bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Seasonal Forecast Models
Authors: Elsner James B , Kara A Birol
Published: November 2023

Forecasting is about making predictions of future events consistent with one’s best judgments. Consequently, it is desirable to allow for consistent revisions of those judgments as more data become available. Statistical models are efficient means of logically understanding the data and should be used as a guide to forecasting. Their utility arises from the stochastic nature of climate. Hurricane climate prediction faces two sources of uncertainty. First, since climate is weather over longer time scales, the fundamental limitation of weather forecasts-resulting from the chaotic nature of the atmosphererenders perfect climate predictions impossible. That is, even if knowledge of hurricanes is exact and comprehensive, the hurricane climate forecaster would still need to couch predictions in terms of probabilities. Second, knowledge about climate is neither exact nor complete, leading to another source of uncertainty. There is reason for hope because hurricane climate forecasts are about broad, general characteristics of activity rather than about the details of individual events; and there is no fundamental limitation to this kind of knowledge. Concern centers on whether or not Miami will get hit by a major hurricane during the next five years, not on what will happen to the next storm that develops.
Category Implication
Authors: Overstreet Maryann
Published: November 2023

In the accompanying cartoon (figure 3.1), Curtis is with his family in his mother’s hospital room. When his mother gains consciousness, his father asks him to take his younger brother home. Puzzled by the father’s request, as they are leaving the hospital, the younger brother asks Curtis “Why did we have to leave?” In response to his brother’s question, Curtis provides an answer containing a general extender: They wanna kiss and hug and stuff like that. It is possible that Curtis is just constructing a list of behaviors.
Emotional Learning Circuits in Animals and Humans
Authors: LaBar Kevin S , LeDoux Joseph E
Published: November 2023

Imagine living in a world in which sensory events occurred haphazardly. Without a means to evaluate the predictability of stimuli in the environment, it would seem impossible to determine where to focus one’s attention and how to use external cues to obtain behaviorally relevant goals. In the complex and changing real world, the regularity and salience of the environment must be established to handle the bombardment of sensory stimulation in a limited-capacity brain. A primary function of an emotional learning system is to assess the predictive outcome of external events relevant for the organism’s survival and to mobilize the body’s resources to coordinate appropriate actions. In particular, situations that warn of impending danger (or lead to unbridled pleasure) must be reacted to quickly and stored into long-term memory in the event that they are encountered again in the future. Recent advances in neuroscience have enabled a detailed account of the brain circuits that underlie emotional learning and memory. Much of what we know has been discovered through studies of fear conditioning, a procedure in which animals learn that certain stimuli reliably predict noxious stimulation. In this chapter, we review the neural basis of fear conditioning, beginning with the systems-level anatomy and proceeding to the cellular and molecular substrates. Both simple and complex forms of conditioning are considered, including the control of conditioned responses as a function of their contextual relevance. We conclude with applications offear conditioning paradigms to human cognitive neuroscience and comment on the implications of this approach for understanding emotional psychopathology in clinical populations.
On The Automaticity of Autonomic Responses in Emotion: An Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: O¨ hman Arne , Wiens Stefan
Published: November 2023

An evolutionary perspective on emotions emphasizes their function in promoting survival and procreation. Because meeting evolutionary challenges often requires vigorous behavioral responding, metabolic resources must be recruited as a support for action. For example, to escape the attacking predator, the potential prey must activate energy-demanding flight-or-fight responses. By modulating the state of the autonomic nervous system, the emotion of fear can assure that there are metabolic resources at hand to cope with dangers through defense responses appropriate for a given situation. Furthermore, if the organism can learn to utilize cues that signal emotional events, autonomic responses can be recruited well before the actual occurrence of the event that has to be coped with. From this perspective, the flow of emotion that is inherent in the interaction between an organism and its environment results in a continuous adjustment of autonomic effectors to meet actual or potential demands posed by the situation. Attended stimuli, including those that are sensitized by emotional states, elicit autonomic responses, often as components of the orienting response. These unspecific responses alert the organism and can then be channeled into more specific response patterns to assist emotional actions that are invited by the situational contingencies. An important point is that much of this finetuning of the autonomic nervous system to meet situational demands is controlled from information processing mechanisms that are inaccessible to conscious deliberations. Depending on circumstances, the body is automatically adjusted to meet whatever challenge may emerge. In this chapter, we start out by giving emotion an important role in the control of evolutionarily derived behavioral systems. Much of the burden on emotion in an evolutionary perspective is to recruit metabolic support for action via the autonomic nervous system, which we discuss with particular reference to fear. We go on to discuss the interplay between attention and emotion, using the orienting response as a bridge between the two domains. We then focus on how fear can become attached to new stimuli through Pavlovian conditioning. We particularly emphasize the role of evolutionary constraints on associations in Pavlovian conditioning and the role of nonconscious processes in the recruitment and learning of fear. Finally we integrate the findings on fear into a concept of a fear module and discuss how activation of this module provides input to higher cognition, such as decision making, and to the conscious experience of emotion.
Dynamic Development Of Component Systems Of Emotions: Pride, Shame, And Guilt In China And The United States
Authors: Mascolo Michael F , Fischer, Kurt W , Li Jin
Published: November 2023

Three-year-old Danny and his mother are putting together the pieces of a puzzle. Danny places a piece in its correct location. Immediately, he looks up to his mother, smiles, and says “Oh! I did it!” Looking up from her work, his mother smiles and says “You did it!” Danny claps his hands, after which his mother applauds and says, “That’s great!” (Pride exhibited by U.S. child and mother). Mother asks 3-year-old Lin to sing a song for guests. After she finishes, with smiles and exaggerated expressions, the guests say, “Wonderful! You sing nicer than my child!” Mother replies, “Haihao, she is O.K. Her voice is kind of off the tune, though. But she likes to sing.” To Lin, “You did all right, but now you need more practice. Play down your success!” (Chinese mother and guests reacting to child’s song). Reactions of college students to compliments about their class presentations in science (Chen, 1993): “Thanks. I feel good about it. I’m so glad you enjoyed it” (American students). “No. It’s not that great. I didn’t do it well. I know I bored you. I’m embarrassed” (Chinese students). These vignettes depict typical emotional reactions to accomplishment in American and Chinese children and adults. In so doing, they not only show the very different ways in which socialization agents react to children’s accomplishments in the United States and China, but they also illustrate typical developmental outcomes spawned by these practices. The third set of responses described in the vignettes demonstrate differences in the ways in which American and Chinese adults respond in the context of being praised for producing worthy outcomes. The modal response in Americans is to accept praise and even to express their own pride in their accomplishments. In contrast, the modal response to praise among Chinese individuals is modest self-effacement and embarrassment (Chen, 1993). The first two vignettes suggest ways in which American and Chinese parents socialize these disparate emotional orientations. Parents of children in the United States tend to praise their children’s accomplishments and encourage positive self-expression (Mascolo & Harkins, 1998; Stipek, 1995). In contrast, in the presence of their child, Chinese parents often make effacing remarks to others about their children’s efforts. Guests and relatives, however, generally lavish praise on the child, often effacing their own children in the process.
Introduction: Expression Of Emotion
Authors: Keltner Dacher , Ekman Paul
Published: November 2023

If Charles Darwin were alive today, he would certainly have been pleased, and probably blushed, to witness the empirical and theoretical developments that his 1872 book, Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, generated. The first four chapters in this part pay homage to Darwin, reviewing literature on how emotion is expressed in the face (Keltner, Ekman, Gonzaga, & Beer), by voice (Scherer, Johnstone, & Klasmeyer), and in language (Reilly & Seibert) in humans, as well as in displays across various nonhuman species (Snowdon). These four chapters generally suggest, with the occasional qualifications that empirical study inevitably requires, that select emotions are communicated in distinct facial and vocal displays and in language, and that this is so across different cultures and in different species. The last two chapters of this part broaden the meaning of emotional expression and ask how emotion is expressed in different art forms, a question that dates back to Aristotle, and certainly earlier. Gabrielsson and Juslin apply methods used in the study of facial expression and voice (i.e., encoding and decoding studies) to address whether and how emotion is communicated in music. Oatley explores the thesis that emotion, and especially misunderstood emotion, inspires expression in pictorial arts, architecture, and literature. Much in these chapters would likely have been familiar to Darwin—in particular the interest in the evolutionary history of expression, culture and universality, the biological roots of expression, and the focus on discrete emotions. At the same time, the chapters consistently reveal how scholars are taking the study of expression in striking new directions. Scholars are exploring how emotion is communicated in new modalities (language, odor, music). They are exploring relations between expression and central nervous system activity. Careful, observational research is revealing new functions of emotion (e.g., see Snowdon on how expression regulates reproductive physiology). And there are now systematic studies of how emotion varies according to culture, personality, and development. In this chapter, we bring together the convergent insights offered by the different authors of this part. We summarize where the field stands on many of the questions that Darwin posed (e.g., How is emotion is expressed? Are these expressions universal?). At the same time, we highlight new developments in the field and suggest directions for future research. The field of emotional expression looked very different 20 years ago. Most of the literature focused on the face, and most of the research was judgment studies of a limited set of emotions. There was little examination of how emotion is expressed in the voice, body, or language. Scholars in the nonhuman literature were reluctant to ascribe emotion to displays of nonhuman species.
Affective Influences on Attitudes and Judgments
Authors: Forgas Joseph P
Published: November 2023

Writers, artists, and laypersons have always been fascinated by the subtle influence of feelings on attitudes and behavior. This question has also occupied the minds of such classic philosophers as Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Descartes, Pascal, Kant, and others. Many of these theorists saw affect as a potentially dangerous, invasive force that tends to subvert rational judgment and attitudes, an idea that was to reemerge in Freud’s psychodynamic theories early this century. However, during the past few decades important advances in neuroanatomy, psychophysiology, and social cognition research produced a radically different view. Rather than viewing affect as a dangerous and disruptive influence on our attitudes and judgments, recent evidence suggests that affect is often a useful and even essential component of adaptive responding to social situations (Adolphs & Damasio, 2001; Damasio, 1994; Ito & Cacioppo, 2001). The research I review here shows that affective states have a powerful influence on the way we perceive and respond to social situations. Most of the time these influences are adaptive and helpful in guiding attitudes and judgments (Clore, Schwarz, & Conway, 1994; Forgas, 1995a, 2000; Zajonc, 2000). The past two decades saw something like an “affective revolution” in psychological research. Indeed, one could argue that most of what is known about the influence of affect on attitudes and judgments has been discovered since the early 1980s. One of the key objectives of contemporary research and of this chapter in particular is to explore how, when, and why affective states will influence attitudes and judgments. In a broader sense, my aim is thus to make a contribution to the age-old quest to understand the relationship between the rational and the emotional aspects of human nature (Hilgard, 1980; see also chapter 31, this volume). Affect has a particularly important influence on people’s attitudes and judgments, two constructs that most directly touch on how we respond to social stimuli. The concept of attitudes has long been considered as one of the “most distinctive and indispensable” concepts in social psychology (Allport, 1954, p. 43), and its importance to understanding human social behavior remains undiminished to this day (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Terms such as attitude and judgment appear to be closely related, in the sense that judgments involve the on-line, immediate, and dynamic evaluation of social stimuli, whereas attitude refers to more enduring, stable, and crystallized responses to the social world. Most attitudes have their origin in social judgments, and social judgments in turn are frequently influenced by preexisting attitudes.
Remembering Emotional Events: A Social Cognitive Neuroscience Approach
Authors: Ochsner Kevin N , Schacter Daniel L
Published: November 2023

How we respond emotionally to the peaks and valleys of life reveals much about who we are now, who we have been, and has implications for who we could be in the future. The question of how we remember these emotional events is thus of central importance to understanding human experience, and is the subject of this chapter. In addressing this question, our goals are to understand the specific neurocognitive mechanisms that preserve records of significant experiences, the motivational and contextual factors that influence their operation, and what their interaction tells us about the relationship between memory and emotion more generally. We begin with a brief historical sketch of previous approaches to emotion and memory and then move to our own multileveled social cognitive neuroscience approach. We then apply this approach to understanding how the emotional nature of an event influences the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information about it. We conclude with suggestions for ways in which a social cognitive neuroscience approach can guide future research. Most investigations of emotion and memory have begun with the same question: How do we remember emotionally evocative events? But investigators have framed this question differently and, as a result, have reached different conclusions. Three approaches have dominated past research, and the strengths and weaknesses of each are rooted in the ways in which their questions have been posed. Debate over whether emotional memories, and especially traumatic ones, are remembered poorly or well has a long history and is central to current discussion about the recovery of supposedly repressed memories of sexual and physical abuse during childhood (for discussion, see Conway, 1997; Loftus & Ketcham, 1994; Schacter, 1996). The question of whether emotion improves or impairs memory often is framed in terms of the question of whether emotional memories are indelible or reconstructed. Debate concerning this issue has played out in three different arenas.
Information Processing Approaches to Emotion
Authors: Dalgleish Tim
Published: November 2023

Psychological theorists typically draw on widely agreedon sets of assumptions and concepts when constructing models of psychological processes. The range of assumptions and concepts places parameters on the type of model that is generated and constitutes the scientific paradigm within which modeling occurs (Kuhn, 1962). Of course, a paradigm in psychology is neither true nor false. Rather, its worth to the discipline is a function of how fertile the paradigm is for the generation of models and of programs of empirical research to test those models. Within the broad area of cognitive psychology, the dominant paradigm is the information processing approach. Information processing psychologists conceptualize the mind as a multipurpose processing system. Mental representations, which relate to or designate structures outside themselves and ultimately relate to things in the external world, are acted on in the system by various cognitive processes (Johnson-Laird, 1993). These processes manipulate and transform the representations and give rise to the range of psychological phenomena. Different types of information processing theory instantiate mental representations within different types of cognitive architecture, such as localized or distributed connectionist systems (e.g., McClelland, 1995) or symbol processing systems (e.g., Anderson, 1992). The information processing paradigm had its genesis in the 1940s and 1950s and gathered considerable momentum from the publication of seminal texts such as Broadbent’s book, Perception and Communication (1958) and Neisser’s Cognitive Psychology (1967). Development of the paradigm in psychology has also paralleled the development of computer science, and the existence of commonalities in the information processes that are employed by computers and the mind is a strong theme that permeates recent developments in psychology (see Johnson-Laird, 1993, for a discussion). At the end of the 20th century, there was a consensus in cognitive psychology that the information processing paradigm is an appropriate and informative way to study human cognition. The enduring popularity of the information processing approach is largely a result of its successful instantiation in a range of models that cover the waterfront of cognitive psychology. The paradigm has been successfully applied to such cognitive processes as basic vision, higher level vision, attention, memory, spoken and written language, judgment, reasoning, and higher level thought (see Eysenck & Keane, 1995, for a broad introduction to cognitive psychology across these different domains). Information processing theories have been informed by a wealth of empirical data and, in turn, have generated a host of testable predictions.
Information Processing Approaches To Individual Differences In Emotional Reactivity
Authors: Derryberry Douglas , Reed Marjorie A
Published: November 2023

Individual differences in emotional reactivity are commonly approached from two contrasting perspectives. Cognitive approaches emphasize the perceptual and conceptual processes thought to cause emotion, while temperament approaches are more concerned with emotional and arousal processes. Although these approaches have developed independently, they are complementary in that they adopt different levels of analysis and focus on different processes. This makes it possible to employ a broader framework and an intermediate level of analysis to integrate the two approaches. This chapter employs current models of information processing as such a comprehensive and integrative framework. Information-processing approaches have several advantages. Regarding the levels of analysis, temperament models tend to view individual differences from a bottom-up perspective grounded in physiological processes. In contrast, cognitive approaches adopt a top-down approach that emphasizes higher level conceptual processing. Fortunately, information-processing models provide an intermediate-level language that can accommodate processing expressed in terms of both interacting neural systems and abstract conceptual structures. Regarding the different processes, cognitive models focus on the perceptual and conceptual processes, whereas temperament models emphasize emotional, arousal, and response processes. Modern information-processing models are based on extensive study of many aspects of human performance, ranging from the earliest perception to the latest response. This provides the flexibility to incorporate emotion-related factors at all phases of processing. Finally, information-processing approaches provide detailed models of certain crucial processes, such as attention, that tend to be neglected in most temperament and cognitive approaches. In short, information processing provides a framework for enriching as well as integrating the major approaches to emotional reactivity. In this chapter we take a broad view of information processing approaches to emotional reactivity. We work within the framework of a general processing system, schematically illustrated in Figure 35.1. At the center of the network are pathways devoted to different emotions. Many temperament models assume that individual differences in the reactivity of these “emotional systems” are pivotal to personality and clinical problems. As illustrated on the diagram’s left side, the emotional systems receive perceptual inputs conveying exteroceptive and interoceptive information, as well as conceptual input concerned with appraising the information’s significance and with developing coping options. Most cognitive theorists focus on the perceptual, and in particular conceptual, inputs as the primary source of individual differences. Upon activation, the emotional systems feed back to activate the perceptual and conceptual processors.
The Neurobiology of Affiliation: Implications for Autism
Authors: Insel Thomas R
Published: November 2023

A decade from now, when we look back at the early years of affective neuroscience, we may wonder about our conspicuous preoccupation with “negative” emotions. Fear and anxiety, sadness and depression, anger and aggression have received considerable attention in the past few years. By contrast, the neurobiology of “positive” affects, such as joy, affiliation, and love, seem almost taboo subjects. No doubt our focus on negative emotions derives from a need to understand psychopathological states. Most major forms of psychopathology, such as the anxiety and affective disorders, involve an excess of one of the negative emotions. Recently, we have begun to appreciate that most mental disorders also involve a loss of positive affect, whether it is the anhedonia of major depressive disorder, the absence of affiliation in autism, or the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. An important first step toward accounting for the loss of positive affects will be to understand their normal expression. Clearly, joy is not just the absence of sadness, and love/affiliation is much more than the absence of hate or fear. Positive affects will undoubtedly have a circuitry and a neurochemistry that is unique from what we have already learned about fear, sadness, and anger. But how can we study these complex affects with the modern tools of neurobiology? In this chapter, I review one approach based on animal studies. This approach demonstrates that current molecular and cellular tools, when combined with comparative, ethologically relevant studies, can reveal some intriguing leads into the neural basis of affiliation in nonhuman animals. Affiliation is an ethological term generally used to describe membership in a conspecific group. In fact, there are two quite different uses of the term affiliation. The first, relevant to all species, is sociality. Some highly affiliative species, including our own, cluster in flocks or herds in which group membership is essential for survival. Other, nonaffiliative species, such as orangutans or certain cats, are loners, living solitary lives except when mating or caring for young. A second use of the term affiliation describes specific aspects of behavior within a species. In this latter sense, affiliative behaviors include side-by-side or huddling behavior, parent-infant attachment, and pair bonding. Because these behaviors are most relevant to understanding the basis of the powerful human experiences of acceptance, attachment, and love, this chapter focuses on this second meaning of affiliation.
Neurobiology of Depressive Disorders
Authors: Garlow Steven J , Nemeroff Charles B
Published: November 2023

The empirical study of mental illnesses, with the subsequent formulation of theories of pathophysiology, began in the latter part of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The seminal work of Emil Kraepelin in carefully describing the different psychiatric syndromes and separating affective syndromes from psychotic disorders was initiated in this era. Kraepelin’s distinction of affective syndromes from psychotic ones is generally considered the origin of scientific efforts to categorize psychiatric diseases and also represents the first step toward systematically studying their pathophysiology. During the first half of the twentieth century, in many countries, including the United States, the ideas and theories of Sigmund Freud superseded the empirical and biological description of psychiatric diseases pioneered by Kraepelin. Thus Freud’s description of psychological processes in mental illness and his theories of the psychodynamic conflicts involved in the pathogenesis of psychiatric symptoms formed the dominant theoretical perspective in psychiatry through the early 1960s. In the psychodynamic model proposed by Freud and his followers, mood and anxiety disorders are considered to be symptoms of unresolved unconscious conflicts and essentially psychological in nature. The neurobiological basis of these disorders was largely minimized or ignored in the psychodynamic model, though, as seen in the opening quotation, not by Freud himself. This is not to say that valuable ideas were not promulgated by psychodynamic theories. Of particular interest was Freud’s focus on the significance of early life events in the pathophysiology of major mental illness. There is considerable ongoing research into the long-term neurobiological consequences of adverse events in early life as antecedents to the development of depressive disorders. In addition, a number of recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have convincingly demonstrated the existence of unconscious cognitive processes. Renewed interest in the neurobiological basis of psychiatric diseases occurred in the mid-1950s. This renewed interest was stimulated by the identification of effective psychotherapeutic drugs, first chlorpromazine for the treatment of psychosis, followed later in the decade by the introduction of the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) for the treatment of depression.
The Role of Emotion on Pathways to Positive Health
Authors: Ryff Carol D , Singer Burton H
Published: November 2023

Many of the core questions in affective science (e.g., Are there basic emotions? What are the antecedents and functions of emotion? How do individuals differ in emotional reactivity?) have developed without explicit connection to the realm of human health. Alternatively, when emotion has entered the health realm (e.g., Does anger increase cardiovascular risk? Is optimism protective?), it has frequently been with little connection to mainstream research in affective science. This separation is not a state of affairs to lament, but rather represents opportunities for the future in which the fields of emotion and health can enrich and extend each other. Our objective in this chapter is to bring the nexus between these realms into focus via discussion of five guiding premises for relating emotion to health. These serve as conceptual guideposts for examining past, current, and future empirical studies, and do so with an emphasis on testable hypotheses. The five premises are: (1) emotions consequential for health are about something; (2) health requires a focus on co-occurring discrete emotions; (3) health is biopsychosocial in nature and necessitates integration of phenomenology and neurophysiology; (4) cumulative, chronic emotions are consequential for health; and (5) emotion can be protective and promote positive health. Each premise is illustrated via separate substantive studies, although a unifying theme across them is the need for integrative endeavors that put together psychosocial experience, underlying biological mechanisms, and health outcomes. A second generic observation setting the stage for what follows is the relative paucity of knowledge about positive emotion-health linkages. Our goal is to bring greater attention to salubrious connections between affective experience and health, mental and physical. An emphasis on positive health, we note, does not translate simplistically to a focus on exclusively positive affective experience. As we will argue, one of the intriguing challenges of future work is to unearth basic processes whereby negative emotions, ubiquitous in human experience, can be transformed into benign, or even beneficial, influences on health. Finally, while we seek to underscore the positive health theme, much in our chapter deals with the role of emotion in illness as that is where most prior work has been conducted. In building connections between affective experience and health, we propose that it is particularly valuable to anchor emotion in the life contexts in which they occur. This is a call for greater emphasis on what gives rise to emotion. Ekman’s (1992) description of basic emotions emphasized that they “evolved for their adaptive value in dealing with fundamental life-tasks” (p. 171).
The Chitlin Circuit
Authors: Gates Henry Louis
Published: November 2023

The setting was the McCarter Theatre, a brick-and-stone edifice on the outskirts of the Princeton University campus. On a hot, sticky evening in June 1998, 500 members of the Theatre Communications Group—all representatives of serious, which is to say nonprofit, theater—gathered for their eleventh biennial national conference? The keynote speech was being delivered by August Wilson, who, at fifty-one, is probably the most celebrated American playwright now writing and is certainly the most accomplished black playwright in this nation’s history. Before he said a word, the largely white audience greeted him with a standing ovation.
Origins of Genius
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: November 2023

How can we account for the sudden appearance of such dazzling artists and scientists as Mozart, Shakespeare, Darwin, or Einstein? How can we define such genius? What conditions or personality traits seem to produce exceptionally creative people? Is the association between genius and madness really just a myth? These and many other questions are brilliantly illuminated in The Origins of Genius. Dean Simonton convincingly argues that creativity can best be understood as a Darwinian process of variation and selection. The artist or scientist generates a wealth of ideas, and then subjects these ideas to aesthetic or scientific judgment, selecting only those that have the best chance to survive and reproduce. Indeed, the true test of genius is the ability to bequeath an impressive and influential body of work to future generations. Simonton draws on the latest research into creativity and explores such topics as the personality type of the genius, whether genius is genetic or produced by environment and education, the links between genius and mental illness (Darwin himself was emotionally and mentally unwell), the high incidence of childhood trauma, especially loss of a parent, amongst Nobel Prize winners, the importance of unconscious incubation in creative problem-solving, and much more. Simonton substantiates his theory by examining and quoting from the work of such eminent figures as Henri Poincare, W. H. Auden, Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, Charles Darwin, Niels Bohr, and many others. For anyone intrigued by the spectacular feats of the human mind, The Origins of Genius offers a revolutionary new way of understanding the very nature of creativity.
Cognition
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: November 2023

Darwin’s seminal ideas had an impact on epistemology, the philosophical enterprise devoted to comprehending the nature and origins of knowledge. The Darwinian theory of knowledge is called “evolutionary epistemology. “As the name implies, this discipline attempts to comprehend the foundations and status of knowledge in evolutionary terms. Actually, as there are two kinds of Darwinism, so are there two types of evolutionary epistemology.
Development
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: November 2023

You care for nothing but shooting, dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a disgrace to yourself and all your family. “ Such was the prophesy of Darwin’s father, who had lost all patience with his young son’s inability to show direction and aptitude. Matters did not improve when Darwin entered his college years. He first enrolled at Edinburgh with the halfhearted intention of becoming a physician, like his father. Finding medical studies quite unattractive, Darwin proceeded to Cambridge at his father’s urging, with the plan of becoming a minister. But that career goal, too, soon ran aground. After he earned an undistinguished bachelor’s degree at age 22, he had no firm idea of what to do with himself. As is not surprising, when Darwin was invited to serve as the Beagle naturalist, his father was not inclined to give his consent. Rather than pursue a true profession, his son was apparently going to spend the next five years with only room and board as pay, and with no prospect of further advancement. His father made just one fateful concession, “If you can find any man of common--sense who advises you to go I will give my consent. “ Fortunately, Darwin’s uncle was considered “one of the most sensible men in the world;’ and it was he who persuaded Darwin’s father to relent. At this point, in the year 1831, Darwin’s biography becomes history.
Appraisal The Evolution of an Idea
Authors: Schorr Angela
Published: November 2023

This brief synopsis of the history of the appraisal paradigm1 is not primarily conceived as a history of ideas, as may be implied by the title. My intention is rather to reveal how the theoretical relevance of the appraisal concept became obvious to modem emotion research in the course of and as a result of several controversies in emotion psychology almost serving as interludes en route to this central innovation. In addition, the scientific contributions of individual researchers are reviewed and traced back to the moment when their combined efforts led to the formation of a new scientific movement in the field of emotion.
A Model of Appraisal in the Emotion System Integrating Theory, Research, and Applications
Authors: Roseman Ira J
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses four interrelated questions: What are the appraisals (motive-relevant evaluations) that cause particular emotions? Why do these particular appraisals cause these particular emotions? How can this model of appraisal-emotion relationships be applied to understand and influence emotions and emotional behaviors? What research might be undertaken to extend and deepen our understanding of the process of emotion generation and emotional response? The current version of the appraisal model that my colleagues and I have been developing proposes that seven appraisals of events directly influence emotions:1 (1) unexpectedness: not unexpected/unexpected (whether the event violates one’s expectations); (2) situational state: motive-inconsistent/motive-consistent (whether the event is unwanted or is wanted by the person); (3) motivational state: aversive/ appetitive (whether the event is being related to a desire to get less of something punishing or a desire to get more of something rewarding); (4) probability: uncertain/ certain (whether the occurrence of motive-relevant aspects of the event is merely possible or is definite); (5) agency: circumstances/other person/self (what or who caused the motive-relevant event); (6) control potential: low/high (whether there is nothing one can do or something one can do about the motive-relevant aspects of an event); and (7) problem type: instrumental/intrinsic (whether a motive-inconsistent event is unwanted because it blocks attainment of a goal or unwanted because of some inherent characteristic).
Appraisal Considered as a Process of Multilevel Sequential Checking
Authors: Scherer Klaus R
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the sequential check theory of emotion differentiation as part of a dynamic model of emotion (the component process model of emotion). The theory attempts to explain the differentiation of emotional states as the results of a sequence of specified stimulus evaluation (appraisal) checks and makes predictions concerning the ensuing response patterning in several organismic subsystems. Given that this book reviews the appraisal theory approach in general, together with chapters by major contributors to this tradition, this chapter will focus exclusively on sequential check theory. Comparative reviews have been published elsewhere (Scherer, 1988b; 1999a; see also Roseman & Smith; Schorr [a]; this volume). Preliminary versions of parts of this model have appeared in conference proceedings, book chapters, and empirical papers (Scherer, 1981b, 1982a, 1984a, 1984c, 1986b, 1988a, 1992c, 1993b, 1997a, 1999a, 1999b, 2000b). The most complete description of the model (Scherer, 1987a), while widely distributed, has never been formally published.1 In the course of the development of the theory, details of the predictions as well as some aspects of the terminology have evolved. In this chapter, a systematic description of the most recent version of the theory, including detailed predictions and a review of the available evidence, is presented.2
Appraisal What Is the Dependent?
Authors: Frijda Nico H , Zeelenberg Marcel
Published: November 2023

Appraisal theory has two core theses that, we think, are shared by all those who consider themselves appraisal theorists. The first: appraisal is responsible for the elicitation of emotions. In its strong form: no appraisal, no emotion. The second: appraisal is responsible for the differentiation of emotions. In its strong form: different appraisals cause different emotions, and different emotions are caused by different appraisals. In this chapter, we will critically examine these theses.
Advanced Statistical Methods for the Study of Appraisal and Emotional Reaction
Authors: Eid Michael
Published: November 2023

Over the last years, enormous progress has been made in the development of statistical methods for the behavioral sciences. In particular, latent variable models and multilevel models have become very influential in psychological research. In this chapter, it will be shown how research on appraisal and emotional reactions can profit from these two methodologies. It is not the purpose of this chapter to give a complete overview of all models developed within this broad framework or to list all possible applications of these models in research on emotion. The major aim is to give an introduction to basic concepts of these approaches by referring to exemplary models and their possible applications. For each class of models, the basic principles are described, a brief guide to introductory readings and available computer programs is given, and an illustration of how two important research questions can be analyzed with these models is provided.
Behavioral Inhibition and Related Temperaments
Authors: Kagan Jerome , Saudino Kimberly J
Published: November 2023

Most psychologists agree that temperaments refer to stable moods and behavioral profiles that are seen in infants or young children. each partially con trolled by the individual”s genotype. It is important to appreciate that the ref erential meaning of temperament is not a particular collection of genes but the psychological profile that emerges when an environment acts upon a child who has inherited a particular physiology. Although it is likely that future research will discover a large number of temperamental types, two tempera mental constructs that have been a popular target of inquiry are called “inhibited” and “uninhibited” to the unfamiliar.
Emotional Development in the Twin Study
Authors: Robinson Joann L , Emde Robert N
Published: November 2023

The past 50 years have witnessed increasing interest in the child’s early emotional development, but the focus of interest has repeatedly changed in the face of new discoveries and new opportunities for research. At mid-century, attention was directed to the importance of early emotional development when the world became aware of the devastating effects of deprivations in early caregiving. Observations of such effects pointed to serious deficits and distortions in emotional processes (Bowlby, 1951; Goldfarb, 1945; Spitz, 1945, 1946). Infant emotions could be observed directly, and filmed, conveying not only sadness and depression, but also other emotions such as distress (evidenced by crying) and pleasure (evidenced by smiling). Many studies were stimulated by these observations, which then documented normal developmental mile stones in the appearance of emotional expressions such as crying-distress and smiling and the circumstances under which they occurred. This in turn led to another focus of research, namely, developmental transitions that often introduced new emotional expressions as well as the periods of adaptive organization in between such transitions.
Dispositional Cheerfulness: Early Genetic and Environmental Influences
Authors: Robinson Joann L , Emde Robert N , Corley Robin P
Published: November 2023

Motivation and communication are two primary functions of emotion. Traditional theories have given more attention to motivation, emphasizing the adaptive functions of emotion which have evolved in our species to structure biological predisposition for arousal and for responding to survival-related features of the environment so as to guide behavior either to approach or with draw (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1971; Izard, 1977; Panksepp, 1985; Schneirla, 1959). Recently, more attention has been directed to the communicative functions of emotion which are also adaptive. Expressing emotion assists the individual in attaining goals, and, by setting in motion feedback for others, it allows for appraisals that can disambiguate environmental events (Campos, et al., 1983; Lazarus, 1991). Both functions, as Darwin (1872) indicated more than a century ago, are interrelated. Individual dispositions in emotional expression reflect both motivational-arousal and communicative functions. Similarly, experience of the developing individual engages both functions with environ mental as well as genetic influences over time.
Cognitive Development, Cognitive Abilities, and Modularity
Authors: Fulker David W , Plomin Robert
Published: November 2023

The first twin (Merriman, 1924) and adoption (Theis, 1924) studies investi gated cognitive abilities. This topic continues to be a leading edge of genetic research in psychology, both methodologically and substantively (Plomin & McClearn, 1993). For this reason, it is surprising that psychological reviews of cognitive development rarely mention genetic research. For example, the 1983 edition of the Handbook of Child Psychology (Mussen, 1983) includes an entire volume of more than 1000 pages on cognitive development, yet genetics is barely mentioned. One reason for this gulf lies in differing levels of analysis. Genetic research focuses on individual differences, asking why some children develop more quickly and attain higher levels on tests of cognitive abilities. Most theories and research on cognitive development, on the other hand, ignore differences among children and focus instead on species-typical development, describing what children, on average, can do at particular ages. Piaget (1952), for example, explicitly excluded individual differences from his work, most of which involved very small samples of children. Small samples are appropriate if each child is thought to represent a species-typical pattern of development.
Language and Cognition
Authors: Young Susan , Schmitz Stephanie , Corley Robin P , Fulker David W
Published: November 2023

Language can be characterized as a variety of interactive, communicative behaviors which demonstrate an exchange of information, including those which are nonverbal. Studies of the development of prelinguistic communicative be haviors such as speech perception, cooing, babbling, gesturing, and first words (Bates, et al, 1987) show that these emerge in a child’s language repertoire during the first 2 years of life.
Perinatal Effects on General Cognitive Ability, Weight, Height, and Temperament
Authors: Martin Charles , Hershberger Scott L
Published: November 2023

The first 3 years of life are a time of rapid growth and development of children. How children grow and develop may be linked to factors operating at the time of delivery. The purpose of this chapter is to examine perinatal effects on the development of general cognitive ability, height, weight, and temperament at 14, 20, 24, and 36 months of age.
Introduction
Authors: Wright Richard D , Ward Lawrence M
Published: November 2023

People have known for millennia that, if we make the effort, we can shift our attention slightly to the side of where our eyes are pointing. Aristotle talked about it. It was also a common part of early introspective psychology (Wundt, 1912, p. 20). Lay terms for this are “using peripheral vision” and “looking out of the corner of the eye.” Hermann von Helmholtz was particularly interested in how we are able to concentrate attention on a portion of the visual field other than where our eyes are pointing. While known more generally for his work on human perceptual processing, Helmholtz was also a pioneer of attention research. During the period between 1842 and 1894, Helmholtz published more than 200 papers and books. He was a physician by training, a physicist, and a remarkable innovator. With the aid of his invention, the ophthalmoscope, Helmholtz was the first person to see inside the human eye. His ophthalmometer, the first device to allow precise measurements of lens curvature and reflected images in the eye, is still used today.