bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effect of Leadership Behaviours on the Change Process in Healthcare Organisations in Saudi Arabia
Authors: Alharbi Mohammad
Published: April 2018

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this empirical study was to explore and determine the influence of leadership behaviors on the organisational change process in healthcare organisations in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.METHODS: Primary data were collected from a sample of 272 employees in hospitals in the Al-Qassim region. The study used a self-administered questionnaire to examine the role of leadership behaviors (task-, relations-, and change-oriented leadership behaviors) on the organisational change process in healthcare organisations. Cross-sectional data were analyzed using SPSS.RESULTS: Positive and significant relations were found between leadership behaviors and the organisational change process contributed 54% of the variation in the dependent variable (R2 = 0.54).CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this research are highly significant, as they can give managers and organisational leaders a more profound insight into the behaviors and practices required to improve healthcare organisations’ performance during implementation of the change process.
Sweet Treats Sweet: A Review of Antidiabetic Properties of Honey
Authors: Al-Hariri Mohammed
Published: April 2018

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic progressive disease that cannot be effectively controlled with single therapy and diabetic patients struggle to maintain the recommended blood glucose control. This increases the risk for many complications such as macro and micro vascular diseases, neuropathyRetinopathy, and diabetic foot. Honey has been used to prevent and treat many diseases. The mechanisms behind its biological and pharmacological role are still not clearly understood, however, some studies reported that Honey has antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immune stimulation actions. The aim of this article was to review the published articles about the antidiabetic properties of honey with their mechanisms. The findings showed that low glyceamic index honey can act as hypoglyceamic agent and delay or prevents the progression of the diabetic outcomes. However further studies to standardize the use of honey among patients with Diabetes mellitus are need.
Settling of Spherical Objects Through Thixotropic Fluids; A Statistical Approach
Authors: Maleki-Jirsaraei Nahid , Hasani Samira , Azizi Somayeh
Published: April 2018

The falling of an object through a non-Newtonian fluid is an interesting problem, depending on the details of the rheology of the fluid. In this paper we report on the settling of spherical objects through non-Newtonian fluids: Laponite. A falling object’s behavior in passing through a thixotropic colloidal suspension of synthetic clay, Laponite, has been reported to have many behavioral regimes. Here we report a new regime where irregular motion is observed. We argue that this irregular motion may be interpreted as onset of chaos. Observation of this regime depends on the size of the falling sphere, relaxation time of fluid and concentration of particles in the suspension.
Determination of Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A in Traditional Turkish Concentrated Fruit Juice Products by Multi-Immunoaffinity Column Cleanup and LC Fluorescence Detection: Single-Laboratory Validation
Authors: Kaymak Tugrul , Türker Levent , Tulay Hüseyin , Stroka Joerg
Published: April 2018

Background: Pekmez and pestil are traditional Turkish foods made from concentrated grape juice, which can be contaminated with mycotoxins such as aflatoxins and ochratoxin A (OTA). Objective: To carry out a single-laboratory validation of a method to simultaneously determine aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 and ochratoxin A in pekmez and pestil. Methods: The homogenized sample is extracted with methanol–water (80 + 20) using a high-speed blender. The (sample) extract is filtered, diluted with phosphate-buffered saline solution, and applied to a multi-immunoaffinity column (AFLAOCHRA PREP®). Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A are removed with (neat) methanol and then directly analyzed by reversed-phase LC with fluorescence detection using post-column bromination (Kobra cell®). Results: Test portions of blank pekmez and pestil were spiked with a mixture of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A to give levels ranging from 2.6 to 10.4 μg/kg and 1.0–4.0 μg/kg, respectively. Recoveries for total aflatoxins and ochratoxin A ranged from 84 to 106% and 80–97%, respectively, for spiked samples. Based on results for spiked pekmez and pestil (30 replicates each at three levels), the repeatability RSD ranged from 1.6 to 12% and 2.7–11% for total aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, respectively. Conclusions: The method performance in terms of recovery, repeatability, and detection limits has been demonstrated to be suitable for use as an Official Method. Highlights: First immunoaffinity column method validated for simultaneous analysis of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in pekmez and pestil. Suitability for use for official purposes in Turkey, demonstrated by single-laboratory validation. Co-occurrence of aflatoxins and OTA in mulberry and carob pekmez reported for the first time.
Romer Labs RapidChek®Listeria monocytogenes Test System for the Detection of L. monocytogenes on Selected Foods and Environmental Surfaces
Authors: Juck Gregory , Gonzalez Verapaz , Allen Ann-Christine Olsson , Sutzko Meredith , Seward Kody , Muldoon Mark T
Published: April 2018

The Romer Labs RapidChek®Listeria monocytogenes test system (Performance Tested Method 011805) was validated against the U.S. Department of Agriculture-Food Safety and Inspection Service Microbiology Laboratory Guidebook (USDA-FSIS/MLG), U.S. Food and Drug Association Bacteriological Analytical Manual (FDA/BAM), and AOAC Official Methods of Analysis (AOAC/OMA) cultural reference methods for the detection of L. monocytogenes on selected foods including hot dogs, frozen cooked breaded chicken, frozen cooked shrimp, cured ham, and ice cream, and environmental surfaces including stainless steel and plastic in an unpaired study design. The RapidChek method uses a proprietary enrichment media system, a 44–48 h enrichment at 30 ± 1°C, and detects L. monocytogenes on an immunochromatographic lateral flow device within 10 min. Different L. monocytogenes strains were used to spike each of the matrixes. Samples were confirmed based on the reference method confirmations and an alternate confirmation method. A total of 140 low-level spiked samples were tested by the RapidChek method after enrichment for 44–48 h in parallel with the cultural reference method. There were 88 RapidChek presumptive positives. One of the presumptive positives was not confirmed culturally. Additionally, one of the culturally confirmed samples did not exhibit a presumptive positive. No difference between the alternate confirmation method and reference confirmation method was observed. The respective cultural reference methods (USDA-FSIS/MLG, FDA/BAM, and AOAC/OMA) produced a total of 63 confirmed positive results. Nonspiked samples from all foods were reported as negative for L. monocytogenes by all methods. Probability of detection analysis demonstrated no significant differences in the number of positive samples detected by the RapidChek method and the respective cultural reference method.
Mapping Confucian Values in the Context of Ethical Dimensions
Authors: Roy Abhijit , Paul Pallab , Roy Mousumi , Mukhopadhyay Kausiki ,   Philosophy Documentation Center
Published: April 2018

With rapid growth in Far Eastern economies (in particular China’s), it is becoming imperative to understand the culturally driven ethical-value underpinnings of the management processes in this region of the world. In this study, we propose a broadened version of Hofstede’s and others’ conception of Confucian dynamics anchored in his teachings preserved in the Lunyu (or Analects), which form the foundation of individual-social moral interactions. Based on a content analysis of these Analects via a qualitative software, NVivo, we identified six work-based values (Leadership Attributes, Appropriate Conduct, Authority Protocol, Governance Policies, Long term Orientation and Collegiality and Teamwork) and six life-based values (Virtuousness and Appropriate Behavior, Handling Life’s Emotions, Learning and Teaching, Parent/Elder Relationship, Friendship and Worship) of the society, prescribed by Confucius in his Analects. These factors are further analyzed and mapped in the context of the three Confucian ethical dimensions (Yi or Righteousness, Li or Propriety, and Ren or Benevolence and Unbounded). The business implications of the results and directions for future research are finally discussed.
Reward associations do not explain transitive inference performance in monkeys
Authors: Jensen Greg , Alkan Yelda , Ferrera Vincent P , Terrace Herbert S
Published: April 2018

The observation that monkeys appear to make transitive inferences has been taken as evidence of their ability to form and manipulate mental representations. However, alternative explanations have been proposed arguing that transitive inference performance based on expected or experienced reward value. To test the contribution of reward value to monkeys’ behavior in TI paradigms, we performed two experiments in which we manipulated the amount of reward associated with each item in an ordered list. In these experiments, monkeys were presented with pairs of items drawn from the list, and delivered rewards if subjects selected the item with the earlier list rank. When reward magnitude was biased to favor later list items, correct responding was reduced. However, monkeys eventually learned to make correct rule-based choices despite countervailing incentives. The results demonstrate that monkeys’ performance in TI paradigms is not driven solely by expected reward, but that they are able to make appropriate inferences in the face of discordant reward associations.
Effect of temperature on growth of Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PRD-10 in LB Lennox medium
Authors: Ng Wenfa
Published: April 2018

Temperature affects growth of bacteria by influencing enzyme and growth kinetics. Specifically, evolution selects for specific temperature range in which a microbe could thrive, and thus fix the temperature range in which biomolecule structure and function are finely tuned for coping with the thermal conditions prevailing within a cell at a particular temperature. Using aerobic culture in LB Lennox medium in shake flasks, this study aimed to understand the growth of Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5 (ATCC BAA-477) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PRD-10 (ATCC 15442) at 25, 30 and 37 oC. Experiment results revealed that P. protegens Pf-5 grew very poorly at 37 oC (with maximal optical density of 0.66), while better growth was observed at 25 and 30 oC. Specifically, P. protegens Pf-5 appeared to be better adapted to growth at 25 oC, where the maximal optical density obtained was 5.3 compared to 4.6 at 30 oC. More importantly, two phase growth behaviour was observed during growth at 30 oC where a faster initial phase of growth was followed by a slower one. Growth at 25 and 30 oC exhibited similar pH trend, which suggested similar metabolic processes was activated during growth. On the other hand, P. aeruginosa PRD-10 demonstrated a more efficient conversion of LB Lennox medium into biomass where the maximal optical density obtained at all three growth temperatures were higher than those of P. protegens Pf-5. More importantly, growth of P. aeruginosa PRD-10 exhibited a clear adaptation to growth at 25 and 37 oC, while growth at 30 oC resulted in a lower biomass yield compared to that of 25 and 37 oC. On the other hand, pH variation during culture revealed that P. aeruginosa PRD-10 likely activated similar metabolic processes at all three growth temperatures, where a higher growth temperature would result in the net secretion of more alkaline metabolites. Collectively, P. protegens Pf-5 and P. aeruginosa PRD-10 demonstrated clear temperature adaptation at an evolutionary level. In addition, experiment data suggested that P. aeruginosa PRD-10 might have co-evolved with humans on a substantial time scale resulting in a temperature preference of 37 oC over 30 oC.
Male aggressiveness as intrasexual contest competition in 78 societies.
Authors: Carter Tara-Lyn , Kushnick Geoff
Published: April 2018

Sexual selection favors traits that increase mating and, thus, reproductive success. Some scholars have suggested that intrasexual selection driven by contest competition has shaped human male aggression. If this is the case, one testable hypothesis is that beliefs and behavior related to male aggression should be more prevalent in societies where the intensity and strength of sexual selection is higher, as measured by factors such as: (a) the presence and scope of polygyny; (b) the number of same-sex competitors relative to potential mates; and, (c) the amount of effort males have available to allocate to mating. Using mixed-effect linear regression models with data from 78 societies from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, we found mixed support for the hypothesis using individual variables related to male aggression, but strong support when using a composite measure of male ‘aggressiveness’. We ruled out some potential alternative explanations by controlling for spatial autocorrelation, and confounding variables such as political complexity and warfare.
In vivo transposon tagging in the nonheterocystous nitrogen‐fixing cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya boryana
Authors: Tomatsu Chie , Uesaka Kazuma , Yamakawa Hisanori , Tsuchiya Tohru , Ihara Kunio , Fujita Yuichi
Published: May 2018

Nitrogenase is an oxygen‐vulnerable metalloenzyme that catalyzes nitrogen fixation. It largely remains unknown how nitrogenase coexists with oxygenic photosynthesis in nonheterocystous cyanobacteria, since there have been no appropriate model cyanobacteria so far. Here, we demonstrate in vivo transposon tagging in the nonheterocystous cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya boryana as a forward genetics approach. By conjugative transfer, a mini‐Tn5‐derived vector, pKUT‐Tn5‐Sm/Sp, was transferred from Escherichia coli to L. boryana cells. Of 1839 streptomycin‐resistant colonies, we isolated three mutants showing aberrant diazotrophic growth. Genome resequencing identified the insertion sites of the transposon in the mutants. This in vivo transposon tagging mutagenesis of L. boryana provides a promising system to investigate molecular mechanisms to resolve the Oxygen Paradox between nitrogen fixation and oxygenic photosynthesis in cyanobacteria.
The tale of two talins – two isoforms to fine‐tune integrin signalling
Authors: Gough Rosemarie E. , Goult Benjamin T.
Published: May 2018

Talins are cytoplasmic adapter proteins essential for integrin‐mediated cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix. Talins control the activation state of integrins, link integrins to cytoskeletal actin, recruit numerous signalling molecules that mediate integrin signalling and coordinate recruitment of microtubules to adhesion sites via interaction with KANK (kidney ankyrin repeat‐containing) proteins. Vertebrates have two talin genes, TLN1 and TLN2. Although talin1 and talin2 share 76% protein sequence identity (88% similarity), they are not functionally redundant, and the differences between the two isoforms are not fully understood. In this Review, we focus on the similarities and differences between the two talins in terms of structure, biochemistry and function, which hint at subtle differences in fine‐tuning adhesion signalling.
A
berdeen,
L
ord (1784–1860)
Authors: Goldstein Erik
Published: May 2018

Lord Aberdeen (1784–1860) served as both British foreign secretary and prime minister. His career was dominated by issues arising from the Eastern Question, and as prime minister he led Britain into the Crimean War.
A
denauer,
K
onrad (1876–1967)
Authors: van Dijk Ruud
Published: May 2018

Konrad Adenauer (1876–1967) was West Germany's first chancellor and foreign minister. Under his leadership, the new West German state entered into the Western alliance, became a vital participant in European cooperation, and regained near‐complete sovereignty. Drawing on experience gained during a long political career prior to 1949, Adenauer thoroughly dominated the politics, and the diplomacy, of the Federal Republic of Germany during its first decade‐and‐a‐half. Decisively choosing integration with the West during the early Cold War, the anti‐communist Adenauer refused to contemplate schemes for an early unification of Germany. He denied the legitimacy of the Soviet‐dominated German Democratic Republic but did establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Adenauer's diplomacy was increasingly characterized by mistrust of his Western allies, with the exception of Charles de Gaulle's France, and by the time of his resignation had reached a virtual dead‐end.
BandungConference (1955)
Authors: Rakove Robert B.
Published: May 2018

Between April 18 and 24, 1955, twenty‐nine delegations from African and Asian states gathered in the Indonesian resort city of Bandung. The Bandung Conference marked a historic gathering of postcolonial governments, and witnessed sustained debates about colonialism, nuclear weapons, and alignment in the Cold War. Although Bandung should not be considered a meeting of the Non‐Aligned Movement, with which it is often mistakenly associated, it constitutes an important historical moment in the political emergence of the Third World.
Brandt,Willy (1913–92)
Authors: van Dijk Ruud
Published: May 2018

As West Germany's Chancellor (1969–1974) Willy Brandt (1913–92) presided over his country's “newOstpolitik” (Eastern policy) towards the Soviet Union and its allies, particularly the German Democratic Republic (GDR), that helped improve East–West relations in Cold War Europe. More broadly, the Social Democrat Brandt personified a new type of German leader. Because of his own resistance to the Nazi regime, Brandt's public efforts to atone for Germany's crimes not only appeared credible, they also represented a further step on Germany's road to rehabilitation begun after 1949 under Konrad Adenauer. Finally, alongsideOstpolitik, Brandt also promoted an active West German role in the West, especially with regard to the strengthening and expansion of the European Economic Community (EEC).
Bruce,David (1898–1977)
Authors: Young John W.
Published: May 2018

Among other high‐level posts, David Bruce (1898–1977) headed the US embassies in France (1949–52), West Germany (1957–60), and the United Kingdom (1961–69), as well as being envoy to China (1973–74) and NATO (1974–76), during the Cold War. He was one of the United States' most successful political appointments to senior ambassadorial appointments, serving both Democratic and Republican presidents, from Truman to Ford.
Bush,GeorgeH. W. (1924–)
Authors: Palmer Niall J. A.
Published: May 2018

The four‐year administration of George H. W. Bush came at a key transitional moment for American foreign policy as the Cold War ended and debate over America's “unipolar moment” began. Bush's tenure saw the fall of the Berlin Wall, a wave of revolutions sweeping Eastern Europe, the Tiananmen Square massacre in China, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the invasion of Panama, and the Gulf War of 1991. Bush's reactions to these unprecedented challenges were praised by some for their pragmatism but criticized by others for lacking imagination. International trade and economic policy became increasingly central to American diplomacy during Bush's tenure, which culminated in the NAFTA agreement. Bush's mixing of military assertiveness with careful diplomacy and multilateralism drew retrospective praise after the 2003 neoconservative‐inspired Iraq invasion.
C
ambon,
P
ierre‐
P
aul (1843–1924)
Authors: Barrows Leland Conley
Published: May 2018

Pierre‐Paul Cambon (January 20, 1843–May 29, 1924), a senior French diplomat, is primarily remembered for his role in Tunisia (1882–86) as the first resident‐general, and for his tenure in the United Kingdom (1898–1920) as ambassador to the Court of St. James. In Tunisia, Cambon negotiated the La Marsa Convention of 1883 with the bey that conferred a permanent institutional structure to the French‐administered protectorate. In Great Britain Cambon played a major role in negotiating the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Lord Lansdowne, the British foreign secretary, thus beginning and then promoting the process by which Great Britain, France, and Russia became allies in World War I.
Colonial Appeasement (1935–38)
Authors: Doerr Paul W.
Published: May 2018

Between the years 1935 and 1938 the British government explored the possibility of returning Germany's African possessions as part of the policy of appeasement. The return of some, or all of Germany's colonies was to form a key component of a European settlement with Hitler. However the British encountered numerous obstacles, the most important of which was Hitler's overall indifference to possessions in Africa. Retroceding Germany's African colonies would also involve giving away territory then held by France, Belgium, and Portugal. However, British prime minister Neville Chamberlain pursued the project in 1938, culminating in a formal proposal to which Hitler never replied.
Diplomatic Households
Authors: Mori Jennifer
Published: May 2018

Diplomatic households are unusual in the general history of households, which are governed by the politics of gender and kinship that determine their formation and cohesion. Since diplomacy was, until the nineteenth century, largely homosocial, its households were – by definition – atypical. Unless a diplomat brought his spouse and children abroad, his household was, in essence, his entourage of personal servants. This constituted the staff of the early modern embassy from the Renaissance to the later nineteenth century. It served the sociopolitical needs of the diplomat, as opposed to his family.
Environmental Diplomacy
Authors: Masters Lesley
Published: May 2018

International relations remain concerned with the preservation of national self‐determination and sovereignty. The result is that those wishing to travel beyond their country borders need to pass through various immigration control posts. The natural world, however, is not governed by such political borders. Natural ecosystems cross countries, birds migrate thousands of miles from the north to the south and back again, river systems may flow through numerous countries. As countries look to address the impact of continued environmental degradation, and as the world increasingly faces its finite ecological boundaries, the need for further cooperation on natural resources has seen environmental diplomacy come to the fore. Distinct from environmental activism and conservation, environmental diplomacy is concerned with method, or “how” agreements are reached in the management of transnational environmental challenges.
E
uropean Integration
Authors: Blair Alasdair
Published: May 2018

The European Union (EU) consists of the largest group of advanced industrial economies in the world. Its origins can be traced to plans that were set down in the interwar period of the 1920s to overcome tension between European countries. The main impetus to European integration was the legacy of the Second World War and the desire to rebuild European countries through a process of external support that would avoid future conflict. Over subsequent decades the process of European integration accelerated through a widening of membership and deepening of policies. This movement to what European treaties have referred to as “ever closer union” has, nevertheless, created tension between member‐states and also between the institutions that govern the EU and its member‐states. It is a state of affairs that has resulted in an increase in support for political parties that challenge further European integration and who seek to return more powers to member‐states by reclaiming national sovereignty. The most significant development of this was the decision taken by the UK electorate to leave the EU in a referendum vote that took place on June 23, 2016. This development has led to significant turbulence within the EU and raised questions over the future direction of European integration.
Foreign Aid and Diplomacy
Authors: Masters Lesley , Nganje Fritz
Published: May 2018

There are a variety of words used today to describe the transfer of financial and other resources from one country to another, or even from a non‐state donor to a recipient country, including “foreign aid,” “official development assistance,” “humanitarian aid,” “development cooperation,” and even “finance for development.” Each of these terms represents a particular lens through which the transfer of resources from one country to another can be understood. As this practice increased, following the end of World War II, diplomats have found themselves drawn into activities such as identifying development needs, negotiating bilateral, multilateral, and trilateral development assistance agreements, and managing country relations often marred by the impact of inequality in donor–recipient relations. This entry discusses the evolution of aid as a foreign policy tool, paying attention to the negotiations on aid effectiveness and the changing international dynamics, norms, and actors that have contributed to the ongoing transition from a Western‐led aid regime to a global partnership on development cooperation.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Authors: Coppolaro Lucia
Published: May 2018

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was negotiated after World War II, when international organizations were established to ensure a stable world economic environment. It was signed on October 30, 1947, by twenty‐three countries to provide a set of rules for the orderly conduct of international trade relations and the reductions of trade barriers.

The GATT was meant to be applied provisionally, pending the ratification of the International Trade Organization (ITO), negotiated in 1948. After the failure of the ITO in 1950, GATT came to regulate the multilateral trading system until 1994, when the World Trade Organization (WTO) replaced it. In almost fifty years of activities, GATT proved to be an effective instrument of liberalization. GATT's main activities unfolded in eight trade conferences – called rounds – during which trade barriers were progressively reduced and more areas and sectors were brought into the GATT regulatory framework. By 1994, 125 countries had become signatories to its agreements.
Great
N
orthern War (1700–21)
Authors: Schnakenbourg Eric
Published: May 2018

Between 1700 and 1721 Sweden had to fight a strong coalition of three, then five, of its neighbors. The issue of this long struggle was the control of the southern territories of the Swedish Baltic Empire. In the first year of the war the young king of Sweden, Charles XII, won two spectacular victories over Frederick IV of Denmark and Peter I of Russia. He then turned his army against August II of Saxony‐Poland and needed six years to defeat him. In 1706, Charles XII was at the height of his fame and often considered as the Alexander of the North. Only Peter I was still at war with him. In 1707, Charles XII decided to launch an attack on Russia but suffered a decisive defeat at Poltava on July 8, 1709. In the years that followed Poltava Sweden lost all of its external territories and was on the verge of total collapse. After Charles XII's death, at the end of 1718, the Swedish government made peace its priority. Between 1719 and 1721, the Swedes concluded several peace treaties and yielded their Baltic lands to Russia and a large part of their German territories to Prussia and Hanover. By 1721 Sweden's period as a Great Power had come to an end, whereas Russia's was just beginning.
Hobbes,Thomas (1588–1679)
Authors: Johnson Laurie M.
Published: May 2018

English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes, best known for his social contract teaching emerging from his state of nature scenario, is not typically thought of as someone who would believe that serious international law and diplomacy were possible. This is because of the emphasis that scholars often place on Hobbes's state of nature and its direct application to international relations. But while Hobbes does compare the state of nature to relations among states, his teaching does not stop there. On closer examination, Hobbes's political philosophy does support the possibility of serious efforts in international law and diplomacy.
HundredYears'War (1337–1453)
Authors: Chapman Adam
Published: May 2018

The Hundred Years' War is generally held to describe the period between 1337, when EdwardIIIof England (1312–77, crowned 1327) first claimed the title of king of France and 1453 when the last English‐held lands in France, with the exception of Calais (captured by the English in 1347 and retaken by the French in 1558), were lost. The wars were not continuous and were divided into several phases interspersed by periods of relative peace: the first phase which ended with the Treaty of Brétigny (1360); wars over the enforcement of the terms of that settlement (1369–89); the wars of conquest initiated by Henry V of England (1386–1422, crowned 1413) which began in 1415 were ended by the Treaty of Troyes (1420); and the wars over Lancastrian lands in France (1420–53). As a conflict between the two largest states in western Europe the wars drew in other great powers, secular and spiritual. The fundamental reason for conflict was that the king of England was also a peer of France and could not give up his territory there. Nor could any king of France tolerate a subject unwilling to be subservient to him.
Jesuit Diplomacy
Authors: Vincin Justine , Clulow Adam
Published: May 2018

The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534 and formally recognized as an order by Pope Paul III in 1540. It expanded rapidly and, within a few years of its creation, Jesuit brothers were operating across Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Due to the reach of the order and its close connection both with the papacy and the Portuguese crown, Jesuits were thrust into service as ambassadors and diplomats at a wide range of courts.
L
loyd
G
eorge,
D
avid (1864–1945)
Authors: Sharp Alan
Published: May 2018

This entry analyses the diplomatic style and skills of David Lloyd George, the British premier between December 1916 and October 1922, concentrating in particular upon the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 at which he was the principal British negotiator. It emphasizes his ingenuity and dexterity in conjuring agreements out of impossible situations but suggests that his sometimes unscrupulous pursuit of immediate solutions had the potential to jeopardize longer‐term success.
M
adison,
J
ames (1751–1836)
Authors: Cecchinato Andrew J.
Published: May 2018

James Madison (1751–1836) belonged to the generation of the Founding Fathers of the American Republic. His career as a diplomatist is marked by participation in three main endeavors. Between 1786 and 1788 he was instrumental in negotiating, drafting, and ratifying, largely on behalf of his native Virginia, the Constitution that would transform the United States of America from a loose confederacy of independent states into a federal republic. Acting as secretary of state of the Thomas Jefferson administration, he oversaw, between 1801 and 1803, the western expansion of the federal union through the so‐called Louisiana Purchase. Finally, as president of the United States, he took necessary measures, including requesting Congress in 1812 to declare war on Britain, to secure the independence of the federal union from foreign jurisdictions who attempted to encroach upon it.
Mutsu Munemitsu (1844–97)
Authors: Takii Kazuhiro
Published: May 2018

Mutsu Munemitsu (1844–97) is regarded as one of the most famous foreign ministers in modern Japan. Despite several ordeals and despite his position as an outsider in the Meiji government, he played an influential role not only in domestic but also in foreign affairs of government from the 1880s. The revision of the Anglo‐Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation in 1894 and the victory of Japan in the war with China in 1895 are often cited as Mutsu's great achievements in diplomacy. Such was his contribution that people spoke of “Mutsu diplomacy.” Mutsu's political ideas were informed by his aspiration to make Japan a powerful state on a par with Western countries. With such thoughts, he challenged traditional international relations in East Asia and promoted parliamentary politics to establish a popular government.
P
aris Summit (1960)
Authors: Colman Jonathan
Published: May 2018

The Paris summit was an unsuccessful conference between the heads of the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and France in May 1960. Intended to ease Cold War problems, the summit collapsed acrimoniously before substantive discussions could begin, due to controversy about American aerial espionage over the Soviet Union. The setback initiated an especially tense phase in East–West relations, and discredited the use of four‐power summits to address the challenges of the Cold War.
P
eace of
N
ystad (1721)
Authors: Schnakenbourg Eric
Published: May 2018

The Peace of Nystad ended the Great Northern War (1700–21) and represented a great success for Tsar Peter I of Russia who had defeated Sweden. It was an important setback for the Swedes who had already lost some territories in North Germany. Peter achieved a favorable treaty and got satisfaction on his most important claims. His new capital, Saint Petersburg, was now surrounded by Russian lands and he became the master of the Baltic lands. The Peace of Nystad opened up Russia to Europe. It was a key factor in Russia's ascent to Great Power status in the eighteenth century.
PeloponnesianWar (431–404bce)
Authors: Rawls Richard
Published: May 2018

The years 475–404bcein Greece can be conceptualized as a period of hostility followed by negotiated peace followed again by resumed conflict. The era witnessed Athens and its allies in the Delian League engaged in a sporadic military, economic, and diplomatic war with Sparta, its allies in the Peloponnesian League, and Sparta's other allies, including later the Persian Empire. The fighting between the rival city‐states (poleis), Athens and Sparta, was intermittent and marked at times by diplomatic peace settlements. What scholars call the “First Peloponnesian War” lasted from 460–445, while the later and more famous “Peloponnesian War” resumed from 431–404bce. Although details of the battles frequently survive through the writings of Thucydides and, later, Xenophon, the evidence also suggests that throughout much of the fifth century diplomacy remained a vital and integral part of the conflict.
P
erry,
M
atthew (1794–1858)
Authors: Henning Joseph M.
Published: May 2018

Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794–1858) spent nearly fifty years in the
US
Navy as a midshipman and officer. He served in the War of 1812 (1812–15) and commanded the Gulf Squadron during the Mexican–American War (1846–48). In peacetime, he was stationed on vessels on the West African coast, the Caribbean, and the Mediterranean. An advocate of naval modernization, he is known in the United States as the “father of the steam navy.” His most noteworthy achievement was his leadership of the
US
expedition that successfully negotiated the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) and opened relations between the United States and Japan.
PhilipIII(1578–1621)
Authors: Thomson Erik
Published: May 2018

Philip III of Spain and II of Portugal (April 14, 1578–March 13, 1621) ruled from 1598 until his death. Facing complex dynastic and religious interests, and fiscal problems that limited his potential actions, he aimed to settle conflicts his father Philip II had bequeathed to him of war with England and with the rebellious provinces of the Spanish Netherlands. A peace with England and a truce with the Netherlands provided time for financial redress, if not recovery. The end of his reign saw him intervening in the Holy Roman Empire in support of his Habsburg relatives at the start of what would become the Thirty Years' War, and Philip died shortly before war began again against the Dutch.
Public Opinion
Authors: Hucker Daniel
Published: May 2018

Public opinion is a notoriously slippery concept, but it has long been understood that it wields at least some influence on diplomacy. Over several centuries, conceptions of public opinion have evolved. Longstanding perceptions of public opinion as ignorant and volatile, and thus superfluous to foreign policy‐making, have been challenged by a redefinition of public opinion as prudent and rational, assuming a significant and rightful position within the diplomatic arena. Public opinion's ability to make itself heard has also increased, facilitated by developments in printing and international communications, the emergence of a “public sphere,” contributions from prominent philosophers, an extended franchise, and the proliferation of newspapers, radio, and television. The internet and social media have facilitated further a global public with an unprecedented level of information at its disposal, but the influence this public wields on diplomacy remains a point of contention. Moving forwards, public interest in diplomacy will only increase, making the scholarly study of the public opinion/foreign policy interface ever more important.
QianlongEmperor (1711–99)
Authors: Adams Christa
Published: May 2018

The Qianlong Emperor (1711–99), born Aisin Gioro Hongli, was the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The Qing dynasty was established in 1644 by the descendants of Jurchen tribal leader Nurhaci (1559–1626), who successfully united members of disparate tribal groups to form the Manchu population. Qianlong was the fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor (1678–1735), and was the second‐longest‐reigning emperor in Chinese history, after his grandfather the Kangxi Emperor (1654–1722). He was also the longest‐lived emperor, effectively governing until his death at age 87. The Qianlong Emperor ruled during a period of relative peace and prosperity, overseeing the westward expansion of Qing territorial control and the doubling of Qing territories at large. He also ably negotiated relations with foreign nationals and integrated Han Chinese bureaucrats into positions within the imperial hierarchy and on the Grand Council. Qianlong adopted and applied expectations from the existent Chinese tributary system when dealing with foreigners, most notably during his 1793 encounter with the British Macartney Mission.
R
oosevelt,
F
ranklin
D
elano (1882–1945)
Authors: Smith Kevin
Published: May 2018

As president of the United States amid global depression and global war, Franklin Roosevelt encountered several significant diplomatic challenges, most notably in reacting to international economic disorder, realigning traditional US policies inside and outside the Western Hemisphere, interacting with aggressor powers in Europe and Asia, and eventually cooperating in the Grand Alliance to resist aggression in the Second World War. Frequently working through intermediaries and seeking to establish personal relationships to achieve his strategic priorities, Roosevelt pragmatically focused on winning the war once the United States became a full participant. He also laid the foundations for the postwar international system. Moreover, his calibrated implementation of Wilsonian ideals in a more pragmatically oriented multilateral cooperation still shapes current debates about American foreign policy in a new age when national security threats emanate from non‐state actors.
S
econd
M
acedonian
W
ar (200–197
bce
)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: May 2018

The Second Macedonian War (200–197
BCE
) was a military conflict between the Roman republic and King Philip V of Macedonia (r. 221–179). Philip's defeat by the Romans replaced Macedonian control over the Greek world (which was sealed with the victory of King Philip II over the Greeks in the battle at Chaeronea in 338) with growing Roman influence in Greece, and led to the Roman conflict against the Seleucid king Antiochus III, or the Roman–Syrian war.
S
econd
P
unic
W
ar (218–201
bce
)
Authors: Hoyos Dexter
Published: May 2018

The Romans' official reasons for declaring war on Carthage in 218
BCE
were that the Carthaginian general Hannibal had sacked Saguntum, a small city in eastern Spain and a friend of Rome, and that Carthage refused to hand him over for punishment. Later on they added that Saguntum had been covered by a clause protecting allies in the Roman–Carthaginian peace treaty of 241. Even in ancient times, however, many observers judged the true cause of the war to be the conflicting aggressive ambitions of both powers. In the end the war engulfed much of the Mediterranean world, with profound consequences for its future.
Shultz,GeorgeP.(1920–)
Authors: Hopkins Michael F.
Published: May 2018

George P. Shultz (1920–) served as Ronald Reagan's second secretary of state from July 1982 to January 1989. He worked effectively with the president and successfully harnessed the talents of the State Department. His term began with steadily mounting tensions with the Soviet Union but ended with revolutionary breakthroughs that would lead to the end of the Cold War.
Sino‐Soviet Split
Authors: Reinstein Thomas A.
Published: May 2018

In 1950, the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Soviet Union (USSR) formalized a political, economic, and military alliance. By 1962, this partnership had collapsed under a cloud of mutual acrimony, which gave way to a series of armed clashes seven years later that almost exploded into full‐blown war. The two nations split apart due to a host of factors. Chief among these were disputes over interpretations of Marxism and relationships with Western states, negative relationships between Chinese and Soviet officials, and the alliance's inherent inequality. From the day the treaty was signed, the Soviets treated China as their junior partner. China's long history of suffering under colonial rule left many Chinese officials angry at such treatment, as they thought it smacked of Russian imperialism. The split had major consequences for China and the USSR. Their shared rancor belied notions of communist unity as both states competed for the loyalties of international leftist movements. The former allies never officially reconciled.
Splendid Isolation
Authors: Orgill Nathan N.
Published: May 2018

“Splendid Isolation” is a concept associated with British foreign policy in the long nineteenth century, especially under the Conservative governments of the last decades of the 1800s under Lord Salisbury. Its historical proponents see Britain as having deliberately placed herself outside the traditional balance of power to protect her global interests and better tip the balance between the powers of the Continent. In the sense that it was ever an approach strictly followed by decision‐makers, it is generally understood to have been abandoned after the Boer War, when Britain began to commit herself more directly to other powers – particularly to Japan and France.
Thucydides
Authors: Roider Karl A.
Published: May 2018

Scholars regard Thucydides as the first scientific historian, which means that he wrote his
History of the Peloponnesian War
by consulting primary sources, especially interviews with those involved. He based his writing on information he gathered from witnesses rather than attributing events to gods, fate, or some other non‐human entity. He was skeptical of his sources and regarded the other great fifth‐century
BCE
Greek historian, Herodotus, as too prone to pass on fanciful stories or myths, even when he doubted their veracity. The first third of the
Peloponnesian War
examines the war's origins and the nature of fifth‐century
BCE
diplomacy and statecraft through speeches of the participants. When reading his work, one is especially struck by how little the give‐and‐take of state relations has changed over the centuries.
Peace ofBreda (1667)
Authors: Lesaffer Randall
Published: May 2018

The Peace of Breda was signed on July 31, 1667, between the British monarchy on the one side and the Dutch Republic with its allies, France and Denmark, on the other. The peace treaties ended the Second Anglo‐Dutch War which had formally erupted in March 1665. After months of tedious negotiations, the success of the French invasion of the Spanish Netherlands to the south of the Republic and the humiliation wrought upon the British navy by the Dutch raid on Medway in June 1667 had made both sides more malleable to compromise. Yet, the peace locked in the Dutch victory in the war. The war had been sought by the British in the hope of gaining the upper hand in the commercial and colonial competition with the Republic. But the peace gained them nothing and strengthened the Dutch commercial and colonial position. The Republic made a small genuflexion to the British demand to see its sovereignty over the North Sea and the English Channel recognized by conceding that its armed ships should salute British men of war. From its side, Britain had to sign off on a major relaxation to the Navigation Act by allowing Dutch shipping to directly trade in German goods with Britain. At the territorial level, the peace treaties applied the principle of “uti possidetis,” which meant that each side held on to its conquests. Under this rule, the Dutch retained Surinam while the British kept New Amsterdam, now to be renamed New York.
Treaty ofParis (1763)
Authors: Trautsch Jasper M.
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Paris, concluded by Great Britain, France, and Spain and agreed to by Portugal in February 1763, brought the Seven Years' War – or the French and Indian War, as it was called in North America – between these countries to an official end. Great Britain, which had militarily won the conflict but did not wish to unnecessarily humiliate France in order to prevent a renewed outbreak of hostilities in the near future, returned several territories that its army had conquered to France, but retained French Canada as well as all French possessions east of the Mississippi River. The Treaty of Paris, therefore, marked the end of the French Empire in North America. Also, Spain had to cede Florida to Great Britain. Peace between Prussia and Austria, which had also fought each other in the war, was restored in the same year through the separate Treaty of Hubertusburg.
Treaty ofTordesillas (1494)
Authors: Quaglioni Diego
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) is one of the most important documents in the history of international relations. It was an agreement between the Spanish monarchs Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, on the one hand, and the king of Portugal, John II, on the other, meant to establish a new demarcation line between the respective areas of expansion in the Atlantic. The treaty modified treaties and papal decisions of the previous decades. The new demarcation line left to Portugal an area of expansion in the eastern parts of the Atlantic, and to Spain the areas west of the demarcation line. The treaty caused the division of Latin America into two cultural areas: the Hispanic and the Luso‐American. It was also the starting point for later agreements defining the areas of expansion of the two colonial powers in the Pacific until the Treaty of Madrid (1750).
Trieste Question
Authors: Trautsch Jasper M.
Published: May 2018

In the first half of the twentieth century, the multicultural region around the port city of Trieste – the ownership of which was fiercely contested – frequently changed hands between Austria, Italy, Germany, and Yugoslavia. At the end of the Second World War, the Trieste question became a potentially explosive issue, as the British and Yugoslavian forces expelling German troops from the Apennine Peninsula and the western Balkans met at Trieste, without their political leaders having arrived at a consensus as to who was to administer the region after its liberation, or on how the future Italian–Yugoslavian border should be drawn. The crisis was solved when both sides agreed on a demarcation line dividing the area between them. Eventually, this line would also become the official border between Italy and Yugoslavia, as attempts to organize the entire Trieste region as a free territory in the postwar period failed.