an intermediate and unstable zone, B, in which waters from above and below are mixed. Ground water from zones A and C generally is almost free of iron, whereas water from zone B generally contains objectionable amounts. This zoning is explained by recent laboratory work and theoretical data on iron in natural waters. Wells constructed to draw only from zones A or C should yield water relatively free of iron.
Packer Testing in Water Wells Near Sarasota, Floridaa
Authors: Sutcliffe H. , Joyner B. F.
Published: July 2006

During February and March 1964, the U. S. Geological Survey ran caliper, conductance, and temperature logs on several wells in the Sarasota area. The Florida Geological Survey had previously run gamma ray and electric logs on the same wells. Two flowing wells were selected for packer testing. The two wells are about the same depth, penetrate essentially the same geologic horizons, and are about 16 miles apart. The packers were set in the wells between the producing horizons of the formations penetrated and each of the horizons was tested for head, amount of production, and quality of water. One of the tests produced excellent results, indicating that the various producing zones were effectively isolated by the packers and that different quality of water, quantity of water, and a different head was available from each zone. The other test did not show sharp differences but did indicate the extent of contamination of the producing horizons in a flowing well which had been capped for approximately two years. These tests indicate that packer testing can measurably add to knowledge of the separation of permeable zones.
The Status of Ground‐Water Development in the Republic of Koreaab
Authors: Callahan J. T.
Published: July 2006

The Republic of Korea shares the world‐wide problems of water supply variability in time and space ‐ they have too little water at some time and in some places, and too much water in others. Drouth is a recurring threat; floods occur nearly every summer. The floods of July 1965 are reported to have been the most costly in history. The population is increasing at a rapid rate and material things are in short supply. However, the people of Korea are making a tremendous effort to modernize facilities, construct an industrial base, improve agricultural practices, control the rivers and develop water supplies, and in general, improve the standard of living. With a per capita income of about $80 per year, Korea has a long way to go in its climb up the economic ladder, but the people are able, intelligent, energetic and avid for learning and progress. They enjoy one of the highest literacy rates in the Far East, and have a trained core of professionals in most fields, except they lack a trained cadre of specialists in ground‐water studies and have very few experienced water well drillers. During the Japanese occupation of Korea systematic ground‐water studies were begun, and ground‐water development followed soon afterwards. But the limited staff of Japanese geologists employed in the effort returned to Japan at the end of World War II in 1945. In the uncertainty of the next 8 years, which included the Korean War, it was impossible to develop trained manpower and an organization.

Presently, there is widespread interest on the part of the Korean Government to develop ground water wherever it may be for such uses as irrigation, industrial supply and development, municipalities, villages, and sanitary rural supply. As a result of this interest the author spent four months in Korea in the fall of 1964 and the spring of 1965 at the request of the Agency for International Development, U. S. Department of State, to review the situation and report on the feasibility of a United States supported effort to help the Korean Government to make systematic studies that would lead to ground‐water development, and to any necessary improvement of their methods of hydrologic data acquisition and utilization.
Determining Transmissibility from Cyclic Discharge
Authors: Sheahan N. Thomas
Published: July 2006

A simplified method for determining the coefficient of transmissibility of an aquifer being pumped intermittently is developed by applying Stirling's Approximation Formula to the factorial functions in the Theis and Brown equation for drawdown in a well due to intermittent or cyclic discharge. A table of values of K, a term used in the simplified method, corresponding to the fraction of each cycle during which time discharge occurs is also presented.
Use of Type Curves Developed from Electric Analog Studies of Unconfined Flow to Determine the Vertical Permeability of an Aquifer at Piketon, Ohioa
Authors: Norris S. E. , Fidler R. E.
Published: July 2006

A type‐curve method for determining anisotropy of unconfined aquifers, developed from electric analog simulation, is applied to drawdowns observed near, a well pumping from a glacial outwash aquifer at Piketon, Ohio. The coefficient of vertical permeability, P z'averaged 365 gpd per square foot. Computed drawdown for the pumped well, based on this value, differed by only a small amount from the observed drawdown. The coefficient of storage, determined from type curves for an image well system, averaged 0.20, typical of unconfined aquifers. Application of the method required a thorough knowledge of geohydrologic controls operating at the test site.
Frequency Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Ground Watera
Authors: Davis G. H.
Published: July 2006

The frequency distribution of dissolved‐solids content of ground waters in geologically and climatologically homogeneous terrane units commonly approximates a log‐normal distribution. A graphic logarithmic transformation is de‐scribed which permits rapid calculation of approximate values for the mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation. Statistical parameters calculated by this method show good agreement with known physical conditions in the terranes studied and are precise enough for use as a mea‐sure of variability of quality of ground waters for national planning purposes.
The Ground‐Water Consultant Looks to the Drillera
Authors: Klug M. L.
Published: July 2006

The consultant expects the driller to provide good data and competent performance. Exchanges of views associated with drilling and construction can prove to be mutually beneficial. Contacts between the consultants and the drillers have a tendency to upgrade the quality of the basic datacollected. These contacts may aid the driller in delivering full performance and thus improve the overall quality of thedrilling and construction he performs for the client. As a result, everybody associated with the water well industry‐drillers, consultants, and clients ‐ stands to gain by these contacts. It is hoped that these beneficial contacts within the water well industry will become even more common in years to come so we all can gain from one another's knowledge and experience.
Activities of the Hydrogeologic Map Committee of the International Association of Scientific Hydrology
Authors: LaMoreaux P. E.
Published: July 2006

It is the purpose of this paper to call ro your attention the existence of the International Hydrogeologic Map Display and the International Legend for Hydrogeologic Maps, and to encourage those in the USA working in the water resources and associated fields to review these recommendations and forward their comments so that they may in turn be relayed to the next meeting of this international commit‐tee. It is requested that any maps following the legend be forwarded for addition to the committee's file and use in the Internationa] Display at the next General Assembly meeting of IUGG.
Physical and Chemical Variations in the Discharge of a Flowing Wella
Authors: Summers W. K. , Brandvold L. A.
Published: July 2006

Observations of temperature, pll, specific conduction, and discharge, and concentrations of calcium, magnesium, potassium. lithium, and sodium in the discharge of a flowing well reveal that geochemistry of aquifers should be based on sample wells which have been allowed to discharge for an extended period.
Cyclic Pumping for Drainage Purposes
Authors: Aron G. , Scott V. H. , Abu‐Zied M. A.
Published: July 2006

Criteria and formulas are presented for scheduling cyclic pumping operations, to maintain a given minimum drawdown as required for drainage purposes. Keeping the total cycle length constant, the pumping periods are successively shortened and the shutoff periods lengthened. Solutions of the equation for the relative length of the shutoff periods are presented in a family of curves, which greatly simplifies the scheduling procedure.
When Not to Acidizea
Authors: Walker W. H.
Published: July 2006

Acidizing water wells to increase yield has proved to be an uneconomical method of well development or rehabilitation in some cases where the aquifer permeability was low and normal operating head great, in wells affected by methane gas, or where the practical sustained yield of the aquifer had been exceeded. Illinois studies show that controlled pumping tests before, during and after development are necessary to accurately evaluate the effectiveness of rehabilitation methods employed. Geologic definition of aquifers and records of pumpage and water‐level information are invaluable aids.
Comments on Wafer Transfers and Related Problems in Urban Areas
Authors: Williams Roy E.
Published: July 2006

Heavy development in certain areas of the United States and the growing shortage of additional, readily available water supplies therein have forced planners and hydrologists to resort progressively to more elaborate water‐supply systems. Among the most elaborate and most expensive systems proposed to date are the various plans for. transferring water toward the south from northward flowing Arctic rivers. A considerable portion of this water would be utilized for the expansion of already heavily urbanized areas.

Meanwhile, many of the densely populated areas experiencing water shortages are subjected to other, perhaps more complex problems which appear to be, at least in part, a product of their increasing size. Therefore, the expenditure of large sums to supply them with water for indefinite growth appears to merit scrutinous study.

An alternative approach designed to minimize both water diversion costs and problems associated with over‐populated areas is the stimulation of development in carefully selected regions well endowed with water and other natural resources. One such area and several of its attributes are discussed herein.
Induction‐Tuned Method to DetermineCasing Lengths in Hydrogeclogic Investigations
Authors: Marsh Charles R. , Parizek Richard R.
Published: July 2006

An induction‐tuned device was designed and tested under a variety of well casing conditions. It can detect casing lengths to within 0.4 to 2.0 inches for casing ranging from 2 to 14 or more inches in diameter which are made of either magnetic or nonmagnetic metals. A casing separation as small as one inch is detectable for 12‐inch diameter casing and a four inch or more separation is detectable for 4‐inch I.D. casing. These values indicate the range in sensitivity expectable when determining casing separations.

Dial readings in microamps are indicated as the ptobe is raised or lowered within a well bore. Readings vary depending whether the probe is centrally located or located to one side. The maximum and minimum dial reading is established for a given casing diameter at the start of a survey. A consistent change in dial reading from previous valves indicate a casing diameter change.

The sensing element is a coil whose inductance is changed by varying its proximity to any metallic conductor. A coil and capacitor in parallel make a tuned circuit resonant at 3 K.C. The device includes a transistor in a phase shift oscillator, and a second transistor which acts as a current amplifier, a 0–100 μa d. c. meter driven through a bridge rectifier, capacitors, and other elements. Twelve to 14 volts at 4 to 6 milliamperes or less than 0.1 watt is sufficient to power the device.

A maximum meter reading is obtained by adjusting an oscillator to the resonant frequency of the probe. Lowering the probe into a well casing detunes the probe, changing its impedance and the meter reading.

All electrical elements are standard except the probe and all materials can be purchased for about $40.00 exclusive of the reel and cable assembly.
An Aquifer Test Used to Investigate a Quality of Water Anomalya
Authors: Jorgensen Donald G.
Published: July 2006

An aquifer test and analyses of water samples, showed that the anomalous water quality of a municipal well was caused by leakage from a nearby abandoned well tapping another aquifer.
Application of the Gravity Survey Method to Watershed Hydrologya
Authors: Spongier Daniel P. , Libby Fred J.
Published: July 2006

A gravity survey covering 250 square miles and including the Walnut Gulch watershed at Tombstone, Arizona has been conducted. The watershed is one of the experimental areas of the Southwest Watershed Research Center, Agricultural Research Service in Tucson, Arizona.

The gravity survey method was selected as the geophysical method that would give a regional picture of the subsurface geology before making extensive surveys by the seismic. refraction method. Basically, the gravity survey method detects and measures variations in the earth's gravitational force. These variations are associated with changes in rock and alluvium density near the surface. Many geologic structures of interest in watershed ground‐water hydrology cause disturbances in the normal density distribution which give rise to anomalies.

The geology of the watershed is typical of Basin and Range province and contains deep basin fill deposits surrounded on the east, south, and southwest by igneous intrusives, volcanics, and sedimentary rocks. Concealed border faults may have a decided effect on the hydrology of the watershed.

Four base stations were established and 360 gravity stations occupied by a Worden Educator* gravimeter loaned from the Geophysics Laboratory of the University of Arizona. Bench marks and large scale topographic maps served as control. Raw field data were reduced to the simple Bouguer anomaly values through the use of a computer program.

The gravity survey reveals a 16‐mgal. gravity low over the east‐central portion of the watershed. This low is interpreted as indicating that about 3200 feet of low density alluvium underlies the area at this point. Gravity highs are associated with mountain ranges and igneous plugs where the more dense rocks occur.
An Evaluation of Some Geophysical Methods for Water Exploration in the Piedmont Area
Authors: Joiner T. J. , Warman J. C. , Scarbrough W. L.
Published: July 2006

The Piedmont is underlain by igneous and metamorphic rocks, from which it is difficult to locate quantities of ground water adequate for municipal and industrial purposes. Ground‐water occurrence and movement in the Piedmont is controlled by topography, recharge and discharge, rock type, fracture systems, and type and thickness of saprolite.

Approximately 12 square miles in the Heflin area, Cleburne County, Alabama, were included in this study. Fractures within bedrock are the most effective avenues for ground‐water movement in this area, but domestic supplies can be produced from saprolite and alluvium overlying bedrock. Thick saprolite contributes to bedrock‐fracture production by absorbing water from streams and rainfall and releasing it slowly to underlying fractures.

Seismic methods were used with geologic, hydrologie and topographic data to locate and define favorable areas for drilling. As shown on the seismic sections, faults or fracture systems appear to correlate with depressions on bedrock surfaces associated with thick saprolite zones. Seismic data indicate twenty‐five prospective areas for test drilling.

Resistivity data were used to confirm seismic depth to bedrock, and to locate gravelly zones in buried stream channels. Some of the buried alluvium is thick enough to be considered a potential aquifer.

Twenty‐five prospective areas are indicated by geophysical work in the Heflin area. A proposal to drill 10 wells to evaluate the most promising of these areas is presently being considered.
Sampling Equipment for Ground‐Water Investigations
Authors: McMilIion Leslie G. , Keeley Jack W.
Published: July 2006

Portable pumping equipment for sampling of wells, discribed by written text, photographs, and a detailed drawing, has been constructed by the Robert S. Kerr Water Research Center.

The equipment can sample to depths of 300 feet at pumping rates ranging between 7 and 14 gallons per minute, with rate variation dependent upon sampling depth.

The unit is convenient in size and easy to operate because only one line has to be handled during its operation. This is a wire‐reinforced rubber hose that supports the submersible pump, contains the electrical cable, and conveys water.
Analysing Pumping Tests by Resistance Network Analogue
Authors: Herbert Robin
Published: July 2006

A resistance network analogue is used to study the early stages of a pumping test in an unconfined aquifer. The results are compared with an alternative analysis due to Boulton (1965) and a good agreement is obtained.

Unlike the theoretical analysis the analogue technique is versatile and can easily be used to study pumping tests with nonidealized boundary conditions, e.g., partially penetrating wells can be simulated. Thus the analogue method of analysis could prove to be a more realistic method for studying pumping tests than standard analytical techniques.
Investigation Program for Aquifer Protection Requirements, Chicagoland Deep Tunnel Plana
Authors: Papadopulos I. S. , Aten R. E.
Published: July 2006

A totally new concept, called the Deep Tunnel Plan for Flood and Pollution Control, is being implemented by the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Chicago. The plan envisions temporary storage of combined sewer overflows in a system of tunnels excavated in solid rock, deep under the City. After the end of a storm, the stored water would be pumped to the surface where it would be treated to remove pollution before being discharged into the waterways.

Early planning studies indicate that the most favorable location for the tunnels is the Galena‐Platteville Dolomite which is the uppermost member of the Cambrian‐Ordovician aquifer. The protection of this highly‐developed aquifer from any possible contamination is therefore mandatory for the feasibility of the Deep Tunnel Plan.

Preliminary investigations using an electric analog model, constructed on the basis of available data, indicate that aquifer protection can be provided by a system of recharge wells which would maintain flow into the tunnels at all times. Further detailed studies are in progress to verify and refine those preliminary conclusions. These studies include (a) detailed exploratory drilling; (b) controlled aquifer tests in selected zones; (c) pumping tests for specific capacity in the zone to be tunneled; (d) recharge injection tests; and (e) analog model analysis for future effects of the tunnels and recharge operations.
Graduate Studies in Hydrogeology and Hydrology at the University of Idaho
Authors: Williams Roy E.
Published: July 2006

The interdisciplinary graduate program in hydrogeology at the University of Idaho is described. The curriculum is structured to permit the design of individual study programs which are in keeping with multiple use concepts. Flexibility sufficient to permit courses to be taken in several fields which support the students' major area of research is provided. This flexibility is maximized by the offering of two degree options. Discussion of a number of the research projects at the University illustrates several of the types of problems now being studied.
Ground Water in Economic Developmenta
Authors: Peterson Dean F.
Published: July 2006

Ground‐water development frequently provides a means whereby tremendous new economic opportunities are opened up. If supplies are overdrawn (mined) the ensuing regional economy may be able to afford replacements from more costly sources. In the United States the Salt River Valley of Arizona and the valleys of California provide examples.

Two cases are treated in this paper, Israel and West Pakistan. In Israel, besides furnishing more than half of the basic source of water supply, ground‐water development provides opportunity for both quantity and quality management, which makes possible use of surface supplies and reclaimed sewage as firm rather than marginal sources. This development will permit the total water resource of this small country, where agricultural production ranks among the world's most efficient, to be utilized effectively down to almost the last drop by the mid 1970's. Israel must then look to desalted water from the sea for‐further expansion of its over‐all water supply.

In West Pakistan a combination of level terrain and leaky canals since about 1890 led to threatened waterlogging and salinity of more than 25 million acres of irrigated land, even though supplies were less than half adequate for good productivity. By the 1950's low yields and increasing population threatened starvation. However, initiation of ground‐water development, first by the government and later by private enterprise, has, since 1960, led to construction of 3,500 governmental tube wells of about 3 cfs capacity and 30,000 private tube wells of slightly less than 1 cfs capacity.

Results have been dramatic. Agricultural production and use of fertilizer are rapidly increasing, and opening of well development to private enterprise is providing the irrigator with benefits of free competition for his water custom which he did not previously enjoy. Ultimately, besides providing full supplies for an estimated 26 to 30 million acres, drainage and salinity problems will be mitigated if about 50 million acre‐feet are pumped each year from ground water including about 28 million acre‐feet to be mined from a reserve of about 1,900 million acre‐feet. With some difficult surface storage development due to terrain, mining may eventually be reduced. Though an eventual technological solution for the continuing overdraft is not now in sight, perhaps an economy may be built which can afford such a solution when the time comes.
Aquifer Storage Determination
Authors: Keeley Jack W. , Scalf Marion R.
Published: July 2006

A new method of determining aquifer storage coefficients has been developed for use in operations involving ground‐water recharge through wells. This work evolved from a research project dealing with the fate of DDT and nitrate in the Ogallala Aquifer in the High Plains of Texas.

A tritium tracer was used to determine the detention time of the recharge water passing through a saturated volume of the aquifer. Tracer behavior was formulated ‘mathematically and verified by model simulation. The formulations provide a graphical solution for the detention time from which the storage coefficient may be calculated.

The method will have immediate value in establishing storage coefficients of aquifers, such as the Ogallala, where plans for importation and distribution of supplemental water involve utilization of underground storage. Regarding water‐table conditions, this method promises to produce more reliable storage values than have been obtained from pumping tests.
Water for Vietnama
Authors: Harned D. W. , Ramaeker M. H. , Rasmussen W. C. , Burgh John A.
Published: July 2006

The build‐up of American military force in Vietnam has necessitated a massive well‐drilling program.

Engineering investigations were carried on concurrently with drilling to evaluate various related water resources.

Water quality problems including salt‐water encroachment existed in many areas.

Between July 1966 and September 1967. 48 test holes and 233 successful 8 inch wells were drilled. The average producing well yielded 95 gpm.
Public Service and Public Relationsa
Authors: Stein Russell B.
Published: July 2006

Most State ground‐water programs can be grouped under three headings: basic data collection, answering requests, and research and report writing. In Ohio the staff consists of four geologists, two hydrologists, and one field inspector. Most time is spent collecting basic data and answering requests for assistance.

(1) Basic data collection: It is the responsibility of one hydrologist to maintain and coordinate the 150 State observation wells. The field inspector is responsible for seeing that well logs are submitted by well drillers in accordance with State law. The inspector is a geologist who works closely with the drillers; he is also active in the Ohio Well ‐Drillers Association, and prepares a quarterly newsletter. A highly organized well‐log file system is maintained, and there is a field location program whereby well locations are plotted on large‐scale maps. A ground‐water quality sampling program is in operation. A network of 20 existing production wells in strategic areas was established for observing seasonal and annual changes in ground‐water quality. A monthly summary of water‐supply conditions across the Scace is published.

(2) Answering requests: Of the 2,000 requests answered each year, approximately 80 percent involve domestic wells. The remaining inquiries are from industries, municipalities, schools, developers, State agencies, and various commercial or recreational interests. In answering requests a report summarizing hydrogeology and ground‐water availability is prepared. For large ground‐water developments that are not State‐financed the services of a consultant are recommended.

(3) Research: Much research in the public interest is concerned with problems and potential problems in ground‐water pollution.
A Design Method for Deep Well Dewatering Installations
Authors: Herbert R.
Published: July 2006

A new design method for deep well dewatering systems is given. The method analyses three dimensional flow to the multiwell systems by considering the two end points to the initial fast phase of water table fall. The method is applied to a dewatering case history and proves to be successful.
Microbial Problems in Ground Watera
Authors: Robeck Gordon G.
Published: July 2006

This article contains a summary of a few disease out‐breaks caused by ground‐water contamination, and the difficulties in designing and monitoring for effective quality control. There is a discussion of problems associated with large basin recharge with treated sewage. For instance, do we have adequate microbial indicators? Or will the nitrate concentration build up if there is a semiclosed circuit involved? Chlorination of well water withdrawn for domestic use is advocated as good insurance for microbial control.
Measuring Underground‐Explosion Effects on Water Levels in Surrounding Aquifersa
Authors: Garber M. S. , Wollitz L. E.
Published: July 2006

Underground detonations may produce observable effects in surrounding aquifers and wells. The nature and the duration of the effect at any observation point seem to depend on several factors such as the amount of energy released by the detonation, the geologic environment, the position of the buried explosive device in relation to the saturated zone, aquifer characteristics, and the distance from point of detonation. Precise measurement of these effects in wells presented numerous technical problems and resulted in the development of specialized techniques. Initially, these effects were observed by measuring the fluctuation of the free water surface in wells. The current technique employs high‐resolution pressure transducers deep in the water column. Pneumatic packers may be used to restrict the movement of water into the well. Data are recorded on high‐speed oscillographs.
Field Use of Orifice Metersa
Authors: Jorgensen Donald G.
Published: July 2006

A well‐designed and calibrated orifice meter is an accurate and inexpensive measuring device for flow. Endline orifices can be calibrated at work sites by solving an equation that interrelates easily measured dimensions of the orifice and outflow.