bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Martha Graham's Cold War
Authors: Phillips Victoria
Published: February 2020

“I am not a propagandist,” declared the matriarch of American modern dance, Martha Graham, while on her State Department–funded tour in 1955. Graham’s claim inspires questions: the United States government exported Graham and her company internationally to more than thirty nations in Asia, Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East, representing every seated president from Dwight D. Eisenhower through Ronald Reagan, and planned under George H. W. Bush. Although in the diplomatic field she was titled the “Picasso of modern dance,” and in later years “Forever Modern,” Graham was known to proclaim, “I am not a modernist.” In addition, she declared, “I am not a liberationist,” yet she intersected with politically powerful women such as Eleanor Roosevelt; Eleanor Dulles, sister of Eisenhower’s Dulles brothers in the State Department and CIA; Jackie Kennedy Onassis; Betty Ford; and political matriarch Barbara Bush. While bringing religious characters inspired by the Bible and the American frontier to the stage in a battle against the atheist communists, Graham insisted, “I am not a missionary.” To her abstract, mythic and biblical works, she added the trope of the American frontier. While her work promoted the United States as modern and culturally sophisticated, her casting promoted a vision of America as racially and culturally integrated. During the Cold War, the reconfigured history of modernism as apolitical in its expression of “the heart and soul of mankind” met political needs abroad with Graham’s tours. With her modernism, Graham demonstrated the power of the individual, republicanism, immigrants, and ultimately freedom from walls and metaphorical fences with the unfettered language of movement and dance as cultural diplomacy.
Estrogen Treatment in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Morgan Kelly N. , Gleason Carey E.
Published: February 2020

An effort to mitigate the cumbersome physiological, cognitive, and psychological changes that naturally occur during the menopausal transition has been ongoing for decades. Discrepant findings of symptom presentation and mediation across translational models and among human studies have perplexed researchers for years. Specifically, as an understanding of the role of estrogenic signaling in processes underlying cognition and emotion regulation evolved, researchers speculated that exogenous hormonal therapy might modify disease/symptom onset and course. This chapter describes the variable methodological approaches that likely led to disparities in the literature around hormone therapy use, particularly as it pertains to manipulating symptom onset and course of Alzheimer’s pathology. The authors expound upon current recommendations for exogenous hormone therapy use in aging women and how researchers arrived at these conclusions. Finally, we describe remaining questions regarding hormone therapy use and its long-term impact on cognition and mood, Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers, vascular functioning, and genomic variables.
Considerations on the Use of Aromatase Inhibitors in Postmenopausal Women With Breast Cancer
Authors: Blaustein Jeffrey D.
Published: February 2020

About 1 of every 8 women will develop breast cancer during her lifetime, and approximately 250,000 new cancer cases are expected annually as of 2017. Of those breast cancers, approximately 60% to 75% will express estrogen receptors, suggesting that estrogens are likely to promote growth of those tumors. Because the use of inhibitors of the synthesis of estrogens is the adjuvant treatment of choice for many women, it is essential that we understand the potential adverse effects on quality of life of those treatments. This review addresses the role of estrogens locally synthesized in the brain in laboratory animals and women, the effects of estrogens on cognitive function, the effects of synthesis blockers on cognitive function, and the limitations in performing experiments that will give us strong confidence in the results and conclusions.
Introduction
Authors: Seeley William P.
Published: February 2020

This chapter introduces a model aimed at dissolving general philosophical skepticism about research in cognitive science and aesthetics. The discussion is focused around what can be called the puzzle of locating art. The puzzle of locating art emerges from two skeptical arguments: the common perceptual mechanisms argument and the normative dimension of appreciation argument. The central argument of the chapter is that skepticism about the value of cognitive science to explanations of art is an artifact of a confusion among cognitive scientists about the role of aesthetics in the arts and a confusion among philosophers about the role information from neuroscience plays in psychological explanations.
Metakinesis and the Average Dance Audience
Authors: Seeley William P.
Published: February 2020

Chapter 5 evaluates skeptical arguments against metakinesis in dance appreciation. The chapter surveys evidence that sensorimotor processing and observational learning support an embodied projective perceptual capacity to recognize and understand the movements, intentions, and affective states of others. Finally, the chapter evaluates recent research in neuroscience of dance exploring whether and to what extent this sensorimotor perceptual capacity supports the proposed role for metakinesis in the kinaesthetic understanding and appreciation of dance.
The Southern Levant and the Ancient Near Eastern Canon
Authors: Hallote Rachel
Published: February 2020

When the artistic canon of the Southern Levant coalesced in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, scholars thought of the region, then Ottoman Palestine, as the locus of the Bible. The small-scale nature of the archaeological finds as well as their relative dearth reinforced a reliance on biblical narratives as a framework for understanding the culture of the region. Moreover, early scholarship did not recognize the complex regionalism of the Southern Levant or the diversity of its populations. Consequently, the artistic canon that developed did not represent the historical and archaeological realities of the region. This chapter examines the history of how the artistic canon of the Southern Levant formed over the past century of scholarship, why various scholars of the early and middle twentieth century included particular items in the canon, and why these now entrenched representations may or may not be helpful to the discipline’s future.
Archaeological Research in Pre-Classical Syria and the Canon of Ancient Near Eastern Art and Archaeology
Authors: Pucci Marina
Published: February 2020

Since the late nineteenth century, developments in academia, politics, and cultural policies have repeatedly transformed archaeological research in Syria and, in turn, the Syrian canon. After reviewing the birth and development of archaeological research in Syria, this chapter presents a survey of exhibitions and publications. A shift is observed from aesthetically motivated assessments of pre-classical Syrian culture in relation to Mesopotamian and Anatolian monuments and chronologies, to a view of Syria as a multicentered entity with its own complex identity and material diversity. Building upon recent perspectives that emphasize archaeological context over formal artistic characteristics, this chapter concludes with a discussion of some non-canonical objects and also proposes that 3D site reconstructions support a better understanding of the conceptualization and various agencies surrounding an object in its ancient context. Ultimately, an archaeologically contextualized canon could serve as a model for a more nuanced picture of the ancient Near East. 3D modeling, ‘Ain et-Tell, archaeology, bēt ḫilāni, Ebla, exhibitions, Mari, museums, Qatna, Syria
Defining the Canon of Funerary Archaeology in the Ancient Near East
Authors: Laneri Nicola
Published: February 2020

In archaeology, funerary practices are a quintessential element in the process of interpreting ancient societies because of the widespread presence in the archaeological record of remains associated with mortuary depositions. For this reason, throughout the twentieth century, archaeologists have debated both methodologically and theoretically what value to assign to the remains of funerary rituals enacted by ancient communities in relationship to other social and cultural domains. The aim of this chapter is to define the canon of ancient Near Eastern funerary practices through a detailed interpretation of the relationship between funerary practices, socioeconomic organization, and religious beliefs. With the use of a diachronic perspective, transformation in one of these domains is shown to have had a direct impact on the others. Case studies test how specific aspects of mortuary and funerary practices among prehistoric through first-millennium BCE Near Eastern communities have become canonical.
Museums as Vehicles for Defining Artistic Canons
Authors: Collins Paul
Published: February 2020

The modern Western encounter with the ancient Near Eastern canon has been mediated largely by museums. Indeed, for the vast majority of specialists and nonspecialists alike the material remains of the ancient Near East are accessible firsthand only through museums. This point is significant because it is now recognized that museum exhibitions and displays have an important role in the formation of disciplinary knowledge. This chapter considers the ways in which the British Museum in London has historically presented and thereby potentially shaped and reiterated canons of ancient Near Eastern art and archaeology, and how it was received and shaped in turn by the nonspecialist visitor. The British Museum has been selected because of its significant collections but also for its long institutional history that reflects changing approaches to display and interpretation.
Cultural Heritage Attrition in Egypt
Authors: Hanna Monica
Published: February 2020

This chapter is a call to archaeologists and museum curators to reflect upon their roles in the production of knowledge surrounding antiquities and to take more responsibility for historical awareness and appreciation in Egypt. Historical objects transform in significance over time and are in constant re-creation of identity, so we must keep pace with their contemporary relevance, and we should use that relevance to start a discourse on the construction of new identities in relation to cultural memories of the past through the contemporary interpretations of these objects in the daily life of different communities. People cannot appreciate what they do not know; if Egyptians do not have access to the knowledge of their ancient past, they will not understand the value of the significance of its material remains, and will continue to allow, through neglect, the total loss of archaeological sites to looting and commercial urbanization. In the end, this loss will result in a complete attrition of cultural heritage and historical memory that will further lead to a more diluted identity.
Creative drummers, artistry, virtuosity, and playing time
Authors: Brennan Matt
Published: February 2020

This chapter explores the drummer as a creative artist versus their role as an accompanist and timekeeper. This chapter picks up in the late 1930s, when star drummers like Buddy Rich set new standards for virtuosity on the drum kit, and drum battles became popular displays of technical skill and showmanship. It also discusses the ‘all-girl’ swing bands of the 1930s and 1940s, focusing on the case of drummer Viola Smith. The chapter describes the increasingly prominent role of the drummer in the new bebop style of the 1940s, focusing on two of the drum kit’s greatest musical innovators, Kenny ‘Klook’ Clarke and Max Roach. It also traces the origins of the ‘four-on-the-floor’ pulse of the bass drum and backbeat on two and four of the snare drum that came to dominate dance music through the twentieth century to the present day. The chapter concludes with the drum kit’s second global superstar after Gene Krupa: Ringo Starr of the Beatles.
Introduction
Authors: Gordon Eric , Mugar Gabriel
Published: February 2020

The introduction introduces the concept of civic design and the social context from which it arises. Civic designers are practitioners working within public-serving organizations (government, news, and civil society), many of which are experiencing pressure to adopt new technologies and be responsive to a digital culture. These practitioners are pushing up against pressures to incorporate digital technologies for enhanced efficiency in order to build trust and forge new relationships with a plurality of publics. Each is engaging in the creation of meaningful inefficiencies, which is the intentional design of less efficient over more efficient means of achieving some ends. The introduction describes the conceptual framework surrounding these practices and explains the research methodology. Finally, each of the book’s chapters is introduced.
Care
Authors: Gordon Eric , Mugar Gabriel
Published: February 2020

This chapter examines the concept of care and describes the difference between caring about, caring for and caring with. Caring about is associated with attentiveness, caring for is relational, and caring with is a collective assigning of caring responsibilities, which is deeply connected to democratic values. Care is introduced as the desired outcome of civic design. The chapter includes two case studies from public radio stations in California and Alaska, each of which demonstrates how civic designers within news organizations are pushing back against industry demands for greater efficiency by creating thoughtful, deliberate spaces for cultivating care.
Practice
Authors: Gordon Eric , Mugar Gabriel
Published: February 2020

Too often quantifying engagement falls back on using metrics of efficiency that look at the effects of a final product rather than the value of the process that shaped it. This chapter offers an evaluation tool that civic designers can use to talk about the impact of their process. It includes a guide for reflective conversation designed to capture the four activities of civic design: network building, holding space for discussion, distributing ownership and persistent input. Additionally, it includes a self-administered survey that captures one’s progress over time. The evaluation tool was designed in collaboration with seven engagement journalists from the US and Europe. While it was designed specifically to accommodate the needs of civic designers in news organizations, the chapter concludes with exploration of its potential application in different professional contexts.
“Miscellaneous Writings” of Čaqar Gebši Luvsančültem
Authors: King Matthew W.
Published: February 2020

This chapter presents selections from the vast oeuvre of the eighteenth-century polymath Čaqar Gebši Luvsančültem (1740–1810). Among Mongolian, Siberian, and Tibetan Buddhists to this day, the Čaqar Gebši is honored as an authoritative, genre-fixing translator, philosopher, astronomer, physician, pilgrim, and biographer who helped mediate the Qing imperial formation in Mongol lands. Translated in this chapter are selections from his miscellaneous writings focused on producing a Buddhism fit for Čaqar (only relatively recently and brutally incorporated into the Qing) by extolling topics such as the routinization of daily life for Buddhist scholastics, hair-splitting philosophical distinctions important for the Géluk tradition, and synthetic (as well as revisionist) histories of Tibetan and Chinggisid royal lineages, warlords, and eminent monks who collectively brought the Dharma to Čaqar lands. Also included is a brief but fascinating set of meditative and liturgical exercises meant to accompany the reading of Čaqar Gebši’s famous biography of Tsongkhapa.
Contemporary Buddhist Poetry and Fiction
Authors: Wickham-Smith Simon
Published: February 2020

The literary response to Buddhism in the years since the democratic revolution of 1990 has reflected the revival of interest in spirituality that has accompanied the development of social freedom. Writers have begun to use Buddhist imagery and themes in order to describe not only their own spiritual lives and those of their readers, but also to understand and express the secular. Moreover, the interest in Mongolian traditions among those writers who have come of age since the late 1980s means that Buddhism is now a more common subject in the contemporary literature. Using contemporary language to explore metaphysics, and the human response to metaphysics, these works reflect the difficulties of reviving and healing the image of Buddhism, and of spiritual practice, in post-Soviet Mongolia.
Introduction
Authors: Kaye Alexander
Published: February 2020

The introduction to The Invention of Jewish Theocracy introduces the idea of the halakhic state, which is the belief that the State of Israel should be governed by traditional Jewish law (halakha). It offers a definition and history of the religious Zionist community, whose leaders are the main proponents of this belief, and provides an overview of the idea’s origins and development. The chapter proposes a framework and methodology, which is based on legal and political thought, and especially the ideas of legal centralism and legal pluralism. It lays out some of the main arguments of the book and its implications for Israeli society today, as well as for key debates in the fields of history and religious studies, particularly debates over theories of secularization in the modern world.
The Pluralistic Roots of Religious Zionism
Authors: Kaye Alexander
Published: February 2020

This chapter shows that before 1948, religious Zionists were legal pluralists: that is, that they imagined the state being run by several parallel legal regimes, of which only one would be halakha, traditional Jewish law as interpreted by the rabbis. They were willing to accept a democratic legislature and did not call for halakha to rule Israel. This legal pluralism drew on a very long history of Jewish law and was congruent with the way that Jews had organized their legal institutions for centuries. Thinkers who adopted this position included Reuven Margulies, Shlomo Gorontchik (Goren), Shimon Federbusch, and Haim Ozer Grodzinski.
Isaac Herzog before Palestine
Authors: Kaye Alexander
Published: February 2020

The creator and champion of the ideology of the halakhic state was Isaac Herzog, Israel’s first Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi. Prior to his arrival in Palestine in 1937, he was the Chief Rabbi of Ireland. This chapter accounts the history of Herzog’s intellectual development, and in particular his writing about law. It places his legal philosophy in the context of the prevailing jurisprudence of the day, including ideas about the evolution of law and the centralizing reforms of European states at the end of the nineteenth century. It also shows how Herzog’s experience of the struggle for Irish independence from the British, and the role of law and religion in that struggle, helped to shape his attitudes to law and colonialism once he had arrived in Palestine.
Introduction
Authors: Saguy Abigail C.
Published: February 2020

This chapter argues that coming out has become what sociologists call a “master frame,” a way of understanding the world that is sufficiently elastic and inclusive that a wide range of social movements can use it in their own campaigns. It introduces five movements that are the focus of the book—(1) the American lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, plus (LGBTQ+) rights movement; (2) the fat acceptance movement; (3) the undocumented immigrant youth movement; (4) the plural-marriage family movement among Mormon fundamentalist polygamists; and (5) the #MeToo movement. It reviews the data and methods that form the basis of the book—participant observation, textual analysis, and 146 in-depth interviews. It argues that disparate groups use coming out to challenge negative stereotypes and overcome oppression, and that the close association of coming out with gay people informs the meaning of the term in other contexts. It previews the subsequent chapters.
Overcoming Fear
Authors: Saguy Abigail C.
Published: February 2020

This chapter examines how the undocumented immigrant youth movement has evoked “coming out as undocumented and unafraid” to mobilize fearful constituents. It discusses the local and state-level legislative changes for which the movement as advocated, including the federal DREAM Act. It argues that while the DREAM Act never passed, the undocumented immigrant youth movement arguably led President Obama to sign the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) executive order in June 2012, which deferred deportation for “Dreamers” who meet certain criteria on a two-year renewable basis. It further argues that the undocumented immigrant youth movement has successfully challenged cultural understandings by offering an alternative image to that of “illegal immigrants” sneaking across the border—that of educated and talented “DREAMers.”
Conclusion
Authors: Saguy Abigail C.
Published: February 2020

This chapter considers how things have changed in the second half of the Obama administration and under the Trump administration. It shows how transgender rights activists used the politics of coming out to make important gains during Obama’s second term. It also shows that while Trump has worked to reverse LGBTQ+ rights during his presidency, public opinion has shifted in ways that are not easily or quickly reversed. Having felt the relief and joy of exiting the closet, people are not willing to return so easily. Dreamers have likewise refused to retreat into the shadows, and the undocumented immigrant movement continues to encourage coming out as a political strategy. Meanwhile, the Trump administration seems to have provided a catalyst for feminist organizing—including but not limited to the issue of sexual harassment and assault, while also emboldening members of the “alt-right,” or white nationalist movement, to “come out of the woodwork.”
Plato's Caves
Authors: LeMoine Rebecca
Published: February 2020

From student protests over the teaching of canonical texts such as Plato’s Republic to the use of images of classical Greek statues in white supremacist propaganda, the world of the ancient Greeks is deeply implicated in a heated contemporary debate about identity and diversity. Plato’s Caves defends the bold thesis that Plato was a friend of cultural diversity, contrary to many contemporary perceptions. It shows that, across Plato’s dialogues, foreigners play a role similar to that of Socrates: liberating citizens from intellectual bondage. Through close readings of four Platonic dialogues—Republic, Menexenus, Laws, and Phaedrus—the author recovers Plato’s unique insight into the promise, and risk, of cross-cultural engagement. Like the Socratic “gadfly” who stings the “horse” of Athens into wakefulness, foreigners can provoke citizens to self-reflection by exposing contradictions and confronting them with alternative ways of life. The painfulness of this experience explains why encounters with foreigners often give rise to tension and conflict. Yet it also reveals why cultural diversity is an essential good. Simply put, exposure to cultural diversity helps one develop the intellectual humility one needs to be a good citizen and global neighbor. By illuminating Plato’s epistemological argument for cultural diversity, Plato’s Caves challenges readers to examine themselves and to reinvigorate their love of learning.
Three Sequences
Authors: Uva Christian
Published: February 2020

This chapter focuses on Leone’s aesthetic and cinematic language. In order to highlight the continuity and evolution of the director’s eye, it deconstructs and analyzes three famous sequences from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966), Duck, You Sucker! (1971), and Once Upon a Time in America (1984). The analysis of composition, mise-en-scène, and cinematography unveils the political and ethical symbolism of Leone’s cinema. It also references film theory (Sergei Eisenstein, among others) and critical contributions on Leone’s works tracing out the visual construction of his political perspective, and demonstrating the continuity and evolution of his unique style.
Hegel's Concept of Life
Authors: Ng Karen
Published: February 2020

This book defends a new interpretation of Hegel’s idealism as oriented by a philosophical and logical concept of life, focusing on Hegel’s Science of Logic. Beginning with the influence of Kant’s Critique of Judgment, Karen Ng argues that Hegel’s key philosophical contributions concerning self-consciousness, freedom, and logic all develop around the idea of internal purposiveness, which Hegel views as “Kant’s great service to philosophy.” Ng charts the development of the purposiveness theme in Kant and argues that its key innovation is the claim that the purposiveness of nature enables the operation of the power of judgment. Situating Hegel among contemporaries such as Fichte and Schelling, she further argues that this innovation is key for understanding Hegel’s philosophical method in the Differenzschrift (1801) and Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), in which the theory of self-consciousness plays a central role. In her new interpretation of Hegel’s Logic, Ng argues that the Subjective Logic can be understood as Hegel’s critique of judgment, where he defends the view that life opens up the possibility of intelligibility as such. She argues that Hegel’s theory of judgment is modeled on reflective, teleological judgments, in which something’s species or kind provides the objective context for predication. The Subjective Logic culminates in the argument that life is a primitive or original activity of judgment, the necessary presupposition for the actualization of self-conscious cognition. Ng demonstrates that absolute method is best interpreted as the ongoing dialectic between life and self-conscious cognition, providing a new way for understanding Hegel’s philosophical system.
Actuality and the Genesis of the Concept
Authors: Ng Karen
Published: February 2020

Chapter 4 takes up Hegel’s genesis of the Concept argument presented in the concluding section of the Doctrine of Essence on “Actuality.” Hegel traces the origins of the Concept to two sources: Spinoza’s notion of substance and Aristotle’s notion of ènérgeia. Hegel aims to show that the unity and activity of the Concept is immanent in actuality, and the goal of the concluding section of the Doctrine of Essence is to provide an account of actuality as activity (Tätigkeit) and activity of form (Formtätigkeit). To understand the process of actualization in terms of activity, the author defends two arguments. The first concerns why actuality is not adequately captured in terms of sheer contingency or blind necessity. The second concerns the concept of reciprocity (Wechselwirkung) and how the process of actualization can be understood as being a cause and effect of itself, displaying the activity and unity of self-determination.
Present at the Creation
Authors: Roger Charles B.
Published: February 2020

This chapter explores the two-step theory of informality by observing the creation of two important organizations established at the dawn of the postwar period: the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). These bodies emerged from the same multilateral framework, were intended to resolve problems that were similarly structured, and were established by nearly identical groups of states. Nonetheless, while one was formal (the IMF), the other was informal (the GATT). Why? The two-step theory offers a compelling explanation of these patterns. This is demonstrated by observing (1) how demand for governance first arose and then “selected” institutions to lead cooperative efforts, (2) how states formed preferences as to the legal design of each organization, and (3) how the distribution of preferences and power shaped the final outcome through processes of interstate bargaining.
Conclusion: Speak of the Devil
Authors: Laycock Joseph P.
Published: February 2020

The final chapter considers the idea that Satanism is a sociopolitical counter-myth that counters and compliments the myth of America as a Christian nation. The idea that America is a nation favored by God has historically inspired those who feel they have been treated unjustly to side with the devil. This response is true not only in the modern era but can also be traced to the arrival of Europeans in the Americas. Furthermore, modern American Satanists have argued that their values are truly American ones, while it is their conservative Christian opponents who have betrayed the founding principles of the nation. Ultimately, for groups like The Satanic Temple, Satan is a symbolic placeholder for a more abstract set of contested values and identity claims.
Promoting Political Accountability through Interactive Political Leadership
Authors: Sørensen Eva
Published: February 2020

The age of governance challenges traditional understandings and methods for holding political decision-makers to account. A hitherto-hegemonic party government approach to political accountability is losing ground to new theoretical perceptions of political accountability, and forty years of government reforms have brought with them a variety of new methods for holding public authorities to account. What unites these theoretical and empirical developments is a redefinition of what political accountability means and how it is to be obtained in a multi-actor governance context where not only governments but also a wide variety of political and social actors play an active and influential role in the policy-making process. Chapter 5 proposes a concept of political learning accountability, and argues that interactive political leadership offers itself as a suitable strategy for promoting the throughput legitimacy of representative democracy by involving citizens and stakeholders in concrete policy-making.
Prevention Policy as the Ultimate ‘Wicked’ Problem
Authors: Cairney Paul , St Denny Emily
Published: February 2020

This book shows how to analyse, and seek to solve, the most enduring, puzzling, and important problems in public policy. Policy scholars often begin by relating such problems to two broad questions: why does policymaker attention and action seem disproportionate to the size of policy problems, and why is there such a gap between their policy aims and outcomes? The answer relates to (a) the limited resources of policymakers, in relation to (b) the complexity of their environments: policymakers only have the ability to pay attention to, and influence, a tiny proportion of their responsibilities, and they engage in a policymaking environment of which they have limited understanding and even less control. This insight resonates particularly in Westminster systems, in which most political debate rests on the idea that ministers are accountable because they can exert central government control. Rather, policymaking systems are complex and ‘multi-centric’ and a focus on the choices of a small number of powerful actors does not help us understand the system as a whole.
Prevention Policy in the UK
Authors: Cairney Paul , St Denny Emily
Published: February 2020

This chapter zooms out to identify the overall ‘weight’ of post-war initiatives, under the general banner of UK prevention policy, across multiple policy areas. Many UK governments have faced the same basic prevention puzzle, and the vague idea of prevention policy has risen up and fallen down the UK government policy agenda for most of the post-war era. However, there was a step-change of activity from 1997. The newly elected and self-styled New Labour government, led by Prime Minister Tony Blair, identified something akin to a ‘window of opportunity’ for major changes in policy and policymaking. Compared to its predecessors, it used the language of prevention more frequently, and was far more likely to describe it as a vehicle to address socio-economic inequalities, join up government, and pursue ‘evidence-based policy’. Initially, we find in its social construction of target populations some shift of emphasis from personal responsibility to structural causes of poor outcomes. Yet, we also detect a growing frustration with limited progress and more explicit moral judgements of target populations over time, prompting a more centralized approach to policymaking and a greater focus on ‘problem’ families towards the end of New Labour’s era of government. Most of this prevention agenda continued under the Conservative–Liberal Democrat Coalition government from 2010 to 2015, albeit with a greater focus on the economy, employability, ‘troubled families’, and individual responsibility.
Conclusion: Revisiting the Prevention Puzzle
Authors: Cairney Paul , St Denny Emily
Published: February 2020

Prevention is the ultimate example of a policy problem with an intuitively appealing, but ultimately elusive, solution. There is a profound gap between policymaker expectations and policy outcomes. Governments describe a high commitment to radical changes in prevention policy and preventive policymaking, but fail to deliver. We reject the idea that this puzzle can be explained primarily with reference to insincere politics or low political will. The danger with such conclusions is that they encourage a cycle of failure. Each new generation of policymakers will think that it will perform differently, and make a difference, simply because it exhibits high and sincere commitment. Or, each new generation of advocates will think that they just have to get the evidence, strategy, and language right, to inspire politicians to make the kinds of ‘evidence-based’ decisions whose value they take for granted. Advocates will struggle to understand their failure to close an ‘evidence–policy gap’, and policymakers will fall into the same basic trap that we describe in this chapter. Instead, our explanation helps policymakers and practitioners solve the puzzle of prevention policy by facing up to its ever-present challenges.
Reactive Concepts
Authors: Braddon-Mitchell David
Published: February 2020

This chapter recommends that we consider a kind of concept which bears a relation like the one traditional accounts of concepts bear to beliefs, but instead bears it to states individuated not only by their causal inputs, but also by their direct causal outputs. They will be called reactive representations, RRs for short. They are partially representational states which are reactive inasmuch as they bypass interaction with distinct desires to directly motivate behaviour. Associated with these representations are abilities that will be called Reactive Concepts. The chapter argues that taxonomizing mental states this way casts light on the nature of a range of phenomena, including hate speech, crypto-evaluative terms, and phenomenal concepts.
Neutralism and Conceptual Engineering
Authors: Greenough Patrick
Published: February 2020

Conceptual engineers often invoke a distinction between happy-face and unhappy-face solutions to alethic paradoxes. Happy-face solutions are thoroughly specific: they isolate a single, basic principle (“the culprit”). Unhappy-face solutions, meanwhile, are thoroughly non-specific: they merely establish the collective guilt of a group of principles which together produce the paradox. According to this taxonomy, conceptual engineering can only take place via unhappy-face solutions. In this chapter, I: (1) give an expanded taxonomy which allows for both Happy-Face and two forms of Unhappy-Face Conceptual Engineering and show that (2) happy-face treatments represent a limit case. (3) Unhappy-face treatments also represent a kind of limit case. (4) Between these limit cases are treatments which are neither maximally specific nor maximally unspecific but nonetheless specific enough to treat a paradox. (5) Such treatments become thoroughly neutralist when they reject some principle at work in a paradox from a theory-neutral perspective. The upshot is Neutralism—the view that philosophical progress can take place when (and sometimes only when) a thoroughly neutral, non-specific theory is adopted.
Conceptual Evaluation
Authors: Carballo Alejandro Pérez
Published: February 2020

On a view implicitly endorsed by many, a concept is epistemically better than another if and because it does a better job at ‘carving at the joints’, or if the property corresponding to it is ‘more natural’ than the one corresponding to another. This chapter offers an argument against this seemingly plausible thought, starting from three key observations about the way we use and evaluate concepts from an epistemic perspective: that we look for concepts that play a role in explanations of things that cry out for explanation; that we evaluate not only ‘empirical’ concepts, but also mathematical and perhaps moral concepts from an epistemic perspective; and that there is much more complexity to the concept/property relation than the natural thought seems to presuppose. These observations, it is argued, rule out giving a theory of conceptual evaluation that is a corollary of a metaphysical ranking of the relevant properties.
Analyzing Concepts and Allocating Referents
Authors: Pettit Philip
Published: February 2020

The analysis of concepts is an important part of the philosophical exercise but has to be complemented by the allocation of a referent to any world-tracking concept: this will give an account of what constitutes the phenomenon tracked. But analysis generally leaves room for negotiation about the referent to be allocated, for two reasons. First, because it may underdetermine the specification of conditions that anything must satisfy if it is to count as a referent. And, second, because the specification chosen may itself underdetermine the property that constitutes the referent. The license that philosophy consequently enjoys has to be exercised on the basis of analytically independent criteria linked with the theory within which any realistic concept has to take its place. The lesson is illustrated schematically, it comments on concepts like those of causation, freewill, and value and in a case study of the concept of freedom. It connects with the line argued by a range of recent, more revisionary approaches to philosophy.
Bernardine Evaristo’s The Emperor’s Babe
Authors: Walters Tracey L.
Published: February 2020

The Emperor’s Babe goes back in time to consider the experiences of Africans living in Britain during the Roman occupation. Working within an Afrocentric feminist framework, Bernardine Evaristo “turn[s] history on its head” and presents an alternative version of Roman history informed by Gilroy’s Black Atlantic and the scholarship of intellectuals like Peter Fryer, Ivan Van Sertima, and George M. James, scholars who share ideological views antithetical to the Western hegemonic intellectual tradition of ancient Greco-Roman historiography. Evaristo challenges the prevailing notion that Britain became multicultural in the twentieth century, and more significantly, acknowledges the presence and significant historical contributions of Africans in ancient Britain.
The Functions of MicroRNA in Female Reproduction
Authors: Power Michael L. , Quaglieri Caroline W. , Reed Eda G. , Schulkin Jay
Published: February 2020

MicroRNA (miRNA) are small RNA molecules of about 20–25 nucleotides in length which act to regulate gene expression post-transcription primarily by blocking the translation of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). miRNA play important roles in the pathology of cancer, and also during normal pregnancy and lactation. The study of miRNAs related to cancer screening and treatment is perhaps the most developed of the clinical applications regarding miRNA, particularly for breast cancer. Evidence miRNAs affect pregnancy is strong, but the specifics remain poorly understood as the relationship between mother and neonate is complex. Within this relationship, miRNA in milk remain the most unknown, but it is hypothesized that milk miRNA play a role in regulation of both the mammary gland and in the neonate. This chapter describes ways biomedical researchers would gain from viewing miRNAs from an evolutionary perspective, specifically for research involving potential therapeutic interventions for women.
The Dynamics of the Linguistic System
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

This book develops a model of language which can be characterized as functionalist, usage-based, dynamic, and complex-adaptive. Its core idea is that linguistic structure is not stable and uniform, but continually refreshed and in fact reconstituted by the feedback-loop interaction of three components: usage, i.e. the interpersonal and cognitive activities of speakers in concrete communication; conventionalization, i.e. the social processes taking place in speech communities; and entrenchment, i.e. the cognitive processes taking place in the minds of individual speakers. Extending the so-called Entrenchment-and-Conventionalization Model, the book shows that what we call the Linguistic System is created, sustained, and continually adapted by the ongoing interaction between usage, conventionalization, and entrenchment. The model contributes to closing the gap in usage-based models concerning how exactly usage is transformed into collective and individual grammar and how these two grammars in turn feed back into usage. The book exploits and extends insights from an exceptionally wide range of fields, including usage-based cognitive linguistics, psycholinguistics, interactional linguistics and pragmatics, historical linguistics, sociolinguistics and the sociology and philosophy of language, as well as quantitative corpus linguistics. It makes numerous original suggestions about, among other things, how cognitive processing and representation are related and about the manifold ways in which individuals and communities contribute to shaping language and bringing about language variation and change. It presents a coherent account of the role of forces that are known to affect language structure, variation, and change, e.g. economy, efficiency, extravagance, embodiment, identity, social order, prestige, mobility, multilingualism, and language contact.
Evaluating Credence Change
Authors: Staffel Julia
Published: February 2020

Chapter 7 shows how the rationality measures we established in previous chapters can be used to evaluate changes in a thinker’s credences. The focus is on how we can evaluate credence changes in thinkers who reason from irrational starting points. I consider three types of changes: cases in which the thinker revises their credences (i) without learning new information or adding new attitudes; (ii) without learning new information, but adding new attitudes; (iii) as a response to learning new evidence. Examining those cases leads to some interesting discoveries: An incoherent thinker can always form new credences based on their existing incoherent credences without becoming more incoherent. Also, the identification of good patterns of reasoning is of very limited benefit in dealing with irrational thinkers.
Negotiating a Settlement in Northern Ireland, 1969-2019
Authors: Coakley John , Todd Jennifer
Published: February 2020

The Good Friday Agreement of 1998 ended a protracted violent conflict in Northern Ireland and became an international reference point for peace-building. Negotiating a Settlement In Northern Ireland, 1969–2019 traces the roots and outworkings of the Agreement, focussing on the British and Irish governments, their changing policy paradigms and their extended negotiations from the Sunningdale conference of 1973 to the St Andrews Agreement of 2006. It identifies three dimensions of change that paved the way for agreement: in elite understandings of sovereignty, in development of wide-ranging and complex modes of power-sharing, and in the interrelated emergence of substantial equality in the socio-economic, cultural, and political domains. The book combines wide-ranging analysis with unparalleled use of witness seminars and interviews where the most senior British and Irish politicians, civil servants and advisors discuss the process of coming to agreement. In tracing the processes by which British and Irish perspectives converged to address the Northern Ireland conflict, the book provides a benchmark against which the ongoing impact of Brexit on the Good Friday Agreement can be assessed.
The Origin and Evolution of Investment Treaty Standards
Authors: Ortino Federico
Published: February 2020

This book provides a conceptual and legal analysis of the core of investment protection guarantees that emerge from international treaties signed since 1959 for the promotion and protection of foreign investment. It focuses on both the origin and evolution of investment treaty standards. In terms of origin, the work considers the broader context at the time when the first modern investment treaty was concluded. In terms of evolution, the work examines (a) the many decisions of ad hoc arbitral tribunals that have been called upon to apply these treaties in order to resolve the several hundred investor–State disputes, as well as (b) some of the recent investment treaties that in the past ten to fifteen years have attempted to clarify and/or reform the content and scope of investment protection guarantees. This study posits that the key investment protection provisions in investment treaties (and thus much of the related controversy) revolve around three distinct concepts: legal stability, investment’s value and reasonableness. This book advances two main arguments. First, from the very beginning, the protection afforded to foreign investments by modern investment treaties has been an exceptionally broad one and as such restrictive of the host State’s ability to regulate. Second, while a growing number of investment treaty tribunals as well as new investment treaties have to some extent reined in such broad protections, the evolution of key investment protection standards has been (and in many ways still is) marred by inconsistency and uncertainty.
Introduction
Authors: Geiß Robin , Krieger Heike , Lahmann Henning
Published: February 2020

An introduction to the aims of The ‘Legal Pluriverse’ Surrounding Multinational Military Operations, defining the key terms to be used within the book, particularly ‘pluriverse’, a term which is used to describe the multiplicity of rules that apply to and regulate contemporary multinational missions and the diversity of actors involved. This chapter briefly outlines the five main parts of the book and the legal problems that are dealt with by the contributing authors in their individual chapters, providing the necessary background for the book as a whole to take stock of this legal pluriverse and help to make sense of it in order to gradually move towards a more coherent regime.
An Operational Perspective
Authors: Boddens Hosang Hans
Published: February 2020

The chapter explores the challenges related to the conduct of operations and the preparations for such operations as regards implementing international humanitarian law and international human rights law, exploring some of the differences between the two systems. In particular, the concepts of necessity and proportionality are examined, as well as the right to life and issues related to capture and detention, and the different meanings of those concepts and their scope in each of the two paradigms. As regards international humanitarian law, the chapter also discusses a number of challenges to interoperability in multinational military operations. The discussion on international human rights law, on the other hand, focuses on the inherent challenges in implementing that body of law in the context of (multinational) military operations outside a nation’s own borders.