bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of Extraction Conditions on Yield, Composition, and Viscosity Stability of Barley β‐Glucan Gum
Authors: Burkus Zvonko , Temelli Feral
Published: June 2007

Cereal β‐glucan can function as a thickener, but endogenous β‐glucanase enzymes of the grain cleave β‐glucan, reducing its viscosity. Although different extraction techniques have been developed, the viscosity stability of β‐glucan gum has not been reported. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of extraction treatments on the yield, purity, and viscosity stability of barley β‐glucan (BBG) gum. A regular barley cultivar, Condor, and a waxy cultivar blend were extracted at pH 7–10 and 55°C for 0.5 hr. Four extraction conditions were evaluated: 1) extraction at high pH with no additional heat treatment; 2) boiling of extract; 3) prior refluxing of flour with 70% ethanol; and 4) treatment of extract with thermostable α‐amylase for purification. Viscosity of extracts was monitored for ≥24 hr at 25°C. The highest β‐glucan purities were achieved with a boiled Condor extract at pH 7 (81.3% db, 4.1% yield) and with refluxed waxy barley extracted at pH 8 and treated with α‐amylase and (79.3% db, 5.1% yield). Gums extracted without subsequent heat treatment or prior refluxing of flour had high protein (>17%) and starch (>24%) impurities, respectively. The viscosity of gums obtained without heating was unstable. Prior refluxing treatment was not sufficient to stabilize final extracts. Boiling extracts resulted in stable but low viscosity. Reflux followed by purification treatment produced the highest stable viscosity for 0.5% solutions of both Condor (64 mPa sec‐1, pH 7) and waxy (48.8 mPa sec‐1, pH 8) extracts. Stable BBG gum with high viscosity can be obtained using thermal treatments in combination with high pH. The potential use of such gums as thickeners in food systems needs to be assessed.
Structural Variation and Levels of Water‐Extractable Arabinogalactan‐Peptide in European Wheat Flours
Authors: Loosveld A. , Maes C. , van Casteren W. H. M. , Schols H. A. , Grobet P. J. , Delcour J. A.
Published: June 2007

Water‐extractable arabinogalactan‐peptides (WE‐AGP) were isolated from flour of eight different wheat cultivars (harvest year 1996). Little structural variation in WE‐AGP of flour of the different wheat cultivars was observed. The arabinose‐to‐galactose (A/G) ratio of WE‐AGP varied between 0.66 and 0.73. Methylation analysis showed that the proportion of β‐1,3‐galactopyranosyl residues is almost equal for the different WE‐AGP samples (10.2–11.1%). More variation was observed for the proportion of the β‐1,6‐galactopyranosyl residues (9.4–13.0%) and β‐1,3,6‐galactopyranosyl residues (76.0–80.1%). The 1H‐nuclear magnetic resonance spectra (D2O, 85°C, 300 MHz) were comparable, and gel permeation analysis consistently yielded a narrow peak with an apparent molecular weight between 5.0 × 104 and 10.0 × 104. Interpretation of the results was facilitated by α‐L‐arabinofuranosidase debranching of WE‐AGP. For flour samples of 18 wheat cultivars (10 from 1994 harvest, eight from 1996 harvest), the variation in percentage of water‐extractable arabinoxylan (WE‐AX) (0.31–0.78% of dry matter) was much larger than the variation in percentage of water‐extractable arabinogalactan (WE‐AG) (0.24–0.33%). The ratio of WE‐AX to WE‐AG for flour samples of different wheat cultivars varied between 1.00 and 2.44.
Lipids in Japanese Noodle Flours
Authors: Jun W. J. , Chung O. K. , Seib P. A.
Published: June 2007

Lipids in Japanese salt and alkaline noodle flours and in Australian soft white wheat (SWW) flours were extracted and compared. Nonstarch lipid (NSL) and free lipid (FL) levels ranges were 1.33–1.71% and 0.84–1.04%, respectively, for nine Japanese salt noodle flours compared to 1.43–1.50% and 0.97–1.00% for three Australian SWW flours used mainly to prepare salt noodle. The six Japanese alkaline noodle flours averaged ≈15% less NSL and 20% less FL than the Australian flours. The NSL was separated by column chromatography into nonpolar lipid (NL), glycolipid (GL), and phospholipid (PL) fractions. The NSL extracted from salt noodle and Australian flours contained ≈36% more NL than that from alkaline noodle flour. The composition of NSL was similar for salt noodle and Australian SWW flours but was different for alkaline noodle flour. Japanese salt noodle flour could be differentiated from alkaline noodle flour by the higher levels of NSL and FL, although those elevated levels may be caused in part to the somewhat higher extraction rate for the salt‐noodle flours. However, two parameters independent of extraction rate, the ratios of NL/PL and NL/ash were 47 and 15% higher, respectively, in the salt vs. alkaline noodle flours.
Comparison of the Distribution and Occurrence of Fusarium graminearum and Deoxynivalenol in Hard Red Winter Wheat for 1993‐1996
Authors: Trigo‐Stockli D. M. , Sanchez‐Mariñez R. I. , Cortez‐Rocha M. O. , Pedersen J. R.
Published: June 2007

Hard red winter wheat samples collected from different locations in Kansas from the 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996 harvests were plated to determine Fusarium graminearum infection and analyzed for deoxynivalenol by thin‐layer and gas chromatography. Rainfall, temperature, and cultivar were important factors affecting the severity of F. graminearum infection as well as deoxynivalenol production. The 1993 and 1995 growing seasons had high percentages of samples infected with F. graminearum and contaminated with deoxynivalenol. Averaged over the four years, cultivars 2163 and Karl had significantly higher levels of infection than did TAM 107. These widely grown cultivars were used in comparison. Northeastern Kansas had the highest levels of F. graminearum infection and deoxynivalenol contamination but also had the lowest acreage planted to hard red winter wheat.
Capillary Rheometry of Corn Endosperm: Glass Transition, Flow Properties, and Melting of Starch
Authors: Zhang W. , Hoseney R. C. , Faubion J. M.
Published: June 2007

A capillary rheometer was manufactured to study the properties of corn endosperm. Samples were tested at or near the pressures and temperatures encountered in high‐temperature, short‐time extrusion. The rheometer was designed to prevent moisture loss during testing. At a set pressure, raising the temperature caused corn endosperm particles to soften and change shape, resulting in a pressure drop as the voids in the sample were reduced. The temperature at which the pressure drop occurred was considered the glass transition temperature. Continued heating caused the pressure to rise and drop a second time as the sample softened and flowed through the capillary. Thermal analysis by differential scanning calorimetry showed that complete melting of starch crystals was not necessary to permit capillary flow. Pressure and temperature conditions sufficient to initiate flow were measured for opaque and vitreous corn flours and expressed as a boundary curve defining the flow region. The position of the curve shifted as a function of sample moisture content. The vitreous corn sample had a rough (unstable) flow that could be eliminated by addition of a small amount (2% w/w) of vegetable oil. When isolated corn starch was studied in the capillary rheometer, results showed that, under certain conditions, starch crystal melting was affected by pressure and time. A model was developed to account for the effects of pressure, temperature, time, and sample moisture on starch crystal melting.
Rheological Changes in Wheat Sourdough During Controlled and Spontaneous Fermentation
Authors: Wehrle K. , Arendt E. K.
Published: June 2007

The changing rheological characteristics of wheat doughs during fermentation at 30°C for 72 hr were measured using a controlled stress rheometer. Dynamic oscillation tests were performed at frequencies ranging from 0.01 to 10 Hz. Wheat sourdoughs (dough yield 200) were prepared with a mixed starter culture containing typical hetero‐ and homofermentative sourdough lactic acid bacteria. Results from the controlled fermentation process were compared to results from spontaneous fermentation. Maximum phase angle values, especially at low frequencies, were closely related to total gas production in the doughs. Complex viscosity decreased during fermentation and reached lower final values for doughs without starter culture. Heating characteristics of doughs after various fermentation times were measured at temperatures ranging from 30 to 80°C. The highest values for complex viscosity were found at ≈65°C. When heated, fermented doughs produced weaker gels than fresh doughs. The temperatures at which these maxima occurred increased significantly with fermentation time for spontaneously fermented dough.
Effect of Extrusion on Hypocholesterolemic Properties of Rice, Oat, Corn, and Wheat Bran Diets in Hamsters
Authors: Kahlon T. S. , Edwards R. H. , Chow F. I.
Published: June 2007

Brans from rice, oats, corn, and wheat were cooked in a twin‐screw extruder at either high or low energy input, and their cholesterol‐lowering effects were compared with those of unprocessed brans when fed to four‐week‐old male golden Syrian hamsters (n = 10 per treatment) for three weeks. Peanut oil was added to oat, corn, and wheat bran during the extrusion process to match the oil content of rice bran. Diets contained 10% total dietary fiber, 10.3% fat, 3% nitrogen, and 0.3% cholesterol. Plasma and liver cholesterol and total liver lipids were significantly lower with low‐energy extruded wheat bran compared with unprocessed wheat bran. Extrusion did not alter the hypocholesterolemic effects of rice, oat, or corn brans. Plasma and liver cholesterol levels with corn bran were similar to those with oat bran. Relative cholesterol‐lowering effects of the brans, determined with pooled (extruded and unextruded) bran data, were rice bran > oat bran > corn bran > wheat bran. Rice bran diets resulted in significantly lower levels of total plasma cholesterol and very low density lipoprotein cholesterol compared with all other brans. Total liver cholesterol and liver cholesterol concentrations (mg/g) were significantly lower with high‐energy extruded rice bran compared with the cellulose control group. Plasma cholesterol and total liver cholesterol values with low‐energy extruded wheat bran were similar to those with rice bran (unextruded or extruded) diets. Lowered cholesterol with rice bran diets may result in part from greater lipid and sterol excretion with these diets. Results with low‐energy extruded wheat bran suggest that this type of processing may improve the potential for lowering cholesterol with wheat bran products.
Characterization of Corn‐Soy Breakfast Cereals by Generalized Procrustes Analyses
Authors: Faller J. Y. , Klein B. P. , Faller J. F.
Published: June 2007

Understanding the quality of products containing a substantial amount of soy protein is essential to meet the demand for soy foods that are acceptable to American consumers. In this study, the effects of sugar and feed moisture contents on the sensory characteristics of extruded corn‐soy breakfast cereals were investigated, and the relationships among the product sensory and physical properties and extruder system responses were characterized by generalized procrustes analysis (GPA). Corn meal‐soy protein isolate mixes were extruded at feed moistures of 21, 23, and 25% and sugar levels of 0, 5, and 10%. Descriptive sensory attributes, physical properties, and extruder responses were measured. GPA results showed that the breakfast cereal sensory attributes were primarily affected by the sugar‐addition level. Products with sugar added at the 5% level were associated with soy and off‐flavors, but increasing sugar to 10% yielded an association with crunchiness and hardness. Feed moisture content had a dramatic effect within the 5% added sugar products in determining sensory characteristics. Reverse relationships between mechanical system responses and sensory texture attributes were revealed by GPA results. Increased heat and mechanical forces in the extruder barrel were responsible for higher sensory residual soy flavor and off‐flavor intensities.
Study of Water in Dough Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Authors: Raun R. Roger , Wang Xiaoan , Chen Paul L. , Fulcher R. Gary , Pesheck Peter , Chakrabarti Sumana
Published: June 2007

The amount and state of water play an important role in the preparation and properties of wheat flour doughs and their products. A new method for presentation and analysis of relaxation time measurements of protons in dough is described in this article. This new method acknowledges a continuous probability distribution of protons having different relaxation times in heterogeneous systems such as dough, which is dramatically different from the conventional discrete methods that rely on prior assumptions of a number of discrete relaxation components. In the present study, pulsed proton nuclear magnetic resonance was used to study the relaxation characteristics of dough systems at moisture levels of 12–45%. The relaxation curves obtained using a 90‐degree pulse (Onepulse) sequence and the Carr‐Purcell‐Meiboom‐Gill pulse sequence were analyzed using a multiexponential discrete model and a continuum model. The discrete model produced three fractions of protons relaxing in three different time domains. The continuum model produced spectra of spin‐spin relaxation time vs. amplitude, from which two to five peaks, depending on the moisture content, could be identified. At moisture contents of 23 and 35%, dramatic changes in relaxation time and amplitude were observed with both models. The continuum model provided additional information about the homogeneity of the morphology and physical state of the dough systems.
Wheat Grain Hardness Among Chromosome 5D Homozygous Recombinant Substitution Lines Using Different Methods of Measurement
Authors: Morris Craig F. , DeMacon Victor L. , Giroux Michael J.
Published: June 2007

The level of grain hardness of wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivars profoundly affects milling properties and end‐use. We examined grain hardness among a genetically defined set of 83 chromosome 5D homozygous recombinant substitution lines derived from soft wheat cv. Chinese Spring and hard wheat cv. Cheyenne and compared four common methods of measuring wheat grain hardness. Measures of grain hardness included a modified particle size index, Brabender Quadrumat flour milling, near‐infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy, and the single‐kernel characterization system (SKCS). Duncan's multiple range test was used to group recombinant lines according to parental classes. Quadrumat milling fractions, percent bran and middlings, were well correlated to NIR and SKCS grain hardness, whereas break flour, a traditional measure of grain hardness, was poorly correlated to other hardness measures. NIR and SKCS grain hardness measures provided the greatest and similar mean separations. Both methods identified recombinant lines as being significantly outside either parental class and significantly different from and in between the two parental classes. Between two divergent environments, correlations (r) for Quadrumat bran and middlings percents and NIR and SKCS hardness ranged from 0.83 to 0.94. Analysis of variance indicated that lines differed substantially for hardness, and hardness was highly influenced by environment, albeit consistently, as indicated by low line‐location model interaction terms. The results confirmed the presence of major allelic differences assignable to chromosome 5D and suggested the action of minor gene(s). Break flour, in particular, showed strong indications of transgressive segregation independent of the Hardness (Ha) locus. The Perten 4100 SKCS provided the best (most discriminating) measure of the material properties of the wheat endosperm manifested by the action of the Ha locus.
Identification of Wheat Lines Possessing the 1AL.1RS or 1BL.1RS Wheat‐Rye Translocation by Near‐Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy
Authors: Delwiche Stephen R. , Graybosch Robert A. , Peterson C. James
Published: June 2007

Wheat‐rye chromosomal translocations, particularly those involving the short arm of rye chromosome 1R, have been used during the past 25 years to instill resistance to plant pathogens and insects and improve the hardiness, adaptation, and yield of wheat. Unfortunately, the presence of the 1AL.1RS or 1BL.1RS rye translocations in wheat has been shown to impart inferior dough handling and baking characteristics. Although numerous analytical techniques (e.g., HPLC, monoclonal antibody tests, high‐performance capillary electrophoresis) have been developed for detecting these translocations, the complexity of the analytical procedures restricts their use to research and analytical laboratories. The purpose of this study was to examine the potential of diffuse reflectance near‐infrared spectroscopy, a well‐accepted technique in the grain industry, for detecting 1RS‐containing genotypes. This research used three independent groups of wheat samples, ranging in genetic diversity from sister lines derived from 1RS breeding populations to commercial cultivars. Based on the diffuse reflectance spectra (1,100–2,500 nm) of flour, partial least squares (PLS) models, through cross‐validation, exhibited misclassification rates as low as 0%, particularly for commercial cultivars. Misclassification rates for corresponding, but separate, test sets were as low as 1%. When the same modeling procedure was applied to samples of more closely related genetic backgrounds, cross‐validation misclassification rates rose to 15–20%. Most problematic were samples that were heterogeneous for 1RS such as the cultivar Rawhide. Incorporating heterogeneous samples into a calibration equation improved the classification accuracy of these samples but diminished the prediction accuracy of nonheterogeneous samples.
Effect of Specific Mechanical Energy on Protein Bodies and α‐Zeins in Corn Flour Extrudates
Authors: Batterman‐Azcona Sheri J. , Lawton John W. , Hamaker Bruce R.
Published: June 2007

Zeins, the storage proteins of corn, are located in spherical entities called protein bodies. The disruption of protein bodies and zein release during extrusion may influence the texture of corn‐based extruded foods. In this work, chemical and microscopic studies were conducted on corn flour that had been extruded under mild to extreme conditions to determine the specific mechanical energy (SME) required to break apart protein bodies and release α‐zein, and to assess changes in protein‐protein interactions. Transmission electron microscopy with immunolocalization of α‐zein revealed that starch granules and protein bodies remained intact under mild processing conditions (SME 35–40 kJ/kg), but under harsher conditions, protein bodies were disrupted and α‐zein was released. At SME ≈100 kJ/kg, protein bodies appeared highly deformed and fused together with the α‐zein released, whereas at higher SME, protein bodies were completely disrupted and α‐zein was dispersed and may have formed protein fibrils. Protein in extrudates was less soluble in urea and SDS than in unprocessed corn flour, but it was readily extracted with urea, SDS, and 2‐ME. This was likely due to protein aggregation upon processing due to a prevalence of hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bonds. This research directly relates SME during extrusion to chemical and structural changes in corn proteins that may affect the texture of corn‐based, ready‐to‐eat food products.
Fate of Maize DNA During Steeping, Wet‐Milling, and Processing
Authors: Gawienowski Margaret C. , Eckhoff Steven R. , Yang Ping , Rayapati P. John , Binder Thomas , Briskin Donald P.
Published: June 2007

The fate of DNA during steeping, wet‐milling, and subsequent processing of maize was examined using a sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR‐based) detection system. The system used specific amplification of maize DNA sequences by primers generated toward plant nuclear‐ and chloroplast‐encoded genes. The PCR method facilitated analysis of DNA content in food products, which is an important issue in use of genetically modified organisms. In a conventional laboratory wet‐milling countercurrent steep system, DNA was detected in maize kernels throughout the process but was not found in steepwater. After kernels were wet‐milled, DNA was detected in the starch, germ, coarse fiber, and wet gluten fractions but not in the fine fiber fraction. When dried by heating at 135°C for 2 hr, DNA was degraded to undetectable levels in the wet‐milled gluten fraction and hydrated kernels. DNA was not detected in feed pellets, starch, dextrose, sorbitol, or high‐fructose maize syrup made from industrial wet‐milled samples. Although DNA could be detected in laboratory wet‐milled fractions, some degree of degradation occurred after extended exposure to steepwater. Countercurrent steepwater samples from the later stages of the steeping process were able to degrade DNA. The level of DNA degradation appeared to correspond to the presence of sulfur dioxide and may represent a physiochemical rather than an enzyme‐mediated process. Our results indicate that some steps in the steeping and wet‐milling process can degrade maize genomic and plastid DNA.
Physicochemical Properties of Normal and Waxy Job's Tears (Coix lachryma‐jobi L.) Starch
Authors: Li Jiansheng , Corke Harold
Published: June 2007

Physicochemical properties of starches from eight coix (Coix lachrymajobi L.) accessions were investigated. There was considerable variation in most measured traits, generally corresponding to the separation into waxy and normal amylose types. The amylose contents of five normal coix ranged from 15.9 to 25.8%, and those of three waxy coix were 0.7–1.1%. Swelling power of waxy coix starches varied between 28.6 and 41.0 g/g, generally higher than waxy maize. Normal coix starches had significantly higher gelatinization peak temperature (Tp) than the normal maize, 71.9–75.5°C. The Tp of waxy coix starches was 71.1–71.4°C, similar to waxy maize. Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA) pasting profiles of normal coix showed little variation and closely matched the normal maize starch profile. Pasting profiles of waxy coix showed more variation and had lower peak viscosities than waxy maize starch. Waxy coix starches formed very weak gels, while the gel hardness of normal coix starches was 11.4–31.1 g. Amylose content was the main factor controlling differences in starch properties of the coix starches.
Relationships Between Small‐Scale Wheat Quality Assays and Commercial Test Bakes
Authors: Graybosch R. A. , Peterson C. J. , Hareland G. A. , Shelton D. R. , Olewnik M. C. , He H. , Stearns M. M.
Published: June 2007

Typical commercial bakeries in the United States are highly mechanized, mass‐production facilities. U.S. hard wheat breeding programs use small‐scale physical dough testing and pup loaf bake procedures to identify and select improved quality genotypes. The accuracy of such approaches in the prediction of commercial‐scale quality performance is poorly understood. Samples from six hard red winter wheat cultivars grown in 11 locations over three harvest years were used to correlate grain hardness, small‐scale test bakes, mixograph variables, and various measures of flour protein composition with quality assessments from commercial test laboratories. Samples were milled on both pilot‐ and small‐scale mills. Protein content and 100‐g pup loaf volume were more often significantly correlated with commercial test bake variables than all other small‐scale variables. Stepwise multiple regression models explained, on average, ≈40% of the variation in commercial test bake procedures. Mixograph properties, pup loaf volumes and absorption, and flour protein content were the most frequent variables identified in model development. Pup loaf bake results on pilot‐ and small‐scale milled flours were highly correlated. Differences in milling technology do not appear to be a significant source of error in relating small‐scale test bakes to commercial quality.
General Application of Raman Spectroscopy for the Determination of Level of Acetylation in Modified Starches
Authors: Lee Phillips David , Liu Huijun , Pan Duohai , Corke Harold
Published: June 2007

A method using Raman spectroscopy was recently developed for the determination of the degree of acetylation in modified wheat starch. In this article, we show that the method can be generalized to a wide range of starches of different botanical origin and amylose content. Calibration sets were used to develop regression equations for 11 types of acetylated starches, including cereal (rice, maize, wheat) and noncereal (potato and sweetpotato) sources. The calibration lines were then used to predict the level of acetylation of starch samples with unknown level of acetylation using their Raman spectra. In each case, R2 > 0.98 for linear regression of Raman vs. titrimetric determination of acetylation. The Raman‐based calibration curves allow fast and nondestructive determination of the degree of acetylation for different types of starches.
Effect of Moisture Content on Thermomechanical Behavior of Concentrated Wheat Starch‐Water Preparations
Authors: Rolee A. , LeMeste M.
Published: June 2007

The rheological behavior of wheat starch preparations at intermediate moisture contents (25–60%, w/w) was studied by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and electron spin resonance (ESR) experiments were also performed in parallel. Upon heating wheat starch preparations from 25 to 85°C, DMTA showed first a slight decrease in storage modulus (G′) to 45–60°C, then an increase of the shear modulus (predominant effect of swelling) to 68–74°C, followed by a decrease (predominant effect of melting‐softening) to 85°C. In this 25–85°C temperature range, the initial swelling and subsequent softening were less pronounced with decreasing moisture content. The 45% moisture content level appeared critical, since there was a radical change in the thermomechanical behavior below this concentration. DSC showed that gelatinization did not appear as a single endotherm but as two endotherms. Whatever the moisture content, the melting started within a quite narrow temperature range, while the end of melting shifted progressively to higher temperatures as moisture content was decreased. ESR showed first a slight decrease in the water‐soluble probe (Tempol) mobility as temperature was increased to 47–50°C, followed by a pronounced decrease to 57–60°C. Then, a progressive increase in probe mobility was observed to 85°C. These changes in probe mobility suggest some modifications of the kinetic and thermodynamic properties of the aqueous phase associated with changes in the starch physical state. For the lowest moisture contents, the probe mobility was quite stable during heating.
Comparative Effects of 1BL/1RS Translocation in Relation to Protein Composition and Milling and Baking Quality of Soft Red Winter Wheat
Authors: Johnson Janet M. , Griffey Carl A. , Harris Carolyn H.
Published: June 2007

Forty grain samples, derived from six soft red winter wheat lines with 1BL/1RS and four genotypes without the translocation, grown in four diverse environments, were used to assess test weight, flour yield, protein content of grain and flour, rheological properties, and end‐use characteristics in cakes and cookies. Wheat lines with 1BL/1RS had similar or higher mean test weights than lines without the translocation. Mean flour yields were similar for the two groups. Test weight was not predictive of flour yield. Mean values for grain moisture, grain protein, and rheological properties, as measured by farinograph for mixing time stability and mixing tolerance index, were similar for wheat lines with and without 1BL/1RS. In several cases, flour from lines with 1BL/1RS produced dough with greater mixing tolerance and cakes with higher volume and softer texture than did check lines without the translocation. However, the translocation in these soft red winter wheat lines resulted in higher farinograph water absorption by the flour and decreased cookie spread. The results of this study were novel in that end‐use, specifically baking quality of soft wheat lines with 1BL/1RS, varied dramatically depending on whether cookies or cakes were evaluated. Therefore, use of single‐product baking tests may lead to false conclusions regarding end‐use quality of 1BL/1RS soft wheat. Direct comparison between a pair of sister lines with and without 1BL/1RS indicated that the translocation had adverse effects on quality as exemplified by lower flour yield, greater farinograph water absorption, and reduced cookie diameter. However, the 1BL/1RS line had greater mixing tolerance and similar cake volume and texture scores in comparison to its sister line. In summary, 1BL/1RS lines were identified in which quality characteristics exceeded those of control cultivars and commercial flours. Genetic background and environmental factors probably affected milling and baking quality to a greater extent than the translocation. Many of the negative quality attributes previously associated with 1BL/1RS are probably due to genetic background effects and, therefore, could be greatly diminished with improvement of the genetic background in which the translocation resides.
Comparison of Unifactorial and Mixture Approaches for Optimization of Mixing Time and Flour and Water Contents in Breadmaking Formulas
Authors: De Rijck G. , Eerdekens E. , De Paepe G. , Delcour J. A. , De Bry L. , Schrevens E.
Published: June 2007

A unifactorial approach was compared with a multifactorial approach, based on mixture theory, using bread optimization. The effects of dough weight and formula, as well as mixing time, on bread properties were investigated. The unifactorial approach indicated that increasing the weight of water added to flour increased bread weight. Changing the weight of water in dough also changed the proportion of all the ingredients and total dough weight. The unifactorial approach could not unequivocally indicate the variable responsible for increases in bread weight. Conversely, the multifactorial approach clearly indicated that increased dough weight increased bread weight.
Effect of Different Wheat Classes and Their Flour Milling Streams on Textural Properties of Flour Tortillas
Authors: Wang Linfeng , Flores Rolando A.
Published: June 2007

Wheat flour tortillas were made from flour streams of three wheat cultivars: Jagger hard red winter wheat, 4AT‐9900 hard white winter wheat, and Ernie soft red winter wheat. Wheat samples were milled on a Miag experimental mill. Twelve flour streams and one straight‐grade flour were obtained. Tortillas were made from each flour stream and the straightgrade flour by the hot‐press method. Tortilla stretchability and foldability were evaluated by a texture analyzer and six panelists, respectively. Flour protein and water absorption affected tortilla texture. The foldability evaluated by panelists was positively correlated with flour protein content, farinograph water absorption, and damaged starch (P < 0.05). The 2BK and 3BK streams of hard wheat produced tortillas with strong stretchability and good foldability. Middling streams of hard wheat yielded tortillas with lighter color and less stretchability. Under the conditions tested in this study, soft wheat flours were not good for producing flour tortillas.
Postcolumn Fluorimetric HPLC Procedure for Determination of Niacin Content of Cereals
Authors: Krishnan Padmanaban G. , Mahmud Iftekher , Matthees Duane P.
Published: June 2007

Analytical procedures for determining niacin or vitamin B3 content of foods are tedious, require large quantities of toxic chemicals, and are timeconsuming. In addition, food matrices are difficult as samples because of their complex nature. A selective, sensitive HPLC technique was developed with postcolumn derivatization as well as fluorescence and spectroscopic detection systems. Niacin was separated and retained for 6.5 min on a polymeric column with an aqueous mobile phase containing sodium acetate buffer. A postcolumn system consisting of a stainless‐steel pump and reaction coil allowed detection and quantitation of niacin. An acid‐enzyme sample‐extraction method was most compatible with HPLC and postcolumn derivatization with 5% each of acidified p‐aminophenol and cyanogen bromide. Lower detection limit and mean recovery were 3.6 ng and 99.43%, respectively. Fluorescence response for nicotinamide was half that of nicotinic acid. A lower response for nicotinamide was also noted with conventional spectroscopy. However, the new method yielded comparable values for six of eight ready‐to‐eat commercial cereal samples. No significant difference was observed between the AACC reference and HPLC fluorimetric methods. Chemical derivatization was done within a reaction coil with reagents at half strength, limiting exposure to hazards and minimizing waste‐disposal problems.
Thin‐Layer Models for Intermittent Drying of Rough Rice
Authors: Shei Hung‐Jung , Chen Yi‐luen
Published: June 2007

Thin‐layer drying data was collected for rough rice from 108 treatments. Four thin‐layer equations were derived by regression analysis to predict the drying behavior for deep‐bed drying of rough rice. The proposed equations consider the effects of drying air temperature, drying air absolute humidity, drying time interval, and tempering time interval. Drying air temperature range was 35–65°C, drying air absolute humidity range was 10–26 g/kg of dry air, drying time interval was 5–15 min, and tempering time interval was 40–120 min. In addition, the variations of moisture content with tempering time intervals and drying time intervals were considered. Within the tempering time interval range of 40–120 min and drying time interval of 5–15 min, a shorter drying time interval and a longer tempering time interval are preferable in a recirculating type rice dryer.
Batch Steeping of Corn: Effects of Adding Lactic Acid and Sulfur Dioxide at Different Times on Starch Yields, Protein Contents, and Starch Pasting Properties
Authors: Singh V. , Haken A. E. , Dowd M. K. , Niu Y. X. , Zou S. H. , Eckhoff S. R.
Published: June 2007

The effect of adding lactic acid and sulfur dioxide at different times from the start of batch steeping on corn starch yields was studied. Five commercial hybrids were steeped with 0.5% lactic acid or 0.2% sulfur dioxide added over the first 15 hr of steeping and wet‐milled following a 100‐g corn wet‐milling procedure. No significant differences were observed in starch yields when lactic acid was added to the steep solution (SO2 and water) from 0 hr (start of steeping) to 15 hr. Addition of SO2 to the steep solution (lactic acid and water) resulted in significantly higher average starch yields when SO2 was added between 5 and 15 hr compared with addition at 0 hr (SO2 and lactic acid for full 24 hr of steeping). Based on the results of the first experiment, a second experiment was done in which one of five original hybrids was steeped for 24 hr, during which lactic acid or SO2 was added until 23.9 hr (i.e., 5 min before milling) after the start of steeping. Similar results were found in the second experiment. Residual protein in starch samples did not exceed 0.85%. Steepwater protein content decreased with delays (16–20 hr) in adding either chemical to the steep solution. A significant effect on starch pasting properties of chemicals and duration of chemicals in steep‐water was observed. Testing these findings using a larger scale (1,000 g) corn wet‐milling procedure produced results similar to those obtained with the 100‐g corn wet‐milling procedure.
Effects of Oxido‐Reductants on Rheological Properties of Wheat Flour Dough and Comparison with Some Characteristics of Extruded Noodles
Authors: Yeh An‐I , Shiau Sy‐Yu
Published: June 2007

The effects of oxido‐reductants on the rheological properties of wheat flour dough were evaluated by using a capillary rheometer and an oscillatory rheometer at three temperatures. The oxidants potassium iodate (KIO3) and l‐ascorbic acid (l ‐AA) significantly increased the apparent viscosity and G′ and decreased loss tangent at low temperatures of 30 and 60°C due to enhanced formation of disulfide bonds. The reductant glutathione (GSH) had the opposite effect. Heating caused the gelatinization of starch, which diminished the effects of the oxido‐reductants and produced doughs with similar rheological properties at 80°C. The correlation between dough rheology and characteristics of extruded noodles was also studied.
Effects of Corn Hybrid and Growth Environment on Corn Curl and Pet Food Extrudates
Authors: Mathew J. M. , Hoseney R. C. , Faubion J. M.
Published: June 2007

The effects of corn growth environment and hybrid on properties of corn curl and pet food extrudates were studied. Extrusion runs were conducted using a twin‐screw extruder. Both corn curl and pet food extrudates were affected significantly by the corn growth environment (location) and corn hybrid. Corn hybrids grown at Creston, IA, produced extrudates with significantly higher expansion (indicated by lower bulk density and higher volumetric expansion index) followed by corn hybrids grown at Johnston, IA, and Nevada, IA, showing that growth environment affects extrusion properties. Hybrid 3348 produced extrudates with significantly higher expansion than that of extrudates from Pioneer Hi‐Bred 3394. A decrease in protein, and the subsequent increase in starch, appears to be related to the increase in extrudate expansion. This suggests that the amount of starch in the sample may be responsible for the effects of environment and hybrids on expansion. Significant (P < 0.05) correlations existed between corn curl bulk density and pet food extrudate properties, indicating that corn curl extrusion can be used to predict the performance of different corn hybrids in production of extruded pet food.
Relationship of Creep‐Recovery and Dynamic Oscillatory Measurements to Durum Wheat Physical Dough Properties
Authors: Edwards N. M. , Dexter J. E. , Scanlon M. G. , Cenkowski S.
Published: June 2007

Durum wheat gluten strength is important in determining extrusion properties and pasta cooking quality. Durum wheats varying in strength were tested using an alveograph and a 2‐g micro‐mixograph, both widely accepted techniques for determination of physical dough properties. Doughs from the 2‐g micro‐mixograph were characterized by dynamic oscillatory and large deformation creep tests using a controlled stress rheometer. Mechanical properties obtained from both testing regimes were strongly correlated with many of the parameters provided by the alveograph and micro‐mixograph. Maximum strain attained after 5 min creep ranged from <5% for the strongest least extensible cultivar to >25% for the weakest cultivar, with a coefficient of variation among replicates of <10%. Storage modulus (G′) at 2 Hz ranged from ≈7,000 Pa for the weakest cultivar to >16,000 Pa for the strongest, least extensible cultivars, with a coefficient of variation of <6%. Tan δ (G″/G′) values were ≈0.4 for the strongest versus >0.5 for the weakest cultivars, indicating the larger contribution of the elastic component in the strong cultivars. The rheometer allows discrimination of durum wheat cultivars of varying gluten strength while requiring less sample than traditional physical dough testing techniques.
Soft Wheat Quality as Related to Protein Composition
Authors: Huebner F. R. , Bietz J. A. , Nelsen T. , Bains G. S. , Finney P. L.
Published: June 2007

Soft red and white winter wheats from the eastern United States, used primarily to produce cookies, cakes, and biscuits, have quality requirements very different from those of bread wheats. In general, soft wheats have been bred to have low protein content, and conventional wisdom has been that protein composition of soft wheat is relatively unimportant. To test this hypothesis, relationships between soft wheat protein composition and end‐use functional quality characteristics were examined. Quantitative protein compositions of eight cultivars of soft wheats grown in a wide area of the eastern United States during seven years (53 samples total) were analyzed by size‐exclusion HPLC. Results were statistically correlated with numerous chemical and physical characteristics and quality factors of these wheats, their flours, and of cookies baked from the flours. For the entire sample set, wheats containing high molecular weight glutenin subunits 2+12 showed significantly different properties and cookie characteristics from those with subunits 5+10, but amounts of most individual fractions correlated poorly with quality descriptors. For individual soft wheat cultivars, however, amounts of many individual gliadin and glutenin subfractions correlated significantly with quality descriptors such as SDS sedimentation, mixograph absorption, peak mixing time, mixograph number, cookie diameter, and top grain. Protein contents as a function of genotype and environment also differed greatly among cultivars, as did ratios of gliadin to glutenin. These results clearly revealed that suitability of soft wheat cultivars for specific products can be rapidly determined by quantitative and qualitative analyses of protein composition.
Role of Flour Fractions in Breadmaking Quality of Frozen Dough
Authors: Lu W. , Grant L. A.
Published: June 2007

The primary objective of the research was to fractionate two flours into four major flour components (starch, water solubles, gliadin, and glutenin) and determine the contributions of these fractions to frozen dough quality. Two hard red spring wheat flours of diverse mixing properties, Glupro (strong) and Prospect (weak), were used. When each fraction of Prospect was replaced by the corresponding Glupro fraction, the baking quality of the Prospect reconstituted frozen doughs was improved. Replacement of Glupro fractions with equivalent Prospect fractions resulted in a decline in baking quality of the reconstituted frozen doughs. The functional properties of the four fractions appeared to depend on interactions between fraction and flour components. This was observed when two fractions from one cultivar were simultaneously exchanged with the corresponding two fractions of the other cultivar. This experiment resulted in better baking quality than that of the original reconstituted flours. Within the strong and weak flours, the effect of each fraction on frozen dough was significantly different. Of the four fractions, glutenin played a predominant role in baking quality of the frozen doughs. The gliadin and starch fractions contributed significantly to frozen dough quality but not as much as the glutenin fraction. The contribution of the water‐soluble fractions to frozen dough quality was minimal. Results of this study corroborate published reports that stronger flours perform better in frozen bread doughs. Intercultivar differences in flour strength required for frozen doughs appear to be in the glutenin protein fraction.
Maize Endosperm Proteins That Contribute to Endosperm Lysine Content
Authors: Yau J. C. , Bockholt A. J. , Smith J. D. , Rooney L. W. , Waniska R. D.
Published: June 2007

Nonzein proteins were analyzed using SDS‐PAGE to study their relationship to lysine level in mature endosperm of three isogenic lines and 29 inbred lines. The majority of nonzein proteins are glutelins that contain a relatively high lysine content. Trinitrobenzene‐sulfonic acid was used to visualize high‐lysine proteins on nitrocellulose membrane. Seven intense yellow bands (high‐lysine proteins) were found in the glutelin fraction: 35, 43, 48, 52, 84, 92, and 100 kDa. These seven glutelin proteins were also significantly correlated to each other. Lysine content of the triads correlated with three glutelin proteins (35, 43, and 52 kDa), while lysine content of 29 inbred lines correlated with six glutelin proteins (all except 52‐kDa protein). Immunoassays based on these higher lysine glutelin proteins provide an effective screening method in the presence of variable zein levels. Retention or improvement of lysine content is possible using this information in a maize improvement program.
Glutenin Protein Changes During Breadmaking of Four Spring Wheats: Fractionation by Multistacking SDS Gel Electrophoresis and Quantification with High‐Resolution Densitometry
Authors: Borneo Rafael , Khan Khalil
Published: June 2007

A multistacking SDS‐PAGE procedure coupled with high‐resolution densitometry was used to fractionate, characterize, and quantify unreduced glutenin proteins at various stages of the breadmaking process of four wheat cultivars differing in functional characteristics. Unreduced protein aggregates of the highest molecular weight (4% origin) showed an initial decrease after mixing and a subsequent increase during fermentation. Proteins retained at the 6% origin remained unchanged while protein aggregates retained at 8 and 10% origins decreased during breadmaking. Proteins retained at the 12 and 14% origins tend to increase during bread‐making. At all multistacking gel origins, subunits 2* and 5 (wheat cultivar Len) increased initially after mixing and then remained constant. Glutenin subunits 2*, 5, and 7 of cultivar Marshall exhibited the same pattern of change during breadmaking in all the protein aggregate groups (4–14%). Their proportion initially decreased (after mixing) and then increased in later stages. In contrast, subunits 9 and 10 of Marshall increased in the initial stages (after mixing) and then decreased in the later stages. Len, a good quality cultivar, contains gluten aggregates of higher molecular weight than the poorer quality cultivar, Marshall. The changes that occurred in the high molecular weight glutenin fraction revealed that Len had fewer changes in the proportion of the high molecular weight glutenin subunits distributed at various multistacking gel origins throughout the breadmaking process. The high molecular weight glutenin subunit stability for Len was greater than for a poorer quality cultivar such as Marshall. This may have enhanced the performance of Len during breadmaking.
Effect of Single Substitution of Glutenin or Gliadin Proteins on Flour Quality of Alpha 16, a Canada Prairie Spring Wheat Breeders' Line
Authors: Wesley A. S. , Lukow O. M. , Ames N. , Kovacs M. I. P. , McKenzie R. I. H. , Brown D.
Published: June 2007

The effect of genetic variation in the glutenin and gliadin protein alleles of Alpha 16, a Canada Prairie Spring (CPS) wheat line, on the dough mixing, bread, and noodle quality properties were evaluated. The presence of a gliadin component (BGGL) and the low molecular weight glutenin subunit (LMW‐GS) 45 found in the selection Biggar BSR were associated with significant increases in dough strength characteristics. The results of the study showed that gliadins, LMW‐GS, and high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW‐GS) can influence bread‐ and noodle‐making properties of wheat flour. Genotype‐by‐environment interactions were not significant for most of the quality parameters studied, indicating that the differences observed in quality characteristics were mainly due to the effect of genotype.