bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Haddad Fanar
Published: September 2020

The conclusion summarizes the book’s main arguments while emphasizing the urgent need to demystify and de-exoticize the study of sectarian dynamics. Doing so requires an abandonment of the term ‘sectarianism’ and an analytical shift towards sectarian identity. The book’s conceptual approach to the study of sectarian identity (chapters 3-4) is then summarized. Sectarian identity should be framed as something that is formed, imagined, perceived and practiced at four overlapping, interdependent and mutually dialogical levels: doctrinal, subnational national, transnational. The benefits of the model are that, firstly, it creates a sharper focus that can better capture the multifaceted nature of sectarian identity. This helps us identify which aspect(s) of sectarian identity is relevant to a given context. Secondly, it helps us move beyond the false binaries and rigid dichotomies that have dominated the literature (see chapter 2). Finally, the suggested framework allows us to better identify which analytical tools and bodies of literature are most relevant to a given context. In the process, we can better identify linkages between sectarian dynamics and other social and/or political frames, contexts and variables. The book ends with predictions regarding the future of sectarian relations and suggestions for future research into the subject.
Crime, Law Enforcement, and Sentencing in an Era of Prison Expansion
Authors: Zimring Franklin E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter shows that rates of crime and arrest cannot explain the huge increase in prison population but that the extreme growth in prison admissions indicates that behavior of local criminal justice agencies, prosecutors, and courts was the dynamic force that accounts for most of the prison population explosion.
Restructuring the Governance of Imprisonment
Authors: Zimring Franklin E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses methods of altering how state governments structure decision-making about imprisonment policy to rationalize outcomes. Changes that enhance the power of state government (which pays for prisons) to control prison terms and populations are important features of these strategic shifts. And making specific judgments about the proper scale of imprisonment should become a prominent part of each state's criminal justice policy.
Catholicity and the Covenant of Works
Authors: Perkins Harrison
Published: September 2020

This book analyzes James Ussher’s doctrine of the covenant of works and argues that he composed his view by interacting with the broad Christian tradition, used it to integrate his theology, and formulated it in such a way as to support several other doctrines that are crucial within the Reformed tradition. This work highlights the ecumenical premises that undergirded the Reformed doctrine of the covenant of works, and explores how James Ussher played a major role in codifying that doctrine. It also sheds new light on how to describe the puritan movement, specifically by using the differing perspectives of the Irish and English established churches. The first half of the book considers Ussher and how he explained and developed this doctrine of a covenant between God and Adam that was based on the law, and the second half of the book examines how Ussher related the covenant of works to the doctrines of predestination, Christology, and salvation.
Federal Relations
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses Article I of the Oklahoma constitution. The provisions in Article I were included as part of the requirement for gaining statehood. In practice, Section 1 means that the actions of the state cannot contravene the national Constitution. This section has also been invoked to support the doctrine of preemption, under which federal laws supersede state regulations or laws that conflict with them. Section 2 guarantees the protection of religious freedom, but it does not protect all actions pursued in the name of religion. Section 3 was required by the Oklahoma Enabling Act to preserve the treaty obligations still in effect when the delegates were meeting to write the state’s constitution. Section 4 provides for territorial debts and liabilities; this section also comes from the Enabling Act and is now obsolete. Section 5 concerns public schools; it was amended in 1966 after the abolishment of racial segregation in public schools in 1954. Lastly, Section 6 guarantees the right of suffrage.
Judicial Department
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores Article VII of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns the judiciary. Section 1 states that “the judicial power of this State shall be vested in the Senate, sitting as a Court of Impeachment, a Supreme Court, the Court of Criminal Appeals, the Court on the Judiciary, the State Industrial Court, the Court of Bank Review, the Court of Tax Review, and such intermediate appellate courts as may be provided by statute, District Courts, and such Boards, Agencies and Commissions created by the Constitution or established by statute as exercise adjudicative authority or render decisions in individual proceedings.” The Oklahoma Supreme Court is the head of the state’s judicial system; all other courts are inferior to it. Section 2 provides for the number, terms, vacancies, and qualifications of supreme court justices. The justices shall choose from among their members a chief justice and a vice chief justice. Section 4 provides for the jurisdiction of the state supreme court. The chapter then looks at the provisions for district courts.
Selection of Justices and Judges
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter highlights Article VII-B of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns the selection of justices and judges. Section 1 states that “the provisions of this Article shall govern the selection and tenure of all Justices of the Supreme Court and Judges of the Court of Criminal Appeals of the State of Oklahoma.” Section 2 sets forth the procedure for a judicial officer to run for unlimited additional terms of office. The provision in Section 3 creates a Judicial Nominating Commission, which possesses jurisdiction to determine whether the nominees for judicial office meet applicable requirements, and to determine the existence of vacancies on the commission. In the event of a judicial vacancy, Section 4 instructs the Judicial Nominating Commission to submit the names of three nominees to the governor and the chief justice of the supreme court. Section 5 sets forth the specific parameters of judicial terms of office. In an attempt to prohibit political partiality by judges, Section 6 prohibits judges from making contributions to, or holding office in, a political entity. Lastly, Section 7 concerns the effective date of Article VII-B.
Corporations
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines Article IX of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns the powers, limits, and regulation of corporations. The prodigious length of the article reflects the importance of corporations in the economic life of Oklahoma, and the determination of the framers to bring them under regulatory control, to the point of micromanagement. Concern about discriminatory rates charged by railroads and pipelines was foremost, but the authority conferred by Article IX is broad enough to allow the legislature to regulate a variety of other enterprises as well, including electric, gas, and water companies; oil and natural gas production; and conservation, cotton gins, motor carriers, telephone and telegraph lines; and even ice plants. The framers borrowed freely from the constitutions and statutes of other states—especially the Virginia constitution, the Texas constitution, and the Texas Railway Act—as models for Article IX. Whole sections were often copied verbatim. Moreover, often competing strains of waning Populism and rising Progressivism of the early 1900s pervade this article.
Revenue and Taxation
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter details Article X of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns revenue and taxation. The original form of this provision was borrowed from the constitutions of North and South Dakota, but the article was subsequently adapted to the changing needs and moods of the Oklahoma electorate. The Guthrie delegates’ distrust of the legislature is evident in the meticulous detail of Article X, as well as in the numerous restrictions placed on the power of the purse. Some of these restrictions have been relaxed, but others were made even more restrictive by later amendments. Section 1 specifies the fiscal year of the Oklahoma state financial system, while Section 2 through Section 4 identify the required amount of tax that must be levied by the legislature. Section 5 contains two limitations on the exercise of the taxing power by the legislature: the prohibition against giving up the power of taxation and the requirement of uniformity of taxation for a given class. Section 6 designates that certain categories of property must be tax exempt, including property for various religious, charitable, governmental, educational, and other public service functions. Section 8 explains the system for the valuation of property for taxation.
State and School Lands
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on Article XI of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns state and school lands. Section 1 provides for acceptance by the state of all grants of land and donations of money by the United States under the Enabling Act. In 1982, the Oklahoma Supreme Court held that this section, when considered with the Enabling Act, is an irrevocable compact between the United States and Oklahoma for the benefit of the state’s schools. In accepting grants from the federal government to establish the permanent school fund, Section 2 requires that the fund may only be used for the benefit of Oklahoma common schools, and that the $5 million principal of the fund shall never be spent. The state is also required to reimburse the fund for all losses that may occur, and no portion of this fund is to be used for any other purpose. Meanwhile, Section 4 confers on the legislature exclusive power to set the rules and regulations for selling public lands granted to the state by Congress for charitable and other purposes.
Homestead Exemptions from Taxation
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter assesses Article XII-A of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns homestead exemptions from taxation. Section 1 provides that “all homesteads as is or may be defined under the Laws of the State of Oklahoma for tax exemption purposes, may hereafter be exempted from all forms of ad valorem taxation by the Legislature.” An “ad valorem tax” is a tax that is imposed on the value of property. Section 2 was added by initiative petition in 1935 and tied the legislature’s hands by stating that the definition of a homestead may not be diminished by the legislature; the legislature may only increase or expand the definition. Additionally, statutes regarding homesteads’ exemptions from ad valorem taxation are to be in effect for at least twenty years after enactment; after that, those statutes can be repealed or amended by the legislature.
Board of Regents of Oklahoma Colleges
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores Article XIII-B of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns the Board of Regents of Oklahoma colleges. Section 1 provides for the creation, membership, and terms of the Board of Regents of Oklahoma colleges. The meetings of the Board of Regents are open. The Board of Regents of Oklahoma colleges are only authorized to hold executive sessions when considering matters involving appointment of personnel and then only when ordered by unanimous vote of the members of the board. Under Section 2, the Board of Regents of Oklahoma colleges has all power necessary to accomplish objectives it was constitutionally empowered to achieve, and it is therefore authorized to enact rules, regulations, and bylaws for good government and management of the university and all of its departments. Section 4 provides for the authorization of the Board of Regents regarding allocation of funds for payment of salaries and expenses.
Constitutional Amendments
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter studies Article XXIV of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns constitutional amendments. Section 1 gives the legislature power to submit constitutional amendments to a vote of the citizens of Oklahoma and sets forth legislative direction in the first paragraph. Subject to the requirements that a legislative joint resolution proposing an amendment to the constitution set forth the test of the amendment and a ballot title for the election ballot, the precise form and content of the resolution is a matter for the legislature to decide. Under Section 2, which is routinely ignored, a law providing for a constitutional convention must be submitted to the people for their approval, passed by the legislature, and approved by the governor, and it must contain the makeup and procedure of the convention. Section 3 deals with the power of the initiative amendment.
Social Security
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter highlights Article XXV of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns Social Security. Section 1 provides for a separate state program to help the needy and also provides for cooperation with federal programs to provide such aid. It was adopted in 1936 and amended in 1941 for the purpose of permitting full participation in the federal program. The state may not spend ad valorem taxes, which are taxes imposed upon the value of real or personal property, to fund the programs contemplated by this section. Section 2 through Section 4 of this article are repealed. Meanwhile, Section 5 is merely a housekeeping provision to ensure that the timing of passage of the sections in this article did not interfere with the validity of the sections.
Oklahoma Alcoholic Beverage Control Board
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines Article XXVII of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns the Oklahoma Alcoholic Beverage Control Board. This entire article was repealed by State Question No. 563, Initiative Petition No. 319, adopted at election held on September 18, 1984. Among other things, Article XXVII repealed prohibition. Section 11 of State Question No. 563 states that the “Prohibition Ordinance” and Section 7 of Article I of this constitution (which were previously repealed by Article XXVII) are not revived by the repeal in 1984. Legislation in 1984 allowed liquor-by-the-drink as an option to the state’s individual counties. In 2018, the last of the state’s so-called “dry” counties voted to allow the sale of liquor-by-the-drink.
Ethics Commission
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter assesses Article XXIX of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns the Ethics Commission. This part of the constitution establishes and sets forth member requirements and prohibitions for the state’s Ethics Commission. The commission enjoys an unusual level of autonomy because it is constitutional rather than statutory. Creation of this commission reflects a nationwide reform movement that began in the 1960s and led to new ways of supervising political campaign practices and regulating the behavior of public officials and lobbyists at the federal and state levels. Section 2 addresses budgetary considerations of the Ethics Commission. Section 3 basically sets forth the Ethics Commission’s job: to establish ethical rules and guidelines for state campaigns, officers, and employees. Section 4 gives the Ethics Commission broad powers to enforce its rules, including subpoena and settlement power. Meanwhile, Section 6 stresses that the Ethics Commission’s existence and rules are not intended to replace criminal laws pertaining to certain conduct.
Official Actions of the State of Oklahoma
Authors: Adkison Danny M. , Palmer Lisa McNair
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses Article XXX of the Oklahoma constitution, which concerns the official actions of the state of Oklahoma. This article was adopted at an election held on November 2, 2010, making English the state’s official language. Supporters of such measures commonly argued it would ultimately increase the incentive for immigrants to learn English and assimilate and succeed in the United States, and would reduce budgetary pressures on the state. This provision does not prohibit private individuals and businesses from using whatever language they choose. It only affects official government business of the state of Oklahoma. In 2014, Oklahoma’s Court of Civil appeals upheld the article, concluding there is “no federal law requiring that Oklahoma’s Implied Consent Advisory [in the context of driving under the influence] be given in any language other than English.”
From the Studia Humanitatis to the Modern Humanities
Authors: Adler Eric
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides a history of the humanities, from their origins as the studia humanitatis in Roman antiquity to the modern humanities we think of today. By charting this path, it offers a sense of the humanistic tradition in its entirety and explains what is at stake in its prospective downfall. The chapter focuses particular attention on the history of the humanities in American higher education, especially during the run-up to the Battle of the Classics. This introduces the reader to much of the historical and intellectual background for future chapters. Part of this chapter also highlights a crucial shift in the definition of the humanities that took place during the latter half of the nineteenth century. This shift, from what one might call the classical to the modern humanities, makes it extraordinarily difficult to defend the hodgepodge of subjects we associate with the contemporary humanities.
Morality and Art
Authors: Harold James
Published: September 2020

This chapter sets out the main questions to be explored more fully in the chapters to follow. It does this by studying three well-known debates about morality and art: from classical China, the debate between Mozi and Xunzi about the value of music; from ancient Greece, the difference between Plato and Aristotle over poetry; and from the Harlem Renaissance, the argument between W. E. B. Du Bois and Alain LeRoy Locke over the value of art as propaganda. The chapter concludes by showing that the problem of morality and art has three main parts: the morality of the artist; the effects of art on the audience; and the relationship between art and moral knowledge. The chapter also serves to set out some arguments and positions that are made use of later in the book.
Why They Meddle in Elections—And What Are the Effects on the Results
Authors: Levin Dov H.
Published: September 2020

Chapter 2 lays out in detail the theoretical arguments on the causes and effects of partisan electoral interventions. It also notes the main theoretical assumptions underlying these theoretical arguments, some of which are non-obvious in many political science approaches. It then provides a description of the main methods for testing these theoretical arguments. It first describes how the main historical case studies were chosen and how the data for them was collected. It then concludes by briefly explaining how the definition of electoral interventions was operationalized and how the dataset of partisan electoral interventions (PEIG) utilized for the main statistical analyses was constructed.
Dragging Them over the Finish Line
Authors: Levin Dov H.
Published: September 2020

Chapter 6 begins the analysis of the effects of partisan electoral interventions on election results through a statistical test, using PEIG, of the four main hypotheses developed in Chapter 2. Full support is found for the first three hypotheses. Partisan electoral interventions are found to increase the vote share of the preferred candidate/party by 3% on average—enough in many cases to determine the result. Overt interventions are found to be more effective than covert ones in both the statistical and the substantive sense. However, unlike in later elections, electoral interventions in founding elections usually harm the aided side, reducing its vote share by 6.7% on average. The chapter concludes by examining whether there are any significant differences in the effectiveness of the specific assistance that is provided by the foreign power and/or the overall magnitude of this aid.
The (In)famous Election
Authors: Levin Dov H.
Published: September 2020

Chapter 8 examines the case of the Russian partisan intervention in the 2016 U.S. elections in light of this book’s arguments and the currently available information. It first analyzes the causes of this intervention, finding preliminary support for the theoretical framework on why such meddling occurs. It then studies the effects of the Russian covert intervention on the election results, with the main focus on the hacking and document-leaking component, using multiple methods: estimating their effects using PEIG and aggregate data from the U.S. in 2016, two pre-election surveys with relevant questions, and Google search data on these leaks in the U.S. and the key “swing states.” It finds that the Russian intervention had a significant pro-Trump effect on the results and it was probably large enough to have led Hillary Clinton to lose at least 75 EC votes—sufficient to lead to her defeat in the electoral college.
Conclusions
Authors: Levin Dov H.
Published: September 2020

Chapter 9 first briefly summarizes the findings from the preceding chapters regarding the causes of partisan electoral interventions and their effects on election results. It then discusses the wider contributions of this study to other subfields in international relations and comparative politics. It then assesses the policy implications of this research to cybersecurity. It first describes the need of policymakers in democratic countries to take immediate precautions in order to prevent the digitization (via cryptocurrencies) of another long-standing method of electoral intervention—covert campaign funding. It then discusses how the use of electronic voting methods of various kinds threatens to inadvertently bring back a pre-modern method of intervention—meddling in the vote tallies, and the best ways to prevent that “doomsday” scenario from occurring. The chapter concludes with future directions for research in this regard.
External Interventions and Civil Wars: Why Focus on Non-State Actors?
Authors: Akcinaroglu Seden , Radziszewski Elizabeth
Published: September 2020

Existing research on the impact of external interventions into civil wars focuses mostly on states and international organizations. With the expansion of private military and security companies’ (PMSCs) presence in civil wars, there is a need to better understand the impact of such non-state actors on conflict dynamics. This chapter highlights the importance of understanding conditions under which PMSCs are more militarily effective in conflict zones, describes the existing focus in the study of PMSCs, and introduces a new theoretical focus that links variation in market competition to military effectiveness. It addresses previous data in the study of PMSCs and focuses on the benefits of new data, with specific focus on international PMSCs’ presence in major and minor civil wars.
Global Competition, Corporate Structure, and PMSCs’ Accountability in Civil Wars
Authors: Akcinaroglu Seden , Radziszewski Elizabeth
Published: September 2020

The rise of global competition marked by the expansion of the private military and security industry has pushed companies to gain a competitive edge. To secure capital and, occasionally, to signal commitment to accountability in response to competition, some companies have changed their corporate structure and become publicly traded corporations. Publicly traded companies have more stakeholders than private companies; this makes them accountable not only to the clients but also to the public and the media. As publicly traded PMSCs face greater reputational costs for engaging in criminal behavior, they are less likely to commit fraud and human rights abuses and be more military effective than private PMSCs. Data on fraud and human rights abuses in Iraq (2003–2019) show that publicly traded PMSCs exhibit higher levels of corporate professionalism. Greater professionalism by publicly traded PMSCs should help tilt the balance of power in favor of the government and contribute to shorter conflicts.
Market Factors and PMSCs’ Effectiveness in Conflict Termination
Authors: Akcinaroglu Seden , Radziszewski Elizabeth
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents the results of empirical analysis of local and global competition’s impact on PMSCs’ performance in civil wars from 1990 to 2008. Findings suggest that both market mechanisms contribute to conflict termination, but there is some limitation to the benefit. Mainly, local competition has a positive effect in major wars involving conventional tactics and some guerrilla warfare but is less significant in the most difficult conflict environments. Companies’ corporate structure, a factor linked to the global-competition dynamic, can affect military effectiveness in conflicts involving fewer casualties and more guerrilla warfare. The positive effect is also evident in hard-to-end conflicts but not the subset of the most complex environments, as publicly traded PMSCs may strategically avoid the most extreme conflict zones. Finally, results show that interventions by multiple PMSCs offer more benefits for conflict termination than interventions involving states or international organizations.
Qatar and the Gulf Crisis
Authors: Ulrichsen Kristian Coates
Published: September 2020

Qatar and the Gulf Crisis examines the attempt by four states – Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Egypt – to isolate and blockade Qatar. The book explores in detail the policy responses taken in Qatar since early-2017 by a small state, cut off by its neighbors and subject to a regional power-play designed to appeal to the baser instincts of a U.S. presidency that had taken office lacking any real sense of a foreign policy and vulnerable, in its first months, to unprecedented attempts by foreign powers to influence American domestic and national security interests. The blockade of Qatar was launched fifty years to the day since Israel launched a surprise attack on the Egyptian Air Force at the start the Six-Day War. Just as that war came to define regional politics across the Middle East for a generation so the blockade of Qatar has developed into the most serious rupture in the Gulf since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 and has become a similarly era-defining event for the region. Qatar and the Gulf Crisis examines how and why Qatar was able to beat back a blockade that was supposed to split the country and force it into a position of submission to the would-be regional hegemony of Saudi Arabia and Abu Dhabi (in the UAE).
Background and Context
Authors: Ulrichsen Kristian Coates
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides historical context to the tensions between Qatar and Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Abu Dhabi from the mid-nineteenth century up until 2011. The chapter covers the emergence of Qatar and the disruptive impact on all the smaller Gulf States, including the UAE, of Saudi expansionary designs on the Arabian Peninsula. Beginning in the 1990s, a new generation of Qatari leaders began to develop political and economic policies that carved a more autonomous role for Qatar in regional affairs. In February 1996, the same four states that would blockade Qatar in 2017 were linked to an abortive coup attempt against the Emir of Qatar, and the chapter ends by examining the aftermath of the coup attempt and the trajectory of Saudi pressure on Qatar in the 2000s.
The 2014 Rift
Authors: Ulrichsen Kristian Coates
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the period between the Arab Spring uprisings in 2011 and the first iteration of the rift between Qatar and its three Gulf neighbors in 2014, when Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Bahrain withdrew their Ambassadors from Doha for eight months. The chapter analyzes why and where policy responses to the Arab Spring differed and explores how they generated new tensions between Qatar and its neighbors, especially after the election of a Muslim Brotherhood-led government in Egypt in 2012 and its toppling a year later. By the time Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani became Emir of Qatar in June 2013, Saudi Arabia and the UAE had emerged at the head of a counter-revolutionary coalition determined to roll back the gains of the Arab Spring, and the chapter examines the immediate buildup of pressure on Qatar in late-2013, the contours of the 2014 rift, and the aftermath through 2016.
Politics and Society
Authors: Ulrichsen Kristian Coates
Published: September 2020

This chapter analyzes the political and social response in Qatar to the blockade in June 2017, beginning with the immediate decision to call for dialogue and mediation rather than attempt to respond in kind. The chapter explores the range of political and policy responses as Qatari officials enacted measures to offset the disruptive short-term impact of the blockade, building upon contingency plans and infrastructure development that occurred since 2014. In addition, the chapter examines the ways in which the blockade created new social realities on the ground, as feelings of national identity and belonging surged, and eroded some of the hitherto-dominant boundaries between Qatari nationals and expatriate residents.
Regional and Foreign Affairs
Authors: Ulrichsen Kristian Coates
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines how policymakers in Doha utilized the networks and relationships they had built up with regional and global partners since the 1990s to ensure that the blockading states’ attempt to isolate Qatar failed to gain anything other than minimal international support. Qatari officials adapted pragmatically to the changed regional environment after 2014 and cooperated closely with other stakeholders in more of a multilateral process than before. The contours of Qatar’s collaborative approach became evident in the hosting of a Taliban delegation in Doha and the provision of aid and assistance to Gaza, and these are examined in case studies within the chapter, as is the effective use of public diplomacy. The chapter also assesses the implications of the blockade for small states elsewhere, using Singapore and Dubai as case-studies.
Defense and Security
Authors: Ulrichsen Kristian Coates
Published: September 2020

This chapter documents how Qatari policymakers strengthened existing defense and security relationships with key Western partners, notably the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and other European states, as well as how ties with ‘newer’ partners, notably Turkey, China, and Russia diversified and expanded the Qatari defense and security portfolio. The chapter also examines how an indigenous strategic industrial capability emerged with the formation of Barzan Holdings, the strategic investment arm of the Qatari Ministry of Defense, and assesses what the fracturing of the GCC – and especially of the common threat perception among the six Gulf States – means for the regional security architecture more broadly.
Looking Ahead to 2022
Authors: Ulrichsen Kristian Coates
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter to Qatar and the Gulf Crisis examines how the 2022 FIFA World Cup became embroiled in the war of ‘fake’ narratives that characterized the opening weeks and months of the blockade. This occurred as individuals and entities with links to blockading states sought to foment an impression of political risk and instability that would require FIFA to strip the tournament from Qatar or share it among other regional hosts. A related aspect of the impact of the blockade was the widespread pirating of broadcasting rights held by Qatar’s beIN Sports by a Saudi-based entity demonstratively labeling itself BeoutQ. The chapter also explores how Qatari officials pushed back against the criticism and sought to use the World Cup as a catalyst for more systemic changes that have drawn cautious approval from international labor bodies.
Civic Strengthening
Authors: Field Sandra Leonie
Published: September 2020

This chapter establishes a neo-Spinozist criterion of popular power, whereby power is judged by the systematic effects and outcomes of a political order; and popularity lies in the degree to which those effects and outcomes durably uphold equality (glossed as mutual independence of citizens) and participation. The chapter provides a taxonomy of organizational elements that might best address the third Hobbesian problem—the problem of democracy’s perverse effects—not through Hobbesian repression and fragmentation, but through empowering the citizenry and encouraging the growth of non-oligarchic collective formations in the social body. In this frame, both social movements and popular plebiscites are decentred: they are no longer the exemplary expression of popular power as per the radical democrats, but, rather, partial elements within a larger political ecology that may or may not have an overall popular character. Popular power emerges as a difficult political achievement stabilized by good institutional design.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Nicola J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter sets out the context and rationale for the book, arguing that the study of capitalism needs to engage more closely with the study of sexuality, and vice versa. In order to advance this agenda, the chapter calls for international political economy and queer theory to combine their contributions through development of the field of queer political economy. The author then outlines the book’s key methodological moves and, in particular, its focus on sex work together with its genealogical approach to discourse analysis. As well as describing and justifying what the book is and does, the chapter also reflects on the book’s limitations, including the choice to consider the specific case of Britain rather than offering a general history of capitalism.
Queer Political Economy
Authors: Smith Nicola J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter outlines the scholarly debate and theoretical architecture that underpin the rest of the book. In recent years, queer theory has come under fire for being outdated, even redundant, on the grounds that its interest in the fluidity of identity comes at the expense of political economic analysis. Contesting such claims, the chapter contends that queer theory is well suited to the study of global capitalism when pursued as a project that is both feminist and historical in approach. To this end, the author brings together the insights of Michel Foucault and Silvia Federici to develop a new framework for analyzing the intersections and contradictions between capitalism and sexuality. The chapter then explicates this framework through discussion of sex work as a particularly interesting and important site for applying the tools of queer political economy.
Sex, Work, and the Victorians
Authors: Smith Nicola J.
Published: September 2020

Focusing on Victorian England, this chapter examines how sex was increasingly constructed as something that was primarily biological in nature, and how this was bound up with discourses of prostitution as a threat to the reproduction of the body politic. In the first section, the author considers how the pathologization of commercial sex as abnormal and unhealthy worked to naturalize the public/private split on which capitalist development rested. In the second section, the author connects the medical, moral, and juridical regulation of sex work to the suppression and stimulation of other modes of sexual deviance including homosexuality. In the final section, the author explores the role of race and empire in constituting white, bourgeois sexuality as natural, privileged, and the antithesis of commercialized sex.
The Cycle of Polarization
Authors: Balkin Jack M.
Published: September 2020

American politics features very long cycles of polarization and depolarization between the political parties. Politics polarized around the Civil War and remained polarized until the end of the Gilded Age. Then began a long period of depolarization. Polarization started increasing once again in the middle of the twentieth century, and we are now at the peak of the current cycle. Polarization is a characteristic feature of the Reagan regime. Although Republican politicians used strategies of polarization to gain power, polarization made it increasingly difficult for them to govern, and will eventually lead to the regime’s undoing.
The Turn of the Cycles
Authors: Balkin Jack M.
Published: September 2020

In the emerging party system, the Democrats will probably be the dominant party. The two major political parties will face off over identity issues like race, sexuality, and religion, but each party will be internally divided over issues of class and economic inequality. These fissures will become more pronounced over time and provide a long-term path for depolarization. Because each party will have a populist and a neoliberal wing, new forms of cross-party alliances will become possible—although the Democrats will remain more economically egalitarian than the Republicans for the foreseeable future. Whoever figures out how to create these cross-party coalitions will drive the direction of reform. The next regime will probably be turbulent and politics will be anything but peaceful. Real change that breaks the stranglehold of economic inequality will only come from difficult times that still lay ahead. The good news is that the cycles of constitutional time are slowly turning. The elements of renewal are available, if people have the courage to use them.
From Command and Control to a More Liberal Order: 1950–2018
Authors: Panagariya Arvind
Published: September 2020

The chapter provides an overview of India’s economic policies and growth experience from 1951 to 2018. The period is divided into four phases: 1951–81, 1981–88, 1988–2003, and 2003–18. A command-and-control and autarkic regime led to abysmal growth during the first phase. The second phase saw a mild transition toward a liberal regime and a slight uptick in growth. Reforms began in earnest in 1991, after which growth jumped as well. The economy grew especially rapidly during 2003–12, when extreme poverty saw a sharp decline. This growth made the government complacent, however, and it returned to several socialist-era policies during 2009–14. That led to a sudden slowdown in growth between 2012 and 2014. A new government came into office in 2014 and resumed reforms, and the economy grew 7.5 percent annually during 2014–19. The chapter concludes by making a case for accelerated economic reforms.
This Sporting Life
Authors: Colls Robert
Published: September 2020

This is a history of sport as one of England’s great civil cultures. It addresses ‘sports’ as athletic competitions, ‘sport’ as fun and games and showing off, and sporting occasions as a mixture of both. The subject does not lend itself to simple definitions, and the book does not try to impose any. By and large, it takes sport as it found it in the lives of the people. Drawing on a wide range of sources, from oil paintings to handbills, from the criminal to the constitutional, all the chapters begin with a ‘thick’ description of a sporting event before spreading the net to bring in the longer history, and meaning, of the sport in question. No one ever doubted that there was more to sport than sport itself. Prize-fighting and riding found particular favour with the army, cricket and rowing with the public schools, hockey and lacrosse with the education of middle-class girls, scarves and colours with the part sport played in the invention of the modern university. Above all, sport in England was recognized as liberty, the physical freedom to be. Of course, sport was not liberty’s only expression. There was always politics. Puritans fought a civil war for liberty and saw sport as a snare and a sin. For the first 100 years of this book, Methodists (and not only them) saw sportsmen as creatures of greed and corruption. This Sporting Life tries to show the reader some part of what it was like to be alive, and feel alive, rich and poor, men and women, young and old, in England, between 1760 and 1960.
The Romantic Essay and the City
Authors: Dart Gregory
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the ambivalence of the Romantic familiar essay form towards the city by looking at the two main literary tributaries that fed into it—the current of self-consciously pro-metropolitan prose writing that had been inaugurated by Steele and Addison, and the more anti-commercial tradition of retirement poetry epitomized by William Cowper and the Lake poets. It looks at the way in which Leigh Hunt, William Hazlitt, and Charles Lamb in particular strove to bury their continuing misgivings about the polis as a centre of commercial rapacity and unruly popular politics in celebrations of the city as being, under certain controlled conditions, a precious haven of imaginative activity, personal reminiscence, and literary tradition. Their aim, even if it was never quite articulated as such, was to turn the Romantic periodical essay into a prose medium that was as sensitive as Wordsworth’s poetry to the ravages of recent historical change, while maintaining, in the end, a more progressive and forward-looking attitude to it.
‘Strips of Essayism’
Authors: Tandon Bharat
Published: September 2020

Taking its cue from James Wood’s now famous critique of the fetishizing of ‘information’ in British fiction (‘always breaking in to speak over their characters and tell us what to think, mummifying them somewhat in strips of essayism’), this essay takes a close look at two Victorian novelists famous for their creative deployment of what might be called an ‘essayistic’ narrative voice: George Eliot and Thomas Hardy. Tracing the roots of this voice in Victorian periodical culture—in particular, the tenure of Marian Evans/George Eliot at the helm of the Westminster Review—the essay explores the ways in which two contending senses of the ‘essayistic’, one based on contingency, the other on prescriptiveness, may often occupy the same space in both periodical essays and the fictions which dramatize and draw on them.
Into the Ghost-land
Authors: Saunders Nicholas J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes the arrival of the Great Arab Revolt Project (GARP) archaeologists at the derelict Hejaz Railway—GARP’s main study area—which snakes across the deserts and wadis of southern Jordan, from the medieval town of Ma’an to the Bedouin settlement of Mudawwara near the border with Saudi Arabia. There was an enchantment of the senses in finding traces of the world’s first global industrialized conflict alongside those of deep prehistory, churned together it seems by the advent of modern guerrilla warfare, where time is built into the relationship between metal and rust. The sand itself has been touched, blown, and sifted by history, from Nabatean spice traders to Hajj pilgrims, from Ottoman Turkish troops to the Bedouin. Each of these experienced the desert in their own way, and like others in distant parts of the world, brought their own magical thinking to bear on their surroundings. Indeed, the empty desert is anything but, and the ruins of the Arab Revolt emerge from it as a unique heritage of the modern world.
Religious Practices in the Sanskrit Epics
Authors: Brockington John
Published: September 2020

Both the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, the two texts usually designated jointly as the Sanskrit Epics, are major sources for the history of religious and social ideas. Because their authors tend to present ideals and practices in a living situation, this material is potentially even more valuable, although the specific nature of the episodes raises greater difficulties and uncertainties in their interpretation. We must also guard against too readily reading into various terms their later technical meanings, even in the didactic parts of the Mahābhārata to which scholars most often refer. Moreover, a given word’s spread of meaning may well encompass both religious and more secular meanings; an excellent example of this is the term mantra, which not only designates the Vedic utterances used in connection with sacrifice and similar rituals but quite as frequently denotes the kind of consultation, counsel, or advice exchanged between kings and their counsellors (commonly mantrin). This issue is made all the more complex by the long period (perhaps fifth century bc to fourth century ad) over which both the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa have reached their present form, during which both society and religion undoubtedly changed appreciably. This chapter discusses these developments.
Measuring Innovation
Authors: Lidova Natalia
Published: September 2020

Pūjā is often perceived as a predominantly Hindu form of veneration of gods, as it is currently the main ritual for almost one billion followers of Hinduism (about 15 per cent of the world’s population), with approximately 800 million of them living in India. It is less known that pūjā is also used as the main ritual in other religious communities, specifically different groups of contemporary Buddhists and Jains, as well as of Sikhs and various India-orientated spiritual practices and religious movements such as ISKCON. This makes pūjā not only a pan-Indian form of worship but the worldwide ritual that crossed the borders of its native country and gained many adepts all over the world. This chapter examines the genesis and development of this religious practice.
The Quest for Liberation-in-Life
Authors: Birch Jason
Published: September 2020

The Haṭha- and Rājayoga texts which were composed before the Haṭhapradīpikā (mid-fifteenth century ce) provide a window onto what might be considered the formative phase of these types of yoga. This chapter will present the first survey of this corpus’ content on liberation (moḳsa) and meditative absorption (generally known as samādhi). Although each text contains distinctive features and teachings, this survey reveals the principal meaning of the term rājayoga and several pervasive themes, such as the transformational role of the practice of samādhi and the general acceptance of liberation-in-life (jīvanmukti) as the goal of yoga. After discussing the relationship between Rājayoga and liberation-in-life, an essential conception of which can be traced back to earlier Kaula traditions, the chapter concludes by examining how the author of the Haṭhapradīpikā interpreted this relationship and resolved tension between transcendence and power, which is apparent in many of the earlier works.
Intertextuality in Seneca the Elder
Authors: Pingoud Julien , Rolle Alessandra
Published: September 2020

This chapter consists of two parts, both of which centre upon intertextuality in the Controversiae and Suasoriae and place special emphasis on Seneca’s use of allusion. Pingoud outlines the role played by Cicero, Ovid, Horace, and Lucretius on the language of Senecan declamation by examining how Seneca imitates these authors both to teach and to entertain his audience. Rolle similarly explores the ramifications of intertextuality on Seneca’s writing by investigating how Greek oratorical texts influenced Latro’s characterization (Controversiae 1.praef). She reveals that every aspect of Latro—from his voice to his physical appearance—is based on Greek ideals of the ideal declaimer, but notes the subtle ways in which Latro’s persona is deliberately and pointedly set apart from that of Demosthenes.