bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Non-Conductive Film (NCF) Underfill: Materials, Performance, and Evolution to Next Generation Devices
Authors: Anzures Edgardo , Morganelli Paul , Morganelli Paul , Barr Robert , Calvert Jeffrey , Dhoble Avin , Fleming David , Kim Jong-Uk , Lei Herong , Grafe Jürgen , Haberland Julian
Published: April 2016

As packaging technology continues to advance to smaller form factors, 3D chip stacking will become more of a requirement than an option and Non-Conductive Film (NCF) underfills will play a critical role in the assembly process. Capillary Underfills (CUF) have long been the standard method of protecting interconnected solder bumps from stress, moisture and contaminants. They are, however, becoming more problematic with the steady growth of fine pitch copper pillar interconnections. With CUF, there are difficulties related to cleaning flux residues. Handling thin die (<100 μm) before bonding has become increasingly difficult and CUF does not offer support because it is applied after the bonding is completed. There are also bleed issues associated with CUF resins that limit the die spacings that are possible with new designs.

NCF underfills, applied as a film laminated to a wafer, offer significant advantages over CUF and other underfill technologies for fine pitch designs. Because NCF is applied via a lamination process to wafers prior to dicing, handling and dispensing of resins is eliminated from the assembly process. Additionally, the lamination of film materials allows for a precise, uniform placement of underfill. Since NCF is applied at the beginning of the assembly process, it is able to support thinned die after backgrinding. NCF's can be self-fluxing and the removal of flux residues is not necessary. Material flow can be precisely controlled during the lamination and bonding steps, thus allowing for tighter keep out zones and closer die spacings. There have been major advances in the development and mechanistic understanding of NCF technology over the past few years. A great deal of work was done in the first stages of the development which demonstrated the potential to achieve good interconnection and high reliability with low voiding on small test vehicles with larger pitch. The NCF approach has now evolved to multiple materials developed to accommodate varying design parameters.

This paper will present the development and test results of initial NCF technology applied to a base test vehicle with 1,000 I/O copper pillars and the evolution to the next generation NCF materials for high I/O die assembly (36,000 I/O's). The optimization of the parameters critical to the development of a robust assembly process will be addressed. Specific interactions between the film properties, thermal profile for joining, and the force/bump ratio will be discussed in relation to solder joint formation.
Laser Direct Patterning of Dry Etch BCB Adhesive Layers for Low Temperature Permanent Wafer-to-Wafer Bonding
Authors: Zoschke Kai , Kim J.-U. , Wegner M. , Gallagher M. , Barr R. , Calvert J. , Toepper M. , Lang K.-D.
Published: April 2016

To enable advanced wafer level packaging approaches for devices like MEMS, image sensors or optical elements, wafer-to-wafer bonding processes using structured low temperature curable adhesives are required. A lot of Benzocyclobutene (BCB)-based wafer bonding works have been reported in the past showing a broad range of applications and good performance, but also some limitations such as long bond cycles and high cure temperature of 250 °C. In 2013 new process concepts were demonstrated [1], showing that wafer bond cycle time can be reduced to less than 10 min and a post bond batch cure at temperatures below 200 °C can be used to significantly shrink the overall cost of a BCB-based adhesive wafer bonding process.

In order to create a patterned BCB bond layer, photo structuring of CYCLOTENE ® 4000 Resin is one solution. However, due to the decreased flow capability of that material after exposure, high bond forces and extended bonding times during wafer bonding as well as nearly flat surfaces with low topography are required for void-free bonding. To overcome these limitations, an increased material flow capability during wafer bonding is required. In this context non-photo sensitive CYCLOTENE ® 3000 Resin is suitable, since it has excellent flow capability in non-cured state. However, non-cured CYCLOTENE ® 3000 Resin cannot be structured with standard dry etching processes using a photo resist layer as mask. In order to enable patterned adhesive bonding based on CYCLOTENE ® 3000 Resin, alternative structuring methods have to be evaluated. One method was presented in [1] which is transfer printing of CYCLOTENE ® 3000 Resin from a help wafer to topography features of the device wafer. Although very good results were obtained, the method is restricted to applications with significant topography to enable the transfer printing.

In this work we focus on a new structuring method for non-cured BCB layers formed from CYCLOTENE ® 3000 Resin. The layers were spin coated, baked and subsequently patterned using a 248 nm excimer laser stepper. The system features a 2.5× mask projection with a resulting exposure field of 6.5 × 6.5 mm2 and allows a direct ablation patterning of polymers. By using this method bond frame structures were patterned into 5 μm thick BCB layers at 200 mm silicon wafers. The wafers with the structured adhesive were bonded at 80 °C and 0.2 MPa for 5 minutes with 200 mm glass wafers. The bonded wafer stacks were subsequently post bond batch cured at 190 °C. Wafer dicing and shear tests of the bonded structures revealed excellent mechanical robustness of the BCB bond frames.

The paper will review the new BCB wafer bond processes for supporting short cycle times with special focus on the new patterning approach by laser ablation. Process flow description as well as systematical analysis of pattern reproducibility of the new structuring method is part of the discussion.
Precise, high throughput dispensing of thermal interface material in BGA packaging applications
Authors: Liang Hanzhuang , Rolland Linh
Published: April 2016

In a flip chip BGA package, thermal interface materials (TIMs) are applied for thermal management between the die and the heat spreader or between the heat spreader and the heat sink to conduct the heat generated in the die during component operation. Without a thermal interface, the die will overheat and the components will not function properly. Advanced microelectronics packaging demands high and dynamic standards of its supplier industries in relation to speed, precision and flexibility. For example, the demands on functionality, power density and performance of the components within a die are largely enhanced along with TIM requirements for higher heat resistance. Manufacturers are being asked to apply TIMs on more dies in more complicated geometries and to dispense them during any packaging process. This brings increased challenges for TIM dispensing equipment, such as the ability to handle abrasive and dry TIMs at a high throughput while maintaining precision and repeatability.

A high-precision, high-throughput TIM dispensing process has been developed to fill the gap between the traditional slower dispensing of simple patterns and the challenges from emerging package designs. This process is being used in flip chip BGA production lines in package applications from consumer electronics to automotive products. These production lines are in full 24/7 operation with each dispensing system running at 240 units per hour (uph) for audio-video consumer electronics, 360 uph for CPUs/GPUs on smart phones and 750 uph for automobile control panels and computation servers. In this new dispensing system, the valve can be tightly controlled to achieve high dispensing accuracy at fast speeds. The dispense pattern and route can be modified at no cost, in minutes, and during any step in the design or the assembly stage. Shapes that can be dispensed include dots, lines, boxes and circles with fine height and edge definitions of 25micron and 45micron. The process can cover a wide range of pattern dimensions between 0.5mm and 100mm at flow rates of 30–370 mg/sec at a repeatability of 3–15% three sigma. Even TIM that has viscosity as high as 1500kcPs with a heavy load of large and coarse particles such as metals, ceramic and glass beads can be dispensed using this equipment and process. New equipment and processes are under development to further push the limit on higher throughput and precision, increased flexibility and material dispensability.
Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Micro/Nano-Scale Systems and Applications
Authors: Lai Ying-Cheng
Published: April 2016

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are characterized by their small size, extremely low power consumption, and ultra fast speed. Recent years have witnessed a growing interest in the fundamental nonlinear dynamics of MEMS/NEMS and their potential applications. The Nonlinear Dynamics group at Arizona State University carried out a series of studies to investigate nonlinear dynamics and chaos in MEMS/NEMS on topics such as inducing chaos in MEMS, spatiotemporal chaos and intrinsic localized motions in MEMS oscillator arrays, extensive chaos in electrostatically driven silicon nanowires, and multistability and anomalous Hall effect in ferromagnet-topological insulator coupled systems. An overview of these results will be presented.
SiP Technology Trends
Authors: Eslampour Hamid
Published: April 2016

System-in-Package (SiP) has become a mainstream package technology of choice by both IC suppliers and OEMs in recent years, and the adoption of package technology is evidenced by the increasing number of devices that utilize this package technology in handsets and mobile segment. However, the adoption of SiP is not limited to only the mobile market, but is also present in IoT, Wearables, as well as in high-end computing market segments. The drivers for adoption of SiP in each market segments, in addition to package technologies suitable within each segment vary. Amongst the many drivers for SiP adoption, the higher integration trend is a common theme across all market tiers as form factor reduction or miniaturization, performance increase, and faster time-to-market are all enabled by such integration schemes. These integration trends impact not only the OSAT's package technologies, but are also impacting the more traditional module assemblies that were historically done at EMS side. The differentiation between OSATs and EMSs become apparent in the level of integration that each can achieve and how their technologies can complement each other in order to collectively provide the highest level of integration possible. The technology blocks used to achieve this higher integration level in 2D packages include the conversion of package design from laminate FC to FOWLP, integration of passives on RDL, and the implementation of IPD's, or in some cases simply through utilization of improved assembly design rules and adoption of more complex process flows. These 2D SiP technologies are well suited for RF devices, and other types of control modules. For 2.5D package configurations, integration scheme is built on the Package-on-Package (PoP) technology framework, and can incorporate both laminate FCPoP as well as FOWLP (eWLB PoP). Here Interposers in combination with micro-bumps and high density interconnects are also used to enable applications in high-end computing. The value-add through such 2.5D technologies, in some cases is the departure from SoC designs with transition to Si partitioning, which yields lower system level cost in advanced nodes, and in other cases is the enhanced performance and form factor reduction that is enabled.
Segnalazioni Faunistiche Italiane
Authors: V.V. A.A.
Published: April 2016

596 - Panolis flammea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) (Lepidoptera Noctuidae)597 - Atheta (Dimetrota) cauta (Erichson, 1837) (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: aleocharinae: athetini)598 - Atheta (Traumoecia) bihamata Fauvel, 1900 (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: aleocharinae: athetini)599 - Calamosternus mayeri (Pilleri, 1953) (Coleoptera aphodiidae)
The use of larvae and pupal exuviae to study the biodiversity of Chironomidae in Mediterranean streams
Authors: Prat N. , Puntí T. , Rieradevall M.
Published: April 2016

A total of 100 larval and 101 pupal taxa were found belonging to 60 and 36 genera, respectively, in 25 river sites in Catalonia (NE Spain). If we correct for the total number of individuals examined (7629 larvae, 1589 pupal exuviae) the number of genera per 100 individuals is 0.84 for larvae and 2.26 for pupal exuviae and the number of taxa per 100 individuals 1.40 and 6.10, respectively. The following points explain why a similar number of taxa have been found for larvae and pupae (despite the large difference in the number of genera): i) difficulties in differentiating the larvae species, especially in some complex rich and frequent genera, such as Cricotopus-Orthocladius (only six taxa as larvae but 31 as pupae); ii) many (24) larval genera were not found as pupae (even two subfamilies) while only three genera where found only as pupal exuviae. This is because of the larger number of larvae examined, but also because not all the larvae present at one site had emerged at the time of sampling. Given the difficulties in classifying the larvae to species level, the collection of pupae remains a useful method to complement quantification of chironomid biodiversity in a region; until massive DNA-sequencing of field samples of such invertebrates will be possible and easily available to many researchers (especially those in low income countries).
Dermatofibrosarcoma Protuberans: Insights into a Rare Soft Tissue Tumor
Authors: Al Barwani Aliya Sarhan , Taif Sawsan , Al Mazrouai Reem Ahmed , Al Muzahmi Khamis Salim , Alrawi Asif
Published: April 2016

Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans (DFSP) is a rare soft tumor which originally represents a cutaneous sarcoma. It grows slowly and presents usually as nodular superficial lesion on the trunk or the extremities. Although these tumors are locally aggressive with high rate of recurrence following surgery; the prognosis is considered excellent when it is effectively treated. The radiological appearance of this tumor has rarely been studied and findings infrequently discussed in the literature probably because many lesions underwent resection before imaging. Although imaging is infrequently performed for this lesion; it can show characteristic features and demonstrate the full extent. Imaging may also play a role in the differentiation of this tumor from more serious soft tissue lesions such as more aggressive sarcomas and hemangioma. In this article, we discuss the imaging findings of DFSP that can aid in its diagnosis and its variable appearances. In addition; the clinical presentation and treatment options are also described with review of the previous literature.
Las carencias de la prensa tradicional, un lastre para el periodismo emprendedor
Authors: Martínez-García Luisa
Published: April 2016

La prensa tradicional ha heredado a la digital cuatro retos; cada uno de ellos es objeto de análisis en esta investigación: atraer nuevos lectores con narrativas informativas multimedia, generar estrategias de proximidad con sus usuarios, crear nuevos modelos de negocio y proyectarse como espacio profesional que refleje la feminización de la carrera de periodismo. Metodología: Este artículo presenta los resultados de un análisis de contenido aplicado a 281 medios creados por el periodismo emprendedor. Resultados y conclusiones: Los resultados de este estudio constatan que el periodismo emprendedor no ha innovado en la presentación de la información (utiliza como principal reclamo la imagen fija). Adoptan el mismo modelo de negocio basado en la publicidad. Carecen de canales para establecer feedbacks con los usuarios. Por último, igual que el medio en papel, no es un espacio para el empoderamiento femenino.
Les déclarations de Bâle : mises à jour et pertinentes pour tous
Authors: Moles Rebekah J. , Vermeulen Lee , Penm Jonathan , Ivey Marianne
Published: April 2016

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Ouvrir la voie et passer le flambeau
Authors: Ensom Mary H. H.
Published: April 2016

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Clinical Pharmacy Activities: We Know What to Do, but for Whom Should We Do It?
Authors: Slavik Richard S , LeBras Marlys , Gorman Sean K
Published: April 2016

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Unprepared for the Worst: Risks of Harm for Qualitative Researchers
Authors: Bloor Michael , Fincham Ben , Sampson Helen
Published: April 2016

This paper draws on the results of an Inquiry, commissioned by Qualiti (Qualitative Research in the Social Sciences: Innovation, Integration and Impact), a node of ESRC's National Centre for Research Methods, into the physical and emotional harm suffered by qualitative social researchers. It argues that junior researchers and PhD students, the main recipients of such harm, are being let down by some principal investigators and PhD supervisors who are failing to manage researcher risks effectively. This record of the universities in researcher risk management compares poorly with the management of risks in cognate organisations, such as the management of risks to journalists in media organisations and of risks to fieldworkers in aid agencies. This deficiency in university risk management is arguably a matter of culture rather than deficient structures: an analogy is drawn with Mary Douglas's work on different cultural orientations to risk.
Design, Sampling, Organising the Field for a TLS Survey and New Developments: Coquelicot, a Survey of Drug Users
Authors: Jauffret-Roustide Marie , Le Strat Yann
Published: April 2016

The French ANRS-Coquelicot survey was conducted between 2004 and 2007 to follow the dynamics of the epidemic of hepatitis C among drug users (DU) in France. Having taken place in 5 cities (Lille, Strasbourg, Paris, Bordeaux, Marseilles), the survey was constituted of two parts, one epidemiological and the other socio-anthropological. The target population of this survey was both difficult to define and hard to reach, because of diversified social profiles, relations to drug use, and of the stigmatization of this practice. The studied DU population is the one that frequents specialised services, represents a sub-population having a ‘problematic relationship to drugs' and is rather socially precarious. The methodology used in the epidemiological part of the study implemented a strategy of random sampling via a sampling scheme integrating the Generalized Weight Share Method (GWSM) and relies on the collection of biological data to estimate the prevalence of hepatitis C. The use of innovative methodological tools used for the first time in France (sampling plan with GWSM, biological tests) in the ANRS-Coquelicot survey has enabled to produce valid estimates of the prevalence of the HCV in the DU population, a particularly high prevalence which raises to 60%. The methodology implemented in this survey enabled a generalisation of its results to the studied target population. Using a mixed methods approach, the epidemiological data and qualitative data (in-depth interviews and ethnographical observations) were combined to enable a better understanding of the social context of risk and the meaning that the DUs gave it. The use of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies thus allowed a more sophisticated analysis of the risk factors involved in the exposure to hepatitis C among drug users in France.
Pouvons-nous mesurer la population sans domicile? Une évaluation critique de la « Capture-Recapture »
Authors: Williams Malcolm
Published: April 2016

Les sans-domicile constituent une population rare et difficile à joindre, mais en plus, son dénombrement est rendu plus difficile du fait de l'absence d'accord sur une définition, du point de vue de la référence temporelle et du lieu, de ce qui constitue une population sans domicile. Cet article passe en revue certaines méthodes employées pour dénombrer cette population et effectue une évaluation critique d'une méthode particulière, celle de =capture-recapture’. Les investigations conduites par l'auteur et ses collègues au Royaume-Uni sont utilisées pour illustrer les possibilités et les limitations de cette méthode.
Time-Space Sampling and Respondent-Driven Sampling with Hard-to-Reach Populations
Authors: Semaan Salaam
Published: April 2016

Time-space sampling (TSS; also referred to as time-location sampling, TLS) and respondent-driven sampling (RDS) are strategies that can be used for sampling hard-to-reach populations, for whom it is difficult to construct a sampling frame of the individual members of the population. With proper planning, execution, weighting, and analysis of relevant sampling-related data, both strategies have the potential to produce samples that are representative of the target populations. TSS is a probability-based strategy for recruiting members of a target population congregating at specific locations and times. RDS is predicated on the recognition that project participants are better able than project staff to locate and refer to the study site other potential participants; peers from the target population with whom they have an established relationship. Capture-recapture analysis can incorporate TSS and RDS data to estimate the size of a hard-to-reach population. TSS and RDS have been used extensively around the world in public health projects with populations at high risk for HIV infection. The collective experience gained from using TSS and RDS in HIV-related projects can be valuable in using these sampling strategies with other hard-to-reach populations in projects related to economics, political science, or sociology. Although TSS and RDS have specific strengths and limitations in terms of their abilities to produce valid results that enhance generalizability of findings, the choice of a particular sampling strategy depends on characteristics of the target population and the goal and resources of the project. Proper planning, monitoring, and evaluation of the sampling strategy and attention to logistical, regulatory, and ethical considerations are important to the successful implementation and effectiveness of the sampling strategy.
Échantillonnage espace-temps et échantillonnage déterminé selon les répondants des populations difficiles à joindre
Authors: Semaan Salaam
Published: April 2016

L’échantillonnage espace-temps (TSS en anglais, parfois également appelée échantillonnage lieux-moments ou TLS en anglais) et l’échantillonnage déterminé selon les répondants (en anglais RDS ou échantillonnage boule de neige probabiliste) sont des méthodes qui peuvent être employées dans l’échantillonnage de populations difficiles à joindre, pour lesquelles il est difficile d’établir une base de sondage des personnes appartenant à la population. Si la planification, l'exécution, la pondération et l'analyse des données pertinentes ayant rapport à l’échantillonnage sont bien faites, les deux méthodes sont capables de produire des échantillons représentatifs des populations cibles. La méthode TSS est une stratégie pour recruter un échantillon probabiliste de membres d'une population cible réunie à des heures et dans des lieux spécifiques. La méthode RDS suppose la reconnaissance du fait que les participants au projet (les enquêtés) sont mieux en mesure que les responsables du projet de localiser d'autres participants éventuels et de les orienter vers le lieu de l’étude; des pairs appartenant à la population cible avec qui ils ont des liens établis. L'analyse par la méthode de capture-recapture peut incorporer les données de TSS et RDS et estimer la taille d'une population difficile à joindre. Dans le monde entier, l'emploi des méthodes TSS et RDS est fréquent au cours de projets de santé publique auprès des populations à risque élevé d'infection par le VIH. Dans le cadre de programmes liés au VIH, l'expérience collective tirée de l'utilisation des méthodes TSS et RDS peut être précieuse dans l'emploi de ces modes d’échantillonnage pour d'autres populations difficiles à joindre, dans des projets relatifs à l’économie, aux sciences politiques ou à la sociologie. Bien que les méthodes TSS et RDS aient des points forts et des limitations spécifiques en ce qui concerne leur capacité à produire des résultats valides qui améliorent la possibilité de généraliser des conclusions, le choix d'une stratégie particulière d’échantillonnage dépend des caractéristiques de la population cible, de l'objectif et des ressources du projet en question. Si l'on veut en réussir la mise en œuvre et qu'elle soit efficace, il est important de bien planifier, surveiller et évaluer la méthode d’échantillonnage et de tenir compte des considérations de nature logistique, réglementaire et éthique.
Quantitative Surveys in Hard-to-Reach Populations: The Experience of the ‘Observatoire Français Des Drogues Et Des Toxicomanies’
Authors: Cadet-Taïrou Agnès , Reynaud-Maurupt Catherine , Costes Jean-Michel , Palle Christophe
Published: April 2016

This article presents a research device (drawn up by the ‘Observatoire français des drogues et des toxicomanies' or OFDT) for exploring drug consumption practices among ‘hard-to-reach users’. The OFDT's aim is to put forward a coherent and precise understanding of phenomena relating to drug use and to monitor developments from a national perspective, despite regional differences. The scope of observation focusses on the primary areas of drug use in France. The analysis over time of quantitative and qualitative data also made it possible to divide up the theoretical and heterogeneous unit formed by drug users (DUs) in terms of population types and sub-populations. They have different characteristics and engage in different practices, which do not always develop in the same way. Sometimes they are geographically unstable. The OFDT's experience of probability studies on DUs or populations with a high prevalence of drug use is applied in a ‘capture-recapture’ study that aims at estimating the prevalence of problematic drug use in six French cities and a quantitative survey based on a sampling plan with an ethnographically based approach in party environments with a focus on electronic music. These complex sampling studies prove indispensable, in particular in measuring the prevalence of drug use in populations not exclusively made up of drug users. However, we believe that, on their own, they cannot measure a phenomenon or monitor its developments since there are several sources of bias associated with sampling and the collection of data in surveys on hard-to-reach populations. We believe that comparing their results not only with the quantitative data from other sources, in particular the time series collected from users of centres for DUs but also with ethnographic data is indispensable in order to monitor these trends.
Reconstructing the Temporal-Relational Context: Trans-Action Patterns of Caregivers of an Ill Relative with Alzheimer's Disease
Authors: Carpentier Normand
Published: April 2016

The evolution of a social model of care has been accelerated by a range of factors such as new technology, a change in political parties, and lobbying activity. Further complicating the emergence of the new paradigm is the fact that providing effective care within the community requires an understanding of the context that surrounds the family and the ill person, who must often cope with illnesses that require specialized services and the caring for another person's basic human needs. Using the relational sociology perspective, this study aims to better understand the care trajectory of caregivers of people with Alzheimer's disease. We have adopted a methodologically innovative approach that explores two life histories from the viewpoint of social networks, social representations and action sequences. Only once researchers and policy-makers better understand help-seeking processes in the unpredictable context of chronic illness and social life, can they hope to develop social policies adapted to a population whose multiple needs require long-term community care.
Three Approaches to Estimate Latent Interaction Effects: Intention and Perceived Behavioral Control in the Theory of Planned Behavior
Authors: Steinmetz Holger , Davidov Eldad , Schmidt Peter
Published: April 2016

Interaction effects between explanatory constructs are an important part of many social theories. Analyses of interaction effects between variables using regression techniques have low power because they do not control for measurement errors. Therefore, latent interaction modeling using structural equation modeling (SEM) has been proposed as a better alternative to test for interaction effects. In contrast to traditional and complicated ‘constrained’ SEM approaches, two recent developments, the unconstrained approach and the residual centering approach, are especially attractive for applied researchers as they are much easier to implement. However, applied researchers still seem to be unsure about how to apply these approaches. In this study, we illustrate the use of the unconstrained and the residual centering approach and compare these approaches with the constrained approach of Algina and Moulder (2001) using data from a field study of 1,442 students. Theoretical background is the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) in which we test the proposed interaction between an individual's intention to perform a behavior and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on behavior. The illustration should assist researchers interested in testing interaction effects using structural equation modeling.
The Internet and Semantic Structure: A Re-Examination
Authors: Arnold Jack B.
Published: April 2016

I discuss an earlier article arguing that Google counts for paired concepts reflect the similarity of concepts and that analysis of sets of paired queries reflect semantic structure—in the sense used earlier by Osgood. I argued there that such structure could be useful as a source of ideas about attitudes and pilot data for survey research. I note that recent observations indicate that sometimes some page count sets are not logically consistent and not useful for such research. Here, I examine variables associated with one type of logical error: conjunction errors, where counts for pairs of concepts are greater than counts for one or both of the individual concepts. I review Osgood's idea of semantic space and the logic of similarity related to search engine counts. I then present examples of two count matrices—one usable and the other with a number of conjunction errors. Next, I use the “usable” matrix as input for multidimensional scaling, and the output of that as an example of the semantic order to be found in usable data. Finally, I examine page counts from pairs of concepts from fifteen concept sets. I used three search engines: Google, Yahoo and Bing. Google and Bing returned many errors. Yahoo returned none. Google and Bing show a statistically significant relationship between conjunction errors and the complexity of the concept names. Queries with two or more terms in the names produced fewer errors than ones with single term names. More complex queries, also, tended to produce smaller page counts, and smaller counts are also associated with fewer conjunction errors. However, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that complexity has an effect on error that is independent of count size. I discuss how conjunction errors can be avoided and suggest several ways to avoid them. I conclude that page counts can be used with some confidence in the social/behavioral sciences, and discuss promising avenues for further research.
Social Network Analysis and Qualitative Comparative Analysis: Their Mutual Benefit for the Explanation of Policy Network Structures
Authors: Fischer Manuel
Published: April 2016

By switching the level of analysis and aggregating data from the micro-level of individual cases to the macro-level, quantitative data can be analysed within a more case-based approach. This paper presents such an approach in two steps: In a first step, it discusses the combination of Social Network Analysis (SNA) and Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) in a sequential mixed-methods research design. In such a design, quantitative social network data on individual cases and their relations at the micro-level are used to describe the structure of the network that these cases constitute at the macro-level. Different network structures can then be compared by QCA. This strategy allows adding an element of potential causal explanation to SNA, while SNA-indicators allow for a systematic description of the cases to be compared by QCA. Because mixing methods can be a promising, but also a risky endeavour, the methodological part also discusses the possibility that underlying assumptions of both methods could clash. In a second step, the research design presented beforehand is applied to an empirical study of policy network structures in Swiss politics. Through a comparison of 11 policy networks, causal paths that lead to a conflictual or consensual policy network structure are identified and discussed. The analysis reveals that different theoretical factors matter and that multiple conjunctural causation is at work. Based on both the methodological discussion and the empirical application, it appears that a combination of SNA and QCA can represent a helpful methodological design for social science research and a possibility of using quantitative data with a more case-based approach.
Exploring When Maternal Interest is Sufficient for High Attainment in Mathematics: A Configurational Analysis Using Longitudinal Data
Authors: Thomson Stephanie
Published: April 2016

Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) is a case-based method, developed by Ragin (1987, 2000), to analyse medium-and large-n datasets. It uses Boolean algebra to show which configurations of factors in a model are either necessary and/or sufficient for a specified outcome. In the social world, we rarely see perfect necessity and sufficiency but we can use QCA to assess the degree of necessity or sufficiency to find configurations which are quasi-necessary or quasi-sufficient. In this paper, I use crisp-set QCA on data from the 1970 Birth Cohort Study (BCS70) to investigate which configurations of sex, maternal interest, social class and, later, ability are quasi-sufficient for various levels of attainment in maths. Firstly, I explain how to conduct QCA, through the use of examples, before using a set-theoretic measure of consistency to explore the relationship between sex, social class, maternal interest and, what I term, above-average attainment in mathematics. To this model, I then introduce an additional factor of general ability (operationalised as several dichotomous factors, each indicating a certain level of ability) leading to instances of configurations having strong subset relations but containing very few cases. These rows, called remainders, cannot be included in a solution without theoretical justification (Ragin, 2008). For the final stage of the analysis, I create, for two different general ability levels, a ‘most-complex solution’ (which excludes all remainder rows) and a parsimonious solution (which includes any remainder row contributing to parsimony). These act as boundaries for the ‘intermediate solution’ which contains only those remainders which can, theoretically, be thought to obtain the outcome. I then discuss each intermediate solution and note that, in one case, it is the same as the relevant most-complex version.
Interactions That Matter: Researching Critical Associations
Authors: Davies Katherine , Heaphy Brian
Published: April 2016

Against the backdrop of research that has tended to emphasise the positive aspects of non-familial relationships, particularly friendships, this paper considers the methodological challenges involved in generating data about what we term ‘critical associations’: relationships with friends and other associates that are critical in people's lives in both positive and negative ways. The paper focuses on three methods that were used in a multi-faceted qualitative study of critical associations in different research settings. These included an ‘Era Memory Workshop’ that was focussed on personal associations amongst lesbians and gay men, ‘Situated Interviews' that were concerned with non-familial relationships amongst people living in a rural ‘overspill’ housing estate and a Mass Observation Project directive that was framed in terms of the ‘ups and downs' of friendship. The paper considers the distinctive opportunities and challenges that each method presented for generating personal narratives of critical associations. These opportunities and challenges were linked to the research interactions that the methods promoted, their temporal dimensions, and their location within narrative environments. Multi-faceted research methodologies that use different research methods in different research environments present distinctive possibilities for exploring the complexity and multi-dimensionality of personal associations, and especially the critical nature of these.
In between External and Internal Worlds: Imagination in Transitional Space
Authors: Hollway Wendy
Published: April 2016

This article explores a kind of thinking based on emotional experience and imagination. Donald Winnicott, British psychoanalyst, locates creative thinking in an intermediate area. This idea of ‘in between’ offers the possibility of thinking beyond a set of troublesome binaries that concern psycho-social researchers: external and internal, objectivity and subjectivity, social and personal, positioning and agency, construction and reality. Taking the idea of an intermediate area between inner reality and external life, I use a few short extracts from one participant in a study on processes of becoming a mother to address two questions. How does ‘Jenny’ imagine her possible futures within the limits of her material and social circumstances when she discovers that she is pregnant? How can researchers use the fact that we are affected by our participants and by the data in order to enhance and not distort our understanding?
Innovation in Online Data Collection for Scientific Research: The Dutch MESS Project
Authors: Das Marcel
Published: April 2016

Not many long-running scientific studies in Europe or the United States use online panels. Leading scientific studies mostly use face-to-face or telephone interviews to collect data. However, Internet interviewing is cost-effective and offers various new possibilities for empirical research in the social sciences. In principle, one can measure new or complex concepts in much shorter time frames than is customary in more traditional survey research. Furthermore, the technology allows for, for example, experimentation, follow-up data collection, and respondents' feedback.

Based on earlier experiences with an online scientific panel, an advanced data collection environment for the social sciences was proposed in the Netherlands: ‘An Advanced Multi-Disciplinary Facility for Measurement and Experimentation in the Social Sciences' (MESS). The facility creates maximal opportunities for innovation, is fast, and freely accessible for everyone in the scientific community. The core of this facility is a representative panel of households that have agreed to be available for regular interviews over the Internet: the LISS (Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social sciences) panel. In addition to traditional questionnaire settings, the facility accommodates use of visual displays, preloading of data, and self-administered measurement of biomarkers. The project aims at integrating various fields of study, such as economics, social sciences, (bio)medical science and behavioral science.

Funding for the project was secured in 2006. This paper describes the needs to which the MESS project was responding and the process of setting up the facility. Attention will also be paid to the cost and sustainability of a facility like MESS, and to wider developments (beyond the borders of the Netherlands).
The Making of Water Cooler Logic's Stakeholder Ethnography Composting as a Metaphor for Innovation
Authors: Wild Helga
Published: April 2016

This article traces the development of the Water Cooler Logic methodology and its most innovative feature, stakeholder ethnography, from within the conceptual setting of Silicon Valley in the nineties. I sketch a line of direct and indirect influences starting from computational ideas of intelligence, early corporate uses of ethnography, and new institutional forms to the Institute for Research on Learning's commitment to a social view of learning and Water Cooler Logic's action-oriented work with clients around their practical organizational concerns.

Building on and sometimes re-interpreting earlier achievements, Water Cooler Logic works at the boundary of university and industry, combining research and intervention in one seamless methodology. On the academic side, Water Cooler Logic views organizations as social networks and functional systems and relies on interdisciplinary teams to overcome the obstacles inherent in the distributed nature of knowledge and local institutional constraints. On its corporate side, it makes deliberative and pragmatic choices in selecting areas of concern and developing concrete, implementable solutions.

The Water Cooler Logic process offers stakeholders the opportunity to become reflective practitioners, para-ethnographers and change agents in their own organizations. At the same time it changes the role of the consultant to one who acts as mid-wife to the innovations emerging organically in the client organization.
A Method to My Madness: What Counts as Innovation in Social Science?
Authors: Agar Mike
Published: April 2016

This article summarizes a presentation made to an ESRC-sponsored workshop on social science methodological innovation. First, the notion of methodological innovation is explored on the way to an argument that innovation in social sciences occurs at a conceptual level rather than at the level of techniques for data gathering. Four historical examples are briefly described to exemplify the argument: Zadeh's fuzzy set theory, Goffman's presentation of self, Bartlett's schema, and Glaser and Strauss' grounded theory. In response to questions posed by the organizers, it is noted that the four examples were produced by individuals with a considerable time lag before uptake of their concepts in the diffusion curve. The article ends with speculation on the possible nature of a social science center for conceptual innovation.
Introduction to the Special Issue: Research Ethics in Challenging Contexts
Authors: Wiles Rose , Boddy Janet
Published: April 2016

The rise in ethical regulation of social research has brought about an increased interest in research ethics; much of this has focused on concerns about ethical regulation and its impact on social research rather than exploring the everyday challenges that researchers encounter in the process of research and how these are, or might be, managed in ethical ways. This special issue explores some of the ethical challenges that are raised in conducting qualitative social research in contexts which raise specific ethical challenges because of the nature of the participants or the specific methodological approach taken. These include research with children, research in global contexts, longitudinal research, e-research and data archiving and secondary analysis of qualitative material. Drawing on a range of research projects, these papers explore some of the key ethical challenges raised by these contexts and how researchers have engaged with the issues that arise.
Exploring Discourses of Sustainable Development: A Flexible Framework
Authors: Borne Gregory
Published: April 2016

This paper outlines a research process that explores the relationship between Ulrich Becks reflexive modernity and sustainable development. Sustainable development is becoming increasingly prolific throughout society yet there remains a lack of empirical work that is capable of exploring the complexity and ambiguity of the terms meaning. There is a significant need to design and implement effective methodological approaches that are capable of addressing the highly complex, non linear and ambiguous issue that relate to sustainable development. The following paper will detail a research methodology that attempts to grapple with this complexity.
Atmospheric aerosol compositions and sources at two national background sites in northern and southern China
Authors: Zhu Qiao , He Ling-Yan , Huang Xiao-Feng , Cao Li-Ming , Gong Zhao-Heng , Wang Chuan , Zhuang Xin , Hu Min
Published: April 2016

Abstract. Although China’s severe air pollution has become a focus in the field of atmospheric chemistry and the mechanisms of urban air pollution there have been researched extensively, few field sampling campaigns have been conducted at remote background sites in China, where air pollution characteristics on a larger scale are highlighted. In this study, an Aerodyne high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR–ToF–AMS), together with other relevant instruments, was deployed at two of China’s national background sites in northern (Lake Hongze site) and southern (Mount Wuzhi site) China in the spring season, in order to characterize submicron aerosol composition and sources. The campaign-average PM1 concentration was 36.8 ± 19.8 µg m−3 at the northern China background (NCB) site, which was far higher than that at the southern China background (SCB) site (10.9 ± 7.8 µg m−3). Organic aerosol (OA) (27.2 %), nitrate (26.7 %), and sulfate (22.0 %) contributed the most to the PM1 mass at NCB, while OA (43.5 %) and sulfate (30.5 %) were the most abundant components of the PM1 mass at SCB, where nitrate only constituted a small fraction (4.7 %) and might have contained a significant amount of organic nitrates (5–11 %). The aerosol size distributions and organic aerosol elemental compositions all indicated very aged aerosol particles at both sites. The OA at SCB was more oxidized with a higher average oxygen to carbon (O/C) ratio (0.98) than that at NCB (0.67), and was found to be the most aged OA in real ambient air ever reported in the literature. Positive matrix factorization analysis (PMF) was used to classify OA into three components, including a hydrocarbon-like component (HOA, attributed to fossil fuel combustion) and two oxygenated components (OOA1 and OOA2, attributed to secondary organic aerosols from different source areas) at NCB. PMF analysis at SCB identified a semi-volatile oxygenated component (SV-OOA) and a low-volatile oxygenated component (LV-OOA), both of which were found to be secondary species and could be formed from precursors co-emitted with BC. Using the total potential source contribution function model, the likely source areas of the major PM1 components at both sites were a large regional scale in East Asia. The possible sources may not only include emissions from the Chinese mainland but also include emissions from ocean-going cargo ships and biomass burning in neighboring countries.