bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Developing an Instrument to Measure Athletic Donor Behavior and Motivation
Authors: Staurowsky Ellen J. , Parkhouse Bonnie , Sachs Michael
Published: August 2016

This paper emanates from a larger project consisting of three phases related to the examination of athletic donor behavior and motivation. This paper focuses specifically on the first phase of that study, which dealt with the development of an instrument to measure athletic donor behavior and motivation using a theoretical model. The Birch and Veroff (1966) paradigm of human motivation was incorporated into a research design that sought to identify the multidimensional aspects of athletic donor behavior and motivation. The Athletic Contributions Questionnaire originally developed by Billing, Holt, and Smith (1985) was revised to reflect incentive motivation factors found in the Birch and Veroff model. The revised instrument was called the ACQUIRE-II.1 One hundred randomly selected participants from each of 2 donor groups from a Division I institution and each of 2 donor groups from a Division III institution (total N=400) completed the ACQUIRE-II with a 50.5% rate of response. An exploratory principal components analysis showed that over 70% of donor motivations for giving could be explained by 6 factors: Benefits, Philanthropic, Power, Social, Success 1, and Success2.
Women and Athletic Fund Raising: Exploring the Connection between Gender and Giving
Authors: Staurowsky Ellen J.
Published: August 2016

In this study, demographic characteristics and donor motivation profiles of donors to a Division I and a Division III men's athletic support group and a Division I and a Division III women's athletic support group (N = 20l )were compared. Demographic characteristics and donor motivation factors were measured by the Athletic Contributions Questionnaire Revised Edition-II (AC-QUIRE-II). Chi-square tests for two independent samples were used along with SPSS-X Crosstabs procedures to test the differences in demographic variables between the donors to men's and women's athletic support groups and female and male donors. Multivariate analyses of variance with follow up univariate F-tests were used to examine differences in donor motivation on the basis of gender of the donor and gender of the recipient. Based on the findings from this study, a preliminary profile suggests that female athletic donors are younger than their male counterparts, contribute at lower donation levels, are more inclined to give to women's programs, and are motivated by success and philanthropic factors.
Revenue Sharing and Agency Problems in Professional Team Sport: The Case of the National Football League
Authors: Mason Daniel S.
Published: August 2016

Although initially developed as cartels of independently owned and operated clubs joining to produce a sports product for spectator consumption, professional sports leagues have emerged as monopolies wielding significant economic power. By increasing revenue-sharing practices, and thus attempting to align owner interests, leagues have become single-business entities that maximize wealth for the league as a whole. Over the past four decades, the National Football League has implemented such practices to become the most popular team sport in North America. Using agency theory, this paper examines how the NFL's former commissioner, Pete Rozelle, and the League Executive Committee used these practices in order to increase League revenues and decrease opportunistic behavior by team owners. However, certain owners continue to act entrepreneurially, to the detriment of the League as a whole. This behavior is congruent with the tenets of agency theory, which contend that interests will diverge within a principal-agent relationship (e.g., the NFL— NFL teams). Until such time that team owners realize that the welfare of the other League clubs, along with their competitive equality, is paramount in retaining interest in and producing the League product, professional sports leagues will continue to be plagued with problems such as unnecessary franchise relocations and other acts of maverick owners.
The Effect of Leader Characteristics on the Perceived Transformational/Transactional Leadership and Impact of Interuniversity Athletic Administrators
Authors: Doherty Alison J.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effect of various leader characteristics on the transformational/transactional leader behavior (Bass, 1985) and impact of interuniversity athletic administrators (n = 32), as rated by their coaches (n = 114). Gender, age, education, administrative experience, and athletic/coaching experience were examined as possible antecedents to leader behavior (Chelladurai, 1980,1993). These characteristics reflect life experiences (Avolio & Gibbons, 1988) and common indicators of occupational development of athletic administrators (e.g., Barr, 1995; Quarterman, 1992; Williams & Miller, 1983). Leader behavior was measured by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Bass & Avolio, 1991b). Differences in transformational/transactional leader behavior were observed for the leader characteristics of gender and age, where female and younger athletic administrators were found to exhibit transformational leader behavior more often, and transactional leader behavior less often, than their male and older counterparts, respectively. Gender and age also were associated with the coaches' perception of leader effectiveness and their frequency of extra effort.
The Effectiveness of Selected Promotions on Spectators' Assessments of a Nonprofit Sporting Event Sponsor
Authors: McCarville Ronald E. , Flood Christopher M. , Froats Tabatha A.
Published: August 2016

Sponsorship has become a major source of funding for special and on-going sporting events. However, sponsors may question return on their investment in such events. Managers may find that potential sponsors are reluctant to invest in sporting activities as a result. This paper addresses the issue of return on investment by monitoring reaction to a sponsor's promotional efforts in an experimental setting. In the context offered by a hypothetical nonprofit sporting event, participants were randomly assigned to groups who received (a) basic information about the sponsor, (b) discount coupons offered by the sponsor, and (c) trial samples of the sponsor's product (pizza). Those who received the product trial responded most positively to the sponsorship message. They rated the sponsor's product in more positive terms and were more likely to intend to purchase that product within the next month. Conversely, promotions that presented only logos, sponsor's telephone numbers, slogans or coupons generally failed to alter perceptions of the product or sponsor.
Toward Achieving a Focal Point for Sport Management: A Binocular Perspective
Authors: Boucher Robert L.
Published: August 2016

In the summer of 1941, Sergeant James Allen Ward was awarded the Victoria Cross for climbing onto the wing of his Wellington bomber 13,000 feet above the Zuider Zee in Holland to extinguish a fire in the starboard engine. Secured only by a rope around his waist, he managed not only to smother the fire but also to return along the wing to the aircraft's cabin. Churchill, an admirer as well as a performer of swashbuckling exploits, summoned the shy New Zealander to 10 Downing Street (for our American friends that's like the British White House). Ward was struck dumb with awe in Churchill's presence and was unable to answer the Prime Minister's simplest questions. Churchill surveyed the unhappy hero with some compassion. “You must feel very humble and awkward in my presence,” said Churchill. “Yes sir,” stammered the young flyer. “Then you can imagine how humble and awkward I feel in yours,” said Churchill. (Fadiman, 1985, pp. 122-23)
Contemplating Restructuring: A Case Study of Strategic Decision Making in Interuniversity Athletic Conferences
Authors: Hill Larena , Kikulis Lisa M.
Published: August 2016

This research examines the dynamics of strategic decision making within the western Canadian university athletic system. Using a framework developed from the Bradford studies (Hickson, Butler, Cray, Mallory, & Wilson, 1986) and Butler (1991), we focused on three key elements of decision making; complexity, politically, and the rules of the game. Using these concepts, this paper presents a case study analysis of the decision process that centered around the potential restructuring of the Canada West University Athletic Association and the Great Plains Athletic Conference. Qualitative research methods were used to collect and analyze data from documents and interview transcripts. The results show that the diversity of interests, level of influence, and both the constraining and enabling rules of the game contribute to the way the decision topic of restructuring was interpreted, what behaviors were enacted, and how the decision making process emerged to deal with this topic.
Does Bat Day Make Cents? The Effect of Promotions on the Demand for Major League Baseball
Authors: McDonald Mark , Rascher Daniel
Published: August 2016

A primary objective of sport marketers in the professional sport setting is to develop strategies to increase game attendance. Historically, one of the strategies to accomplish this goal has been the utilization of special promotions. This paper studied the impact of promotions on attendance at professional sport games. Specifically, this research examines (a) the overall effect of promotions on attendance, and (b) the marginal impact on attendance of additional promotional days. Using a data set containing 1,500 observations, we find that a promotion increases single game attendance by about 14%. Additionally, increasing the number of promotions has a negative effect on the marginal impact of each promotion. The loss from this watering down effect, however, is outweighed by the gain from having an extra promotion day.
Perceptions of Goals and Processes of Intercollegiate Athletics: A Case Study
Authors: Trail Galen , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the extent to which two stakeholder groups of intercollegiate athletics (faculty and students) differed in the importance they attached to 10 selected goals and their approval of 11 selected processes within intercollegiate athletics. A total of 652 respondents (341 faculty, 311 students, 337 men, 310 women) from a large midwestern university responded to a questionnaire developed for this study. Results showed that subgroups, defined by faculty-student status, and gender differed significantly in most instances. These differences and the similarities in the rank ordering of the goals and processes are discussed.
Effects of University Athletics on the University: A Review and Extension of Empirical Assessment
Authors: Goff Brian
Published: August 2016

It is important for university decision makers to carefully scrutinize empirical data concerning the impacts of college athletics on the university as a whole in formulating strategies for athletic programs. This paper reviews and extends existing statistical work on the effects of college athletics using basic concepts from economics as guideposts. Current evidence indicates that success, and at times merely participation, in college athletics provides several benefits including direct financial gain and such indirect benefits as increased university exposure and, in turn, increased financial contributions and increased student applications and enrollment. Evidence concerning negative exposure from events such as NCAA sanctions is sparse but suggests opposite effects of smaller magnitude.
Managing North American Major Professional Sport Teams in the New Millennium: A Focus on Building Brand Equity
Authors: Gladden James M. , Irwin Richard L. , Sutton William A.
Published: August 2016

Following a decade that produced astonishing player salaries, continued player mobility, widespread corporate involvement, and skyrocketing ticket prices and broadcast rights fees, North American major league professional sport teams enter the 21st century encountering a number of significant challenges. An analysis of the aforementioned trends yields valuable insight into the future of professional team sport management in North America and leads to the identification of a primary concern of team owners and operators, that of managing the franchise's brand equity. With team owners increasingly reaping profits from the long-term appreciation of the team's value while continuing to lose money on a yearly basis, there will be an increased focus on strengthening team brands. This new focus will lead management to build and maintain brand equity through two primary means: the acquisition of assets and the enhancement of customer relationships. Each of these predictions is explained in depth in this paper and examples are provided.
Negotiating Games: Cities, Sports, and the Winner’s Curse
Authors: Rosentraub Mark S. , Swindell David
Published: August 2016

Requests for subsidies from North American cities for the sports facilities used by professional teams continues. While teams elsewhere are expected to use their own revenues and income from lotteries or gaming for their facilities, demands for subsidies are heard. In addition, bids to host national and international competitions are also expected to include public subsidies. This article explores the bargaining games between communities and teams. Its goal is to understand if any city can escape from negotiations and avoid the winner’s curse by reducing or eliminating the need to offer a subsidy. A framework is developed that a larger community can utilize to minimize subsidies. If larger cities correctly understand the dynamic relationship of capital to their internal and external environments, they may well take the initial steps toward deescalating the competition that creates a winner’s curse for the public sector and protect the interests of both small and large cities.
Determinants of Spectator Attendance at NCAA Division II Football Contests
Authors: DeSchriver Timothy D. , Jensen Paul E.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between spectator attendance at NCAA Division II football contests and selected determinants by estimating multiple economic demand models. The two primary determinants analyzed were winning percentage and promotional activity. Demand models were estimated using OLS and fixed-effect regression analysis. The results suggested that both current and previous year winning percentages are positively related to attendance. Furthermore, it is shown that the effect of previous season winning on attendance diminishes while the effect of current season winning increases as the season progresses. The results also indicated that promotional activities, the number of enrolled students, and market competition significantly affected attendance. Overall, the demand models explained between 37 and 70 percent of the variation in spectator attendance. The findings of this study may aid Division II athletic administrators who are attempting to increase revenues by attracting additional spectators to small-college football contests.
Financing Major League Facilities: Status, Evolution and Conflicting Forces
Authors: Crompton John L. , Howard Dennis R. , var Turgut
Published: August 2016

This paper identifies the pervasiveness, magnitude, and trends of public investment in major league sports facilities and describes the forces that typically direct and dictate the debate. In 2003 dollars, the total investment in facilities currently being used by franchises in the four major leagues in North America is almost $24 billion, of which over $15 billion was contributed by public entities. Four eras of funding these facilities are identified and described: the Gestation Era 1961-1969; the Public Subsidy Era 1970-1984; the Transitional (Public-Private Partnership) Era 1985-1994; and the Fully-Loaded (Private-Public Partnership) Era post 1994. There is a consistent trend of private contributions increasing across these eras, but public sector contributions remain substantial. The final section of the paper discusses the four primary sources of momentum undergirding this public investment: owner leverage, the community power structure, the stimulus of increasing costs, and the competitive balance rationale.
Involvement and Travel for Recreational Runners in North Carolina
Authors: McGehee Nancy Gard , Yoon Yooshik , Cárdenas David
Published: August 2016

This study utilized an adaptation of the uni-dimensional involvement scale developed by Josiam, Smeaton, and Clements (1999) to test Havitz and Dimanche's Proposition XI, which states that “an individual's involvement profile with a recreational activity, tourist destination, or related equipment is positively related to frequency of participation, travel, or purchase” (1990, p. 189). Relationships between recreational runners' involvement in travel to road races and behavioral characteristics, including preparation for and participation in road races, travel behavior and running-related expenditures were examined. Proposition XI was partially supported. The research found statistically significant differences between the high involvement group and medium involvement group in terms of travel behavior and running-related expenditures. There were no significant differences between involvement groups and preparation for or participation in road races. It was concluded that involvement should be considered by sport and tourism agencies when planning, marketing, and managing events targeted at traveling recreational runners.
“A Strong Man Is Direct and a Direct Woman Is a Bitch”: Gendered Discourses and Their Influence on Employment Roles in Sport Organizations
Authors: Shaw Sally , Hoeber Larena
Published: August 2016

Despite increasing numbers of women in senior sport management positions over the past 30 years, men still remain dominant in these roles, indicating a level of gender inequity within sport management. It is often assumed within sport organizations that women are well-matched for lower level management roles, whereas men are more suited to senior management roles. In order to understand perceptions held about women's and men's abilities related to sport management, it is necessary to understand and then analyze discourses, or dominant forms of knowledge, that influence various employment roles in sport organizations. After analyzing organizational documents and transcripts from interviews with 35 employees from three national sport organizations in England, it was found that senior management roles were heavily dominated by discourses of masculinity that are linked to men and are highly valued in sport organizations. In contrast, women and discourses of femininity are associated with employment roles that are undervalued within organizations. There is, however, the potential for resistance to these discourses on a number of levels and this is discussed with relation to one organization's commitment to change “taken for granted” assumptions about gendered employment roles in sport management.
Using Athletes as Endorsers to Sell Women’s Sport: Attractiveness vs. Expertise
Authors: Fink Janet S. , Cunningham George B. , Kensicki Linda Jean
Published: August 2016

This study drew from the match-up hypothesis and associated learning theory to examine the effects of athlete attractiveness and athlete expertise on (a) endorser-event fit, (b) attitudes toward an event, and (c) intentions to purchase tickets to an event. Students (N = 173) from three universities participated in an experiment to test the study’s hypotheses. Results indicate that athlete attractiveness and athlete expertise were both positively related to endorser-event fit and the effects of expertise on fit were significantly stronger than those of attractiveness. Further, attitudes toward the event partially mediated the relationship between endorser-event fit and intentions to purchase tickets to the event, whereas identification moderated the relationship. Results are discussed relative to associative learning theory and the match-up hypothesis, as well as ramifications they present for marketers and promoters of women’s sport.
Anticipated Career Satisfaction, Affective Occupational Commitment, and Intentions to Enter the Sport Management Profession
Authors: Cunningham George B. , Sagas Michael , Dixon Marlene , Kent Aubrey , Turner Brian A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of internships on students’ career-related affect and intentions. Data were gathered from 138 upper-level undergraduate sport management students (71 interns, 67 noninterns). A doubly multivariate repeated measures model indicated that, although they did not differ at the beginning of the internship, interns had less positive attitudes toward the profession than did noninterns at the end of the internship. Structural equation modeling indicated that affective occupational commitment fully mediated the relationship between anticipated career satisfaction and intentions to enter the profession. The results contribute to the extant literature by demonstrating that internships can influence career-related affect and intentions.
Putting “Participatory” into Participatory Forms of Action Research
Authors: Frisby Wendy , Reid Colleen J. , Millar Sydney , Hoeber Larena
Published: August 2016

Although there has been a rise in calls for participatory forms of research, there is little literature on the challenges of involving research participants in all phases of the research process. Actively involving research participants requires new strategies, new researcher and research-participant roles, and consideration of a number of ethical dilemmas. We analyzed the strategies employed and challenges encountered based on our experiences conducting feminist participatory action research with a marginalized population and a variety of community partners over 3 years. Five phases of the research process were considered including developing the research questions, building trust, collecting data, analyzing data, and communicating the results for action. Our goals were to demonstrate the relevance of a participatory approach to sport management research, while at the same time acknowledging some of the realities of engaging in this type of research.
Inventive Pathways: Fresh Visions of Sport Management Research
Authors: Skinner James , Edwards Allan
Published: August 2016

Although qualitative research approaches such as ethnography have been applied to the field of sport (e.g., Bricknell, 2001; Hughson and Hallinan, 2001) Sparkes (2003) has suggested that it was not until the late 1990s that sport researchers began to embrace ethnographic frameworks underpinned by critical and postmodern theories. As such, the value of these research designs has not been fully realized. The benefit for sport management researchers in applying critical and postmodern thought to ethnographic approaches is that it sharpens their critical consciousness. This article therefore develops an argument for applying critical and postmodern thought to ethnographic approaches to sport management research. In doing this we (a) provide a brief historical sketch of social science research paradigms; (b) outline the benefits of applying critical and postmodern thought to sport management ethnographic research; (c) present examples of current sport and sport management ethnographic research that applies critical and postmodern frameworks; and (d) provide insight into the concerns that sport management scholars should consider when applying ethnographic research designs that embrace the tenets of postmodernism. Through this discussion we conclude that, although ethnographic approaches inspired by critical and postmodern thought are not the panacea to solve all research problems, if applied correctly they can only further enhance out knowledge of the research issue under investigation.
Addressing Epistemological Racism in Sport Management Research
Authors: Singer John N.
Published: August 2016

Sport management scholars must begin to recognize the significance of race and ethnicity as viable epistemological considerations in research inquiry. This article discusses the concept of “epistemological racism” (Scheurich & Young, 1997) and argues that critical race theory (CRT) is a legitimate epistemological and theoretical alternative to research approaches that have typically been based on the dominant worldview (i.e., Eurocentrism), and that it is an appropriate framework for conducting race-based emancipatory research in sport management. In particular, because CRT focuses on issues of justice, liberation, and the empowerment of people of color in a society based on White supremacy (i.e., Eurocentrism), the primary purpose of this article is to provide sport management scholars and students with insight into how CRT’s epistemological and methodological bases could be applied to critical areas of research in our field. The article concludes with some practical suggestions for how we can address epistemological racism in our sport management research and education.
“Experiencing” Sport Management: The Use of Personal Narrative in Sport Management Studies
Authors: Rinehart Robert E.
Published: August 2016

According to Paton, sport management research went through several phases up to the 1990s: a praxis phase, based upon “administrative principles, usually developed by authorities in the field, and upon program planning in physical education”; a second more theory-based phase that continues to the present; and a third descriptive phase (Paton, 1987, p. 26). In most of this research, however, the use of methodological innovation in research and in reporting research has been relatively scarce (as in many of the subdisciplines in physical education/kinesiology). In the present article, I argue for the use of personal narrative and personal storytelling in sport management research methodology, which might result in the asking of different questions and in write-ups that could serve to invigorate sport management studies. This method of research answers different, interactionist-based questions for researchers delving into how sport management affects people and how sport managers interact with others. In other words, this method examines how lives are lived into existence, and it provides models for practitioners and scholars of sport management to model, discover, experience, and use.
Perceptions of the Causes of Procrastination by Sport Administrators
Authors: Parsons Carol Anne , Soucie Daniel
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the perceived causes of procrastination by sport administrators (N=63) in Canadian sport governing bodies. More specifically, it attempted to determine why these administrators would procrastinate or avoid decisions and actions for which they are responsible. Results obtained from an original questionnaire comprising 25 Likert statements and 7 open-ended questions generally indicate that (a) the most important cause of procrastination is the inability to say no to various requests for one’s time; (b) there is evidence that sport administrators tend to attribute the causes of procrastination to the organizational environment rather than to themselves; (c) some of the more important organization-related causes of procrastination appear to be unpleasant aspects of the task, heavy workloads assigned, too many options or no guidelines given for task completion, no fixed deadlines or time limits, and unimportance and insignificance of tasks.
Forecasting the Long-Term Viability of an Enterprise: The Case of a Minor League Baseball Franchise
Authors: Yokum J. Thomas , Gonzalez Juan J. , Badgett Tom
Published: August 2016

We are interested in forecasting or predicting the long-term viability of a minor league baseball team. The research question is whether this minor league team will be successful in attracting attendance over an extended period of time. An important financial issue is if the team is predicted to fail, then exactly how long will it last? A variety of methods are used in a step-by-step procedure to evaluate this viability. We first test whether attendance is evolving or stable through a unit root test, a test of market persistence. We then use the Bass model to assess whether the projected product life cycle is turning up or down. The Gompertz and logistic (Pearl) diffusion curves are next applied to home stand data of various lengths in order to make forecasts of an eventual dissolution point at which the team would financially collapse. Market saturation is not estimated, but set at the stadium capacity. Forecasting principles involving diffusion models are implemented. Analogies are used as a complementary forecasting technique to assess whether there is long-term potential for survival. Finally, logistic regression on cross-sectional data is used to supplement the forecasts. The results of the triangulation of diffusion curves, analogies, and logistic regression predict a decline in the minor league team’s ability to capture attendance.
Can Gender Equity Be More Equitable?: Promoting an Alternative Frame for Sport Management Research, Education, and Practice
Authors: Shaw Sally , Frisby Wendy
Published: August 2016

Gender research in sport management has been dominated by liberal feminist theory, which does little to challenge or alter dominant gendered discourses and power structures within sport organizations. In this paper, the limitations of three existing conceptual frames for understanding gender equity are discussed. A fourth frame is proposed that builds on the work of Ely and Meyerson (2000a), Meyerson and Kolb (2000), and Rao, Stuart, and Kelleher (1999). We argue that the fourth frame, based on poststructural feminist theory, provides an important alternative, addressing the complexities of gender relations in sport organizations through the processes of critique, narrative revision, and experimentation. We extend the fourth frame by considering two additional elements: (a) the intersection of gender with other aspects of diversity and (b) a deconstruction of the traditional discourses that pit gender equity against organizational effectiveness using Bauman’s (2001) concept of moral sensitivity. The implications of the fourth frame are then discussed in relation to sport management teaching, research, and practice.
Scratching the Back of “Mr X”: Analyzing Gendered Social Processes in Sport Organizations
Authors: Shaw Sally
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this research was to analyze social processes as an integral part of gender relations. A theoretical framework was developed using a three-part conceptualization of social processes. Data were collected during semistructured interviews with 35 individuals in three National Governing Bodies of sport in the UK and during unstructured interviews and observation in meetings and sport events attended by the participants. The data were coded and analyzed, and three gendered social processes were examined: informal networking, dress codes, and the use of humor. In the conclusion section, future directions are offered addressing the implications of this research for sport management practitioners, educators, and researchers.
Organizational Image and Identity Management in Large-Scale Sporting Events
Authors: Parent Milena M. , Foreman Peter O.
Published: August 2016

Although identity, image, and reputation are important issues for the sport management field, little research has examined how sport organizations construct and manage such intangible yet critical aspects of their organizations. This article addresses this gap in the literature by exploring the process of identity construction within organizing committees of major sporting events. The insights gained from two case studies indicate that committees draw on three types of identity referents: the nature of the event, context, and key individuals of organizing committees. These referents are projected as images from the organizing committee to various stakeholder groups and then reflected back to the organizing committee. In addition, images are often received by stakeholders through indirect channels of transmission, especially the media, further complicating the process of image and identity management. Finally, organizing committees attempt to manage the process primarily via verbal and symbolic communication strategies.
Repositioning a University through NCAA Division I-A Football Membership
Authors: Roy Donald P. , Graeff Timothy R. , Harmon Susan K.
Published: August 2016

Past research concerning the effects of college athletics has concentrated on examining the effects of on-field success on increased donations to the university and increased enrollment applications. This research examines the effects of a university’s move to NCAA Division I-A football membership on marketing variables, such as attitudes toward the university, perceptions of the university, and behavioral intentions regarding attendance at sporting events and donating money. Members of three important stakeholder groups (students, alumni, and area residents) responded to questions dealing with a university’s recent move to Division I-A football. With respect to overall perceptions of I-A football and reactions to the University’s recent move to I-A, students, alumni, and the general public believe that I-A football is more prestigious than I-AA football. Further, I-A football status can create a positive image for a university, can attract students to attend the university, is the best sport for fostering alumni involvement with the university, and it enhances school spirit. These results suggest that the positive perceptions associated with I-A can create the solid foundation upon which additional (future) positive experiences and associations can build, leading to greater financial gains in the future.
An Empirical Assessment of Spectator-Based Brand Equity
Authors: Ross Stephen D. , Russell Keith C. , Bang Hyejin
Published: August 2016

Few studies in the branding literature have approached brand equity from the sport perspective, and even fewer studies focus on the construct from the consumer viewpoint. The purpose of the current research was to empirically test the spectator-based brand equity (SBBE) model. Using a sample from professional basketball consumers, the results of the study show that the 49-item, 13-construct model has a reasonable fit to the data. The study extends the understanding of sport brand equity from the consumer perspective by presenting empirical support for the model. Several managerial implications are offered as a result of the findings.
Mega Events, Fear, and Risk: Terrorism at the Olympic Games
Authors: Toohey Kristine , Taylor Tracy
Published: August 2016

Since 1972, there has been an association between terrorism, violence, and the Olympic Games. The events of September 11, 2001, however, clearly reescalated concerns about the Games being a terrorist target. This conceptual article discusses the theories of the risk society and the precautionary principle to understand and interpret how visitors to the most recent Summer Games, Athens 2004, framed their decision to attend. Consistent with risk theory, a strong public and financial commitment to safety at the Games was evident, with the organizers undertaking wide-ranging large-scale risk management initiatives. Athens attendees, while displaying tenets of risk aversion and engagement with a discourse of fear, also showed resilience, resistance, and indifference to potential terrorism threats. Implications for both theory and practice are noted.
The Economic Impact of the Olympic Games: Ex Ante Predictions and Ex Poste Reality
Authors: Porter Philip K. , Fletcher Deborah
Published: August 2016

This article uses data from the 1996 Summer Olympic Games and the 2002 Olympic Winter Games to test the predictions of regional input-output models. Real changes associated with these events are insignificant. Nominal measures of demand overstate demand increases and factor price increases absorb the impact of real increases in demand. Nominal changes appear to be limited to hotel prices. Input-output models of a regional economy are often used to predict the impact of short-duration sporting events. Because I-O models assume constant factor prices and technical coefficients between sectors are calibrated from long-run steady-state relations in the regional economy, the predictions greatly overstate the true impact. Because the predictions of these models are increasingly used to justify public subsidies, understanding these deficiencies is crucial.
It’s Really Not about the Bike: Exploring Attraction and Attachment to the Events of the Lance Armstrong Foundation
Authors: Filo Kevin R. , Funk Daniel C. , O’Brien Danny
Published: August 2016

Participatory sport events have emerged as viable fundraising mechanisms for charitable organizations. This article examines the impact that motives for charitable giving and sport event participation have on charity sport events. The authors examine the factors that attract participants to a charity sport event, while the role of charity in fostering attachment to the event is explored. Focus groups were conducted with charity sport event participants to discuss what motivated their participation. Results revealed that intellectual, social, and competency motives along with the motives of reciprocity, self-esteem, need to help others, and desire to improve the charity contribute to attraction. In addition, the results suggest that the charitable component influences social and competency motives and contributes to the development of attachment to the event. The authors recommend event managers work to foster and leverage the sense of community created through these events.
Toward a Model of Brand Creation for International Large-Scale Sporting Events: The Impact of Leadership, Context, and Nature of the Event
Authors: Parent Milena M. , Séguin Benoit
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to develop a model of brand creation for one-off large-scale sporting events. A case study of the 2005 Montreal FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation) World Championships highlighted the importance of the leadership group (which must include individuals with political/networking, business/management, and sport/event skills), the context, and the nature of the event for creating the event’s brand. The importance of each aspect is suggested to vary depending on the situation. For example, the lack of an initial event brand will result in the leadership group having the greatest impact on the event’s brand creation process. Findings also highlighted differing communication paths for internal and external stakeholders. Thus, this study contributes to the literature by focusing on brand creation and its related factors instead of the management and outcomes of a brand.
Marching in the Glory: Experiences and Meanings When Working for a Sport Mega-Event
Authors: Xing Xiaoyan , Chalip Laurence
Published: August 2016

Sport mega-event organizing committees have three uniquely challenging characteristics: They grow rapidly; they are temporary; they are accountable for event symbolisms. Effects of these characteristics are examined via participant observation and in-depth interviews with twelve lower-level employees of the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (BOCOG) two years before the Beijing Olympics. Four themes about their working lives were identified: The daily work is mundane; BOCOG is bureaucratic; privilege has its privileges; my immediate working environment nurtures me. The mega-event context was also important; workers described it using: The Olympics are great and grand; the Olympics are valuable for China; the Olympics illustrate the challenges that China faces in the 21st century; BOCOG is uniquely high profile; BOCOG helps us to understand Chinese society. Employees used four themes to describe the coping strategies they applied to manage the challenges of working for the organizing committee: I have to confront or adjust; my work at BOCOG allows me to develop myself; working at BOCOG represents a passionate life with idealism; I get to be part of history. Findings suggest that social support, the symbolic significance of the event, and learning through event work mitigate the stresses of working to host a mega-event. Future work should examine the workers’ lives longitudinally over the lifespan of an organizing committee to delineate the dynamics of meanings and experiences in mega-event work.
An Examination of the Perceptions of Sexual Harassment by Sport Print Media Professionals
Authors: Pedersen Paul M. , Lim Choong Hoon , Osborne Barbara , Whisenant Warren
Published: August 2016

While the impact of sexual harassment in the workplace has been well documented, little sexual harassment research has been conducted focusing on the women who work in the sport industry. This study explored the extent to which female sport print media professionals (i.e., sports editors, sportswriters, sports columnists) were subjected to sexually harassing behaviors in the workplace. Of the women who participated in the study (N = 112), over half of the participants indicated that they had encountered some form of sexual harassment over the 12 months before participating in the study. The perpetrators included their immediate supervisors, coworkers, members of the sport media, athletes, and employees of sport organizations. The study also identified the forms of sexual harassment encountered and attitudes toward harassment in the workplace. Suggestions on how to prevent harassment toward women in the sport industry are discussed.
Understanding the Diversity-Related Change Process: A Field Study
Authors: Cunningham George B.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the diversity-related change process a university athletic department was undertaking. A comprehensive model was developed by drawing from full integration theory and institutional theory. Following an organizational diagnosis perspective, data were collected through semistructured interviews, internal documents from the athletic department and university culture centers, associated websites, and press releases. Results indicate that political, functional, and social pressures for change influenced the implementation of various diversity initiatives. Despite these efforts, two primary groups of factors served to impede the progress: organizational factors, in the form of top management support and systemic integration, and perceptual processes, in the form of social processes and utility. Results suggest that for diversity-related change to be successful, it is important to consider how diversity impacts the entire sport organization, internal and external stakeholders’ perceptions, and the meaningful influence of organizational factors.
Corporate Social Responsibility in Sport
Authors: Bradish Cheri , Cronin J. Joseph
Published: August 2016

Over the past decade, there has been a groundswell of support within the sport industry to be “good sports”, as evidenced by a growing number of, and commitment to, “giving” initiatives and “charitable” programs. Consider the following examples:

• In 1998, the “Sports Philanthropy Project” was founded, devoted to “harnessing the power of professional sports to support the development of healthy communities.” (Sports Philanthropy Project, 2009) To date, this organization has supported and sustained over 400 philanthropic-related organizations associated with athlete charities, league initiatives, and team foundations in the United States and Canada.

• In 2003, “Right To Play” (formerly Olympic Aid) the international humanitarian organization was established, which has used sport to bring about change in over 40 of the world's most disadvantaged communities. Of note is their vision to “engage leaders on all sides of sport, business and media, to ensure every child's right to play” (www.righttoplay.com).

• In 2005, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) became one of the first sport organizations to create an internal corporate social responsibility unit, and soon thereafter committed a significant percentage of their revenues to related corporate social responsibility programs (FIFA, 2005).
Corporate Social Responsibility in Sport: An Overview and Key Issues
Authors: Godfrey Paul C.
Published: August 2016

Sport—writ large—exists as a significant social institution, both in terms of economic and social impacts on the society of which it is a key part. This essay provides a systematic introduction to the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) for sport management scholars and practitioners. I review the historical development of CSR in the United States, provide a summary of the major theories and models currently in use by theorists and researchers, and identify key issues facing the CSR discourse. I conclude by returning to the notion of sport as an institution and try to raise questions, as an outsider, which may provoke thinking and perhaps action by sport management scholars and practitioners.
Validation of the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument: An Application of the Korean Version
Authors: Choi Yun Seok , Seo Minhee , Scott David , Martin Jeffrey
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Korean version of the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) based on the Competing Values Framework (CVF). More specially, cultural equivalence between the Korean version and the original English version of the OCAI was evaluated using 39 bilingual Koreans. Next, a field test was conducted to examine scale reliability and construct validity of the Korean version of the OCAI using 133 organizational members from the Korean Professional Baseball League (KPBL). The findings indicate that the Korean version was successfully translated, items maintained the same meaning of the original OCAI items, and yielded acceptable psychometric properties making it applicable to Korean sport organizations.
How Confident Are You to Win Your Fantasy League: Exploring the Antecedents and Consequences of Winning Expectancy
Authors: Kwak Dae Hee , Lim Choong Hoon , Lee Woo Young , Mahan Joseph
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study is to propose a conceptual model for investigating the antecedents and consequences of winning expectancy in the fantasy sport consumption context. Employing the illusion of control theory as a conceptual framework, the study hypothesized that perceived football knowledge, perceived ease of use the service Website, and enjoyment as predictors of winning expectancy and time and money involvement as consequences. The proposed model is tested using a convenience sample (N= 244) of college students and theSEMresults supported all hypotheses. Further, the proposed model was more parsimonious and performed better than the competing model.
For Love or Money: Developing and Validating a Motivational Scale for Fantasy Football Participation
Authors: Dwyer Brendan , Kim Yongjae
Published: August 2016

The contemporary sport fan has the ability to consume spectator sport through several means including event attendance, television and radio broadcasts, print publications, and Internet applications. Recently, an ancillary sport service, termed fantasy sports, has become one of the most popular activities among sport fans. As a result, the business of fantasy sports is booming. This study examined motivational dimensions underlying fantasy football participation from a Uses and Gratifications perspective. Utilizing Churchill’s (1979) five-step method for developing quality marketing measures, this study identified and validated three motivational dimensions: entertainment/escape, competition, and social interaction. The results suggest a pattern of fantasy football participation that is more purposeful and active than traditional media use. Discussed are the gambling associations, future research opportunities, and suggestions for developing fantasy football participation into a more creative and interactive marketing communication tool.