bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Factors affecting the nutritional quality of crops
Authors: Hornick Sharon B.
Published: October 2009

Several factors can directly or indirectly affect the nutritional quality of crops. Among these are soil factors, such as pH, available nutrients, texture, organic matter content and soil-water relationships; weather and climatic factors, including temperature, rainfall and light intensity; the crop and cultivar; postharvest handling and storage; and fertilizer applications and cultural practices. This paper deals primarily with fertilizer and cultural management practices, and on certain environmental factors that affect the nutritional quality of field crops and of fruits and vegetables. Earlier research that has investigated the nutritional status of crops grown with either chemical fertilizers or organic fertilizers is discussed. These studies often have given contradictory results on crop yields and on crops' mineral and vitamin contents. Other factors, such as maturity at harvest, postharvest handling and storage, anti-nutritive components, and residues of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are reviewed with respect to food safety and quality, and their implications for human and animal health. Future research needs are identified so that comparable results and valid comparisons can be obtained to identify the best management practices to ensure that food is safe and nutritious for the consumer.
A perspective on the economic impacts of reducing agricultural chemical use
Authors: Lee Linda K.
Published: October 2009

Adoption of agricultural practices that reduce or eliminate chemical use creates tradeoffs among yields and output, production costs and net income at the farm level. If widespread adoption is to occur, potential improvements in human health and the environment from reduced chemical use must be weighed against effects on aggregate farm income and consumer food prices. At present, these tradeoffs are subject to considerable debate.

I review available farm level and aggregate economic studies of reductions in total agricultural chemical use. At the farm level, available studies suggest that organic and low-input farming systems result in declines in per acre yields and in lower net returns than most conventional farming systems, although the studies do indicate that net returns for the two systems can be comparable under some conditions. Several studies suggest that low-input systems perform well with respect to risk criteria. I also discuss the potential influence of government programs on the profitability of some low-input farming systems.

All aggregate economic models conclude that widespread adoption of organic farming would result in decreased yields, decreased aggregate output, increased farm income, and large increases in consumer prices. These models have limitations, however. Recommendations are made for further economic research of the impacts of reducing agricultural chemical use at both the farm and aggregate levels.
Research and agriculture: Challenging the public system
Authors: Danbom David B.
Published: October 2009

The publicly sponsored agricultural research system in the United States has always had to deal with the tension between public expectations and scientific practices and standards. The equilibrium it established between those two contradictory demands has been unraveling since the 1960s. The contemporary challenge to the system is to redefine its public and scientific roles in an environment of rapid scientific change and of public debate and disunity.
Biomass as an energy source for the midwestern U.S.
Authors: Keeney D. R. , DeLuca T. H.
Published: October 2009

Recognition of the environmental costs of fossil fuels coupled with concern over their depletion within the next few decades has broadened the search for alternative energy resources, including biomass energy. Ethanol produced from corn (Zea mays L.) grain currently is the primary form of biomass energy produced in the Midwest, but its net energy balance commonly is negative when corn grain is produced under conventional practices. Reducing fossil fuel inputs, particularly for nitrogen fertilizer, will improve the energy balance, but more substantial improvements involve increased efficiency of ethanol production. An alternate source involves fermentation of crops such as sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.]Moench).

Other potential biomass energy resources for the Midwest include oils extracted from seed crops, methane from waste digestion, and combustion, gasification or fermentation of woody and herbaceous crops and crop residues. These resources may serve as an energy supplement or a useful energy source for individual farms, households or rural communities. Biomass energy systems in Midwest agriculture must be evaluated regarding their long term environmental impacts and their sustainability. Externalities that must be considered include surface and ground water pollution, soil erosion, and economic and social benefits to the rural community.
Economic and environmental considerations for nitrogen management in the mid-Atlantic coastal plain
Authors: Norris Patricia E. , Shabman Leonard A.
Published: October 2009

A case study in eastern Virginia provides evidence that both environmental and farm profit goals may be satisfied by alternative nitrogen (N) management strategies for grain production. We used a linear programming framework with an N mass balance model to calculate returns from several options for providing N to crops. Replacing single applications of inorganic N fertilizer with split applications or with additions of organic N were found to reduce the potential for N loss from cropland and to increase net returns. For some N management strategiesy however, adoption may require financial and educational assistance. As a result, water quality policies may benefit by including such incentives.
Agricultural use of organic amendments: A historical perspective
Authors: Parr James F. , Hornick Sharon B.
Published: October 2009

Agricultural research conducted in the United States since establishment of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture and Land-Grant University System in 1862 has shown that regular and proper additions of organic materials are very important for maintaining the tilth, fertility, and productivity of agricultural soils, protecting them from wind and water erosion, and preventing nutrient losses by runoff and leaching. Several millennia earlier, Roman agriculturists were advocating crop rotations, green manuring, composts, legumes, farmyard manures, crop residues, wood ashes, seaweed, and sewage wastes for supplying humus and nutrients to restore or enhance soil productivity. Even earlier, Asian farmers also used these practices to maintain healthy and productive soils. Today the most serious problem in U.S. agriculture and agriculture worldwide is the widespread degradation of agricultural soils through erosion and the consequential decline in productivity. In view of how much information is available on the benefits of organic recycling on agricultural lands, one wonders why we aren't doing a better job of protecting and conserving our land resource base. We discuss strategies for using organic resources more effectively to achieve a more sustainable agriculture for the future.
Land use options on a semi-arid Alfisol
Authors: Das S.K. , Sharma Shriniwas , Sharma K.L. , Saharan Neelam , Nimbole N.N. , Reddy Y.V.R.
Published: October 2009

Four land use options—annual cropping, agroforestry, agrihorticulture, and agrosilviculture—were tried on a Land Capability Class IVs Alfisol under rainfed conditions to find a farming system that would be profitable and sustainable. The agrihorticultural system required more cash input but gave a value/cost ratio of 2.16 compared with 1.95 with annual cropping, 1.69 with agroforestry and 1.52 with agrosilviculture. Runoff was 4.9% in the agrihorticultural system, and 10.6% with agroforesty. Economic and soil health considerations led to the conclusion that the agrihorticultural system would be a sustainable land use option for the semi-arid Alfisol However, other options also are profitable, with value/cost ratios of more than 1.50. Therefore, land users can choose among several systems, depending on their desired production level and their investment capacity.
Support in New England for certification and labelling of produce grown using integrated pest management
Authors: Hollingsworth Craig S. , Paschall M. J. , Cohen Nancy L. , Coli William M.
Published: October 2009

We surveyed a total of 549 Cooperative Extension clientele (consumers), farmstand owners, and food industry representatives in New England to assess the potential for certification and labelling of produce grown using integrated pest management (IPM). The survey elicited self-reported knowledge of IPM, perceptions of current pesticide use and IPM, and attitudes toward certification and labelling of produce as “IPMGrown.” The respondents expressed widespread support for certification and labelling of produce grown using IPM. Potential barriers to the marketing of IPM-labelled produce were also revealed. The survey showed the need for education to inform the public about pest management in agriculture and to build confidence in the safety of our food supply.
Barriers to low-input agriculture adoption: A case study of Richmond County, Virginia
Authors: Diebel Penelope L. , Taylor Daniel B. , Batie Sandra S.
Published: October 2009

We coupled a nonlinear mathematical programming model with sensitivity analysis and evaluated some economic barriers to adoption of low-input agriculture by farmers in Richmond County, Virginia. Collection of primary data made the model more realistic. We analyzed potential barriers to adoption, including poultry litter price, yields, labor requirements, and variable input costs. We found the adoption of low-input practices to be sensitive to the price of poultry litter and relatively insensitive to yields, labor requirements, and variable costs. However, when several of these barriers are combined, the model predicts that farmers would use conventional practices. Therefore analysis of the farm as a system rather than practice by practice is important when identifying the effects of economic barriers.
A look back at USDA's Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming
Authors: Harwood Richard
Published: October 2009

The United States Department of Agriculture's Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming (1980) is destined to be a milestone in the evolution of agriculture's scientific paradigm. Such recognition, however, will come several years in the future and will require a key scientific breakthrough for full assessment of the “new world” its authors brought forward to the mainstream scientific community.
Revisiting the USDA reports: Some additional observations
Authors: Papendick Robert
Published: October 2009

As someone who was very much involved in the organic fanning study, it is interesting for me to look at the study 13 years later in relation to where agriculture stands today. I think that both the organic farming and the structure of agriculture studies have had a major impact on agricultural policy, and that Secretary Bergland should be commended for having had the foresight and courage to commission them.
The futures of agriculture
Authors: Stauber Karl N.
Published: October 2009

One widely held view of the future of American agriculture is that it will continue the current trend toward fewer but larger farms, greater centralization and vertical integration, and declining rural populations. If so, the research, teaching and extension institutions created to serve agriculture will not survive unless they can adapt to changing political and demographic conditions, especially the domination of the suburbs. This will require these institutions to set new goals for themselves. Their historic pursuit of increased technical efficiency already has been so successful that it has sharply reduced the farm population, which has been their main base of public support. Suburban America, in contrast, will demand an agriculture that is more in harmony with nature. Alternative notions of the Common Good can provide the philosophical basis for this shift Historically, the economic system, including agriculture, has regarded nature as something to be used to advance human well-being. In this view (which could be called “Liberal” in the 19th century sense of the term), the reason to protect nature is to insure that it can continue to serve human needs. In contrast, the “Ecocentric” view of the Common Good emphasizes that humans are part of an ecological community, and that we must optimize the balance between human needs and the health of the ecosystem.
The transformation of Cuban agriculture after the cold war
Authors: Perfecto Ivette
Published: October 2009

Cuba's agriculture after the 1959 revolution had been based on large-scale, capital intensive monoculture, which made Cuba heavily dependent on the socialist bloc for subsidized agrichemical inputs and for set prices of agricultural exports. However, with the collapse of the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies in 1989–90, Cuba's inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and petroleum dropped by more than half Cuba responded with a dramatic shift in its agricultural development model that featured appropriate technology, alternative organization of labor, alternative planning, and environmental preservation. Cuban pest control efforts now focus on biological control and on enhanced monitoring and diagnostic techniques. Soil management emphasizes biofertilizers and vermiculture. Minimum tillage and crop rotation are frequent practices among Cuba's independent farmers, agricultural cooperatives, and state farms. The transition to low-input agriculture has decreased the exodus of people from rural areas to cities, and has lead to establishment of lab or camps with volunteer labor and long-term programs for rebuilding rural communities. To address the loss of important food imports while ensuring environmental conservation, agricultural planning now gives priority to crop rotations, city gardens, and introduction of food crops in sugar cane areas.
Screening cool-season legume cover crops for pecan orchards
Authors: Smith Michael W. , Eikenbary Raymond D. , Arnold Don C. , Landgraf B. Scott , Taylor Glenn G. , Barlow Gordon E. , Carroll Becky L. , Cheary Becky S. , Rice Natasha R. , Knight Robert
Published: October 2009

We evaluated selected cool-season annual and perennial legumes as potential ground covers to supply nitrogen and to increase beneficial arthropod populations in a pecan orchard. Densities of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae), lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), damsel bug (Hemiptera: Nabidae), green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), brown lacewings (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae), hover flies (Diptera: Syrphidae), spined soldier bug and other stink bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), and spiders (Araneida) were monitored at 7–14 day intervals during the growing season for three years. Aboveground biomass production and nitrogen content of the legumes was measured for two years. Aphids peaked during early spring each year, with the highest density usually on ‘Dixie’ crimson clover and ‘Kenland’ red clover. Density of lady beetles was positively correlated with that of aphids, but spider densities were not. Other arthropods usually were not abundant. Nitrogen in the tops of the annual legumes ranged from 20 kg/ha to 89 kg/ha when assessed after a single harvest at anthesis; for the perennial legumes it was from 108 kg/ha to 179 kg/ha following two harvests in June and September. We chose two annual legumes (‘Dixie’ crimson clover and hairy vetch) and two perennial legumes (‘Louisiana S-1’ white clover and ‘Kenland’ red clover) for further evaluation.
Second-level integrated pest management in commercial apple orchards
Authors: Prokopy Ronald J. , Cooley Daniel R. , Autio Wesley R. , Coli William M.
Published: October 2009

As historical background helpful to understanding current concepts and practices of apple pest management, we review the origin and rise of key pests of apple in North America and the evolution of approaches to their management, culminating with the concept of integrated pest management (IPM). We propose four levels of integration of orchard pest management practices. First-level IPM integrates chemically based and biologically based management tactics for a single class of pests, such as arthropods, diseases, weeds or vertebrates. Second-level IPM, the focus of our effort here, integrates multiple management tactics across all classes of pests. We describe components of second-level IPM for Massachusetts apple orchards, which are threatened each year by an exceptionally broad range of injurious pests. We illustrate the tentative advantages and shortcomings of second-level IPM using 1993 data from six commercial orchard test blocks. Our predominant approach was to use chemically based tactics for controlling arthropods, diseases and weeds early in the growing season, and afterwards to rely exclusively (for insects) or largely (for other pests) on biologically based tactics, such as cultural, behavioral, and biological controls. Compared with nearby first-level IPM blocks, insecticide use in 1993 was reduced substantially (about 30%), with only slightly more insect injury to fruit and little difference in populations of foliar insect pests. The results for mite pests and diseases were less encouraging although summer pruning significantly reduced disease injury caused by flyspeck. We discuss how second-level IPM poses special biological or operational challenges to apple pest management practitioners. The concept has merit, but refinements are necessary before it can be recommended broadly to commercial apple growers in Massachusetts as an economical and reliable alternative to first-level IPM.
Reduced chemical input cropping systems in the southeastern United States. II. Effects of moderate rates of N fertilizer and herbicides, tillage, and delayed cover crop plow-down on crop yields
Authors: King Larry D.
Published: October 2009

In a previous study of reduced chemical cropping systems (N from legumes; chisel plow and disk tillage; cultivation for weed control) in the southeastern U.S., corn and wheat yields were less than half those obtained with recommended practices. The following practices were studied as possible ways to improve yields in the reduced chemical systems: 1) conventional tillage (chisel plowing and disking), inorganic Nat 70 or 140 kg/ha, and either cultivation or herbicides; 2) early versus late plow-down of clover green manures; 3) supplemental inorganic N fertilizer on corn and wheat in rotations relying on clover green manures for N; and 4) nicosulfuron herbicide banded on corn.

Yield of soybean in the rotations was not affected by any of these practices. With herbicides and fertilizer N at 140 kg/ha, continuous corn yields with no-till and conventional tillage were equal in 1990 and 1992, but no-till yield was 30% higher in 1991. When cultivation was used for weed control in the conventional tillage treatment, corn yield was similar to that of no-till with herbicide in the one year when rain was plentiful (yield 6000 kg/ha). However, in 2 of 4 dry years, yields (<2600 kg/ha) were higher with no-till. Clover biomass consistently increased by between 700 and 3500 kg/ha when plow-down was delayed from mid-April to early or mid-May (13 to 26 days). However, biomass N content increased significantly (by between 35 and 90 kg/ha) in only 2 of 5 years. Corn yields were affected in only 2 of 12 possible comparisons. In these cases, delayed clover plow-down reduced yield by about 50%. Supplementing corn with 45 kg N/ha and banding nicosulfuron increased yields, but only to between 62 and 84% of yields with recommended practices. Supplementing wheat with 45 kg N/ha increased yields by half, but only to between 40 and 60% of the yields with 90 kg N/ha.
Making alternative agriculture research policy
Authors: Smith Katherine Reichelderfer
Published: October 2009

The policies influencing the American agricultural research agenda are developed by Congress, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the 58 state agricultural experiment stations of the land-grant university system, with input from various advisory groups. Despite the slow pace of change in the agricultural research agenda, there are no special barriers keeping the research system from adapting to contemporary and alternative agriculture issues. Rather, agricultural researchers have neither appropriate professional incentives nor sufficient financial incentives to shift toward alternative agriculture. Public intervention to alter these incentives has been thwarted because agricultural research institutions set their agendas through obscure processes. Five areas of policy change that could improve the prospects for evolution of a significant alternative agriculture research agenda are: 1) imposing a means test for formula fund payment limitations to states, with saved funds directed toward alternative agriculture research; 2) making priority setting a condition for receiving federalfunds for agricultural research to make the research agenda-setting process clearer to all interested parties; 3) requiring that federally funded research programs be categorized by the specific social goals toward which they are directed, to aid in judgments about the relevance of specific public agricultural research programs; 4) requiring information on research programs to be reported in a way that is specifically relevant to the alternative agriculture agenda; 5) formally involving public citizens and farmers in reviewing agricultural research grants to assure that the usefulness of proposed research is weighed along with scientific merit. These proposals complement current interest in making science generally more responsive to national priorities, and are entirely feasible within current agricultural research policy processes. Their effectiveness, however, is limited by the shrinking influence of federal funding in the state agricultural experiment station system, and they are only incremental changes within the existing system rather than radical reforms toward an alternative research system.
Transition from conventional to alternative agriculture in Pakistan: The role of green manures in substituting for inorganic N fertilizers in a rice-wheat farming system
Authors: Hussain Tahir , Jilani Ghulam , Parr James F. , Ahmad Riaz
Published: October 2009

Nitrogen, a vitally important plant nutrient, is subject to various losses that affect its efficiency. We tested prilled urea (PU), urea supergranules (USG), green manures (GM) and farmyard manure (FYM) in a rice-wheat cropping system to determine which were the most efficient and economical N sources. The maximum rice growth, yield and N-uptake occurred with USG and with GM (Sesbania rostrata) plus PU. Incorporation of GM saved 60 kg N/ha. On the following wheat crop, GM (S. aculeata) plus PU and FYM plus PU had the highest residual effect on the number of tillers per m2, and straw and grain yield. An increase in N recovery efficiency occurred with combined use of PUand organic Igreen manures compared with PU alone. In areas where USG is costly or unavailable and FYM is scarce, green manures can be a cheap N source that allows small-scale farmers to get sustainable yields in a rice-wheat rotation.
A method for mechanically killing cover crops to optimize weed suppression
Authors: Creamer N.G. , Plassman B. , Bennett M.A. , Wood R.K. , Stinner B.R. , Cardina J.
Published: October 2009

Residues of dead cover crops can suppress weeds by providing a mulch on the soil surface. The cover crop usually is killed with herbicides, but a mechanical method is desirable in systems intended to reduce chemical use. We designed and built an undercutter to kill cover crops by severing their roots while flattening the intact aboveground biomass on the surface of raised beds. We studied which cover crop species could be killed with the undercutter and compared the weed control potential of cover crop residues after flail mowing, sicklebar mowing, and undercutting.

Whether a species was killed by the undercutter depended primarily on growth stage. Species that were in mid- to late bloom or beyond, including rye, hairy vetch, bigflower vetch, crimson clover, barley, and subterranean clover, were easily killed by undercutting. There were no differences in dry weights of broadleaf weeds between the undercut and simulated sicklebar mowed treatments, both of which had less weed biomass than the clean-tilled or flail-mowed plots.
Diversification for new management systems opportunities in the Pacific Northwest
Authors: Elliott L.F. , Chevalier P.
Published: October 2009

Sustainable rainfed cropping systems are needed in the Pacific Northwest of the United States to reduce or eliminate wind and water erosion, improve soil quality, and control weeds with reduced chemical inputs. A grass seed cropping system is excellent for improving soil quality and for controlling erosion, and can be grazed by sheep to produce meat and wool Tilla ge and residue management methods that create a rough surface to reduce wind and water erosion and increase water infiltration include: use of a chisel to create large clods; leaving residue on the surface; and use of the Paratill to shatter the soil to increase water infiltration with little disturbance of the soil surface. Including a legume in the rotation may help to break disease cycles, add N and C to the soil, and improve soil biological properties. The use of surface residues and tillage to control erosion and increase water infiltration may demand new approaches to weed contro I Rhizobacteria that attack the roots of weeds but not of wheat may reduce the need for chemica I herbicides. Research being conducted on these techniques in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and in other countries should soon result in guidelines for sustainable agricultural systems for the dryland, rainfed areas of the world.
Fertility management in dryland conservation cropping systems of the Pacific Northwest
Authors: Rasmussen Paul E.
Published: October 2009

The Pacific Northwest dryland region is moving toward conservation tillage to control excessive erosion on steep slopes, but progress has been slow because of adverse effects on plant growth and yield. Fertility relations in cereal grains with conventional tillage are well known, with deficiencies occurring for nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, in declining order of frequency. N and S deficiencies are more severe in conservation tillage, although the pattern of crop response to nutrient application is the same as in conventional tillage. Placing nutrients in a subs urface band near the seed is more effective than broadcasting on the surface. Higher fertility is required near developing root systems to offset greater competition from grassy weeds and more intense pressure from root-pruning soil pathogens. Conservation tillage alters soil fertility and plant growth in different ways on different landscapes. These differences must be considered to ensure tha t conservation tillage will be effective over the entire field.
Integrating crop and livestock production in Inland Northwest farming systems
Authors: Hardesty Linda H. , Tiedeman James A.
Published: October 2009

The demand for more ecologically and economically sustainable agriculture arises because we currently integrate products economically in a fashion that distorts ecologica I relationships. Earfy farms were ecologically integrated through feeding of forage crops and crop residues to livestock, with livestock contributing draft power and manure for crops. Today we have almost entirely uncoupled plant and animal production, eliminating the contribution that each can make to the productivity of the other. Barriers to integrating farming systems include the large volume of information needed for sophisticated production systems and the lack of infrastructure. Also, many chemicals used on crops have not been evaluated for their safety in food animals. Winter feeding and calving may conflict with crop production cycles; balancing year-round forage supplies is another obstacle. Opportunities include using the Conservation Reserve Program to shift land to livestock production. Domestic demand for meat is changing, and range livestock production is seen by some people as more humane than confinement. Animals fed less grain may be more acceptable in some markets. As agriculture responds to changes in society, ecologica I integration may become more compatible with economic integration.
Role of economic analysis in the evaluation of new dryland technologies
Authors: Young Douglas L.
Published: October 2009

An evaluation of agricultural systems often involves multidisciplinary teams that include crop scientists, animal scientists, soil scientists, pest control specialists, agricultural economists, and others. Agricultural economists can improve the technical quality and comprehe nsiveness of agricultural systems research in six major areas: budgeting and investment analyses; whole-farm and institutional factors; risk considerations; aggregate effects on crop and livestock prices; society-wide welfare effects of technical or policy changes; and economic values of environmental and other nonmarket effects. Economic analysis has been part of several successful multidisciplinary research efforts in the United States Pacific Northwest. These have covered soil conservation, integrated pest management, sustainable agriculture, crop rotation choice, and beef ranch management. As an example of institutional influences on economic outcomes, one study showed that the structure and selectivity of United States commodity programs have favored conventional over low-input rotations. Regarding risk management, an appropriate “package system” including conservation tillage, a diversified crop rotation, and adequate chemical weed management was shown both to sustain profitability and to reduce income fluctuations. Properly designed economic analysis can make similar contributions to identifying successful dryl and agricultural technologies throughout the world.
Nutrient release from decomposing crop residues in soil: A laboratory experiment
Authors: Scagnozzi A. , Saviozzi A. , Levi-Minzi R. , Riffaldi R.
Published: October 2009

In a 400-day laboratory experiment, soil was amended with rape, sunflower and soybean residues to monitor the quantitative changes in the main inorganic nutrients. Total N, available P, exchangeable K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+in all the amended samples increased significantly. Generally, the increase in the amounts of these nutrients was maintained until the end of the incubation period, suggesting that the mineralization of the three crop residues enhanced soil fertility. In amended soil samples,disappeared within 14 days, while available N was released asafter 60 days in soybean-treated and after 120 days in rape- and sunflower-treated soil, respectively. Water-soluble P was completely lacking in each treatment because of microbial immobilization and adsorption or precipitation processes in soil.
Farmers' commitment to continued use of the late spring soil nitrogen test
Authors: Contant Cheryl K. , Korsching Peter F.
Published: October 2009

Within the past decade, low cost and convenient soil tests have been developed and marketed to permit better matching of soil nitrogen levels with crop needs. We explore the factors related to farmers' initial adoption and their commitment to continued use of one such kit, marketed in Iowa as N-Trak. Early adopters of the N-Trak had many of the same personal and farm operation characteristics as farmers who have been early adopters of other farming innovations. Further, the principal factors in differentiating between various levels of commitment to continued use of the kit were perceptions of technological attributes of the kit and, to a much lesser extent, farmer attitudinal factors and personal characteristics. These results suggest that perceived attributes of the technology, especially its returns to time, effort, and financial investment, were critical in the decision to adopt and continue to use the N-Trak kit. Early adopters' decisions to continue using it focused primarily on cost, profitability, and technological issues, to the exclusion of water quality concerns measured by attitudinal items. These findings suggest that providing information that shows the kit's ease, compatibility, and advantages, would be more persuasive than marketing it as a tool to enhance water quality.
Local food systems and sustainable communities
Authors: Feenstra Gail W.
Published: October 2009

The long-term health of a community's food system is an important indicator of its vitality and sustainability. A logical and appropriate way to revitalize a community is by the development of a local food economy. People throughout the United States are designing and implementing sustainable, local food systems that are rooted in particular places, aim to be economically viable for farmers and consumers, use ecologically sound production and distribution practices, and enhance social equity and democracy for all members of the community. This paper reviews the existing literature on local food systems, examines a variety of strategies and initiatives that are currently underway, and identifies steps that community kaders and citizens can use to develop their own local food systems. Finally, I suggest what research is needed to support these community efforts.
A farmer-centered approach to developing information for soil resource management: The Illinois Soil Quality Initiative
Authors: Walter Gerry , Wander Michelle , Bollero Germán
Published: October 2009

The Illinois Soil Quality Initiative (ISQI) is a multidisciplinary effort to develop accurate, practical, and meaningful measures of soil characteristics that farmers can incorporate in strategies to sustain soil resources over the long term. We discuss how the project integrates soils and social research and involves farmers and others in guiding its research activities. A board of farmers, farm managers and conservation agency personnel and a panel of soil scientists, agronomists, and social scientists established ISQI's goals and monitors its progress. ISQI technical staff gather data at 35 participating farms to assess the accuracy and practicality of several measures of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soils under varying tillage and environmental conditions. They communicate findings to farmers and the ISQI board through regional farmer meetings, a project newsletter, and statewide conferences. Participating farmers assess the measures' meaningfulness and practicality, suggest strategies for communicating soil quality information, and recommend new directions for research. These observations have been made at the end of ISQI's first year: definitions of and beliefs about soil quality vary widely, making it inadvisable to think of “soil quality” as a single, inclusive concept; farmers and other land managers want to understand better the relationships among soil qualities, productivity, and sustainability, and to ham how to enhance their soils' structural and biological characteristics; soil quality measures must be accompanied by research and education on how soil qualities are affected by management practices or systems and how they affect yields and the environment; many farmers are only mildly interested in self-administered soil quality measures, preferring instead to purchase such data from commercial sources.
Performance, economics, and adoption of cover crops in Wisconsin cash grain rotations: On-farm trials
Authors: Mallory Ellen B. , Posner Joshua L. , Baldock Jon O.
Published: October 2009

Cover crop performance depends largely on management factors that must be customized to particular farm situations and, therefore, is suited for on-farm research, with farmers involved in both management and evaluation. Cover crop sequences that were successful in a research station study were tested over a variety of soils and management strategies in collaboration withfarmers. The two-year cover crop sequences consisted of a short-season crop followed by a cover crop in year one and corn in year two. The cover crops themselves were evaluated by their agronomic and economic performance and their acceptance by farmers. Four cover crop systems (companionseeded red clover, sequentially seeded hairy vetch, sequentially seeded oat, and fallow) were compared for ground cover, above-ground biomass and above-ground nitrogen yield, subsequent corn grain yield, and N fertilizer replacement value (N-FRV). Cover crops were essential for erosion control following vegetable crops and tillage, but were not necessary following small grains. Companion-seeded red clover produced the most ground cover, yielded up to 133 kg N/ha, and had a higher average N-FRV than sequentially seeded hairy vetch on sandy loam soils, but was not preferred by farmers who harvested small grain straw as well as grain. Sequentially seeded hairy vetch gave excellent cover when no-till seeded, produced more than 125 kg N/ha in half the siteyears, and had a higher average N-FRV than companion-seeded red clover on silt loam soils. First-year N-FRV for the legume cover crops averaged 67 kg N/ha over both soil types. The participating farmers indicated that their decisions to adopt cover crops would be based primarily on their need for ground cover, and secondarily on the profitability of using cover crops as an N source. However, when valued solely as an N source for the next year's crop (and not for any potential long-term benefits), cover crops were not an economical alternative to N fertilizer. We suggest focusing future cover crop research and extension efforts on outreach to farmers growing crops that do not provide sufficient ground cover, such as short-season vegetable crops, and optimizing the cover crop system to maximize its erosion control benefits and increase its profitability over N fertilizer.
Reduced chemical input cropping systems in the Southeastern United States: III. Economic analysis
Authors: King Larry D. , Hoag Dana L.
Published: October 2009

This study evaluated the profitability of several cropping systems during a 10-year period of an experiment comparing rotations and levels of purchased inputs. Continuous corn or sorghum, corn/wheat-soybean (2-year), and corn/wheat-soybean/corn/clover hay (4-year) were managed with recommended fertilizer and pesticide rates and no-till planting (C) or with N from legumes, conventional tillage, and cultivation for weed control (L). Medium input management (M: medium rate of N and banded herbicides) was included during years 5 through 10. Generally, corn was the least profitable crop, regardless of input level or type of rotation. Rotating crops improved profit more than did adding inputs to continuous corn. With L, average annual profit was: continuous corn, -$64/ha; 2-year rotation, $135/ha; and 4-year rotation, $158/ha. With C, the 2-year rotation increased profit to $165/ha from -$119/ha with continuous corn. The increased profit with rotations was due to greater profits from wheat, soybean, and hay offsetting low or negative profit from corn. Sorghum (grown only in monoculture) was more profitable with L ($34/ha) than with C (-$20/ha). During the 6 years when all input levels were compared, the order of average profit was M>L>C with continuous corn. Generally, profit was not increased by M compared with L in the 2-and 4-year rotations. With L, the cost of weed control was 20% of that for C with corn and 44% with soybean. Cost of N from fertilizer was $0.66/kg, but cost of N from crimson clover (seed and planting costs) averaged $0.92/kg when clover was drilled, $1.27/kg when aerially seeded, and $0.16/kg when naturally reseeded.
Constant Goal, Changing Tactics: A Wisconsin Dairy Farm Start-up
Authors: Posner Joshua L. , Frank Gary G. , Nordlund Kenneth V. , Schuler Ronald T.
Published: October 2009

This case study documents the start-up of a successful alternative dairy farm in Wisconsin. Initially the vision was to establish a 97-ha biodynamic farm with dairy and cash cropping. Low milk prices throughout most of 1991 and the heavy work load associated with conventional dairying forced the farm family to look for alternative strategies. They experimented with management-intensive grazing in 1992, and by spring 1994 had seeded their entire farm to sod. The work load still was too heavy, so they switched to seasonal dairying and outwintering of their dry stock, which reduced the daily midwinter work load from 12 to 3.5 hours. By the end of 1995, yearly net farm income from operations had risen from $21,500 (1990 and 1991) to $54,000 (1994 and 1995). The farm family, with its alternative approach (biodynamic, grass-based, seasonal milking) weathered the stresses of entering dairy farming at a time when entry rates were very low and existing dairy farmers faced substantial financial pressure. The grassbased system required low purchased feed inputs ($300 per cow) and nearly reached equilibrium in the whole-farm nutrient budget. Good herd management has maintained high productivity (rolling herd average of 17,000 lbs) and excellent herd health. Renting the farm and managing money carefully have resulted in a low debt load ($73 per cow). This study illustrates the complexities and adjustments associated with the initiation of an alternative farm business.
Feedlot manure nutrient loadings on South Dakota farmland
Authors: Taylor Donald C. , Rickerl Diane H.
Published: October 2009

A key determinant of whether livestock manure is an asset or liability for agricultural producers and for society more generally is the amount produced relative to the nearby farmland area to which it can be economically transported for application. The objectives of this study are to estimate manure N and P loadings on the cropland and rangeland associated with 78 feedlot farm operations in South Dakota and to determine if they are greater for larger feedlots.

A substantial fraction of the feedlot operators studied apply plant-available N and P in livestock manure at rates that exceed crop and grass fertility requirements, and intensity of manure nutrient loadings on cropland is strongly and positively related to feedlot size. These findings raise a warning regarding possible nonpoint-source pollution of vulnerable water resources from manure produced by fed cattle in larger feedlots.
Examination of some microbiological and biochemical parameters and tests of product quality used in a long-term fertilization trial
Authors: Raupp Joachim
Published: October 2009

On the basis of investigations with samples from a fertilization trial started in 1980, some parameters of food storage ability are evaluated. Microbial infestation of the product during incubation seems to be the most reliable parameter, but the circumstances of infestation and the optimal test conditions are unknown. There are no reliable correlations among the results of degradation tests, storage tests under optimal conditions, and chemical contents of the product. The concept of product vitality (a product-oriented quality referring to a product full of vigor) is based on results of degradation tests. Ultimately, however, food quality standards are based on human priorities (human-oriented). Therefore, not only product characteristics, but also social, psychological, and environmental criteria should be considered.
Farmers' attitudes towards sustainable agriculture issues and environmental quality in a selected area of Bangladesh
Authors: Rahman M. Z. , Mikuni H.
Published: October 2009

The sustainability issues associated with agricultural development are a growing concern worldwide. This study focussed on farmers' attitudes about environmental degradation and long term productivity loss that may result from implementation of modern agricultural technologies. The study was conducted in a selected area of Bangladesh and field level data were collected from the sampled farmers through personal interviewing. Findings revealed that more than two-thirds of the farmers confronted either a medium or high level of environmental problems due to intensive cultivation. Their main concerns were stress on soil fertility, loss of essential aquatic life, and reduction of earthworms and other beneficial organisms in soil. The farmers' recommended solutions were production of high yielding crop varieties with conservation management practices, and the balanced use of chemical fertilizers and organic manures. To apply these techniques, the top expectation of the farmers was to receive subsidies for agricultural inputs, and get easy-term credit from the government or non-government organizations. Interestingly, just half the farmers in the study area possessed a less than favorable attitude towards sustainability issues of agricultural development. In other words, to them these issues were of low or marginal priority. Only 6% of them expressed a highly favorable attitude (high priority) and 44% expressed a moderate attitude. Based on correlations, the individual farmer's age, education, family size, organizational participation, television exposure, communication behavior and environmental problem confrontation were identified as the main determinants of their attitudes about sustainability issues. Hence, these factors should be considered when formulating programs and policies for agriculture development that aim for long-term sustainability.
Comparison of organic and conventional dairy farms in Ontario
Authors: Ogini Yetunde O. , Storehouse D. Peter , Clark E. Ann
Published: October 2009

The scale of operation and economic performance of organic and conventional dairy farms were compared in Ontario in 1992. Eight certified organic (ORG) farms, comprising 40% of all organic dairy farms, were contrasted with a sample of 120 conventional farms (1.5% of the provincial total) identified under the auspices of the Ontario Dairy Farm Accounting Project (ODFAP). The ODFAP sample was stratified by geographic region in Ontario, then randomly selected within each region. Neither ORG nor ODFAP farm samples contained any hobby or part-time farmers. Scale of operation was comparable on the two types of dairies, with the ratio of ORG to ODFAP being 122% for tillable landbase (ns) and 107% for herd size (ns). Similarly, milk production was comparable from ORG and ODFAP dairies (5,882 and 5,865 liters/cow, respectively; ns). Data on farmer personal characteristics such as age, education level, and management skills were not collected. It was presumed that managerial capabilities were equal between ORG and ODFAP farm samples.

It was hypothesized that total revenue and total cost of production would be greater on ODFAP farms, while net farm income would be higher on ORG than on ODFAP farms. Although the ratio for ORG to ODFAP performance was 93% for total revenue and 77% for total cost of production, neither of these differences was statistically significant. However, ORG dairies yielded 60% more net farm income than ODFAP dairies ($59,718 vs. $37,557; significant at the 5% level). Within the constraints of the supply management marketing system operating in a northern temperate region, ORG approaches to dairy production were shown to be as productive and at least as profitable as those on ODFAP farms, despite reliance on lesser yielding crops and more holistic (less resource-intensive) production methods.