bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dating: Document
Authors: Weyermann Céline
Published: September 2009

The determination of the age of a document is a very frequent query; however, it is also one of the most challenging and controversial areas of questioned document examination. Several approaches were defined to address this problem. The first is based on the introduction date of raw constituents (like paper or ink) on the market. The second approach is based on the aging of documents, which is unfortunately not only influenced by passing time, but also by storage conditions and document composition. The third approach considers the relative age of documents and aims at reconstructing their chronology. The three approaches are equally complex to develop and the amount of problems encountered is not negligible. This article aims to expose the potential applications and limitations of current ink dating methods. Method development and validation and the interpretation of evidence prove to be essential criteria for the dating of documents.
Writing Instruments and Printing Devices
Authors: Sharfe Gordon A.I.
Published: September 2009

This article is divided into two main sections. The first discusses the physical characteristics of the ink line of nib, ballpoint, porous tip, rollerball, and gel pens. Distinctive characteristics that allow their direction of stroke to be determined are also identified. The second section examines the image forming processes and characteristics associated with typewriters, dot matrix, laser, inkjet, and thermal printers. Identifying faults common to these printing processes are discussed from the view of comparing questioned documents to known printer outputs, which may lead to the identification of the specific printer as the source of the document under investigation.

Identifying characteristics found in photocopiers and facsimile machines are also covered.
Shooting Distance: Estimation of
Authors: Zeichner Arie
Published: September 2009

The range from which a weapon has been fired is an important component in the reconstruction of firearm‐related cases.

A review of the methods for shooting distance estimation is provided. This refers to the examination of clothing targets, cadavers, and exhibits that cannot be processed in the laboratory. The methods include visual/microscopic examinations, color tests, and instrumental analysis of the firearm discharge residues (FDR) deposits around the bullet entrance holes. The review does not cover shooting‐distance estimation for targets shot by pellet loads from shotguns.
Firearms: Overview
Authors: Dutton Gerard
Published: September 2009

An overview of the discipline of firearms investigation is provided. Further information on the various aspects of this field of forensic science is given in separate articles.
Firearms: Scene Investigation
Authors: Maiden Nicholas R.
Published: September 2009

The investigation of shooting scenes is a specialized form of crime scene investigation and is usually conducted by forensic firearm examiners. It requires a detailed knowledge of firearms, ammunition, interior, exterior and terminal ballistics. As with any crime scene, preservation of the scene is critical so that all available evidence can be located. The suitability of exhibits for DNA and/or fingerprint analysis is an important matter to be considered before and during the collection of exhibits. Fired bullets and cartridge cases can be macroscopically compared to determine if they were fired from a suspect firearm. Stringlines, probes, and lasers can be used on suitable bullet impact points at a scene to determine the approximate trajectory or path of a bullet. From this information, the approximate position of the shooter can also be determined. Dithiooxamide (DTO) and sodium rhodizonate are chemical tests that can be used to determine if a questioned impact point or damage was caused by a bullet. Tattooing on the victim's skin and propellant or gunshot residue (GSR) patterns on clothing can be used for distance determination tests, which involve replicating the pattern by test firing the firearm involved. Gunshot residue sampling of a suspect soon after a shooting can assist in determining if that person has fired or had recent contact with a firearm. All of these are important considerations which collectively ensure that an accurate analysis, interpretation and reconstruction of events can be made and assist an investigation and/or be presented to a court of law.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Comparison and Identification
Authors: Keereweer Isaäc
Published: September 2009

This article describes the comparative examination of shoemark examination, based on the similarities of class characteristics and absence of meaningful differences, wear and tear, and accidental characteristics. It incorporates a classification method, which takes into account the complexity of similarities. The similarities can thus be numerically handled. A conclusion is then expressed according to a verbal scale. The most important advantage by using the guideline is transparency. This means what kind of decisions were used by the investigator to draw his conclusions, which items are similar, what is the degree of similarity in shape, and what is the characteristic value. Experience has shown that when this methodology is used, conclusions drawn by different examiners do not vary greatly. These guidelines are based on the Dutch system and also an example of how international harmonization of shoemark examination may be achieved.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Foot Impressions and Linking Foot to Shoe
Authors: Hammer Lesley , Kennedy Robert
Published: September 2009

Barefoot impression evidence may be used to link a person to a shoe or foot impression found at a crime scene. The analysis of barefoot impressions involves the examination and comparison of the morphology and test impressions of the foot, to the questioned crime scene impression. Although a lesser known type of physical evidence, barefoot evidence has proven to be a valuable aid in criminal casework.
Footwear and Foot Impressions: Intelligence
Authors: Baldwin David
Published: September 2009

Footwear intelligence is increasingly being used by law enforcement agencies as a source of information, which can aid police in the investigation of crime. This article covers the basic principles and processes behind how footwear can be effectively used to provide intelligence to police.
Friction Ridge Skin: Morphogenesis and Overview
Authors: Maceo Alice V.
Published: September 2009

The friction ridge skin has served as a means of personal identification in criminal justice systems for over 100 years. Fingerprints, palm prints, and sole prints continue to be a cornerstone in personal identification because each area of the friction ridge skin is unique and, barring injury or disease, the friction ridge skin persists through the lifetime of an individual.

This article discusses the (i) terminology of the volar surfaces of the hands and feet; (ii) general anatomy of the friction ridge skin and its contribution to persistency of the skin; (iii) general physiology of the friction ridge skin and its contribution to persistency of the skin; and (iv) embryological development of the friction ridge skin and its contributions to pattern formation and uniqueness.
Light Bulbs and Filaments: Examination of
Authors: Stauffer Eric
Published: September 2009

When road traffic accidents occur at night time, the question whether the lights of one of the vehicles were on or off at the time of the accident is sometimes raised. In such instances, the questioned light bulb(s) may be forensically examined and it may be possible to determine whether the bulb was energized or not at the time of the glass breakage and/or the filament rupture.

A complete forensic examination of light bulbs must also include the accident scene and vehicle examinations. The circumstances around the case must be clearly integrated in the interpretation of the results, otherwise a wrong conclusion may be reached. The electrical circuit of the vehicle must be understood and evaluated. Then, the light bulb assemblies are observed and, whenever significant, collected as evidence.

The rest of the examination takes place at the crime laboratory, where the light bulb is electrically tested (resistance measurement) and observed under magnification with an optical and possibly an electronic microscope. The criminalist must comprehend the failure mechanisms of a tungsten filament in order to properly interpret the evidence observed on the filaments. By following a clear interpretation scheme, an educated conclusion can be reached in most instances.
Marks or Impressions of Manufactured Items
Authors: Luong Susan , Roux Claude
Published: September 2009

Marks and impressions can be exploited by the investigator to extract information associated with the crime as part of the forensic investigation. The scope of this article covers fabric impression, which is any mark or imprint left by a material made by a fabric, including glove marks. This article describes the techniques and processes of examination, as well as interpretation and the evidential significance of such types of evidence.
Training and Certification (In Criminalistics)
Authors: Stauffer Eric , Schiffer Beatrice
Published: September 2009

Being a criminalist requires a strong basis in natural sciences along with emphasis on topics specific to forensic sciences and criminal justice. Before dealing with casework, a criminalist must be fully trained, i.e., have strong educational background followed by an induction (or initial) training. A few organizations have defined minimum criteria regarding these basic educational and training requirements. A criminalist must also be up‐to‐date with evolving science, and thus requires continuous training and education. This can be achieved through the reading of scientific literature, attendance at courses and conferences, and practical experience.

Professional certification of forensic scientists is common in the United Kingdom and the United States; however, it is quite inexistent in most countries around the world. Certification demonstrates the competency of a criminalist. To create a certification program, it is necessary to clearly define the minimum criteria of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) that a criminalist must demonstrate. A mean of testing the KSA must also be devised and the certification must gain acceptance among the forensic and legal community. Certification is usually obtained through three main steps: admission and evaluation of the candidate and renewal of the certificate. Finally, some of the most important certification programs are presented.
Crime Scene Management
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson
Published: September 2009

Crime scene management is the term used to define the actions taken to ensure that all available forensic evidence is recovered from a crime scene.

At a minor scene, this can be very basic preservation and protection measures taken by the first officer attending and advice to the victim. At a major scene, the necessary cordons, guards, and protective measure such as tents. The activities need to be managed to allow all evidence recovery to be carried out in a logical sequence that ensures, wherever possible, no other evidence type is compromised. This must be carried out in a transparent manner that demonstrates to the court the impartiality of the examination.
Packaging and Transport
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson
Published: September 2009

To preserve the integrity of forensic evidence, it must be packaged, sealed, and labeled correctly. Crime scene investigators (CSI), carry, in their vehicle, supplies of paper bags (Kraft bags), polyethylene bags, brown paper, flat‐pack cardboard boxes, weapon tubes, envelopes, and plain unused paper for this purpose. In addition, they also carry nylon bags and various metal containers of the designs used to contain paint stripper and other volatile liquids.

Many bags and boxes are supplied with evidence vouchers, chain of custody forms preprinted. Others may require the voucher to be attached.

While the methods of packaging exhibits and transport employed in different countries are broadly the same these can vary considerably in some respects, reflecting different operating environments and legal requirements. It is only possible to give general guidelines and it is advisable to check local protocols and laboratory packaging guidelines. Many US state and county crime labs publish their guidelines on the Internet.
Radiology
Authors: Viner Mark D.
Published: September 2009

This article examines the contribution of medical diagnostic imaging within forensic investigation. It details the different techniques that may be used and explores how they may be employed by the forensic physician, pathologist, odontologist, scientist and crime scene investigator to determine the cause of death or injury, to identify inividuals and to detect concealed or embedded objects.
Toxicology: Forensic Applications of
Authors: Vuori Erkki , Ojanperä Ilkka
Published: September 2009

Forensic toxicology plays a vital role in the investigation of sudden death to help establish the role, if any, of drugs or poisons. This can only be done if an extensive series of toxicological tests are conducted to cover as large a range of substances as possible. Such findings can provide a cause of death, simply indicate compliance, or otherwise reveal prescribed medication. The science is also used in the investigation of the living persons such as victims or perpetrators of crime to establish their exposure or use of drugs, as well as in road safety to ensure that drugs that impair driving ability are not being taken. More widely, forensic toxicology is used in workplace drug testing programs, doping control, and environmental matters or cases of terrorism involving noxious substances. In any circumstance, it is essential that sufficient data are available to interpret toxicological information. This may also involve epidemiological studies to help in the understanding of drug effects.
Toxicology: Initial Testing
Authors: Felgate Peter
Published: September 2009

Initial screening in forensic toxicology is critical to the ongoing investigation for the cause of death: motor vehicle driving‐related offences or criminal investigations. Initial screening should detect as wide a range of licit and illicit substances as possible to assist these investigations. This article describes a number of different immunoassay techniques used in the determination of drugs in biological specimens, sample extraction methods, gas chromatographic techniques for alcohol and volatile organic compound analysis, and general drug screening techniques using gas chromatography and liquid chromatography with a variety of different detection methods.
Drug Profiling
Authors: Esseiva Pierre , Margot Pierre
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on the description of the processes encountered in illicit drug profiling. Within the forensic science framework, the application of profiles from drug seizures is described. The formation of these profiles or “signatures” is also discussed regarding the identification of the starting material of the substance (for example, “plant‐based” for cocaine, heroin, and cannabis, or origin of the synthetic precursors for amphetamine‐type stimulants (ATS)) and the influence of the selected manufacturing process on the purity profile. The information extracted from these chemical/physical profiles is described with a distinction between political dimensions (support to national, international policies), strategic and operational information (highlighting of regional and local traffic structure and organization), and evidential purpose.
Hair: Toxicology
Authors: Kintz Pascal
Published: September 2009

Given the limitations of self‐reports on drug use, testing for drugs of abuse is important for most clinical and forensic toxicological situations, both for assessing the reality of the intoxication and for the evaluation of the level of drug impairment. It is generally accepted that chemical testing of biological fluids is the most objective means of diagnosis of drug use. The presence of a drug analyte in a biological specimen can be used to document exposure. A typical approach in drug testing is the immunoassay screen, followed by the gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric confirmation conducted on a urine sample. In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in unconventional biological specimens such as hair. The advantages of this sample over traditional media, such as urine and blood, are obvious: collection is noninvasive, relatively easy to perform, and in forensic situations it may be achieved under close supervision of law enforcement officers to prevent adulteration or substitution. The window of drug detection is significantly extended to weeks, months, or even years when testing hair. It appears that the value of alternative specimen analysis for the identification of drug users is steadily gaining recognition. This can be seen from its growing use in preemployment screening, in forensic science, in clinical applications, and for doping control. Hair analysis may be a useful adjunct to conventional drug testing in urine. Methods for evading urinalysis do not affect hair analysis. This article aims at documenting toxicological applications of hair analysis in various situations, including survey of drug addicts, doping control, and drug‐facilitated crimes documentation. Hair collection, preparation, and analysis by chromatographic methods coupled with mass spectrometry are also reviewed.
Oral Fluid Toxicology
Authors: Marleen Laloup , Nele Samyn , Gert De Boeck
Published: September 2009

Technological advances over the past decades have enabled oral fluid testing for the presence of numerous drugs, narcotics, and hormones. The advantages of oral fluid over traditional fluids are that collection is almost noninvasive, is relatively easy to perform, and, in forensic situations, can be achieved under close supervision to prevent adulteration or substitution of the samples. Moreover, concentrations of many drugs in oral fluid correlate well with blood concentrations and, therefore, the analysis of oral fluid specimens can be used to determine the current degree of exposure to a definite drug at the time of sampling. These characteristics have resulted in the use of oral fluid for drugs of abuse testing in the workplace, in testing of intoxicated drivers, for monitoring illicit drug use in drug treatment. There are now sensitive and reliable analytical methods available both for screening and confirmation analysis of oral fluid specimens. External proficiency testing is being developed and cutoff concentrations have been proposed by scientific organizations. Appropriate certification of laboratories worldwide and the introduction of legal provisions in several countries will be the next step. However, a number of concerns require further research. The search for an on‐site screening method that can provide acceptable accuracies for the detection of cannabinoids in oral fluid remains a major hurdle. Additional considerations that have received attention are the variability in the volume of sample collected and the drug recovery from the many different specimen collection systems on the market. This article discusses developments in the field of collection devices, pharmacokinetics of common drugs of abuse in oral fluid, and recent technological advances and guidelines that increase the actual use of oral fluid testing in a legal context and its acceptance by the criminal justice system.
Drug Testing: Urine
Authors: Hamilton Warren D.
Published: September 2009

Urine drugs‐of‐abuse testing is widely conducted to improve the safety of critical work practices and to minimize risks associated with the employment of drug‐using employees. The most common drugs included in this testing are amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, and opiates such as morphine, codeine, and heroin metabolite 6‐acetylmorphine. In some settings, benzodiazepines, methadone, and/or phencyclidine (PCP) are targeted among other abused substances. Collection of urine requires specially controlled procedures to avoid adulteration or substitution and to ensure proper chain of custody to laboratory. A variety of initial methods are used to test urine for drug presence, but is most commonly based on immunoassay. All presumed positive samples will need to be confirmed using laboratory‐based mass spectrometric methods. Cutoffs are used as reporting thresholds. These vary between the drugs and can vary between jurisdictions depending on the purpose of the drug testing.
Toxicology: Analysis
Authors: Jones Graham R.
Published: September 2009

This article outlines the specimens available for toxicological examination in postmortem cases and their potential value for detecting and measuring drugs and other toxicants. Postmortem blood concentrations of many drugs can vary in concentration depending on the location in the body from which the blood is drawn and the volume collected. This is because many drugs concentrate in the major organs and tissues when alive, but diffuse out of those tissues after death, causing local increases in blood drug concentrations. To recognize when these postmortem artifacts occur and assist the interpretation of toxicology findings, collection and analysis of multiple blood and tissue samples is sometimes necessary. The advantages and disadvantages of the various blood and tissue types are listed and discussed.
Postmortem Toxicology: Artifacts
Authors: Skopp Gisela
Published: September 2009

Artifacts (misleading signs) are an inherent part of postmortem toxicology that needs to be assessed and managed, if possible. It is essential to be aware of and be able to identify artifcts. This review attempts to highlight the more important ones as far as known. There are several unique challenges with specimens collected for postmortem toxicology investigation. A major issue is a determination that includes an understanding of the drug use in the immediate antemortem setting and of the medical history contributing to pharmacokinetic variability. Analytical results may be biased by clandestine manufacture of drugs, treatment during resuscitation or hospitalization, as well as by the presence of tolerance. Drug concentration is likely to change already during the prefinal phase. The potential for postmortem alterations must be considered for all but a few drugs. They are likely to depend on a number of variables, including the drug's physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties, and environmental conditions. The extent of these changes varies significantly between drugs. The phenomenon of postmortem redistribution can result in anatomical site differences as well as in changes over time. Body fluids and tissues as well as drugs present in these specimens are severely affected by autolysis (cell disruption) and putrefaction. As a result, degradation as well as formation of new entities as competing processes to postmortem redistribution occurs. Analysis of formalin‐fixed or embalmed samples may create problems with regard to the isolation of a drug along with a substantial loss, decomposition, or methylation of compounds. The main collection artifact is contamination. An appreciation of how contaminants may be introduced is important. Poor sampling will severely affect a case investigation. The use of appropriate specimen containers and preservatives can be critical with regard to ultimately identify a substance in an individual specimen. Fluoride preservation of blood is recommended for ethanol, cocaine, carbon monoxide, and cyanide. Addition of fluoride can, for example, inhibit neoformation of ethanol, whereas degradation of cocaine is only slowed. Precaution taken to preserve drug stability during storage until analysis is largely guided by the current knowledge on degradation mechanisms operating in a particular matrix. Problems may also occur during isolation and identification of a drug. Determination of the parent drug along with major metabolites and potential degradation products seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation.
Amphetamine
Authors: Drummer Olaf H. , Beyer Jochen , Gerostamoulos Dimitri
Published: September 2009

Amphetamines represent a large family of strong stimulants of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The most well known examples are methamphetamine, amphetamine, and 3,4‐methylenedioxy‐methamphetamine (MDMA, also known as
ecstasy
), although there are several others. They are all substituted phenethylalkylamines related to the naturally occurring ephedrine, cathinone (active ingredient in khat), and mescaline (active ingredient in peyote cactus). They act as strong stimulants of the central nervous system (CNS) and many also stimulate the peripheral nervous system as well as increase heart rate and cardiac output. Although there are some minor legal therapeutic uses, they are predominately a drug of abuse administered orally, intravenously, or by smoking. Chronic use can lead to violence and aggressive behavior and in more extreme situations paranoid psychotic behavior.
Benzodiazepines
Authors: Drummer Olaf H.
Published: September 2009

The benzodiazepine family of sedatives and hypnotics are among the most prescribed drugs in the community. These include the diazepam, flunitrazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam, the more potent tri‐ring derivatives alprazolam, midazolam, and triazolam. Some benzodiazepines are also used for posttraumatic stress and obsessive compulsive disorders, alcohol withdrawal, muscle spasm, and seizures. Benzodiazepines are widely abused particularly in drug‐dependent persons using other drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, and opiates. These drugs depress the central nervous system adversely affecting psychomotor and cognitive function and as such cause a range of behavioral changes including disinhibition and increased crash risk of drivers in motorized vehicles. High doses benzodiazepines can cause ataxia, slurred speech, nystagmus, and in susceptible persons paradoxical effects leading to increased aggression.
Cannabis
Authors: Dickson Stuart , Poulsen Helen
Published: September 2009

The cultivation of cannabis for its use and abuse has a long history. In recent years, the discovery of receptor sites and endogenous cannabinoids has greatly increased our knowledge of the pharmacology of the drug and reinvigorated the search for medical applications. Modern instrumental techniques enable cannabinoids to be determined in biological specimens at significant concentrations. Maximum concentrations of Δ‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in blood are achieved within minutes of commencement of smoking but take 1‐5 h after oral ingestion. Excretion of cannabis metabolites may take up to 12 days after low‐to‐moderate use but up to 77 days after very heavy use. Cannabis abuse adversely affects many behavioral and physiological functions. Legislative efforts have failed to control the increase in cannabis abuse. Oral fluid has emerged as a useful sample for assessing recent cannabis use and may be particularly useful for the roadside testing of drivers.
Alcohol: Analysis
Authors: Jones Alan W.
Published: September 2009

The determination of alcohol (ethanol) in blood, urine, and other biological media represents the most frequently requested service from forensic science and toxicology laboratories worldwide. Likewise, the analysis of alcohol in expired air is widely performed by traffic police authorities when motorists are breath‐tested as evidence for prosecuting drunken drivers. Although fairly primitive by modern standards, the first practical method for blood‐alcohol analysis with sufficient accuracy and precision for legal purposes was proposed in the 1920s. The gold standard analytical methods today are gas‐liquid chromatography (GC) when dealing with specimens of blood and urine and either infrared spectrometry or electrochemical oxidation for the determination of ethanol in breath.
Reconstruction: Three Dimensional
Authors: Mastruko Vojin
Published: September 2009

3D reconstructions (visualization) in forensic field of application is a set of different computer technologies aiming at the reconstruction of a shooting case and the explanation of material traces at the scene of crime, on a suspect or a victim.
Reconstruction: Accident
Authors: Christensen Thomas C. , Liptai Laura L.
Published: September 2009

The objective of automobile accident reconstruction is to determine how a collision occurred, based on the physical evidence. Vehicle speed, direction of travel, and position on the roadway at impact are often the elements of interest. The physical evidence may consist of tire marks on the road, damage to the vehicles, debris patterns, and vehicle rest positions. When a police report is prepared, the scene evidence may be documented or recorded with a varied amount of detail. Vehicles are sometimes moved from their initial rest positions by the driver, or at the direction of law enforcement. Tire marks fade with time, and debris fields are quickly cleaned by rescue crews. Generally, few accident scenes are photographed by law enforcement, witnesses, or independent photographers. Because of these variations, accident reconstruction is necessary to determine the most accurate sequence of events. Classical reconstruction starts with the data postincident and works backward in time to determine the preincident sequence of events. The physical evidence is used to establish the pre‐ and postimpact motion of the vehicles, the impact orientation between the vehicles, and the vehicle impact speeds. The process of analyzing and utilizing the physical evidence to understand how the accident took place is like putting the pieces of a puzzle back together to compose the original image. Ultimately, the quantity and quality of the physical evidence determine what can be learned about how the accident happened.
Image Processing and Analysis
Authors: Geradts Zeno
Published: September 2009

Forensic image processing is a field that has developed rapidly. The old fashioned analog photography has disappeared for most parts in the last decades, and has been replaced with digital imaging. In analog photo and video, editing methods, such as contrast enhancement and color filtering, are available. However, with digital imaging, these methods and more are available to a much broader user group, who can edit these images, for example, on their mobile phones, or PC's. For forensic science, we see that digital images and closed circuit television (CCTV) streams are used as evidence in court. For this reason, it is important to do a proper forensic investigation. Crime scenes are visualized on CCTV. Forensic evidence image processing is used to visualize the fingerprint, handwriting, or shoe print more clearly. In this article, an overview is given of the methods that are available for digital image processing and some examples with CCTV and fingerprints are shown, with the risks. The risks can be minimized by having a good validation process, in which representative test samples are used.
Electrical Engineering
Authors: Shefchick Thomas P.
Published: September 2009

Forensic electrical engineering is the practical application of electrical engineering knowledge to legal questions about electrical phenomena. Academic departments of electrical engineering emerged during the 1890s as a result of the invention of the telephone (1876), the incandescent light bulb (1878), and development of the first central electrical generating plant in New York (1882). The electrical inventions resulted in many patent disputes and litigation, which required knowledgeable and trained electrical engineers to answer technical questions in a court of law. One of the first electrical engineers to testify in a patent dispute was Lewis Howard Latimer, the son of escaped slaves. However, the first documented trial where an electrical engineer was qualified to testify as an electrical expert occurred in 1926. On May 26, 1926, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania decided the case of Sinkovich
versus
Bell Telephone Company of Pennsylvania. The case involved a death due to a lightning strike. Today, there are several hundred electrical engineers who answer legal questions as forensic electrical engineers and there are forensic societies and organizations to train them.
Analysis: Computer Network
Authors: Baker David W. , Ervin Thomas
Published: September 2009

Network analysis is a challenging area of digital forensics, which can provide substantive data to assist in the investigation of network‐based events. There are several key challenge areas, and a variety of tools and techniques that can be utilized to perform such analysis. Such analysis includes analysis of malicious binary files in addition to analysis of network traffic.
Postmortem Interval: Anthropology
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Gibelli Daniele
Published: September 2009

The first step after the recovery of human remains is postmortem interval (PMI) determination—in other words, verification of the time since death. This task becomes very difficult as the body decomposes and is especially complex with skeletal remains. Very general indications may be obtained from the quantity of tissue residues on bone surface, observation of fluorescence of bone by UV analysis and luminol testing, or by the degree of microscopic degradation of bone. All these, however, depend on several variables including temperature, humidity, soil conditions, etc., which make the actual PMI determination subjective and error prone. Recently, radiochemical methods have been tested and seem to give interesting results, such as strontium 90. The forensic anthropologist, however, must always keep in mind that many clues on PMI must be obtained from the context the skeleton is found in and by the surrounding material; therefore, stratigraphy, entomology, and botany may at times be more useful than the study of the skeletonper se.
Sex Determination of Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide
Published: September 2009

Diagnosis of sex from the skeleton, when the genitalia are no longer visible, can be performed with good degrees of accuracy only on adult bones and is based mainly on the macroscopic observation of cranium and pelvis shape. In the cranium, areas such as the glabella, orbital margin, zygomatic arch, mastoid processes, nuchal crest, and the mandible are usually considered. Analysis of pelvic morphology usually shows a higher precision, in particular, observation of the sciatic notch and the subpubic angle. However, the size of many bones (such as the head of the radius, femur, and humerus) may also be useful in sexing and several regression equations have been developed for this specific function. DNA analysis also can be performed; however, it has higher costs and limits related to degradation and contamination.
Anthropology: Ancestry and Stature Determination
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina
Published: September 2009

Once post mortem interval (PMI), sex, and age have been determined, then one must complete the biological profile by integrating the description of that specific person, which is represented only by a skeleton. This extra information consists of ancestry, stature, the presence of skeletal anomalies, and gross pathology visible on the skeleton—in other words, anything which may have been specific to that particular individual. Ancestry is usually assessed by the observation of cranial morphology and by the metric traits of the entire skeleton; stature by measuring long bones on an osteometric table and then inserting such measurements in equations; pathology and bony anomalies are interpreted according to indications of clinical medicine and paleopathology, and thus one should look for signs of healed trauma, infections, degenerative disease, and dental work. These data will provide a complete biological profile and elements useful for personal identification.
Facial Reconstruction
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide
Published: September 2009

Where there is no suspicion of identity and therefore no one to compare to the final biological profile built from the skeletal remains, one may try to perform facial reconstruction or approximation from the cranium. This usually involves producing a plaster cast of the skeleton and then step‐by‐step, according to anatomical and anthropological indications, building a plasticine face on top of it, which hopefully reflects the real face the cranium had in life. Computer methods also exist nowadays, which give similar results to manual reconstruction. Various indications exist from different authors; however, the basic principle underlying this activity is that tissue depths are set at different landmarks of the cranium and then the consequent construction of muscles and soft tissues is guided by these tissue depths. Nose shape and mouth dimensions are determined according to specific anatomical rules, but these are also the more tricky areas as it is very difficult to accurately predict the shape of the soft tissues overlying the bony structures. Facial reconstruction should not be used as a method for positive identification; it is merely a way of triggering, once the reconstruction is published, the memory of the people, so that one may reach a suspicion of identity if the face looks familiar to someone.
Capacity to Consent to Medical Treatment
Authors: Edelstein Barry A. , Gould Christine E.
Published: September 2009

The number of older adults is growing rapidly. Most adults aged 65 and older suffer from at least one chronic disease, and many suffer from several medical conditions. With increasing age come more opportunities to make medical decisions. A variety of disorders that can compromise cognitive functioning and threaten medical decision‐making capacity become more likely with increasing age (e.g., Alzheimer's disease). In addition, there are several age‐related changes in cognitive skills that can impair decision making. This article considers the assessment of the capacity to consent to medical treatment, with a focus on medical decision making by older adults. A brief history of the doctrine of informed consent is presented as context for appreciating the challenge of performing a clinical assessment of consent capacity that is informed by law. Guidelines for assessment and a clinical model for guiding assessment are presented, followed by a brief discussion of assessment instruments.
Eyewitness Lineups: Identification from
Authors: Wells Gary L. , Hasel Lisa E.
Published: September 2009

Mistaken eyewitness identification is the primary cause of the conviction of innocent people. Psychological scientists have accumulated considerable knowledge of the factors contributing to mistaken identification. Particular interest has been directed at police lineups. Lineups are sometimes in‐person (live lineups) but much more commonly are photographic lineups, composed of six to eight photos. Errors can occur with surprising frequency when the culprit is not in the lineup. The dominant explanation for this problem is that people tend to select the person who looks most like their memory of the culprit, even if none of the lineup members is the actual culprit. Hence, psychological scientists have made numerous recommendations such as warning eyewitnesses that the culprit might not be in the lineup, using lineup fillers who all fit the description of the culprit, and not conducting a lineup until there is reasonable evidence against the suspect. In addition, research shows that eyewitnesses will develop a false sense of certainty about their identification if the lineup administrator shows approval of their choice. Hence, psychological scientists recommend that lineups be conducted using double‐blind procedures and that a statement of witness certainty be collected immediately following any identification.
Mitigation Testimony
Authors: Salekin Karen L.
Published: September 2009

The presentation of mitigating factors is critical to effective representation of defendants charged with capital murder. Since 1972 the United States Supreme Court (USSC) has clearly indicated that triers of fact must be provided the opportunity to consider all mitigating factors before determining the sentence. InLockett v. Ohiothe USSC unequivocally stated that mitigating factors include “any aspect of character or record, and any circumstance of the offense that might serve as a basis for a sentence less than death” and are not limited to those defined by statute. The decision inLockettopened up the floor for the presentation of numerous factors, among the many is an evaluation of the risk and protective factors that influenced the life course of the defendant. This article stresses the importance of a comprehensive investigation of the developmental trajectory of the defendant, and provides data regarding the impact of expert testimony on the jury, and the importance of effective communication with the triers of fact.
Northwest Juvenile Project
Authors: Washburn Jason J. , Teplin Linda A. , Abram Karen M.
Published: September 2009

The Northwestern Juvenile Project (NJP) is the first large‐scale, prospective longitudinal study of alcohol, drug, and mental (ADM) disorders in juvenile detainees. The NJP examines (i) changes in ADM disorders and comorbidity as youth age; (ii) patterns of mental health service use over time; and (iii) pathways and patterns of drug use, violence, and risk behaviors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) over time. The methodology of the NJP is an advancement over earlier studies on juvenile detainees. Participants were randomly sampled at intake to detention. To obtain enough data to compare key subgroups, the sample was stratified on the following variables: age (10–13 years or ≥ 14 years), gender, race/ethnicity (African‐American, non‐Hispanic white, and Hispanic), and legal status (processed as a juvenile or an adult). The final sample includes 1829 participants, a sample size large enough to allow for reliable estimates of uncommon disorders, comorbidity of disorders, and high‐risk behaviors. The longitudinal design of the NJP spans three critical developmental periods: adolescence, emerging adulthood, and young adulthood. Published results from the NJP indicate the substantial need for ADM disorder services and HIV/AIDS prevention among juvenile detainees. Data from projects such as the NJP are essential to policy makers addressing the many needs of juvenile detainees.
Disaster Mental Health
Authors: Bulling Denise , Abdel‐Monem Tarik
Published: September 2009

Disaster mental health is an evolving field of clinical practice that is carried out by a combination of clinicians and indigenous workers. It is typically a set of interventions for use after a disaster or humanitarian emergency that normalize the responses people have to the event. Situations in which disaster mental health interventions may be offered include natural disasters (e.g., tornadoes, floods, etc.), human‐caused disasters (e.g., technological disasters, terrorism, etc.), school and workplace shootings or suicides, or any situation in which groups of people are believed to have been subjected to danger or exploitation (e.g., civil or human rights abridgments or cultural dislocations associated with community or “compound” legal interventions). The philosophy behind disaster mental health is that most people experience normal or common reactions to the event and only a few will develop pathological symptoms that require extensive treatment. The set of interventions employed by disaster mental health practitioners usually consists of outreach, public education, and screening for more problematic reactions to the event. People who may show symptoms of major psychological disorders (like depression, anxiety, or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)) are referred to clinicians offering longer term treatment services. There are legal protections in place for disaster mental health practitioners who are part of a larger disaster response.
Sentencing: Demographic Factors in
Authors: Kehn Andre , Nunez Narina L.
Published: September 2009

Demographic characteristics of defendants are considered extralegal factors because they are not characteristics of the crime and therefore should not influence jurors' verdicts or sentencing decisions. However, ample evidence exists that jurors do consider extralegal factors when rendering verdicts and deciding on sentencing judgments for a defendant. This article reviews the literature on demographic characteristics of the defendant and how these factors influence jurors' judgments. Particularly, the impacts of race, age, and gender on jurors sentencing decisions are reviewed. This article addresses how these demographic characteristics can create biases that will influence jurors' decisions in a case. Relevant theoretical explanations are discussed to explain the findings from field studies as well as experimental studies.
Psychopathy Checklists
Authors: Hart Stephen D.
Published: September 2009

TheHare Psychopathy Checklist‐Revisedor PCL‐R and theScreening Version of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist‐Revisedor PCL:SV are observer ratings scales designed to assess the lifetime presence and severity of a wide range of symptoms of psychopathy in adults. PCL‐R is intended specifically for use in correctional offenders and forensic psychiatric patients, whereas PCL:SV is also intended for use in civil psychiatric patients and community residents. Research indicates PCL‐R and PCL:SV have good psychometric properties, including inter‐rater, structural, and test‐retest reliabilities. The tests have good concurrent validity with respect to other procedures for assessing psychopathy and robust predictive validity with respect to serious antisocial behavior, including violence. PCL‐R and PCL:SV are often used by forensic mental health professionals as part of comprehensive risk assessments, although evaluators should be aware of some important limitations of the tests.
Cardiac and Natural Causes of Sudden Death
Authors: Karch Steven B. , Fineschi Vittorio , Riezzo Irene
Published: September 2009

In most jurisdictions of Western societies, sudden and unexpected deaths are mainly due to natural causes linked with heart diseases by an initiating factor triggering cardiac arrest. The aim is to provide a background of facts currently known or believed with a critical review to aid the reader in resolving cases for which he or she is responsible. In other words, we revisit pathologic findings versus etiopathogenetic hypotheses and theories and propose new ones substantiated by previously misinterpreted or ignored facts. In this article, detailed findings are presented along with overall interpretations in order to help the forensic pathologist in a court of law to act as interpreter of the sequence of events leading to death. Sudden death due to cardiovascular causes is uncommon among the young, yet we provide insight as to cause. The incidence of cardiovascular disease increases with increasing age, and, as indicated above, it is now the leading cause of morbidity and death in Western societies. In reaching conclusions, a forensic pathologist must correlate and discriminate between terminal events and pathological findings that denote preexisting cardiac disease. It is insufficient to rely upon the tendency to believe (erroneously) that current clinical imaging techniques are alone sufficient to provide evidence of the cause of a disease. Advances in technology will procure a histo‐ultrastructural view in living people. At present, however, the autopsy remains the gold standard, with the proviso that the diminishing requests for postmortem examination by clinicians may, in the future, confine autopsy investigation to forensic institutions. There is, therefore, a need to establish strict collaboration between clinicians and pathologists.