bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fertility on the US–Mexico border
Authors: Warren Charles W. , Monteith Richard S. , Johnson J. Timothy
Published: July 2008

Using Bongaarts' model, the relative importance of the proximate determinants of fertility is explored in five populations on the US–Mexico border. For the groups closest to natural fertility (the two Mexican groups), lactation, use of contraception, and marriage all were moderately important in terms of their direct effect on fertility. For the group with lowest fertility (Anglo-American), contraceptive use was an important factor inhibiting fertility; marriage was important but not nearly as important as contraceptive use. For the two US Mexican-American groups, contraceptive use was an important intermediate variable, not as important as for Anglo-Americans, but more important than it was for the two populations in Mexico. The proportion married was a moderately important factor for the Mexican-American groups. For these five populations the principal differences in fertility rates result from substantial differences in the use of effective contraception. Bongaarts' model proved very useful as an analytical framework in this study.
Fertility change in Costa Rica 1960–84: analysis of retrospective lifetime reproductive histories
Authors: Rosero-Bixby Luis , Oberle Mark W.
Published: July 2008

Lifetime reproductive histories of a 1984–85 nationally representative sample of 870 women aged 25–59 years provided data to describe the evolution of fertility, contraception, breast-feeding, and natural fecundability in Costa Rica between 1960 and 1984. The contraceptive prevalence rate increased from 23% in 1965 to 58% in 1975 and 66% in 1984. Duration of breast-feeding was stable during the 1960s, decreased in the early 1970s, and increased after about 1976. Fecundability among women who did not practise contraception was lower than expected and declined between 1960 and 1975, probably because of selection effects. Despite a high consistency between estimations from the reproductive histories and other sources of data, some suggestion of omissions of short periods of contraceptive use in the distant past was detected. The survey may have reduced recall errors by using a calendar that summarizes major life events together. The analysis demonstrated the feasibility and usefulness of asking for lifetime reproductive histories in fertility surveys in developing countries.
Are preterm black infants larger than preterm white infants, or are they more misclassified?
Authors: Suthutvoravut Somsak , Hogue Carol J. R. , Guyer Bernard , Anderka Marlene , Oberle Mark W.
Published: July 2008

In birth certificate data for Massachusetts resident births from 1978 to 1982, 12–27% of births purportedly under 31 weeks of gestation were probably misclassified, i.e. had birthweight ≥2500g. Correcting for maldistribution of births removed 34% and 23%, respectively, of black and white births with reported gestational ages <36 weeks but with implausible weights. Percentages of unknown and incomplete reports of last menstrual period were also significantly higher for blacks. After adjustment, preterm black infants weighed less than whites at each gestational age. The proportion of infants <2500g born at term (≥37 weeks gestation) was higher (although not significantly) among blacks. These findings are consistent with hypotheses that low socioeconomic status negatively affects the rate of intrauterine growth.
Seasonality of births and family characteristics in a Spanish population
Authors: Fuster V.
Published: July 2008

The seasonality of births in the period 1871–1977 is studied in a rural north-western Spanish population. Based on a total sample of 11,695 birth registrations, temporal variation is analysed. For siblings, according to family reconstitution, the total family size, the legitimacy of the child, and birth order are considered. A coefficient of birth month dispersion is defined and estimated for each family. Intra-family variation is related to inter-family coefficients in order to determine whether the local seasonal pattern of births may be partly explained by family characteristics.
Attitudes towards contraceptive implants and injectables among present and former users in Singapore
Authors: Singh K. , Viegas O. A. C. , Ratnam S. S.
Published: July 2008

In a comparison of present and past users of contraceptive implants (Norplant) or injectables (DMPA) and discontinuers of Norplant or DMPA, information concerning the women's knowledge and perception of, and attitude to, implants and injectable contraceptives, was studied. The long duration of action (5 years) of implants was perceived positively by all groups as compared to the shorter 3-month duration of injectables, though this was seen as an advantage over the pill. It appears that the Norplant system has potential for wider use in Singapore in the future.
Reproductive pattern among women in 19th century Sweden
Authors: Högberg Ulf , Åkerman Sune
Published: July 2008

Among the married female population in rural areas of 19th century Sweden infertility and subfertility were found in 7·5% and 6·1% respectively with increasing incidence during the latter half of the century. In relation to the age group 20–24, fecundity declined by 42% and 92% in the age groups 35–39 and 40–45 respectively. One-third of married women died before age 50. Re-marriages and step-parents were common. Less than half of the married women brought up the majority of the children in the community.
Age at first marriage and fertility in rural Anhui, China
Authors: Yang Quanhe
Published: July 2008

This paper examines the changing nuptiality pattern of rural China, particularly rural Anhui in relation to the planned social changes since 1949 and their effect on fertility. The data are from the 1/1000 Fertility Survey of China, conducted by the Family Planning Commission in 1982. Before the family planning programme was introduced to rural Anhui (1972), the changing nuptiality pattern was indirectly affected by the planned social changes; after 1972, the substantial increase in age at first marriage was mainly due to the family planning programme. More recently, the centrally controlled social structure is loosening, due to the economic reform and the nuptiality pattern seems to join the 1972 trend, suggesting that the dramatic change of nuptiality pattern during the early 1970s to early 1980s was a temporary one. But its effect on fertility is clear, and the shortening interval between marriage and first birth may bring difficulties for future population control in rural China.
Trends in perinatal mortality attributed to congenital malformations in England and Wales during 1974–81: a study of the variations among regional Health Authority areas
Authors: Somchiwong Malinee
Published: July 2008

Analysis of perinatal mortality attributed to congenital malformations in England and Wales, using data from birth and death registration over the years 1974–81 showed significant declines in England and Wales as a whole and in the individual Regional Health Authority (RHA) areas. A greater decrease in death rate from congenital malformations, particularly central nervous system malformations, was seen among stillbirths than among early neonatal deaths. There were marked regional differences in perinatal mortality due to central nervous system malformations over the period but not in cardiovascular system malformations or in other malformations. The highest mortality rates due to central nervous system malformations occurred in the North, North-West, West and South-West of England and in Wales, and the lowest rates in the South and South-East. The larger percentage reductions in the mortality rates were found in most of the regions which had had the highest rates. Possible explanations for the decline in regional rates are suggested.
Post-partum events and fertility control in Kinshasa, Zaïre
Authors: Bertrand Jane T. , Chirhamolekwa C. , Djunghu B. , Chibalonza K. , Mahama K.
Published: July 2008

Contraceptive prevalence surveys from sub-Saharan Africa typically show low rates of method use. The current study of one zone in Kinshasa, Zaïre, provides a more detailed view of fertility control in an urban population by examining the relative duration of breast-feeding, amenor-rhoea and sexual abstinence during the post-partum period. While motivations to prevent pregnancy remain high until the youngest child is over 24 months, the average duration of abstinence is only 4 months. This paper describes the methods women use to avoid pregnancy and the changes over the post-partum period.
Seasonality of births among Bedouin Arabs residing in the Negev Desert of Israel
Authors: Guptill K. , Berendes H. , Forman M. R. , Chang D. , Sarov B. , Naggan L. , Hundt G. L.
Published: July 2008

From 1 January 1981 to 31 December 1982 information on all births to Bedouin Arab women residing in the Negev Desert of Israel showed a previously unreported seasonal pattern. The peak season, November-February, coincided with the period of cool temperatures and the Bedouin Arab cultural seasons of winter and spring. This pattern is different from those of Jewish and Christian groups in the same region, a difference not attributable to religion alone.

Sociodemographic factors associated with the peak season of birth include traditional occupations of fathers, multiparae 2+, and traditional place of residence. This pattern has persisted over the past 15 years although it is less apparent among the more recently sedentarized Bedouin Arabs.
Time to pregnancy—a model and its application
Authors: Boldsen Jesper L. , Schaumburg Inger
Published: July 2008

Biological fertility is poorly measured by the number of children born in industrially advanced societies. The time elapsing from when a couple decides to have a child to clinically recognizable pregnancy is a useful alternative. Time to pregnancy can be collected in broad categories in large samples. A model for condensing important information from such data is presented, which fits several large samples of reported waiting times. It is shown that multiparous women conceive more quickly than primiparous women.
Contraceptive social marketing in Nepal: consumer and retailer knowledge, needs and experience
Authors: Shrestha Ashoke , Kane Thomas T. , Hamal Hem
Published: July 2008

In 1986, a survey was conducted to assess knowledge, health concerns and experience with marketing (retailers) and use (consumers) of Gulaf and Nilocon pills and Kamal vaginal tablets distributed by the Nepal Contraceptive Retail Sales Company (CRS). A sample of 763 consumers of Gulaf, Nilocon and Indian pills and Kamal vaginal tablets, and 361 retailers from a stratified sample of urban medical shops were interviewed. The CRS marketing programme is reaching people who have previously never used family planning; most of the users were practising contraception to limit, not space, births; a high proportion of pill users over 35 smoked; only about a third of CRS pill users had prescriptions or consulted a physician prior to use; CRS training of retailers was found to have increased their knowledge. Recommendations are made for improving communication, education and marketing of CRS contraceptives to ensure their safe and effective use and increase the acceptability of this mode of service delivery.
A Study of infant mortality and causes of death in a rural north-east Brazilian community
Authors: Bailey Patricia , Tsui Amy Ong , Janowitz Barbara , Dominik Rosalie , Araujo Lorena
Published: July 2008

In 1984 a prospective study of 1645 women and 1677 births in a rural community in north-eastern Brazil showed the infant mortality rate to be 65 per 1000 live births. Neonatal, post-neonatal and infant mortality are analysed to determine the most important risk factors for each period. Post-neonatal survival depends largely on factors relating to child care, while neonatal deaths are more likely to be associated with biological factors. The principal cause of death, diarrhoeal disease, was responsible for a third of the deaths.
Child mortality levels and survival patterns from Southern Sudan
Authors: Roth Eric A. , Kurup K. Balan
Published: July 2008

Data from a 1985 survey in two major population centres in Southern Sudan, Juba and Wau, were analysed in order to assess childhood mortality levels and the effect of UNICEF's health care programme. There are continuing high levels of childhood mortality. Logistic regression analysis shows significant positive associations between child survival and immunization, oral rehydration therapy and maternal education.
Predicting contraceptive method usage among women in West Scotland
Authors: Hunt Kate , Annandale Ellen
Published: July 2008

Users of the six major methods of contraception are compared across a broad range of variables using data from a community sample. Differences between the groups were apparent for a range of socioeconomic and reproductive variables, and current users of the various methods also differed in their past use of contraception. Users of barrier methods fared particularly well. Few differences were observed for current health status or for the sociocultural variables examined, although users of natural methods differed from all others in their religious affiliation and commitment.

Discriminant analysis showed that the most predictive variables distinguishing women who had opted for permanent methods of contraception (female sterilization and vasectomy) were the woman's stated reason for using her current method and her past contraceptive patterns; the inclusion of social, health and reproductive indicators did little to improve the prediction. It is argued that heightened expectations for contraceptive efficacy in the face of increasing concerns about long-term health consequences have contributed to the increased use of permanent methods.
Divorce in contemporary Japan
Authors: Fukurai Hiroshi , Alston Jon
Published: July 2008

Data from the 1985–86 Japanese census are analysed to explore the determinants of the divorce rates in Japan's forty-seven prefectures, using two theoretical models: (a) the social integration model, which is shown to have a greater utility in predicting Japanese divorce levels than (b), the human capital model. Female emigration patterns play a significant role in affecting the divorce rate. Population increase and net household income are also important predictors of the Japanese divorce rate and urbanization has a great influence in modern Japan. Demographic and aggregate variables such as migration, urbanization, and socioeconomic factors are useful when organized under a social integration model.
Fertility preferences among Malaysian women: an analysis of responses to the new population policy
Authors: Khor Geok Lin
Published: July 2008

About 10% of 3887 ever-married women included in the 1984–85 Malaysian Population and Family Survey revealed that they were influenced by the new population policy to desire more children than they had originally wanted. These women were more likely to be rural Malays from the lower socioeconomic class. Ideal family size was more than four children. Children are desired for economic benefits and emotional support. The natality of the Malays has risen since 1980: their total fertility rate has increased while their contraceptive prevalence rate has dropped sharply. Coupled with a decline in the crude death rate, the present fertility preferences and behaviour of the Malays will render the target of the population policy more attainable than is reflected by the survey data.
Socioeconomic structure and fertility in China: a county level investigation
Authors: Poston Dudley L. , Zhongke Jia
Published: July 2008

Analysis of the general fertility rate in the counties of China shows significant associations with infant mortality, illiteracy, and the percentage of the population employed in industry, but not with industrial or agricultural output. Urban counties differ from rural in the importance of the illiteracy rate. The associations in the rural counties vary according to the region of China in which they are located.
Social class as a risk factor for infant mortality in an Australian population
Authors: Quine Susan
Published: July 2008

Studies in other countries have identified social class as a risk factor for infant mortality. In Australia there is no systematic collection of population data by social class, partly due to the absence of a recognized measure. The use of occupational prestige as an indicator of social class is discussed and Australian prestige scales reviewed. In a population based study, logistic regression analysis of infant mortality in an Australian (NSW) population shows the effects of social class on infant mortality which remain when maternal age, marital status and parity are controlled.
Changes in contraceptive use and fertility: El Salvador, 1978–88
Authors: Monteith Richard S. , Warren Charles W. , Caceres Jose Mario , Goldberg Howard I.
Published: July 2008

In El Salvador from 1978 to 1988, contraceptive use among married women 15–44 years of age increased from 34% to 47%, and the total fertility rate declined from 6·3 to 4·6 children per woman. Most of this change took place from 1978 to 1985. Sterilization is the most prevalent method used, but nearly one-half of the women who are sterilized did not use any contraception before their operation. Few young couples use reversible methods of contraception to space births or delay the start of childbearing. On average, women wait 8 years after marriage and have nearly three children before they use contraception.
Lactation, birth spacing and maternal work-loads among two castes in rural Nepal
Authors: Panter-Brick Catherine
Published: July 2008

The nursing behaviour of rural Nepali women, from two castes inhabiting the same village, is quantified on the basis of 2202 hr of continuous and direct day-time observation over 1 year. Feed duration, interval, total time and daily frequency are examined in relation to women's work, particularly the type of subsistence activity and seasonality. ‘Opportunity’ feeds are governed both by infant demands and maternal activity. Caste differences in birth intervals are also discussed.
Socioeconomic and cultural differentials in age at marriage and the effect on fertility in Nepal
Authors: Aryal Ram Hari
Published: July 2008

Age at marriage is one of the factors that influence the fertility behaviour of women, particularly in a society like Nepal where contraceptive use is low. Socioeconomic and cultural factors, particularly religion and ethnicity, are important variables in determining age at marriage in Nepal. Fertility was negatively related with age at marriage. Marriage duration had a greater influence on fertility than age at marriage, although these were strongly correlated.
An ‘epidemic’ model of adolescent sexual intercourse: applications to national survey data
Authors: Rowe David C. , Rodgers Joseph L.
Published: July 2008

This paper applies models of the onset of adolescent sexual intercourse using national data from Denmark and the USA. The model gave excellent fits to data on Danish Whites and a good fit to American Whites, but the model-fits for American Blacks and Hispanics were not as good. The weakness of the latter model fits may reflect either real processes that the model does not capture or problems in the reliability of adolescent sexuality data.
Effects of socioeconomic factors on secular trends in suicide in Japan, 1953–86
Authors: Motohashi Y.
Published: July 2008

The effects of socioeconomic factors on secular trends in suicide rates in Japan for the periods 1953–72 and 1973–86 were investigated using twelve socioeconomic indicators. Multiple regression analysis showed that the socioeconomic indicators affecting suicide rates were not identical in the two periods. The rates in both sexes in 1953–72 were closely related to unemployment rate and the labour force but between 1973 and 1986, divorce rate and the proportion in tertiary industry were most influential. The changes reflect the socioeconomic changes in industrial structure in Japan in transition from an industrial to a service economy.
Breast-feeding, birth interval and child mortality in Bangladesh
Authors: Majumder Abul Kashem
Published: July 2008

The 1975–76 Bangladesh Fertility Survey data show little evidence that breast-feeding is the intermediate factor through which birth intervals influence child survival in Bangladesh. Preceding birth interval, subsequent pregnancy and breast-feeding duration each have an independent influence on early mortality risk. Within a specific interval the risk of dying decreases with increase in duration of breast-feeding, and also with an increase in the time between the index birth and the next pregnancy. The death of the immediately preceding child in infancy has a significant negative effect on the survival chance of the index child at ages 1–5 months. However, death of the preceding child appears to have a significantly positive effect on the survival chance of the index child between ages 9 months and 5 years; this may be related to competition between siblings.
Proximate determinants of child mortality in liberia
Authors: Ahmad Omar B. , Eberstein Isaac W. , Sly David F.
Published: July 2008

The study looks at the effects of maternal sociodemographic characteristics and the quality of the environment on child survival through two intervening variables, breast-feeding and prenatal care. A linear structural equation modelling approach was used to examine infant and child survival based on a weighted sample of 5180 Liberian children aged 0–5 years. The findings confirm previous studies, but also reveal complex relationships of the role of education, maternal age and breast-feeding in enhancing child survival.
Infant mortality in Bangladesh: a review of recent evidence
Authors: Ahmed M. Faroque
Published: July 2008

Estimates of child mortality are mainly based on reports by mothers on the survival status of their children. Infant mortality estimates from such data do not seem to have declined in recent years. The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics sample registration infant mortality estimates appear to be suspiciously low.
Birth spacing and infant mortality in Brazil
Authors: Curtis Slân L. , McDonald John W.
Published: July 2008

The effects of birth spacing on neonatal and post-neonatal mortality in Brazil were found to be very consistent with models based on data from other South American countries. The model for neonatal mortality simplified to three significant variables, whereas the model for post-neonatal mortality included four significant interactions.
Education, fertility and contraception among Hindus and Roman Catholics in Goa
Authors: Roy T. K. , Rao G. Rama , Prasad Rajiva
Published: July 2008

Differences in age at marriage, fertility and contraceptive use are related to religious background, individual educational level and community level education. In general, the effects of community education are weak compared to individual level of education, but differences exist between Hindus and Roman Catholics.
Fertility levels and trends in Arsi and Shoa regions of Central Ethiopia
Authors: Hailemariam Assefa
Published: July 2008

Levels and trends of fertility in the Arsi and Shoa regions of Central Ethiopia are examined, using data from the 1986 Population, Health and Nutrition baseline survey of the Ministry of Health of Ethiopia. The population has high fertility. Total fertility of six children per woman in the late 1960s increased to eight children per woman in the early 1980s, then declined to seven children per woman in the mid-1980s. Urban fertility declined by a substantial amount during the 15 years before the survey while rural fertility increased during the same period.

The implications of high fertility are considered.
Birthweight and sociobiological factors in Ilorin, Nigeria
Authors: Ebomoyi Ehigie , Adetoro Olalekan O. , Wickremasinghe Ananda R.
Published: July 2008

Social and biological factors influencing birthweight of 3053 Ilorin babies were studied. The mean birth weights were 2·998 kg ±0·133 (SD) for males and 2·932 kg ± 0.154 (SD) for females. Multiple regression analysis showed that maternal weight, height, age, education and ethnicity, and child's sex, significantly affected birthweight of infants. Some quadratic and interaction terms also contributed significantly to the prediction of birthweight. The strategies to control the incidence of low birth weight are discussed.
Infecundity and subfertility among the rural population of Ethiopia
Authors: Tesfaghiorghis Habtemariam
Published: July 2008

A 1980–81 survey of the rural population of Ethiopia found high levels of infecundity and subfertility, although there was considerable variation by region, ethnicity and age of women. Higher levels of infecundity were geographically concentrated in a broad belt that ran from the south and south-west of the country, across to the north-east. The analyses suggest that infecundity is influenced by ecological factors, more than by ethnicity.
Family environment and cognitive correlates of young adults' social status attainment: ethnic group differences
Authors: Marjoribanks Kevin
Published: July 2008

A longitudinal sample of 21-year-old Australians from Anglo-Australian, Greek and Southern Italian families was used to examine relationships of children's cognitive performance, family learning environments, adolescents' perceptions of family learning contexts, and measures of young adults' social status attainment. Generally, the findings using a regression approach indicated that there were ethnic group differences in the relations between parents' academic socialisation, children's cognitive performance, and measures of young adults' social status attainment. The results also showed that in each ethnic group, adolescents' perceptions of parents' support for learning had strong associations with young adults' status attainment.
Season of birth and recalled age at menarche
Authors: Boldsen Jesper L.
Published: July 2008

All 8th-form schoolgirls from the municipality of Odense in Denmark were asked at what age they reached menarche, and 886 girls (97·6%) gave this information. There is no evidence for seasonality in the time of birth but for far more girls than expected menarche occurred during winter or summer and fewer than expected during spring and autumn. This pattern appears primarily in girls living in the suburbs and was not seen in those living in central Odense. The seasonality appears to be brought about by differences in mean age at menarche according to time of the year at birth.
Biosocial variances and infant survival: a path analysis approach
Authors: Frisch Ann Stirling , Kallen David J. , Griffore Robert J. , Dolanski Eugene A.
Published: July 2008

This study used path analysis to assess the chances of survival of babies in a neonatal intensive care unit in Lansing, Michigan, USA. Two paths to neonatal survival were identified and the variables accounted for 20% of the variance in gestational age. The first path showed that prior infant losses were negatively correlated with gestational age while in the second path, gestational age showed negative relationships with pre-pregnancy weight and household job worries.
Extending lactational amenorrhoea in Manila: a successful breast-feeding education programme
Authors: Benitez Isidro , de la Cruz Julieta , Suplido Azucena , Oblepias Virgilio , Kennedy Kathy , Visness Cynthia
Published: July 2008

An experimental breast-feeding education programme conducted at the Philippine General Hospital in Manila demonstrated that women could be motivated to improve their breast-feeding practices and lengthen their period of lactational amenorrhoea in comparison to a control group. Mothers who participated in the programme breast-fed their babies more frequently, delayed the introduction of regular supplements, used fewer bottles and pacifiers and maintained night feeding longer than mothers who were not exposed to the positive breast-feeding messages. The programme was successful in lengthening the period of amenorrhoea among women with elementary, high school, or technical school education, but not among college-educated women. Different educational approaches may be necessary for women of different education levels.
Normative study of age variation in salivary progesterone profiles
Authors: Lipson S. F. , Ellison P. T.
Published: July 2008

Daily luteal progesterone levels were measured for 124 regularly menstruating women, aged 18–44, by radioimmunoassay of steroid levels in saliva. A consistent pattern of age variation in luteal function was found, with the lowest levels of progesterone in the 18–19-year-old and 40–44-year-old groups, the highest values in the 25–34 year olds, and intermediate values in the 20–24 and 35–39-year-old groups. The striking similarity of this pattern of age variation with empirically and theoretically generated curves of apparent fecundability, suggests that age-related changes in ovarian function may underlie observed age variation in fecundability.
Infant and child mortality in rural Egypt
Authors: Casterline John B. , Cooksey Elizabeth C. , Ismail Abdel Fattah
Published: July 2008

This research examines determinants of infant and child mortality in rural Egypt, primarily the effects of household economic status and the availability of health services. Certain features of the health service environment affect survival in the neonatal period. In early childhood, survival chances improve markedly as income increases and if the household depends almost exclusively on employment income. In infancy and in early childhood, mortality is strongly associated with region of residence and maternal demographic characteristics, and is weakly associated with parental schooling.
Social class and diachronic trends in physique in young university women
Authors: Roberts D. F. , Dann T. C.
Published: July 2008

In a large sample of female students admitted to the University of Warwick in the period 1971–86, physique as measured by height, weight and ponderal index was examined in relation to family variables and socioeconomic class. Stature and weight both show a secular tendency to increase, and there is no indication of any slowing of rate. The different social classes do not participate equally in these trends, in a way that is difficult to reconcile with the attribution of the diachronic changes to simple improvement in environmental conditions. Maternal competence is suggested as a possible factor in the pattern of class difference.
The female reproductive axis and its modifications during the post-partum period
Authors: Thalabard J-C.
Published: July 2008

The female reproductive axis in mammals is a highly complex dynamic system which goes through different transient or absorbent states during the course of a life-time. Little is known about the mechanisms controlling this system during fetal life and at birth, although it has been shown in numerous species, including primates, that the whole machinery is already functioning (Brooks et al., 1990; Plant, 1986). After a delay ranging from a few days to a few weeks, according to the species, the reproductive axis becomes quiescent and activity apparently resumes only at the time of puberty. Here again understanding of the phenomenon is still limited (Ojeda, 1991).
Aetiological approach of female reproductive physiology in lactational amenorrhoea
Authors: Rosetta L.
Published: July 2008

There is a wide range of duration of post-partum amenorrhoea and resumption of ovulation between individuals, within an individual or between populations. Several extraneous variables, such as parity, mother's age, sex of the breast-fed baby, socioeconomic status and cultural level of the family, can be controlled; then the remaining variables will probably explain a part of the total variability in post-partum amenorrhoea duration but say nothing about the physiological process. In attempting to question physiological aspects of the return of fertility several observational studies have tended to favour one of the different factors which are supposed to play a major role in the regulation and have compared different levels of it, such as body composition of the mother (Frisch & McArthur, 1974), breast-feeding pattern (Jones, 1989) or the life style of the women. Life style can be related to women's physical activity in normal life (Ellison, 1991), the difference between urban and rural life (Carael, 1981) or the environment (Laurenson et al., 1985). Prolactin as a possible mediator of the central regulation has been carefully considered (Lunn, Austin & Whitehead, 1984; Howie et al., 1982). These studies were mainly observational rather than experimental, supplementing mothers during the lactating period or during the pregnancy. If this information is added to what is known of other animal species (Loudon, 1987) or animal experimentation (Plant et al., 1989; Williams et al., 1990a; Williams et al., 1990b), the combination of several of the main factors believed to have a major role in the human species can be clarified and the aetiology of the resumption of fertility in nursing women investigated.
Estimating energy and nutrient intakes in studies of human fertility
Authors: Ulijaszek Stanley J.
Published: July 2008

Two methods of dietary recording, the 24-hr recall and the weighed dietary intake methods, are considered appropriate for estimating energy and nutrient intakes in studies of human fertility. The former method gives lower estimates than the latter, although weighed intakes may underestimate true intakes. Examination of food intakes of pregnant, lactating, and non-pregnant, non-lactating New Guinean women shows their diet to be less homogeneous than is generally assumed for groups in developing countries. As a result direct observations of food intake for a limited number of days are not sufficiently accurate for the estimation of intake of most of the nutrients examined. Rather the study design should reflect the variability of intakes of the nutrients and groups under consideration.
Endemic disease, nutrition and fertility in developing countries
Authors: Mascie-Taylor C. G. N.
Published: July 2008

The two main ways in which disease and nutrition can influence fertility are by reducing fecundity or by extending the birth interval. Fecundity refers to reproductive ability, that is the potential to breed, as compared to fertility which denotes actual childbearing (McFalls & McFalls, 1984). Reduced fecundity, which is usually referred to as subfecundity, results from impairment of any of the biological aspects of reproduction, including coital inability, conceptive failure as well as pregnancy loss. Subfecundity is only one factor operating to reduce fertility; other factors include those governing mate exposure (both formation and dissolution of unions as well as exposure to intercourse within unions) and birth control.
Brief description of WHO protocol for data collection
Authors: Dada O. A.
Published: July 2008

The factors responsible for the return of fertility post-partum have not been very clearly defined. Several previous studies (Gross & Eastman, 1979; Diaz et al., 1988) have reported apparently major differences between populations in the duration of infertility associated with lactation. However, these differences may be related to the differences in study designs.
The ecology of birth seasonality among agriculturalists in central Africa
Authors: Bailey Robert C. , Jenike Mark R. , Ellison Peter T. , Bentley Gillian R. , Harrigan Alisa M. , Peacock Nadine R.
Published: July 2008

The Lese are subsistence farmers living in the Ituri Forest of north-east Zaïre. They exhibit significant birth seasonality, with lowest frequencies of conception when food production is least, nutritional status is low and ovarian function, as measured by salivary steroid hormone levels, is reduced. Efe pygmy foragers, who live in the same geographical area but are less dependent on cultivated foods and have a more flexible life style, do not exhibit frequent fluctuations in nutritional status nor significant birth seasonality. These findings support a model of birth seasonality relating climatic variables to variation in fertility through a causal chain linking rainfall to food production to energy balance to ovarian function to fertility. The model, which emphasises an ecological approach to the study of human reproduction, should have broad applicability since seasonality of food production and energy balance is widespread geographically and across a wide variety of economies and cultures.
Effect of child survival on contraceptive use in Bangladesh
Authors: Chowdhury A. I. , Fauveau Vincent , Aziz K. M. A.
Published: July 2008

A study in Bangladesh showed that couples who lost a child often stopped practising contraception in order to have another child. Logistic regression analysis revealed that contraceptive continuation was related to maternal age, parity, husband's education and the sex of the last child.
Estimating infant mortality rates prospectively in Honduras
Authors: Hubacher David , Bailey Patricia , Janowitz Barbara , Barahona Fidel , Pinel Marco
Published: July 2008

In order to determine the validity of infant mortality estimates based on retrospective reporting, the Honduran Ministry of Health carried out a follow-up survey of women interviewed in a 1987 national survey. Women were interviewed approximately 14 months after the baseline survey and were asked about the outcomes of their pregnancies and the survival status of their young children. The overall infant mortality rate calculated from the follow-up survey was lower than that obtained from the baseline survey, due to the particularly low rate among the group of women who were pregnant at the time of the baseline survey. Possible explanations for this low rate are discussed.
A hazard logit model analysis of covariates of childhood mortality in Matlab, Bangladesh
Authors: Bhuiya Abbas , Streatfield Kim
Published: July 2008

In a prospective study in Matlab, a rural area in Bangladesh, the relationship between a variety of covariates and childhood mortality was examined. Economic status of household, education of mother, sex of the children, health intervention programmes, age of mother, and live birth order of the children were identified as having a statistically significant impact on child survival when the effect of age was controlled. The effects of sex of the children, health programmes, age of mother, and birth order were found to be dependent on the age of the children, but the effect of mother's education was dependent on sex of the children.
Secular trends of twinning rate in Sweden
Authors: Högberg Ulf , Wall Stig
Published: July 2008

The change in parity and maternal age in Sweden accounts for the decline in the twinning rate from the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. The later decline in twinning rate cannot be explained by changes in maternal age and parity. Fecundity appears to be higher in mothers of twins than in other mothers.
Socioeconomic factors affecting the longevity of the Japanese population: a study for 1980 and 1985
Authors: Uchida Eiichi , Araki Shunichi , Murata Katsuyuki
Published: July 2008

The effects of urbanisation, low income and rejuvenation of the population on life expectancy at birth and at 20, 40 and 65 years of age for males and females in Japan were examined twice, in 1980 and 1985. For males, urbanisation was the major factor determining life expectancy at birth and at age 20 years, and low income was the key determinant of decreased life expectancy except at 65 years of age. For females high income was the factor significantly decreasing life expectancy at 65 years of age in 1980, and rejuvenation of the population inversely influenced life expectancy except at birth in 1985. Life expectancy for all age groups in 1985 was significantly longer than in 1980 for both males and females.
Measurement of child mortality in association with a multipurpose birth certificate programme in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea
Authors: Prybylski Dimitri , Alto William A. , Rogers Stephen , Pickering Helen
Published: July 2008

A simple and inexpensive method for monitoring child mortality in association with birth registration was introduced into the Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Eight thousand two hundred and one newborn infants were registered in 1988, approximately 77% of all children born in that year. The risk of death by age 2 was determined from reports given by the mother on the present status of a previously born child at the time of a recent delivery or during clinic registration of the current birth. This was 91 per 1000 for the province and corresponds to a risk of death by age 1 of 77/1000 by extrapolation using standard lifetables. This method was validated by comparison with a continuing demographic surveillance system covering 30,000 people in the western part of the province. The new birth certificate has been an incentive to increase supervised delivery rates and to generate a register that can be used to increase vaccination coverage.
Relations between fertility, body shape and menopause in Austrian women
Authors: Kirchengast Sylvia
Published: July 2008

The influence of number and date of pregnancies, births, and spontaneous and induced abortions on body shape, age at menopause and menopausal symptoms have been studied for 110 postmenopausal Viennese women. A significant correlation between fertility and age at menopause was not found, but several menopausal symptoms showed statistically significant correlations with fertility. With a higher number of pregnancies the individual symptoms became more severe.
Marriage, age at last birth and fertility in a traditional Moroccan population
Authors: Varea Carlos
Published: July 2008

A sample of 842 rural women from Morocco (Amizmiz, Marrakech) was used to examine the relationship between a number of biosocial variables and fertility patterns. For women still in their reproductive years there were significant correlations between family size and woman's age, age at marriage and years of marriage. Among women with completed families, those with early age at marriage ceased childbearing about 10 years before reaching menopause, while women who married later continued to bear children until the end of their fertile life.
Do men grow to resemble their wives, or vice versa?
Authors: Sutton Graham C.
Published: July 2008

Sixty-eight engaged couples, 113 newly weds, and 222 couples married for over 5 years, were studied for a number of physical, psychological and socioeconomic traits. The measurements were repeated a year later. Correlations were highest for age (r = 0·454, 0·903 and 0·888 respectively). They were also high for height (but not weight), neuroticism (but not extroversion), occupation, education, religion and smoking. Similarities were already present about the time of marriage, with little convergence or divergence. Thus, men do not grow to resemble their wives, nor vice versa.
Sterilisation: characteristics of vasectomy acceptors in Delhi
Authors: Sarkar N. N.
Published: July 2008

The place of vasectomy within the sterilisation programme in Delhi over the period 1983–88 is reviewed and data on vasectomy acceptance and characteristics of acceptors are analysed. Findings suggest a need to improve the strategy for the promotion of vasectomy within the metropolis.
Home–school differences in stress hormone levels in a group of Oxford primary schoolchildren
Authors: Long B. L. , Ungpakorn G. , Harrison G. A.
Published: July 2008

Twenty-three girls and thirteen boys, aged between 4 and 9 years, gave urine samples which were measured by HPLC for adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and cortisone on a school day and on a home day. Home levels of noradrenaline, cortisol and cortistone were consistently higher than school levels. Cortisol was positively correlated with adrenaline and noradrenaline at home, but not at school. These results may suggest that the school day represents a stimulating but comparatively structured environment with little negative affect, while the home day is characterised by stimulation but relative uncertainty in social interactions.
Influence of birth interval and child labour on family energy requirements and dependency ratios in two traditional subsistence economics in Africa
Authors: Ulijaszek Stanley J.
Published: July 2008

The consequences of different birth intervals on dietary energy requirements and dependency ratios at different stages of the family lifecycle are modelled for Gambian agriculturalists and !Kung hunter–gatherers. Energy requirements reach a peak at between 20 and 30 years after starting a family for the Gambians, and between 15 and 20 years for the !Kung. For the Gambians, shorter birth interval of 30 months. For the !Kung, the lack of participation in subsistence activities by children gives an output:input ratio in excess of that reported in other studies, suggesting that they are in a state of chronic energy deficiency.
Genetic distance estimated through surname frequencies of 37 counties from the state of Lara, Venezuela
Authors: Rodríguez-Larralde Alvaro
Published: July 2008

Genetic distances between all possible pairs of counties (n = 37) in the state of Lara, Venezuela were calculated using surname frequencies and the Euclidean distance as estimator. In general, Euclidean distances were smaller between counties closer together, and the product moment correlation between geographic and Euclidean distances was 0·49 (p < 0.02). The results suggest that, in Lara, geographic distance has been an important determinant of genetic structure, although topography and roadways also have had an important influence upon this structure.
Trends in consanguineous marriage in Karnataka, South India, 1980–89
Authors: Bittles A. H. , Coble J. M. , Rao N. Appaji
Published: July 2008

Analysis of data on 106,848 marriages in the cities of Bangalore and Mysore, South India, between 1980 and 1989 showed that levels of consanguineous marriage varied between cities through time and by religion. The average coefficient of inbreeding was higher in Bangalore (F= 0·0339) than in Mysore (F= 0·0203), principally reflecting large-scale, post-Independence rural migration into Bangalore. Although there was some evidence of a decline in consanguineous marriages in Mysore, there was no convincing support in either city for earlier projections of a rapid reduction in the popularity of unions between close biological relatives.
Breast-feeding patterns in the Philippines: a prospective analysis
Authors: Zohoori Namvar , Popkin Barry M. , Fernandez Maria E.
Published: July 2008

Data from the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey have been used to examine breast-feeding patterns in the Metropolitan Cebu region of the Philippines. The results show that there is extensive and early use of non-nutritive liquids, resulting in low levels of exclusive breast-feeding. The use of cross-sectional versus longitudinal data, the definition of exclusive breast-feeding, and movements in and out of the exclusively breast-fed category, are considered.
Analysis of birth intervals in India's Uttar Pradesh and Kerala states
Authors: Singh K. K. , Suchindran C. M. , Singh Vipin , Ramakumar R.
Published: July 2008

Life tables of birth intervals and median birth intervals in two Indian states, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala, were computed for several subgroups of the study population. Multivariate hazards modelling technique was used to examine the net effect of each of the variables studied. The results show a substantial effect of socioeconomic variables in child-spacing after controlling for the major intermediate variables.
Estimates of adult mortality in Burundi
Authors: Makinson Carolyn
Published: July 2008

Adult mortality in Burundi during the 1970s and 1980s is estimated using data from the 1987 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). Estimates from traditional indirect methods are compared with those from the inter-survey method using data on the number of years since the respondent's parent died. Life expectancy at birth was estimated as 48.55 years for males and 51·23 years for females.