bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Engineering Study of an Oil Gellation Technique to Control Spills from Distressed Tankers
Authors: Goldstein Arnold M. , Koros Robert M. , Tarmy Barry L.
Published: January 2013

Crude oil gellation is a potentially attractive technique for minimizing or preventing the loss of oil from a distressed tanker by converting the liquid oil into a rigid solid. The procedure involves the chemical reaction of two organic liquid gelling agents dissolved in the oil to form a gelant compound which entraps the oil. The resulting gel would float as a coherent mass if it were extruded from a ship or escape as a result of tanker break-up.

This paper presents the results of a program undertaken to demonstrate in situ gellation on a large scale, and to gather engineering design information for this technique. The work was jointly funded in part by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Engineering design data gathered during this study include the effect of mixing energy, mixing time, gellation time and temperature on gel strength. In addition, rheological properties of the gel were examined to relate gel strength to the maximum fluid static head that may be maintained without flow through a certain hull hole. Details of a gellation test with 500 bbl of South Louisiana crude oil will be discussed. The experimental unit was 7′ × 14′ × 30′ high and represented the region between two transverse frames in a wing compartment of a 21,000 dwt tanker. The design criteria for the mixing equipment required for gellation was validated by tracer mixing studies in both the 500 bbl tank and a one-seventh scale model of the larger unit. This work forms the basis for the further efforts on equipment development, selection and evaluation required before this technique can be used in the field.
Development of a Polyurethane Foam Marine Oil Recovery System
Authors: Oxenham J. P. , Cochran R. A. , Hemphill D. P. , Scott P. R. , Fraser J. P.
Published: January 2013

A system has been developed for recovering spilled oil from water, under a wide variety of environmental conditions and for all types of oils, at rates up to 9,000 gal/hr. This system is based on the use of polyurethane foam, foamed on the job site, as a sorbent for the spilled oil. The foam is recirculated to increase efficiency and to lower unit costs. Equipment needed includes collection booms, an open-mesh chainlink belt for harvesting the oil-soaked sorbent, and a roller-wringer to remove oil and water from the foam. The foam is initially comminuted and distributed onto the water by means of a hay blower (mulcher), and recycled pneumatically or by mechanical conveyor. Recovered oil and water are transported to shore for further treatment prior to disposal. Used foam is disposed of by incineration.
Development and Preliminary Design of a Sorbent Oil Recovery System
Authors: Jr. Eugene R. Miller,
Published: January 2013

The development and preliminary design of a sorbent oil recovery system was carried out under contract to the EPA. The system is based on the use of open-cell reticulated polyurethane foam sorbent material. This material may be regenerated for use in a continuous system by mechanical squeezing. The development program included studies of the sorbent performance, the broadcasting system, the harvesting conveyor, the sorbent regenerator and the recovery platform performance. The results of the development program showed that an oil recovery system based on the continuous reuse of the sorbent material is feasible. Based on the data developed, a preliminary design for a 3000 GPH recovery system for protected waters was prepared.
Spill Prevention in Offshore Petroleum Producing Facilities
Authors: Warner D. G.
Published: January 2013

Blowout prevention and pollution control in offshore petroleum operations are of prime concern to Industry, Government and the public. This paper reviews spill prevention equipment and procedures used in offshore oil production and discusses Exxon Company, U.S.A. and Industry programs to achieve maximum protection.

Several pollution prevention systems are utilized. Subsurface safety valves shut in the wells below the mud line if an emergency develops. Surface safety valves on each well provide automatic shut-in if an abnormal condition is detected by one of a large number of platform sensors. Oil leaks are retained in sumps. Sand erosion detectors are installed on wells to identify potential erosional failures before they can occur.

The paper concludes that various Industry and regulatory programs are providing the pollution control that is needed. Technological developments and reliability improvements are continuing. Ongoing work emphasizes development of improved subsurface safety valve concepts applicable to all wells, better manufacturing quality control and standards, and future reductions of human errors through training and safety programs.
Evaluation of a Unique Centrifuge for Separation of Oil from Ship Discharge Water
Authors: Harvey Andrew C. , Stokes Vijay K.
Published: January 2013

A centrifuge was conceived and tested especially for the separation of oil as it is usually dispersed in the bilge and ballast water of ships. The centrifuge is unusual in having predominantly axial flow allowing comparatively high throughput and low speed. It has both primary and secondary stages of separation incorporated into the design and is thus capable of operating with high input concentrations. The device was tested in the laboratory using mixers in a storage tank and a centrifugal pump to disperse up to 8 percent oil in water.

Effluent concentrations in the range of 10 ppm were obtained with inputs containing 1000 ppm of No. 2, No. 4 and Nigerian Crude Oils. At higher concentrations ranging up to 58,800 ppm for No. 2 oil and 18,900 for No. 4 oil the effluent contained less than 100 ppm. Centrifuge performance on No. 2 and No. 4 oils containing ten percent Gamlen D was lower than with pure oils. Coalescence occurred but produced drops smaller than with pure oils requiring a modification to the separator design. The input and output oil droplet size distributions were measured using the Coulter particle counter. This permitted an evaluation of separator performance as a function of the drop size content of the oil dispersion and a rational assessment of the design method and its application to the development of future prototypes.
Analytical Examination of Oil/Water Separation by Coalescence
Authors: Finger Stanley M. , Yu T. S.
Published: January 2013

The physical separation process of coalescence has been studied analytically under controlled conditions in regard to the separation of oil from oily water mixtures. Variations in coalescer performance were studied as a function of the oily water feed to a three stage prototype separation system of which coalescence was the final stage. The data were analyzed statistically and it was shown that increasing suspended solids concentration, increasing oil viscosity, and increasing oil concentration decreased coalescer element lifetime, however, above a certain level increasing oil concentration had no effect. Variations in the total flow rate in the range of one to four gallons per minute per square foot did not have a significant effect on coalescer element life. Under all conditions studied, the effluent water contained less than 15 parts per million oil, only ten percent of the samples analyzed contained more than this amount. The results indicate that coalescence is useful as a final polishing step in an oil/water separation system.
Design Parameter Study of an Oil-Spill Boom
Authors: Chung J. S. , Cunningham G. R. , Evon J. M.
Published: January 2013

Oil-spill containment boom design involves a broad area of technology: air-oil-water flow in the presence of a moving barrier, wave mechanics, and motions of bodies acted on by winds, waves, and currents. Although many devices have been designed to control oil spills, systematic parametric studies and published engineering design data have been scarce. For this reason, we have studied fundamental design parameters and tested their application to boom design with models in towing tanks and a full-scale sea trial in the Santa Barbara Channel. The results have been applied to a boom owned by Clean Seas, Inc.

This work has developed the proper relationships between the size and shape of boom modules and waves to (1) achieve in-phase motions, (2) determine the optimum net depth for a net-system boom, (3) reduce modular interaction and damage, (4) reduce boom tensions, and (5) determine boom strength requirements. All these are interrelated, but the various parameters are presented by categories. The test results supporting these parameters are also presented.
Measurement of Evaporation Rates from Oil Slicks on the Open Sea
Authors: Sivadier Henri O. , Mikolaj Paul G.
Published: January 2013

A gas chromatographic method of analysis, applicable for all types of petroleum products, has been developed to measure the time dependent extent of evaporation from an oil slick on the open sea. Laboratory calibration tests show the method to have an uncertainty in evaporative weight loss of less than 1 percent. The method has been tested in the Santa Barbara Channel using oil from natural seeps at Coal Oil Point. Under sea state four conditions, this oil lost most of its volatile components in one to two hours. The resulting oil slick residue became sufficiently dense that it could easily enter the water column where it would be subjected to subsurface transport mechanisms. Sea surface roughness was observed to have a significant effect on the rate of evaporation.
Prediction of Oil Slick Motions in Narragansett Bay
Authors: Premack Joel , Brown George A.
Published: January 2013

In the development of meaningful oil spill contingency plans, it is of great value in establishing the response to a spill emergency to have predictions of oil slick motions once the spill occurs. In an attempt to evaluate some of the present technical literature on oil spill motion, a calculation was made for the oil spill motion which occurred in Narragansett Bay in September, 1960 when the tanker P.W. Thirtle ran aground and emitted about 24,000 barrels of Bunker C oil over a 12 hour period before successful abatement of the source was completed.

The existing literature on oil slick spreading was reviewed and the work of Fay was chosen to represent the slick's spreading characteristics. The existing literature on oil slick drift was reviewed and the work of Teason, et. al, was used to establish the drift motion under the influence of current and wind actions. An available numerical hydrodynamic model of Narragansett Bay was used to calculate the current characteristics in the vicinity of the spills during the period of interest. Appropriate wind data were combined with the current data in order to obtain the important hydrodynamic and meteorological conditions. Since no comprehensive theory exists at the moment for oil slick spreading and drift, a simple model was taken in which the 24,000 barrels were emitted from the source in the form of 12 hourly discharges of 2000 barrels each. These individual spills were then handled on the basis of the available spreading theory and the drift motion calculated as described above. Although this is a crude approximation, it does give an estimate of the location and area magnitude of the spreading as a function of time after the spill.

The predicted results were compared with documentation of this spill as presented in the Providence Journal. The overall slick motion as calculated by this procedure was in good agreement with arrival times of the spill in Newport Harbor and other places in Narragansett Bay and with the overall surface area involved in the spill. This example of the calculation of the oil slick motion in an estuary at least gives some confidence to oil spill contingency planners that numerical calculations can be made for use in planning response and abatement to oil spills.
Cleanup of Inland Oil Spills
Authors: Betts W. E.
Published: January 2013

This paper outlines the requirements for dealing with accidental inland oil spills. It emphasizes the importance of using the optimum method of cleanup for each spill and the desirable features for cleanup equipment of efficiency, portability, low cost, ease of use and versatility.

Several gaps in oil pollution technology have been bridged by the development of equipment specially designed to meet the needs of inland spills.

These new devices are described and have been incorporated into a low-cost package of cleanup equipment which can be used in a variety of ways to meet the containment, removal and storage needs of each unique spill situation.

The necessity of a flexible approach to inland oil spills is shown by examples of how a variety of spills have been successfully cleaned up. Examples include oil on a fast flowing stream, removal of accumulated oil in a port, oil on a covered drinking water reservoir and oil on rivers. Examples are also given of the method of handling underground pollution by hydraulic drive systems and by recovery from the groundwater for both shallow groundwaters up to 8 m below the surface and deep drinking water bore holes.
Two Types of Oil Spills in Swedish Inland Waters — Tests of New Materials, Ideas and Methods
Authors: Jerbo Allan
Published: January 2013

At several places in Sweden there is a continuous oil-spill into ponds and lakes from engine sheds. During 1969–1971 new methods and materials were tested in order to reconstruct oil-contaminated water and sediment. Thus the bottom of a lake was harrowed with compressed air and the oil brought to the water surface where it was adsorbed. A new type of adsorption material, adsorbent blower, booms, incinerators and technique were designed.

The result of the reconstruction was the following:

In February 1972, 600 tons of diesel oil was spilled in a river in the northern part of Sweden. Downstream from the spill is a system of hydroelectric power stations, fisheries and freshwater-intakes. Thus there was a real chance to destroy domestic water. The mean temperature during January and February was between −25°C to −35°C and the river was partly frozen.

Materials and methods were thus tested during hard conditions. The restoration was divided into using standard methods and developing new methods and materials.

Thus:a pontoon bridge was built across the riverfrom the bridge adsorption material, Saneringsull, was blown out over the floating oiloil-contaminated ice and snow was burned together with Saneringsullthe adsorbed oil was allowed to be frozen in the icethe ice containing oil and adsorption materials was lifted to an ice-tip, later on the ice was meltedoil on free water surface was adsorbed. The adsorption material was spread from aircraft and boatslater on the adsorption material was transported to the shore and burned in incineratorsin order to protect the downstream area three types of booms were designed, no conventional boom could ever be usedevery week water-samples were taken and analysedtestfishing was performed in May 1972.

Summary: The amount of oil one mile downstream from the last boom was never higher than 1 PPM and the fish did not contain any phenols or oils. The oil content of the surface water in the spill area and 5 miles downstream was, after the clean up job, at about 3 PPM which is normal for rivers during the timber-floating period.

Total Cost: about $170,000 including the innovation and tests.
Development of Methodology and Apparatus for the Bioassay of Oil
Authors: Lichatowich J. A. , O'Keefe P. W. , Strand J. A. , Templeton W. L.
Published: January 2013

Bioassay of petroleum or its components presents technical problems not encountered in testing of soluble and less volatile materials. The literature includes numerous accounts of toxicity for both crude and refined oil. In most instances, the indices of toxicity are based on metered inflow. Few such studies, however, consider the concentrations of oil in the water column to which the test organism is exposed.

Essentially oil and water form a two-phase system. Even on a continuous flow basis, oil cannot be maintained as a homogeneous oil-water mixture within a bioassay test system. Homogenization techniques produce a totally artificial environment dissimilar to natural conditions characterized by a slick of floating oil. Furthermore, since subsurface oil concentrations may represent a small fraction of the metered inflow, currently applied indices of toxicity based on metered inflow may be erroneous.

This presentation summarizes techniques that may be applied in the bioassay of oil and other non-miscible materials. Special attention is directed to the above problems. Bioassay procedures are described that are conducted in flow-through tanks equipped with gravity oil metering systems and static mixers to equilibrate diluent water. Oil concentrations measured at different depths are utilized to calculate the mean level of exposure of the test organisms in the water column. Habitat preference and behavior of the test organism during bioassay were assessed in relationship to toxicity.

This work was performed under contract to the American Petroleum Institute, Committee on Environmental Affairs.
A Salt Marsh Microcosm: An Experimental Unit for Marine Pollution Studies
Authors: Nadeau Royal J. , Roush Thomas H.
Published: January 2013

Present day bioassay procedures are inadequate to assess impact of a pollutant upon the environment. Using a single species tested under rigid laboratory conditions does not produce ecologically relevant information.

A salt marsh microcosm was established and monitored to assess its applicability as a water pollution research tool toward determining the impact of oil spills upon coastal salt marshes. Growth of the major grass species was a measure of similarity between a nearby native salt marsh and the microcosm. No significant differences in growth were observed in low (Spartina alterniflora) and high marsh (Spartina patens and Distichlis spicata) species during most of the growing season.

Gas chromatography, ultraviolet and fluorescent spectrophotometry were used to monitor the fate of oil released into one side of the microcosm. High boiling range hydrocarbons probably of biogenic origin, interfered with quantification by ultraviolet and fluorescent spectroscopy, but could be separated by gas chromatography for qualitative examination.

Salt marsh microcosms can be easily used for studying the fate and effects of pollutants through a program of careful observation and monitoring.
Effects of Seawater Extracts of Crude Oil on Carbon Budgets in Two Species of Mussels
Authors: Gilfillan Edward S.
Published: January 2013

Effects of crude oil and salinity stress on the metabolism of two common filter feeding animals (Mytilus edulis and Modiolus demissus) have been investigated. Carbon budgets have been calculated for each species under a variety of combination of oil content and salinity. Both reduced salinity and crude oil tend to decrease the net carbon balance for each species; stresses from each source were additive in their effects on experimental animals. Although similar responses to oil were shown by each species, Mytilus appeared to be somewhat more resistant to oil than Modiolus.
Biological Effects of Refinery Effluents
Authors: Baker Jenifer M.
Published: January 2013

Refinery effluents contribute an estimated 300,000 tons of oil per year to the sea, but the biological effects of continuous but low concentrations of oil and other compounds are not well known. Different approaches to the problem are described, and field and laboratory results summarized. Different ecosystems differ in their capacity to receive and degrade effluents, and speed of dispersion and dilution is a major factor determining amount of biological damage. Changes in distribution and abundance of species are often very localised and in some cases may result from behavioural responses rather than direct toxic effects; areas of influence in terms of sub-lethal absorption of oil or other effluent constituents are not yet known. Biologically acceptable limits for effluents will vary considerably between sites and do not necessarily correspond with the present somewhat arbitrary restrictions.
A Study of the Effects of the San Francisco Oil Spill on Marine Organisms
Authors: Chan Gordon L.
Published: January 2013

The San Francisco oil spill occurred on January 18, 1971, during the early morning hours when two Standard Oil vessels collided almost directly under the Golden Gate Bridge, releasing 840,000 gallons of Bunker C fuel. This asphalt-like oil was washed up on intertidal shores of the area.

Duxbury Reef, northwest of the Golden Gate Bridge, is literally the “backyard” of the author and the College of Marin's Bolinas Marine Station staff. Baseline transects have been established on this reef since 1958. The oil was heavily deposited on the reef's mussel beds and high tidal berm rocks.

From comparative transect and laboratory observations, it was determined that marine organisms died from being smothered by the oil, with certain species, such as acorn barnacles and limpets, suffering the highest mortality at Sausalito and on Duxbury Reef. Comparison of pre-oil and post-oil transect counts showed there was a significant decrease in marine life after the oil spill on the reef Marine snails suffered less mortality than the sessile barnacles and other sedentary animals. The normally large population of striped shore crabs is missing from the rocky crevices. Finally, marine algal blooms were also observed in certain reef localities.

The present condition of Duxbury Reef (December, 1971) is one of apparent good health; the recruitment of some marine animals appear to be approaching normal levels. The oil has disappeared from much of the reef surfaces and is barely discernible in the most heavily deluged areas. Continued studies will be aimed at watching the effects of oil on the recruitment of marine life throughout the afflicted areas of the Marin County coastline.
Interagency Investigations of a Persistent Oil Spill on the Washington Coast: Animal Population Studies, Hydrocarbon Uptake by Marine Organisms, and Algae Response Following the Grounding of the Troopship GENERAL M. C. MEIGS
Authors: Jr. Robert C. Clark, , Finley John S. , Patten Benjamin G. , Stefani Dennis F. , DeNike Edward E.
Published: January 2013

An interagency team of biologists, chemists, oceanographers and engineers has been investigating the long-term effects of oil spilled by the grounding of the troopship GENERAL M. C. MEIGS January 6, 1972, on an ocean coast intertidal community of plants and animals. Oil has continuously been released from the 440,000 liters of Navy Special Fuel Oil carried by the vessel. The team assessed biological damage by making 1) surveys of abundance and physiological condition of animals, 2) qualitative evaluation of obvious damage to plants, and 3) measurements of the hydrocarbon uptake in both plants and animals. A series of sites, forming a vertical profile of the rocky shelf area from the upper intertidal zone to the lowest low tide level in Wreck Cove, have been studied.

This report describes the preliminary findings of the first ten months (January-October, 1972) of the investigation. Abnormal and dead urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) indicated that this species was affected. Loss of fronds and bleached thalli not evident in control areas were observed in the plant community in the immediate vicinity of the hulk. Petroleum hydrocarbons were taken up in the intertidal community. The normal paraffin hydrocarbon patterns and content over the range n-C14 H30 to n-C37H76 of healthy-appearing goose barnacles (Mitella polymerus), crabs (Hemigrapsus nudus) and an alga (Fucus gardneri) display the same basic characteristics as the fuel oil which had been lost from the GENERAL M. C. MEIGS.
The Visibility of Oil-Water Discharges
Authors: Hornstein Bernard
Published: January 2013

Oil Spills:

Controlled oil films from 15 through 3000 nanometers (3 microns) thick show reflectance and interference color effects that vary in an orderly way with film thickness, and that agree with the well-known table published by the American Petroleum Institute. This inherent appearance depends only upon local film thickness and is independent of oil type. Visibility of a given film is variable and is affected by ambient factors that include sky conditions, water surface state, and the depth and color of the water.

Oil-Water Discharges:

Controlled streams of 25 to 100 gpm, containing 5 to 250 ppm of oil, were discharged into Raritan Bay from a 65-foot vessel. Discharge points were above the surface or 2 to 5 feet below the surface, with the vessel an anchor in tidal currents, simulating a fixed source in a low current. Above-surface discharges were also made with the vessel underway at 6 to 15 knots. The visibility and appearance of films resulting from the discharges were recorded from the vessel and from a helicopter.

The visibility of above-surface discharges for all combinations of water rate, oil content, and vessel speed, is correlated by a Specific Oil Rate (SOR) parameter:

Discharges of SOR = 4 or less were not visible, while those of SOR = 40 or more were visible. Visibility varied for intermediate discharges in the SOR range of 4 to 40. Visibility was infrequent near SOR = 4, and became more frequent as SOR increased. Fifty percent of the SOR = 20 discharges were visible. This correlation is for observations made from an aircraft.

Results of discharges reported by the Coast Guard for vessel speeds of 10–17 kt and by the British for 8–16 kt correlate with ours via the SOR parameter. These observations were also from aircraft.

Subsurface discharges appeared substantially less visible than corresponding above surface discharges. Replication, however, was insufficient to allow development of a correlation.
LOCAL AREA POLLUTION SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS: A SUMMARY OF THE COAST GUARD'S RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES*
Authors: White G. P. , Arecchi A. V.
Published: January 2013

Each year a large number of discharges of oil and other hazardous polluting substances from transportation-related processes occur in the navigable waters of the United States. In order to minimize environmental damage from such discharges and to effect prompt containment and cleanup efforts, these spills must be detected and reported as quickly as possible. The Coast Guard has been investigating oil detection techniques and sensor equipment with a view to establishing local area pollution surveillance systems in various port and estuarine areas. The exact configuration of the surveillance systems will be dictated to a large extent by the capabilities of the detectors available. Consequently, the Coast Guard effort, to date, has been concentrated primarily on the development and evaluation of the sensors themselves. This paper summarizes that effort and presents an overview of work still to be accomplished.
FLIGHT EVALUATION OF U.S. COAST GUARD AIRBORNE OIL SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM*
Authors: Maurer A. , Edgerton A. T.
Published: January 2013

A prototype airborne oil surveillance system was developed for the United States Coast Guard by Aerojet ElectroSystems Company. The multisensor system permits real-time, day-night, all-weather detection, mapping, and documentation of oil spills at sea. The system was installed aboard a Coast Guard HU-16 Albatross and flight tested off the California coast. Surveillance data were obtained from natural seeps, a series of controlled oil spills, routine shipping, and targets of opportunity.

The airborne system consists of a sidelooking radar, a passive microwave imager, a multispectral low-light level TV, a multichannel line scanner, a position reference system, and a real-time processor-display console.

The system reliably detected and mapped oil spills and seeps in conditions ranging from dense undercast to clear, from wind speeds of 0 to 25 knots, and from daytime to total darkness. Test results demonstrate that a practical airborne oil surveillance system is feasible and can be invaluable to other Coast Guard missions.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF TAR SAMPLES FROM THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Mommessin P. R. , Raia J. C.
Published: January 2013

A summary is presented of a study conducted to characterize tar samples recovered from the marine environment. The samples were collected by the U.S. Coast Guard primarily from the northwestern Atlantic Ocean and along the eastern coast of the United States.

A multiparameter analytical approach was applied which involved microscopy, chromatography, infrared, and other analytical methods. Patterns were recognized which allowed a classification of the samples into distinct groups and which suggested possible origins.

Contract DOT-CG-23,379A, U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, D.C.

A complete report of the investigation covered under this contract (DOT-CG-23,379A) is available through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. 22151.
THE MARITIME ADMINISTRATION PROGRAM FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF OIL POLLUTION FROM VESSELS
Authors: Steinman George C. , B. ChappelWalter
Published: January 2013

This paper provides an overview of the Maritime Administration (MarAd) program to abate and control oil pollution from ships. The main thrust of the program is in the prevention of oil pollution through cost effective measures which would maintain the competitive position of the U.S. merchant fleet. The paper discusses such pollution abatement features as oil discharge monitoring and control systems, oily water separators, oily waste slop tanks, collision avoidance radar, and inert gas systems that are required to be installed on vessels that receive government financial assistance in the form of construction differential subsidy. In addition, the paper addresses the environmental and economic impact of the 1973 International Marine Pollution Convention on the Maritime Administration Tanker Construction Program, particularly as it relates to the IMCO segregated ballast requirements, improved Load-on-Top (LOT) procedures, and port reception facilities.

Finally, recommendations for future action to abate ship-generated pollution at the national and international levels are provided.
SLOP TANK DESIGN FOR IMPROVED LOAD-ON-TOP
Authors: Fiocco Robert J. , Ridley Vincent W.
Published: January 2013

Slop tanks are the focal point of the Load-On-Top system used on crude oil tankers to prevent pollution of the sea. Design of these tanks and their operating procedures strongly affect the degree of oil-water separation achieved. This paper presents the results of an investigation undertaken to define designs and procedures for improving separation and minimizing oil discharge to sea. The program was funded in part by the U.S. Maritime Administration.

Based on tanker experience and laboratory tests with tank models, guidelines on capacity, structure, inlets, outlets, system design, and wastewater handling, procedures were developed. The guidelines aim at assuring successful Load-On-Top operations by (1) providing tanker operational flexibility for handling oily water, (2) minimizing the degree of oil-water mixing, (3) avoiding re-dispersion of separated oil during feeding and discharging operations, and (4) eliminating the possibility of accidental oil contamination.

This investigation provides a basis for future large-scale or shipboard studies to improve the performance of slop tanks on existing tankers as well as on future tankers.
WATERBORNE DEBRIS IN MARINE POLLUTION INCIDENTS
Authors: Battelle John A. Hancock , Jensen Donald
Published: January 2013

Floating debris has greatly hindered the cleanup of spilled fluids in several pollution instances. This debris has hampered the use of pollution-response equipment and has presented a major materials-handling and disposal problem.

The types of waterborne debris found in coastal, harbor, and estuarine areas are described in the paper. Locations where debris has or could complicate spill cleanups are described. General natural effects on debris concentration are also given.

Current debris-handling practices are described along with the general handling requirements necessary for spill-cleanup contingency planning.

Effects of debris on pollution-response equipment are considered.
DISPOSAL OF OIL SPILL DEBRIS
Authors: Jones Richard G.
Published: January 2013

A landfill was designed and constructed for the disposal of approximately 8,500 yards of debris collected in the cleanup of a major pollution incident in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. The debris primarily consisted of sand and gravel, but also included logs, large rocks, and tires picked up during the beach cleanup. The landfill was constructed as a single cell with a sandy-silt base and cover with monitoring wells to sample the groundwater. The debris was layered in alternate layers of one foot of debris and six inches of clean fill within the cell. The results of the analysis of samples of the groundwater, to date, indicate no increase in the total organic carbon or phenolic content.
REHABILITATING OILED AQUATIC BIRDS
Authors: Smith David C
Published: January 2013

In the 1971 San Francisco oil spill, $900.00 was spent per successfully released bird, with 95% of the 4,686 treated birds dying in captivity. Through continuing research and development, those figures are improving. In 1973, the International Bird Rescue Research Center (IBRRC) treated 523 oiled birds with a 41% survival rate at a cost of approximately $15 per successfully released bird. The history, population effects, and physiological effects of oil pollution on birds are described here, and recommendations are given for treatment. The problems of maintaining aquatic birds in captivity are also discussed. Advance preparations of instructional materials, equipment, and supplies have been made by the IBRRC in anticipation of future oiled-bird incidents. Additional research is indicated.
OFFSHORE OIL POLLUTION: LAW AND ENFORCEMENT
Authors: Jackson Roy D.
Published: January 2013

The Torrey Canyon (1967) and Santa Barbara (1969) occurrences dramatized the unique nature of offshore oil pollution risks and the lack of a definitive legal system for dealing effectively with prevention, cleanup, and compensation.

Although it is not the major part of the far more serious problem of marine pollution and is caused mainly by land-sourced activity, offshore oil pollution constitutes an increasingly important hazard because of the expanded, accelerating offshore search for alternate petroleum sources and unparalleled technological innovation.

As offshore petroleum activity is essentially a transplant of land-based activity to a marine environment, the law of the sea and certain traditional legal principles are in an evolutionary process of adaptation to new factual situations. Considerable progress has occurred during the last two decades, but law and enforcement at international and regional levels are still not effective, while national regimes in the context of increasing nationalization of the sea by coastal states are in danger of becoming chaotically inconsistent. Two approaches hold realistic promise: first, industry's voluntary programs, which are impressive in scope and efficiency; secondly, joint government/industry consultation, cooperation, and action, which accentuates the strengths and minimizes the weaknesses of the only two parties capable of protecting and advancing the public interest and encourages more effective law and enforcement.
HIGH CURRENT CONTROL OF FLOATING OIL
Authors: Dorrler J. Stephen , Ayers Ray , Wooten David C.
Published: January 2013

In high current oil spill cleanup operations, containment devices should be used as one element in a containment-pickup system. To achieve successful control over the oil slick, three activities have been identified based on an analysis of the present hydrodynamic theory of oil spill containment:absorb or convert the kinetic energy of the fast-flowing water streamseparate the oil film from as much of the free-flowing stream as possibledirect the oil film to a controlled area to facilitate its collection and removal.

Acting under the authority of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency awarded a contract to Ultrasystems, Inc., of Newport Beach, California, to design, develop, and demonstrate a streamlined boom utilizing hydrofoil concepts. Additionally, EPA awarded a contract to the Shell Development Company to develop an unconventional boom profile utilizing a perforated incline plate as a baffle upstream of a conventional plate boom. This baffle creates a flow-sheltered region where the oil layer can thicken, thus facilitating its removal. Following developmental tests of these concepts, full-scale prototype tests will be conducted at the Environmental Protection Agency's OHMSETT facility in Leonardo, New Jersey. Following these tests, final reports will be issued which will include recommended design, fabrication, and material specifications.
THE CYCLONET: A DEVICE FOR PICKING UP OIL SLICKS FROM THE SEA SURFACE
Authors: Pichon Jacques
Published: January 2013

Removal of liquid pollutants accidentally released onto water surface is a serious contemporary problem. Efficient remedial action requires that well-designed, reliable equipment be brought to the scene in a matter of hours and that a pollutant-rich liquid mixture be quickly recovered however uncongenial the prevailing weather and water conditions may be. Alsthom-Techniques des Fluides has developed a simple item of equipment for recovering oil slicks from water surfaces, the CYCLONET. Principal features are:a. ready for action at short noticeb. high efficiency: mixture removed contains 80–100% pollutantc. uncomplicated design with no moving parts below water surfaced. operates in rough watere. adaptable to various types of craftf. boat engine the only power requirement.
MICROBIOLOGICAL AND NATURAL PRODUCT SYSTEMS FOR THE PROTECTION OF COASTAL SHORELINES FROM OIL SPILLS AND OIL CONTAMINATION
Authors: Stewart Wilford S.
Published: January 2013

A study has been conducted to determine the applicability and utility of microbiological systems and natural plant products for the protection of rocky shorelines and pebbly beaches from oil spills and oil contamination.

Experimental evidence has been collected indicating that various physical forms of certain microorganisms and several natural plant polysaccharides are effective in preventing the surfaces of dry rocks of various compositions and porosities from being wet by several types of oils.

Information is presented concerning the effective dosage or concentration levels of the materials required to afford protection of rocks against oil contamination, the methods of application of the protecting agents, the effects of temperature, the duration of the protection offered, and the overall efficiency of the microbiological and natural plant product systems.
OIL-DEBRIS REMOVAL BOAT SAMUEL WILKESON
Authors: Ziegler Robert C. , Lyons Thomas J.
Published: January 2013

The City of Buffalo has developed an oil-debris removal boat under the auspices of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It has an overall length of 40 feet and a beam of 14 feet with a draft ranging from 18 in to 27 in depending upon the oil load. It is powered by two diesel engines with 24-inch diameter twin screws and has a 6 ft X 8 ft cabin. Electrical power for operating equipment is provided by a 15-kw generator. In a spill situation, the oil-water mixture is delivered into two separators via an electric pump and a mop-head, developed by the U. S. Navy. Two 800-gallon tanks are available for storing retrieved oil.

For debris retrieval, a hydraulically-operated crane with a reach of 19 ft 2 in is mounted on the deck at the bow of the boat. This unit includes a power-operated winch and specially designed basket for debris removal.

Additional storage capacity for retrieved oil or debris is provided by a specially designed Dinosaur Dumpster trash container unit which serves as a floating barge. When this is filled to capacity, the unit can be floated to shore and retrieved at a ramp by a pickup truck specially designed to transport the dumpster to the city incinerator.

The oil-debris removal boat is used in conjunction with portable booms. For transporting these booms to the site of the spill, a trailer was constructed.

More specific details on the boat and its operations can be found in a separate report titled “Oil-Debris Removal Boat (Samuel Wilkenson).” This report was submitted to the EPA. January 1, 1975.
A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE SAN FRANCISCO OIL SPILL ON MARINE PART II: RECRUITMENT
Authors: Chan Gordon L.
Published: January 2013

A study of marine organisms on intertidal transects encompassed the central theme of observing the effects of the San Francisco Bunker C oil spill of January 18, 1971. From a comparison of pre-oil and post-oil transect data with computation of 95% confidence intervals for population means, it was estimated that 4.2 to 7.5 million marine intertebrates, chiefly barnacles, were smothered by the oil. In subsequent observations from 1972 to 1974, the sample counts of invertebrates had returned to, and in some cases surpassed, pre-oil transect levels. No lingering effects of the oil spill have been noted in any of the marine species.
OIL POLLUTION STUDIES ON LAKE MARACAIBO. VENEZUELA
Authors: Templeton W.L. , Sutton E.A. , Bean R.M. , Arnett R.C. , Blaylock J.W. , Wildung R.E. , Moore H.J.
Published: January 2013

The results of a 2-year study on the impact of oil discharges on the fishery resources of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, are presented. The lake system is described, together with relevant water quality, hydrographic, ecological, and fishery resources data. Sources of other types of pollution, domestic and industrial, are described, and their potential impact on the system are discussed. Analysis of environmental samples-water, sediments, and biota-showed low concentrations of oil in lake water and no detectable accumulation of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons in muscle tissue of selected commercial species. The occurrence of bituminous materials in the sediments, particularly in the oil production area, suggests that the natural processes of volatilization, biodegradation, and sedimentation are the major mechanisms for the removal of oil from the surface waters. Laboratory studies on the toxicity of oil indicate that relatively high concentrations of oil are required to cause mortality. Extraction of oil with lake water, however, indicated that concentrations of total light aromatic fractions were toxic in the parts per million range. The rapid loss, in a few hours, of light hydrocarbons from surface films of oil to the atmosphere was shown to reduce the toxicity to organisms significantly. Examination of the limited fisheries data available does not suggest that the resources are being depleted. However, consideration of the potential impact of nonpetroleum wastes indicates that they are contributing to the degradation of the water quality which, if unchecked, may subsequently reduce the biological resources of the lake.
BEHAVIOR OF OIL SPILLED UNDER FLOATING ICE
Authors: Keevil Benjamin E. , Ramseier René O.
Published: January 2013

Cold room experiments designed to simulate a hot oil spill under ice demonstrated the basic behavior of crude oil at the ice-water interface. Observations in the cold room were compared with data from accidental oil spills in ice-covered waters.
THE EFFECT OF PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL ON SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF EGGS, ALEVINS, AND FRY OF PINK SALMON, ONCORHYNCHUS GORBUSCHA
Authors: Rice Stanley D. , Moles D. Adam , Short Jeffrey W.
Published: January 2013

Standard 96-hour bioassays with “total” oil solutions in fresh water and seawater determined differences in sensitivity of the developing life stages of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha). Eggs were the most resistant and emergent fry (yolk sac absorbed) the most sensitive to acute 4-day exposures. In fresh water, the 96-hour median tolerance limit (TLm) of fry was 0.4 ml oil/liter mixed mechanically (12 ppm as measured in subsurface water by infrared spectrophotometry). In seawater, it was 0.04 ml oil/liter mixed mechanically (6 ppm as measured in subsurface water by infrared spectrophotometry).

Three life stages of alevins were exposed to 10-day sublethal exposures of the water-soluble fraction to determine what doses might affect growth. Growth was affected most severely in alevins exposed during later developmental stages. Decreased growth was observed in fry after 10-day exposures at the lowest dose tested–0.015 ml oil/liter mixed by water agitation (0.73 ppm in subsurface water by infrared spectrophotometry–less than 10% of the 96-hour TLm limit for that life stage).

In fresh water, susceptibility of early life history stages of pink salmon to oil pollution is great at the time of emergence (completion of yolk absorption). Susceptibility is even greater in seawater after fry migration.
MARYLAND'S EXPERIENCE IN OIL SPILL PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Authors: Silbermann Henry , Weber Edwin C.
Published: January 2013

An existing spill prevention and response program is described utilizing staff of the state Water Resources Administration to enforce explicit oil pollution control laws and regulations, provide response to and assistance in oil spill containment and cleanup, and foster spill prevention attitudes and techniques. Special equipment designed and constructed by agency staff is detailed. Legislative history, state laws and regulations on oil spill prevention, and the Maryland oil industry are described as introduction to the spill prevention and control program itself.

Emphasis is placed on spill prevention, based on the slogan, “The best oil pollution control is the spill that never happened.”

Maryland petroleum industry representatives are directly involved in this program. With industry support, the state enacted in 1972 legislation establishing a schedule of licenses and license fees for oil terminal facilities, which must have an adequate spill control program.

The Maryland Oil Disaster Containment, Cleanup and Contingency Fund is supported by license fees charged on an annual basis on oil storage facilities with storage capability greater than 3,000 barrels. The fees produce approximately $250,000 a year for use in spill prevention, control, and cleanup measures.

Using a small staff, the Maryland Water Resources Administration has established an oil spill response program complete with (a) 24-hour, seven-day-a-week response capability to spills of oil and other hazardous materials, (b) construction and development of specially equipped oil spill control units, and (c) the stockpiling throughout the state of equipment and supplies for spill containment and removal. Local fire departments, which are mostly volunteer in the state, are an essential part of the oil spill response team. Other state agencies are also involved, with the total program coordinated by an oil spill coordinator and a staff of four.
PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AND OYSTER RESOURCES OF GALVESTON BAY, TEXAS
Authors: Anderson Roger D.
Published: January 2013

Field and laboratory studies of petroleum hydrocarbons in the tissues of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, a primary shellfish resource in the Galveston Bay system, were conducted from 1971–1974. Initial ultraviolet spectrophotometric and gas chromatographic analyses of tissues revealed significant amounts of oil-derived petroleum hydrocarbons from oysters collected at Morgan's Point Reef at the lower end of the Houston Ship Channel. Lower values, when detectable, were found in oyster meats collected at natural and artificial reefs scattered throughout the lower bay system. Laboratory and field studies were conducted to determine uptake and depuration of petroleum hydrocarbons by oysters. Rapid depuration of petroleum hydrocarbons accumulated in field and experimental exposures was found. In oil-free seawater, oysters released saturated chains and most aromatic fractions rapidly with depuration to below detectable levels (0.1 ppm) taking place within 52 days. Transfer of oysters for depuration purposes shows promise of improving the overall quality of this shellfish resource.