bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cantonese Speakers' Memory for English Sentences with Prosodic Cues
Authors: Pennington Martha C. , Ellis Nick C.
Published: March 2003

The nature and functions of prosody are reviewed, and English and Cantonese are contrasted for this feature of language, as background for two experimental studies. In the experiments, 30 Cantonese speakers with advanced competence in English were tested for their recognition memory of English sentences in which prosody cued meaning contrasts in otherwise identical sentence pairs. The Cantonese speakers' memory for the English sentences based on prosodic information was generally poor, both when the contrastive focus was implicit in the experimental task (Experiment 1) and when it was the explicit focus of attention (Experiment 2). The only significant improvement in performance after participants' attention was explicitly directed to intonation was on sentences in which prosody cued a marked informational focus (‘ contrastive stress’ ) versus an unmarked one (‘ neutral’ sentence intonation). The investigation leads to suggestions for raising learners' awareness of prosody in a second language.
The Use of Technology for Second Language Learning and Teaching: A Retrospective
Authors: Salaberry M. Rafael
Published: March 2003

As one of the oldest and most influential foreign language pedagogical journals, The Modern Language Journal (MLJ) offers valuable insights into how technological advances have affected language teaching and learning at various points in history. The present article will review the proposed pedagogical use of technological resources by means of a critical analysis of articles published in the MLJ since its first edition in 1916. The assessment of how previous technical capabilities have been implemented for pedagogical purposes represents a necessary background for the assessment of the pedagogical potential of present‐day technologies. In this article I argue that, whereas most “new technologies” (radio, television, VCR, computers) may have been revolutionary in the overall context of human interaction, it is not clear that they have achieved equal degrees of pedagogical benefit in the realm of second language teaching. I further claim that the pedagogical effectiveness of different technologies is related to four major questions: (a) Is increased technological sophistication correlated to increased pedagogical effectiveness? (b) Which technical attributes specific to new technologies can be profitably exploited for pedagogical purposes? (c) How can new technologies be successfully integrated into the curriculum? and (d) Do new technologies provide for an efficient use of human and material resources?
The Development of Camera Calibration Methods and Models
Authors: Clarke T. A. , Fryer J. G.
Published: March 2003

Correction for image distortion in cameras has been an important topic for as long as users have wanted to faithfully reproduce or use observed information. Initially the main application was mapping. While this task continues today, other applications also require precise calibration of cameras, such as close range three dimensional measurement and many two dimensional measurement tasks. In the past, the cameras used were few in number and highly expensive whereas today a typical large industrial company will have many inexpensive cameras being used for highly important measurement tasks. Cameras are used more today than they ever were but the golden age of camera calibration for aerial mapping is now well in the past. This paper considers some of the key developments and attempts to put them into perspective. In particular the driving forces behind each improvement have been highlighted.
The Role of a Digital Intelligent Camera in Automating Industrial Photogrammetry
Authors: Dold J.
Published: March 2003

In the past few years the automation of digital industrial photogrammetric systems has increased dramatically. Due to digital image processing software, coded targets and automatic matching methods, a huge number of photogrammetric measurement tasks can be fully automated. In many cases a “one button click” is enough to provide the three dimensional co‐ordinates of measured points without any manual interaction, immediately after acquiring the images. The technology of intelligent cameras is a logical step towards automated photogrammetric measurements. An intelligent camera, which has an integrated computer, analyses the image immediately after it is taken. This technology provides not only a much shorter processing time for the images but also more control over the measurement process just when it is needed, during image acquisition. This takes place in the form of real time feedback.

This paper describes the role of a digital intelligent camera in the automation of an industrial photogrammetric measurement system and gives an overview of existing automation techniques in industrial photogrammetry. As an example of an intelligent camera, the performance of the new INCA digital intelligent camera, developed and manufactured by Geodetic Services, Inc. (GSI) and distributed by Leica, is described.
Application and Accuracy of Two Fixed Base Camera Systems
Authors: Warner W. S. , Reutebuch S. E.
Published: March 2003

This paper discusses the application of two fixed base non‐metric camera systems. The first is a helicopter supported 5m boom carrying two 70 mm Hasselblad cameras, fired simultaneously. The 1;850 scale stereomodels, each covering about 40 ×45 m, were used to measure individual tree characteristics, such as crown closure and size. The second system is a portable camera platform designed for microtopography, which used sequential Minolta 35mm photography (1;80 scale) for generating DEMs and computing volume of soil erosion. In both cases, an analytical plotter was used to collect measurements without ground control. With the helicopter boom system, distances and heights were measured to within 5 per cent of true dimensions. With the portable platform system, volume estimates were within 1 per cent of field measurement values. Particular attention is given to the orientation and scaling of stereopairs. Because the air base is used to scale the model, errors in scale due to non‐parallel lines of sight are avoided. Advantages and disadvantages of both systems are discussed.
The Measurement of River Channel Morphology Using Digital Photogrammetry
Authors: Lane S. N.
Published: March 2003

This paper seeks to review the progress that is being achieved by fluvial geomorphologists in making use of digital photogrammetry for river channel research. Fluvial geomorphology is first placed in a basic historical context from which the failure to make full use of the potential of photogrammetry is noted. A review is then given of the ways in which fluvial geomorphologists are now making use of photogrammetry, recognizing that the development of digital approaches has both made photogrammetry a more cost‐effective tool and also introduced a range of new research questions. The main objective of this paper is to demonstrate the importance of these questions and to illustrate some of the ways in which they are being addressed. Special attention is given to the issue of data quality, which is frequently (and perhaps conveniently) ignored.
Theory Competency for MPA‐Educated Practitioners
Authors: McSwite O.C.
Published: March 2003

In this issue, Cynthia McSwain and Orion White, writing under the nom de plume O.C. McSwite, address the issue of theory in MPA education. This is an important aspect of the larger theory–practice question in public administration, especially given the large number of MPA students who are mid‐career managers rather than pre‐service students. McSwite's position is that theoretical competency does not consist of specific content, such as theories of the budgeting process; rather, it is a frame of mind that helps practitioners “know what kind of situation they are in.” While McSwite's path to this conclusion is unique, it is also consistent with the approach taken in Donald Schon's The Reflective Practitioner. Both McSwite and Schon recognize how basic to good practice is this ability to size up situations in a systematic and useful way. As always, readers are invited to comment either directly to the authors or to the associate editor.
Election Administration in Crisis: An Early Look at Lessons from Bush versus Gore
Authors: Wise Charles R.
Published: March 2003

The 2000 presidential election exposed serious election‐administration deficiencies that affected the presidential election and the confidence of the American people in the way elections are administered. The ensuing controversies also exposed significant issues in judicial—administrative relations. This article examines the factors involved not only in Florida, but also in the nation, and discusses lessons for the future of election administration and for public administration generally.
Appointment Delay for Vacancies on the Federal Communications Commission
Authors: Nixon David C.
Published: March 2003

Confirmation politics for judicial appointees is an exhaustively studied phenomenon, but the politics of appointment for independent agencies is less well understood, because nominees are very rarely rejected and the Senate fails even to hold a recorded vote for most appointees. However, alternative evidence of conflict between the president and the Senate is available: the length of time it takes to fill a vacancy on a board or commission. An empirical assessment of FCC vacancies, based on an exponential regression model of vacancy duration, demonstrates that statutory restrictions on the partisanship of the board significantly deteriorate the efficiency of the appointment process. In addition, the appointment of minorities (though not of women) occurs only after unusually drawn‐out appointments. A straightforward test of whether divided government leads to extended vacancies turns up negative.
Retrofitting the Administrative State to the Constitution: Congress and the Judiciary's Twentieth‐Century Progress
Authors: Rosenbloom David H.
Published: March 2003

One of the twentieth century's “big questions” for United States government has been how best to retrofit, or integrate, the full‐fledged federal administrative state into the constitutional scheme. The public administration orthodoxy initially advocated placing the executive branch almost entirely under presidential control; Congress and the federal judiciary responded otherwise. Congress decided to treat the agencies as its extensions for legislative functions and to supervise them more closely. The courts developed an elaborate framework for imposing constitutional rights, values, and reasoning on public administration practice. As the challenge of retrofitting continues into the twenty‐first century, public administrators might profitably play a larger role in the constitutional discourse regarding the administrative state's place in constitutional government.
Is There a Dark Side to Government Supportfor Nonprofits?
Authors: Brooks Arthur C.
Published: March 2003

The relationship between government social spending and private donations to the nonprofit sector is an issue that is relevant to both public administrators and nonprofit managers. Does government funding displace philanthropy, or encourage it? This article introduces the debate into the public administration literature. First, I survey and interpret the empirical work performed to date in this area by economists. Second, I retest this question across four nonprofit subsectors using data on both federal and state/local spending. My survey of the literature shows mixed results, although a broad pattern indicates that “crowding out” tends to dominate, particularly in the areas of social service provision and health. My empirical results are consistent with these findings, although they must be interpreted cautiously from a policy perspective: While results are statistically significant, the degree of crowding out is generally small. On the other hand, the claim that government funding stimulates giving seems to lack both statistical and policy significance.
Improvisation in Public Administration and Policy Making in Israel
Authors: Sharkansky Ira , Zalmanovitch Yair
Published: March 2003

Although improvisation stands outside of conventional models for rational policy making and Weberian administration, it is nonetheless prevalent in public life. This article argues that improvisation is both a natural consequence of bounded rationality as well as a product of cultural and personal predilections and environmental circumstances. Drawing on a number of instances of improvisation in public administration and policy making in Israel, it attempts to shed light on its uses, motives, and implications, as well as on the issues involved in considering its utility.
Checks, Balances, and Appointments in the Public Service: Israeli Experience in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Amado Rivka
Published: March 2003

This article explores the process of appointing government ministers and senior executive officials in Israel. It provides several case studies of the appointment process in the 1990s, a period of hyperfragmentation in the Israeli parliament. These studies reveal evidence of gross irresponsibility in the appointment process, as well as a lack of a meaningful oversight and checks in the process. One consequence is that the Israeli High Court was asked to intervene and review and reject a number of these appointments. The article argues that although well meaning, this intervention represents a dangerous new trend; this new role for the Courts is both inappropriate and counterproductive. It is inappropriate because judicial intervention imposes a legal solution when a political solution is called for, and it is counterproductive because frequent judicial intervention weakens both the judiciary and the political process. The article concludes with a proposal for an alternative approach to cope with the lack of meaningful oversight in the political‐appointment process.
Anticipated Changes in Human Resource Management: Views from the Field
Authors: Hays Steven W. , Kearney Richard C.
Published: March 2003

This article reports the results of a major survey that was distributed to the members of the International Personnel Management Association and the Section on Personnel and Labor Relations of the American Society for Public Administration. The intent of the survey was twofold: to gauge the respondents' perspectives on the relative importance of various personnel techniques, activities, and values, and to assess their projections concerning the changes that will occur during the next decade. In addition to providing an interesting snapshot of the perceived state of modernization within public‐sector human resource management, the results reflect a considerable degree of agreement concerning the expected direction of further changes. Themes arising from the reinvention movement, as well as the technological revolution, dominate the response patterns. The implications of these perceived alterations in the field of human resource management are discussed, and potential problem areas are identified.
Partnership Arrangements: Governmental Rhetoric or Governance Scheme?
Authors: Teisman Geert R. , Klijn Erik‐Hans
Published: March 2003

It has become popular to advocate partnership arrangements. Such partnerships may be seen as new forms of governance, which fit in with the imminent network society. However, the idea of partnership is often introduced without much reflection on the need to reorganize policy‐making processes and to adjust existing institutional structures.

In this contribution, we discuss the ambiguity of partnerships. An empirical basis is provided by means of an analysis of the policy making on the expansion of the Rotterdam harbor. This case indicates that although new governance schemes are being proposed and explored, they still have to comply with the existing procedures in which they are imbedded. Governments especially are not prepared to adjust to governance arrangements. Policy making continues to be based on self‐referential organizational decisions, rather than on joint interorganizational policy making. This raises questions about the added value of intended cooperative governance processes.
Not in My Schoolyard: Localism and Public Opposition to Funding Schools Equally
Authors: Reed Douglas S.
Published: March 2003

Objective. Public opinion on education has not been extensively studied, despite the important political dimensions of conflicts over education policies. This article seeks to understand the dynamics of public opposition to equal educational opportunity in the wake of state supreme court decisions mandating school finance reform. Methods. Exploring state level polls from Connecticut and New Jersey, the article analyzes attitudes toward equal educational opportunity through logistic and ordinary‐least‐squares regression. Results. Situating attitudes toward school funding within the contexts of attitudes toward educational equality, taxes, and school performance, this analysis finds support for both self‐interest and symbolic opposition to equalization, but it also finds that localism has a strong and independent effect on respondents' views concerning the desirability of equal funding in schools. Conclusions. Despite respondents' strong support for the principle of funding schools equally, their support is significantly eroded if they perceive that equality threatens or diminishes local control of schools.
Why Does More Housework Lower Women's Wages? Testing Hypotheses Involving Job Effort and Hours Flexibility
Authors: Stratton Leslie S.
Published: March 2003

Objective. The purpose of this paper is to test two hypotheses regarding the observed negative relation between housework time and wages for women. Methods. Regression analysis is performed to determine the robustness of the housework‐wage relation to controls for effort and job flexibility. The data contain self‐reported flexibility measures and unique information on effort that can be normalized to reduce individual‐specific heterogeneity in reporting. Results. Reported work effort and flexible working conditions are found to be significant determinants of wages, but not at the expense of housework time. Conclusion. The evidence fails to support a link between housework and wages based on either job effort or hours flexibility, but the finding that only time spent on housework on job days is negatively related to wages suggests that time constraints are a critical factor.
The Foreign Policy Beliefs of Political Campaign Contributors: A Post‐Cold War Analysis
Authors: Aguilar Edwin , Fordham Benjamin O. , Lynch G. Patrick
Published: March 2003

Objective. In this article we address two questions raised by the literature on the structure of foreign policy beliefs. First, has the end of the Cold War brought about any major changes in these belief systems? Second, how do ideology and economic interests shape these beliefs? Methods. We analyze data from a 1996 survey of U.S. presidential campaign contributors conducted by the Ray Bliss Center to determine the foreign policy belief systems of contributors. We then compare those results to the belief systems found in a 1988 survey of contributors. Results. We find that Cold War belief systems are quite durable. There was surprisingly little change in the structure or content of contributors' foreign policy beliefs between 1988 and 1996. We also find that both ideology and economic interests help shape these beliefs and examine the circumstances under which each of these two considerations appears to have the most important effects. Conclusions. Policymakers face new challenges since the end of the Cold War, but domestic political elites still approach foreign policy with a Cold War perspective. Also, although ideology is very important in determining how individuals think about foreign policy, material interests also make a difference for campaign contributors.
Political Experience and Fundraising in City Council Elections
Authors: Krebs Timothy B.
Published: March 2003

Objective. Despite lack of attention from urban scholars, candidates' fundraising is a critical component of electoral politics in cities. In this research I evaluate the degree to which candidates' political experience is related to fundraising in city council elections. Methods. Multivariate regression is used to test models of city council fundraising in Chicago and Los Angeles. Results. In both cities, fundraising is a function of incumbency and prior experience as a political staff aide. Political endorsements are also important, especially those that come from incumbent politicians. The competitive environment also matters, as nonincumbents in open seat contests raise more than those who challenge incumbents. Conclusions. Fundraising in city council elections is shaped most notably by a combination of political experience and elite endorsements. For nonincumbents, the importance of prior experience on a political staff suggests a certain career trajectory for those seeking city council seats.
The Politics of Peace in the GDR: The Independent Peace Movement, the Church, and the Origins of the East German Opposition
Authors: Pfaff Steven
Published: March 2003

Comparative research offers some insights into the genesis of movements under highly repressive conditions in which dissident groups are systematically denied the organizational and political resources necessary to mount a sustained challenge to the state. During the 1970s and 1980s there were circles of dissidents in the German Democratic Republic (GDR, or East Germany), but most grievances were not expressed in an organized form, and there were few opportunities to mobilize protest against the Communist regime. State repression and party control of society meant that opposition had to be organized within institutions that were shielded from state control. Religious subcultures offered a rival set of identities and values while generally accommodating the demands of the regime. Within the free social space offered by the church, a peace movement developed during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The effort to build an independent citizens' peace movement based in the church played an important role in linking together various groups committed to nonviolent protest, peace, ecology, and human rights into a coherent, if still organizationally weak, opposition during the East German revolution of 1989.
The Reaction of the Youth in Israel to the Assassination of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin
Authors: Raviv Amiram , Sadeh Avi , Raviv Alona , Silberstein Ora
Published: March 2003

The assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin by a political assassin caused shock, disbelief, and deep grief to the Israeli people. Particularly prominent was the reaction of the youth, who gathered in large crowds, at the site of the murder and in other places, and engaged in various mourning behaviors of a ritual nature. This drew the attention of the media in Israel and around the world. A study of approximately 700 teenagers conducted after the assassination examined their emotional reactions, participation in ritualistic mourning activities, and assessments of the reasons for feeling shocked. In all areas, differences were found as a function of gender, and attitudes toward Rabin's peace policy. An attempt was made to explain the youth's behavior in terms of the formation of groups and group identity.
Forming Impressions of Political Leaders: A Cross‐National Comparison
Authors: Pancer S. Mark , Brown Steven D. , Barr Cathy Widdis
Published: March 2003

This study was designed to determine the key dimensions along which individuals judge the personalities of political and nonpolitical public figures in three countries—the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. Samples of student respondents from each country used a 40‐item trait battery to indicate their impressions of three national and two or three international political figures, as well as three nonpolitical public figures. The results indicated that certain key dimensions (charisma, competence, and integrity) were central features in both the description and evaluation of domestic political figures in all three countries. However, the weights assigned to these dimensions in determining overall evaluations varied in systematic ways, both within a nation's leader cohort and across samples. There were strong similarities across the three samples (especially between the Canadian and U.S. samples) in the criteria they used to evaluate the most salient leaders in their respective countries. The same common model of evaluation was less useful in judgments of the less salient leaders, foreign leaders, and nonpolitical public figures.
Are There Typical Age Curves in Political Behavior? The “Age Invariance” Hypothesis and Political Socialization
Authors: Watts Meredith W.
Published: March 2003

The acquisition and expression of political orientations are highly age‐related; however, the nature of age‐typical forms is rarely conceptualized in socialization research. The first part of this article examines the hypothesized nature of “age invariance” identified by criminologists in the study of deviant behavior and the inverted U‐curve of voting behavior identified by political scientists. The second part uses survey data from German youth and young adults (n = 7,280, ages 13 to 30) to describe typical age patterns for various types of unconventional behavior. The more unconventional the behavior, the more the curve resembles what criminologists have long found for deviant behavior. Youth approval of the more disruptive forms of political behavior has a left‐skewed age distribution that is also typical of deviant behavior. This suggests an unappealing combination of potential actionism and political ignorance occurring in late adolescence, a possibility that ought to be of consequence for the design of civic education and other interventions. From a research perspective, these age‐typical patterns can be useful as a theory‐building and theory‐testing strategy by treating them as baselines against which individual and cultural variations can be measured.
Political Consequences of Inconsistency: The Accessibility and Stability of Abortion Attitudes
Authors: Huckfeldt Robert , Sprague John
Published: March 2003

This paper investigates the political consequences of inconsistency for the accessibilityand self‐assessed stability of attitudes toward abortion. Two different sources of inconsistencyare examined: cognitive inconsistency between abortion attitudes and ideological identifications,and social inconsistency between individual abortion attitudes and the attitudes of others withinthese individuals' networks of association. The data analyzed are drawn from theresponses of 2,174 registered voters in a 1996 election survey that used computer‐assistedtelephone interviewing (which enabled measurement of response latencies). The analysis focusedon the relationships among the accessibility, self‐assessed stability, and extremity of abortionattitudes; the consequences of cognitive inconsistency for the accessibility and self‐assessedstability of abortion attitudes; and the consequences of socially inconsistent abortion attitudes forthe accessibility and stability of abortion attitudes.
On the Relationship Between Attitude Involvement and Attitude Accessibility: Toward a Cognitive‐Motivational Model of Political Information Processing
Authors: Lavine Howard , Borgida Eugene , Sullivan John L.
Published: March 2003

A model of the relationship between attitude involvement and attitude accessibilitywas developed and tested. The model specifies that attitude involvement leads to selective(biased) issue‐related information‐gathering strategies, which in turn produce extreme andunivalent (unambivalent) attitudes. Finally, attitudes associated with univalent and extremeunderlying structures should occasion relatively little decision conflict and thus should be highlyaccessible. Questionnaire response data gathered in a national telephone survey and from twosamples of undergraduates revealed that both attitude extremity and attitude ambivalence onselected political issues mediated the relationship between attitude involvement and attitudeaccessibility. Some findings indicated that selective processing mediated the relationshipbetween attitude involvement and attitude extremity and ambivalence. Discussion focuses on theprocesses linking involvement to accessibility, the factors that moderate theambivalence‐accessibility relationship, and the relevance of the model to media‐based primingeffects and tothe nature of public opinion and the survey response.
Genocide and Mass Killing: Origins, Prevention, Healing and Reconciliation
Authors: Staub Ervin
Published: March 2003

This article focuses on intense collective violence, especially mass killing and genocide. It briefly presents a conception of their origins, with new elements in the conception and comparisons with other approaches. Various aspects of genocide and mass killing are considered, including their starting points (such as difficult life conditions and group conflict), cultural characteristics, psychological and social processes (such as destructive ideologies), the evolution of increasing violence and its effect on perpetrators and bystanders, and the roles of leaders and of internal and external bystanders. Actions that might be taken by the community of nations and other actors to halt or prevent violence are described. In considering prevention there is a focus on processes of healing within previously victimized groups and reconciliation between hostile groups. A project on healing, forgiveness, and reconciliation in Rwanda is briefly described.
TheOperational Code of John F. Kennedy During the Cuban Missile Crisis: A Comparison of Public and Private Rhetoric
Authors: Marfleet B. Gregory
Published: March 2003

This study examines the manner in which the Cuban missile crisis affected the belief system of President John F. Kennedy. The analysis uses data derived from primary source materials that have become available only in the last 2 years, in addition to well‐known public statements by the president. The Verbs in Context System (VICS) was used to generate insights into how Kennedy's operational code differed across sources and changed during the period of the crisis. The results provide evidence of Kennedy's initial private belligerence and provisional support for the ‘Gettysburg thesis’ while calling into question some other potential interpretations of the effects of the crisis on the president's beliefs.
Bill Clinton's Operational Code: Assessing Source Material Bias
Authors: Schafer Mark , Crichlow Scott
Published: March 2003

This paper considers Bill Clinton's operational code as reflected in prepared speeches and spontaneous remarks. Differences between the two types of verbal material, their respective differences over time, and their respective variation after key intervening political events were subjected to analysis of variance as well as descriptive analyses. The results suggest that measurements based on spontaneous comments are preferable, particularly in providing sensitive measures of personal predispositions.
ThePrepared and Spontaneous Remarks of Presidents Reagan and Bush: A Validity Comparison for At‐a‐Distance Measurements
Authors: Dille Brian
Published: March 2003

This paper examines the spontaneous and prepared remarks of Presidents Reagan and Bush in the domain of U.S.‐Soviet relations at the end of the Cold War. The findings suggest thatm researchers should be cautious when drawing their sample frames, because scores gleaned from prepared remarks may contain systematic differences large enough to affect the workings of models using at‐a‐distance measurements. However, if the leader is involved in the preparation of speeches he or she delivers, then these prepared speeches typically are as valid an indicator of the leader's psychological variables as are spontaneous remarks from interviews. Context effects may be present for both cognitive and personal variables in remarks from spontaneous and prepared statements. Impression management, therefore, may be a bigger problem than authorship in assessing leaders at a distance.
Contributions of the Cognitive Approach to Political Psychology
Authors: McGraw Kathleen M.
Published: March 2003

The social cognition tradition has had a strong impact on political psychology scholarship in the last part of the 20th century. The purpose of this essay is to review the contributions of the cognitive approach in helping political psychologists to better understand how citizens think about the world of politics. I consider research concerned with both the mental structure or representation of information about the political world and research concerned with specifying the cognitive processes that produce political judgments and opinion, and conclude that political cognition scholarship has begun to live up to its promise. In the second part of the essay, I suggest a research agenda for the future, pointing to ten directions for extending the political cognition paradigm.
Invidious Comparisons: Imagining a Psychology of Race and Gender Beyond Differences
Authors: Cole Elizabeth R. , Stewart Abigail J.
Published: March 2003

Within psychology there is a longstanding debate concerning whether large, fundamental differences between races and genders exist. Much of this research involves comparisons that are invidious (offensively discriminating) and supports a political ideology in which members of different groups are held to be fundamentally different, alien, and therefore destined to different spheres. In this paper, specific factors are identified that make research on group differences more likely to produce distorted and partial findings. In addition, studies are cited whose methodological strategies offer insight into the processes that create and maintain group differences. Such research may illuminate not only the differences between groups, but also the very meaning of group categories. The process of scholarly peer review should become sensitive to the features that make comparisons invidious, so as to incorporate them into the criteria used to evaluate research.
Self‐Reliance and Empathy: The Enemies of Poverty—and of the Poor
Authors: Lane Robert E.
Published: March 2003

Starting with a brief review of why all post‐industrial societies tend to be inegalitarian, this paper develops two main themes: (1) how the idea that people are individually responsible for their own fates reduces poverty but impedes redistribution, and (2) how both the loose ties of individuals to their societies and the selective nature of their empathy and pity for others reduces compassion for the poor, making redistribution unlikely. The first theme is elaborated through psychological research on dispositional versus circumstantial attributions, showing their effects on the widely shared belief in a just world and more generally on the prevailing theory of the justice of deserts. The attribution‐affect‐action model is used to show how dispositional attributes evoke either anger or pity for victims and, if anger, then unwillingness to help. The development of the second theme shows how people divorce their own fates from those of their nations, how the basic tendency to favor the familiar and similar limits support for redistribution, how converting concern regarding deprivations of the self to concern for (fraternal) deprivation of people like the self excludes those who most need help, how envy fails to lead to redistribution, and finally, how people’s ideas of the privileged and the disadvantaged reflect market values and often mark the poor and the different as overprivileged.
Authoritarianism and Political Impoverishment: Deficits in Knowledge and Civic Disinterest
Authors: Peterson Bill E. , Duncan Lauren E. , Pang Joyce S.
Published: March 2003

Past research shows that authoritarian individuals hold strong opinions about a variety of political and social issues, such as race relations and military conflict. What has not been established, though, is the amount of general political knowledge that authoritarians possess. In this study, three groups of college students were administered Altemeyer’s Right‐Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) scale; most of them also received items assessing general political knowledge and specific knowledge about the 2000 presidential election, as well as items assessing interest in politics. Relative to students with low RWA scores, those with high scores possessed less political knowledge; moreover, they expressed less interest in learning about politics. In general, authoritarianism was unrelated to how individuals got their political information or how credible they found their sources. The implication that authoritarians hold strong attitudinal beliefs with weak political knowledge is discussed.
Sources of Civic Orientation Among American Youth: Trust, Religiious Valuation, and Attributions of Responsibility
Authors: Crystal David S. , DeBell Matthew
Published: March 2003

This study identified affective and cognitive factors predicting American 6th, 8th, and 10th graders’ civic orientation, defined here as feelings of effective community service, conceptualizations of citizenship, and participation in student government. Independent variables included measures of interpersonal trust, valuation of religion, and individualistic versus collective action attributions of responsibility for solving social problems. Interpersonal trust predicted four out of the five outcome variables. Individualistic attribution of social responsibility was a predictor of running for student government office, and collective action attribution was a predictor of conceptualizations of citizenship. Religious valuation also predicted conceptualizations of citizenship as well as feelings of effective community service. For the most part, grade level did not play a significant role in predicting youth’s civic orientation. Results are discussed in terms of the literature on social capital and developmental theory.
Generation Units and the Student Protest Movement in the United States: An Intra‐ and Intergenerational Analysis
Authors: Jennings M. Kent
Published: March 2003

The American student protest movement provides exceptional opportunities to observe how formative political experiences can affect intragenerational cleavages over the adult life span and how they may reflect on intergenerational continuities. Long‐term national panel data from the high school class of 1965 and data from their parents and offspring are used here to exploit these opportunities. The results show that a sharp rift in political participation and attitudes emerged between protesters and non‐protesters during the protest era, a rift that persists into mid‐life and one that testifies to the conceptual utility of generation units. Continuities across the three lineage generations are demonstrated by the moderate similarities in the ideological and participative orientations that are associated with the protest status of the student generation.
Patriotism, Nationalism, and Internationalism Among Japanese Citizens: An Etic–Emic Approach
Authors: Karasawa Minoru
Published: March 2003

The present study examined national attitudes among Japanese citizens. A National Identity Scale was developed and administered to a non–student sample (n = 385) and an undergraduate sample (n = 586) in a metropolitan area of Japan. The results revealed aspects that are common (i.e., etic) to different nationalities and those that are indigenous (i.e., emic) to Japanese people. Factor analyses identified etic factors of patriotism (i.e., love of the homeland), nationalism (belief in superiority over other nations), and internationalism (preference for international cooperation and unity). Attachment to the ingroup and ethnocentrism were thus shown to be separate dimensions. Distinct from these factors, commitment to national heritage emerged as an emic component of Japanese national identity. The discriminant validity of these factors was demonstrated in differential relationships with other variables, such as ideological beliefs and amount of knowledge. Commitment to national heritage was associated with conservatism, whereas internationalism was related to liberal ideology, a high level of media exposure, and knowledge of international affairs. Implications for the study of intergroup and international relations are discussed.
Cognitive Skills as Predictor of Attitudes Toward Political Conflict: A Study of Polish Politicians
Authors: Golec Agnieszka
Published: March 2003

The relationship between cognitive development and attitudes toward a current political conflict was examined in a sample of 46 Polish politicians. This relationship was examined in a control group in a neutral condition and in an experimental group after participants were presented with a hostile attack on their position on the conflict. Politicians with less advanced cognitive skills tended to use competitive attitudes in both conditions. In contrast, those who possessed more advanced skills tended to use cooperative attitudes in the neutral situation; after the emotional attack, they tended to avoid further involvement in the conflict and sought to exit it. The key difference in participants’ cognitive functioning was their ability to differentiate perspectives and to transcend their own point of view in the conflict.
The Media and Genetically Modified Foods: Evidence in Support of Social Amplification of Risk
Authors: Frewer Lynn J. , Miles Susan , Marsh Roy
Published: March 2003

Empirical examinations of the “social amplification of risk” framework are rare, partly because of the difficulties in predicting when conditions likely to result in amplification effects will occur. This means that it is difficult to examine changes in risk perception that are contemporaneous with increases and/or decreases in social or media discussion of the risks associated with a particular risk event. However, the collection of attitude data before, during, and after the increased reporting of the risks of genetically modified food in the United Kingdom (spring 1999) has demonstrated that people's risk perceptions do increase and decrease in line with what might be expected upon examination of the amplification and attenuation mechanisms integral to the framework. Perceptions of benefit, however, appeared to be permanently depressed by negative reporting about genetically modified food. Trust in regulatory institutions with responsibility for protecting the public was not affected. It was concluded that the social amplification of risk framework is a useful framework for beginning to explain the potential impact on risk perceptions of a risk event, particularly if that risk event is presented to the public as a new hazard occurring in a crisis context.
Percentiles of the Product of Uncertainty Factors for Establishing Probabilistic Reference Doses
Authors: Gaylor David W. , Kodell Ralph L.
Published: March 2003

Exposure guidelines for potentially toxic substances are often based on a reference dose (RfD) that is determined by dividing a no‐observed‐adverse‐effect‐level (NOAEL), lowest‐observed‐adverse‐effect‐level (LOAEL), or benchmark dose (BD) corresponding to a low level of risk, by a product of uncertainty factors. The uncertainty factors for animal to human extrapolation, variable sensitivities among humans, extrapolation from measured subchronic effects to unknown results for chronic exposures, and extrapolation from a LOAEL to a NOAEL can be thought of as random variables that vary from chemical to chemical. Selected databases are examined that provide distributions across chemicals of inter‐ and intraspecies effects, ratios of LOAELs to NOAELs, and differences in acute and chronic effects, to illustrate the determination of percentiles for uncertainty factors. The distributions of uncertainty factors tend to be approximately lognormally distributed. The logarithm of the product of independent uncertainty factors is approximately distributed as the sum of normally distributed variables, making it possible to estimate percentiles for the product. Hence, the size of the products of uncertainty factors can be selected to provide adequate safety for a large percentage (e.g., approximately 95%) of RfDs. For the databases used to describe the distributions of uncertainty factors, using values of 10 appear to be reasonable and conservative. For the databases examined the following simple ‘Rule of 3s’ is suggested that exceeds the estimated 95th percentile of the product of uncertainty factors: If only a single uncertainty factor is required use 33, for any two uncertainty factors use 3 × 33 ≈ 100, for any three uncertainty factors use a combined factor of 3 × 100 = 300, and if all four uncertainty factors are needed use a total factor of 3 × 300 = 900. If near the 99th percentile is desired use another factor of 3. An additional factor may be needed for inadequate data or a modifying factor for other uncertainties (e.g., different routes of exposure) not covered above.
Utility of Biochemical Systems Theory for the Analysis of Metabolic Effects from Low‐Dose Chemical Exposure
Authors: Voit Eberhard O.
Published: March 2003

Adverse health outcomes from exposure to chemical agents are of increasing interest in human and ecological risk assessment and require the development of new analytical methods. Such methods must be able to capture the essence of integrated networks of biochemical pathways in a mathematically feasible fashion. Over the past three decades, Biochemical Systems Theory has been successfully applied to numerous biological systems. It is suggested here that S‐system models derived from BST can provide the means for assessing chemical exposures and their effects at the metabolic level. This article briefly reviews essential concepts of S‐systems and provides generic examples of chemical exposure scenarios. S‐system models can be considered mechanistic, since their components are measurable quantities (e.g., concentrations, fluxes, enzyme activities, and rates). As dynamic models, they can be used to assess immediate and long‐term metabolic responses to environmental stimuli. Direct mathematical analysis for low exposures leads to simple dose‐response relationships, which have the form of power‐law functions. Thus, if the S‐system model yields an appropriate description of chemical exposure and its metabolic effects, the dose‐response relationship for low exposures is linear in logarithmic coordinates. This result includes as a special case the standard linear relationship in Cartesian coordinates with zero intercept.
Multiattribute Risk Analysis in Nuclear Emergency Management
Authors: Hämäläinen Raimo P. , Lindstedt Mats R. K. , Sinkko Kari
Published: March 2003

Radiation protection authorities have seen a potential for applying multiattribute risk analysis in nuclear emergency management and planning to deal with conflicting objectives, different parties involved, and uncertainties. This type of approach is expected to help in the following areas: to ensure that all relevant attributes are considered in decision making; to enhance communication between the concerned parties, including the public; and to provide a method for explicitly including risk analysis in the process. A multiattribute utility theory analysis was used to select a strategy for protecting the population after a simulated nuclear accident. The value‐focused approach and the use of a neutral facilitator were identified as being useful.