bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some Aspects of Cumulative Risk
Authors: Kupper J.
Published: July 2016

The classical treatment of stochastic models in non-life insurance is to first derive the well-known Poisson distribution by considering the question of how many claims take place during a definite period t. In deriving this distribution the following three assumptions are made:

( I) The population studied is homogeneous.

( II) The occurrence of a claim is a rare event, viz. in an infinite-simal time interval [t, t + Δt], the probability of more than one occurrence must be of the order of magnitude o(Δt).

(III) The occurrence of any later claim is not influenced by previous ones (no contagion).

In my purely theoretical study [5]), the consequences of discarding one or more of the above assumptions were considered. By so generalizing the Poisson distribution, a great many stochastic models can be built, although the results were not always successful. The following study concentrates on some considerations based on assumption (II). The theoretical formulation of the model will be dealt with briefly and the author would first make reference to the instructive article of Thyrion [7] which was unfortunately unknown to him when he was preparing his already mentioned paper. Ammeter [2] and Arfwedson [3] have also considered special cases of this generalization. With the help of the statistics over traffic accidents in the city of Zurich, I hope to throw some more light on the practical aspects of the problem. To the Statistics Office of this city I would express my thanks for kindly placing all documents at my disposal.
Methods of studying the risk process in disability insurance
Authors: Lundberg Ove
Published: July 2016

The aim of this study is to find suitable methods for utilizing available statistical information on the risk development of terminated insurances. This information may comprise not only data respecting sex, age, insurance tariff, etc., but also the points of time when certain events—disability, injuries or damages—have occurred as well as their durability and cause. The method study here presented is based on statistical material gathered from long-term disability insurances which have ceased to be valid, either in consequence of the expiration of the term of insurance, or the insured's death. We endeavour to study the point of time when the first event (disability) occurred and the relation between subsequent events, searching suitable methods for assessing risks after the occurrence of the primary event.

The influence of passed events upon the future risk process may be explained by either a direct dependence between actual events—actual damage or disability may have an impairment for the future of the risk—or by heterogeneity a priori. In the former case, we may speak of a contagious process (Polya-Eggenberger), and, in the latter case, the occurrence or non-occurrence of an event may, according to Lexis and Newbold, act as a risk differentiating factor providing a theoretical basis for a technique of experience rating.

It is difficult to decide whether the relationship noted in respect of a risk process is of the direct or the indirect kind. A direct dependence between one event and the following ones has no relevance to a study of the incidence of the first event and the time of its occurrence. We avoid in such a study the obstacles created by formal rules and regulations with regard to the problem of whether two or more disability periods occurring at short intervals should be considered as a single disability period or not. In order to measure the frequency of the first event we have—as in the case of measuring mortality—to limit the period exposed to risk until the occurrence of the first event.
On a transformation of the weighted compound Poisson process
Authors: Bühlmann Hans , Buzzi Roberto
Published: July 2016

We are using the following terminology—essentially following Feller:

a) Compound Poisson Variable

This is a random variable

where X1, X2, … Xn, … independent, identically distributed (X0 = o) and N a Poisson counting variable

hence

(common) distribution function of the Xj with j ≠ 0 or in the language of characteristic functions

b) Weighted Compound Poisson Variable

This is a random variable Z obtained from a class of Compound Poisson Variables by weighting over λ with a weight function S(λ)

hence

or in the language of characteristic functions

Let [Z(t); t ≥ o] be a homogeneous Weighted Compound Poisson Process. The characteristic function at the time epoch t reads then

It is most remarkable that in many instances φt(u) can be represented as a (non weighted) Compound Poisson Variable. Our main result is given as a theorem.
Contrôle des opérations d'assurance dans les branches non-vie
Authors: Bichsel F.
Published: July 2016

Les 5 contributions suivantes ont été présentées sur le thème no 3:

— par R. E. Beard:

2 contributions intitulées “Calculation of Reserves for Non-Life Insurance” (Le calcul des réserves pour les branches non-vie)

— par Karl Borch:)

“Control of a Portfolio of Insurance Contracts” (Le contrôle d'un portefeuille d'assurances)

—par B. H. Jongh:)

“The Insurer's Ruin” (La ruine de l'assureur)

— par T. Pentikäinen, Helsinki:

“On the Solvency of Insurance Companies” (De la solvabilité des compagnies d'assurance)

— par Erkki Pesonen, Helsinki

“Magnitude Control of Technical Reserves in Finland” (Le contrôle du montant des réserves techniques en Finlande)

Les questions traitées par ces auteurs peuvent être groupées comme suit:

1. Donnée la situation d'une compagnie d'assurance, quelles sont les affaires qu'elle devrait accepter?

2. Donnée la situation d'une compagnie d'assurance, dans quelle mesure doit-elle réassurer son portefeuille?

3. Le calcul des réserves techniques, c'est-á-dire de la réserve pour risques en cours et pour les sinistres non régiés.

4. La détermination des réserves de sécurité nécessaires en plus des réserves techniques proprement dites.
Most Efficient Fluctuation Reserves
Authors: Halmstad D. G.
Published: July 2016

In 1935 the New York Insurance Department introduced the concept of special contingency funds for certain types of insurance. Such requirements had first been introduced in 1925 for mutual workmen's compensation companies. Clear, consistent principles for these funds were not stated at the time, but their purpose seems to be to provide a cushion that may be used in time of serious financial difficulty.

In group life insurance, this fund is a “special contingency reserve” and is carried at the suggestion of the New York Department). For mutual casualty, nonprofit hospitalization and medical indemnity plans, and for reciprocal insurers, the fund is treated as “special contingent surplus”, and is a mandated substitute for the minimum capital required of stock insurers). The U.S. federal Life Insurance Company Income Tax Act of 1959 recognizes special credits of a similar nature for health, non-participating life and group life and health insurance coverages.

In all of these cases, the accumulations or credits are defined by a designated percentage of premiums). For the New York Department group life reserve and the Income Tax health and group life credit, a maximum is defined by a second percentage of the same annual premiums base. For the nonprofit plans' surplus, a similar maximum in terms of premium is used. However, in the case of mutual casualty companies, and of reciprocal insurers, the “special contingency surplus” must be built up to a defined absolute amount equal to the amount that would be required as capital of a stock company; there are no statutory provisions for withdrawing any part of such a fund once it is accumulated.
Some Comments on the Sparre Andersen Model in the Risk Theory
Authors: Thorin Olof
Published: July 2016

The Sparre Andersen model assumes that the interclaim times and the amounts of claims are independent random variables, the former identically distributed according to a distribution function K(t), t ≥ o, K(o) = o, the latter identically distributed according to a distribution function P(y) — ∞ < y < ∞ As is well known, the Poisson risk process corresponds to the particular case K(t) = 1 — eβt. In the present paper it is pointed out that another particular case, viz. K(t) = є(t — h), corresponding to a fixed (and thus — strictly speaking—nonrandom) mterclaim time, h, has interesting applications. Thus, the ruin problem considered by Giezendanner, Straub and Wettenschwiler in a paper to the 1972 International Congress of Actuaries in Oslo can be formulated by means of this particular case. The same can be said about the earlier model brought forward by Ammeter in his 1948 paper in Skandinavisk Aktuarietidskrift.

About the contents of the paper the following further information may be given. The general Sparre Andersen model is first presented and then the ruin formulas are given for the case with a positive gross risk premium. Thereafter, a modified and more direct method for deriving certain necessary auxiliary functions is illustrated by examples including 1 a the Giezendanner—Straub—Wettenschwiler model. The rest of the paper contains a discussion from the point of view of the Sparre Andersen model of (1) the discrete (equidistant) inspection of a Poisson process for ruin, (11) the Ammeter model and analogous models, and (111) the Giezendanner—Straub—Wettenschwiler model.
Factors Affecting Fire Loss—Multiple Regression Models with Extreme Values
Authors: Ramachandran G.
Published: July 2016

In his paper to the Tenth ASTIN Colloquium the author presented generalised extreme value techniques for making use of all large losses that are available for analysis and not merely the largest. In this paper the problem of assessing the relative contributions of various factors to fire losses is investigated. A model concerned with multiple regression with extreme observations of given rank is developed. It takes into consideration the biases due to the use of extremes and the differences between categories of risks in regard to the frequency of fires (or claims). By way of illustration the model was applied to the largest and second largest losses in the textile industries in the United Kingdom during the six-year period 1965 to 1970. The presence or absence of sprinklers, whether the buildings were single-storey or multi-storey, and total floor area were the independent variables included in this preliminary investigation. Judged from extreme losses sprinklers appear to reduce considerably the expected damage in all fires.

The technique enables different estimates to be obtained for each regression parameter for different ranks. It is desirable to have a single overall estimate for each parameter; and for this purpose a second model is developed for performing a regression analysis combining observations pertaining to a number of ranks. Covariances of the residual errors are also taken into account in this model.
Aperçu du champ d'application de la théorie du risque dans l'assurance de choses en Autriche
Authors: Neumann L.
Published: July 2016

Nous donnerons ci-après un aperçu de quelques domaines d'application de la théorie du risque dans l'assurance de choses et en particulier dans l'assurance incendie en Autriche.

Il convient cependant de signaler que ce domaine n'a pas encore reçu beaucoup d'applications pratiques en Autriche, mais, ainsi que le montrera la suite de ce travail, l'application pratique de la théorie du risque a déjà conduit à quelques résultats positifs.

Du point de vue de la pratique actuarielle dans l'assurance de choses, il faut distinguer deux problèmes principaux:

a) la détermination du risque individuel;

b) la détermination du risque collectif.

Ces deux problèmes feront l'objet des deux prochains chapitres de ce travail. Un dernier chapitre mettra en lumière les relations de ces problèmes avec d'autres disciplines et fera état, pour terminer, de quelques perspectives pratiques.

Dans l'assurance de choses, il faut distinguer trois méthodes de détermination du coût de la couverture du risque individuel:

a) estimation empirique du coût du risque individuel;

b) détermination du coût à l'aide de séries d'observations par la comparaison des sinistres et des primes ou des sinistres et des sommes assurées;

c) détermination statistique exacte des primes à l'aide de la théorie individuelle du risque.
Experience Rating A New Application of the Collective Theory of Risk
Authors: Ammeter Hans
Published: July 2016

Besides its well known applications, the collective risk theory has recently also been applied to problems connected with the so called Experience Rating. This term is used to define a method of premium calculation in insurance business which is based partially or totally on the individual experience of the particular risk involved. It is obvious that Experience Rating is essentially applicable to collective insurances which contain no saving element. In practical applications various possibilities may be considered.

The collective theory of risk provides an efficient calculus for the analysis of the various forms of Experience Rating and in paper [3] a particular form of Experience Rating for collective insurances is examined. It is there assumed that the collective risk premium is based on experience derived from non-individual observations. If any cost loading is disregarded, the net premium is given by the relation P′ = (I + λ) P, where λ is a security factor and P the part of the premium covering the expected claims cost.

A premium refund

is to be deducted from the basic net premium P′. In this formula α′ and β are suitable numerical values and S means the due sum to be paid out for claims. Hence the net cost to the group considered depends on the actual claims S and therefore takes into account the individual claims experience. It may be shown that for β = I the form of Experience Rating considered is equivalent to a stop loss cover. The general case with β ≠ I represents a combination of ordinary insurance cover and stop loss cover.
A Generalized Model for the Risk Process and its Application to a Tentative Evaluation of Outstanding Liabilities
Authors: Philipson Carl
Published: July 2016

A compound Poisson process, in this context abbreviated to cPp, is defined by a probability distribution of the number m of events in the interval (o, τ) of the original scale of the process parameter, assumed to be one-dimensional, in the following form.

where du shall be inserted for t, λτ being the intensity function of a Poisson process with the expected number t of events in the interval (O, τ) and U(ν, τ) is the distribution function of ν for every fixed value of τ, here called the risk distribution. If the inverse of is substituted for τ, in the right membrum of (1), the function obtained is a function of t.

If the risk distribution is defined by the general form U(ν, τ) the process defined by (1) is called a cPp in the wide sense (i.w.s.). In the sequel two particular cases for U(ν, τ) shall be considered, namely when it has the form of distribution functions, which define a primary process being stationary (in the weak sense) or non-stationary, and when it is equal to U1(ν) independently of τ. The process defined by (1) is in these cases called a stationary or non-stationary (s. or n.s.)cPp and a cPpin the narrow sense (i.n.s.) respectively. If a process is non-elementary i.e. the size of one change in the random function constituting the process is a random variable, the distribution of this variable conditioned by the hypothesis that such a change has occurred at τ is here called the change distribution and denoted by V(x, τ), or, if it is independent of τ, by V1(x). In an elementary process the size of one change is a constant, so that, in this case, the change distribution reduces to the unity distribution E(x — k), where E(ξ) is equal to I, o, if ξ is non-negative, negative respectively, and k is a given constant.
A Procedure to Compute Values of the Generalised Poisson Function
Authors: Hovinen Esa
Published: July 2016

The purpose of this paper is to describe a technical procedure, which enables one to compute values of the generalised Poisson distribution function, with an accuracy considered sufficient for insurance companies and with satisfactory speed. The procedure requires a fast medium sized computer.

The computation of values of the generalised Poisson distribution function has become a timely problem in Finland, because of the introduction by the Supervisory Service of more stringent requirements in determining limits of the so called equalisation reserves, which have their theoretical basis in the random fluctuations of claims amounts. The question has also been discussed in papers submitted by Dr. Pentikainen [3] and Dr. Pesonen [4] to this Colloquium. Because the practical computation is a further problem, the Federation of Finnish Insurance Companies set up a committee in 1962 to gather and work up the necessary statistics from various branches of insurance and to develop the computational methods ready for use in practice. The committee has almost completed its work, and one of the results, a procedure to compute values of the generalised Poisson function with a mixed method, is described below. The method is referred to briefly in [4]. The programming and further planning work has been done by Dr. Loimaranta and M. Sc. Porn.
Modern General Risk Theory
Authors: Almer Bertil
Published: July 2016

Modern life is characterized by risks of different kind: some threatening all persons and some restricted to the owners of property, motor cars, etc., while still others are typical for some individuals or for special occupations. The corresponding accidents, losses or claims will occur suddenly and unexpectedly and may involve considerable financial loss. It is quite evident that modern life is a fit subject for risk theory, and that some results in the pure mathematic theory might have applications in the study of problems in real life.

In practice, however, we can identify risk theory with insurance risk theory or with the application of the theory of probability on insurance risk problems. This general definition has the advantage, that it covers a wide field of different risks and risk problems as specified in the insurance texts—and a great collection of risk situations ₌ claims occurred (with corresponding loss amounts) is available in the claims acts. In fact, I believe that any actuary or mathematician, starting his researches in risk theory or in risk statistics, should begin his studies by a series of actual claims acts.
Verification of Outstanding Claim Provisions—Separation Technique
Authors: Beard R. E.
Published: July 2016

In reference [1] Dr. G. C. Taylor has described a useful advance in the techniques available for verification of outstanding claims estimates when the data provided is the cohort development of numbers and amounts of claims. In this note it is assumed that the numbers relate to settled claims and that the amounts relate to claim payments, so there is an implicit assumption that the pattern of partial payments is constant. If the amounts of settled claims were to be used, there would be a one/one relationship between the numbers and amounts, but the effect of the exogeneous factor would be blurred because the settlements in a year other than the first include partial payments made some time previously, and, by hypothesis, based on different factors. If information relating to partial payments is available the data can be examined for any major fluctuation in the pattern and allowance made accordingly.

In paragraph (2) of reference [1] a brief description is given of a standard routine calculation in which the average distribution function of claim payments in time is estimated from the triangle of payments by a chain ladder technique. This distribution function is then used to estimate the expected development of the incomplete cohorts, the implicit assumption being made that the function was stable in time. With a constant rate of inflation the results obtained by this technique were found to be satisfactory but with a rapid increase in the rate of inflation the distribution function changed so that projection led to underestimates of the future claims payments. Various methods of adjusting the projections to allow for the change in the rate of inflation have been investigated, but they all involve an important element of subjective judgment and so far no generally suitable basis for “automatic” verification by this particular technique has been discovered. See however reference [2].
On Optimal Cancellation of Policies
Authors: Gerber Hans U.
Published: July 2016

One of the basic problems in life is: Given information (from the past), make decisions (that will affect the future). One of the classical actuarial examples is the adaptive ratemaking (or credibility) procedures; here the premium of a given risk is sequentially adjusted, taking into account the claims experience available when the decisions are made.

In some cases, the rates are fixed and the premiums cannot be adjusted. Then the actuary faces the question: Should a given risk be underwritten in the first place, and if yes, what is the criterion (in terms of claims performance) for cancellation of the policy at a later time?

Recently, Cozzolino and Freifelder [6] developed a model in an attempt to answer these questions. They assumed a discrete time, finite horizon, Poisson model. While the results lend themselves to straightforward numerical evaluation, their analytical form is not too attractive. Here we shall present a continuous time, infinite horizon, diffusion model. At the expense of being somewhat less realistic, this model is very appealing from an analytical point of view.

Mathematically, the cancellation of policies amounts to an optimal stopping problem, see [8], [4], or chapter 13 in [7], and (more generally) should be viewed within the framework of discounted dynamic programming [1], [2].
Probing the electrical switching of a memristive optical antenna by STEM EELS
Authors: Schoen David T. , Holsteen Aaron L. , Brongersma Mark L.
Published: July 2016

The scaling of active photonic devices to deep-submicron length scales has been hampered by the fundamental diffraction limit and the absence of materials with sufficiently strong electro-optic effects. Plasmonics is providing new opportunities to circumvent this challenge. Here we provide evidence for a solid-state electro-optical switching mechanism that can operate in the visible spectral range with an active volume of less than (5 nm)3 or ∼10−6 λ3, comparable to the size of the smallest electronic components. The switching mechanism relies on electrochemically displacing metal atoms inside the nanometre-scale gap to electrically connect two crossed metallic wires forming a cross-point junction. These junctions afford extreme light concentration and display singular optical behaviour upon formation of a conductive channel. The active tuning of plasmonic antennas attached to such junctions is analysed using a combination of electrical and optical measurements as well as electron energy loss spectroscopy in a scanning transmission electron microscope.
Live attenuated Salmonella displaying HIV-1 10E8 epitope on fimbriae: systemic and mucosal immune responses in BALB/c mice by mucosal administration
Authors: Li Qing-Hai , Jin Gang , Wang Jia-Ye , Li Hai-Ning , Liu Huidi , Chang Xiao-Yun , Wang Fu-Xiang , Liu Shu-Lin
Published: July 2016

The HIV-1 membrane proximal external region (MPER) that is targeted by several broadly neutralizing antibodies (BNAbs) has been considered a potential immunogen for vaccine development. However, to date the immunogenicity of these BNAb epitopes has not been made sufficiently adequate. In the present work, we used live attenuated Salmonella as a platform to present the HIV-1 MPER 10E8 epitope in the fimbriae. The insertion of the 10E8 epitope into the fimbriae had no significant influence on the expression and the absorption capacity of bacterial fimbriae, nor on the virulence and invasiveness of the attenuated Salmonella. After oral administration of the vaccine construct to mice followed by 10E8 epitope peptide boost, specific antibody responses in serum and mucosa as well as memory lymphocytes in spleen and plasma cells in bone marrow were induced. We also found that the live attenuated Salmonella vector directed the immunity toward Th1 bias, induced Th1 and Th2 cytokine responses and stimulated significant B cell differentiation into GC B, memory B and plasma cells. Therefore, we propose that the live attenuated Salmonella constitutively expressing HIV-1 BNAb epitopes on the fimbriae will be an effective approach to improving immune microenvironment and enhancing the immunogenicity of HIV-1 epitope vaccines.
Hybrid Cluster Precursors of the LaZrO Insulator for Transistors: Properties of High-Temperature-Processed Films and Structures of Solutions, Gels and Solids
Authors: Li Jinwang , Zhu Peixin , Hirose Daisuke , Kohara Shinji , Shimoda Tatsuya
Published: July 2016

In the solution processing of oxide electronics, the structure of metal–organic precursors in solution and their effect on processability and on the final structure and properties of the oxide have rarely been studied. We have observed that hybrid clusters, having inorganic cores coordinated by organic ligands, are the typical form of metal–organic precursor structures. For insulating ternary LaZrO, improved synthesis of the cluster precursor under solvothermal conditions led to low-temperature deposition of the film at 200 °C, as we will report in another paper. In the current paper, we first briefly show that solvothermal synthesis of the precursor resulted in significantly improved insulating properties (e.g., two orders lower leakage current) of high-temperature-annealed films and then focus on the structural analysis of the cluster precursors and annealed solids and relate the results to the significant improvement of properties by solvothermal treatment of solutions. A change in the cluster core toward structural unification was brought about by solvothermal treatment, resulting in higher uniformity and higher stability of clusters. The final structure of the material maintained the features of the core structure in solution, even after annealing at high temperatures. These results demonstrate the key role played by designing cluster structure in solution.
Structures and electrical properties of single nanoparticle junctions assembled using LaC2-encapsulating carbon nanocapsules
Authors: Tezura Manabu , Kizuka Tokushi
Published: July 2016

As the miniaturization of integrated circuits advances, electronics using single molecules and nanosize particles are being studied increasingly. Single nanoparticle junctions (SNPJs) consist of two electrodes sandwiching a single nanoparticle. Nanocarbons with nanospaces in their center, such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanocapsules (CNCs), are expected to be elements of advanced SNPJs. In this study, SNPJs were assembled using lanthanum dicarbide (LaC2)-encapsulating CNCs and two gold (Au) electrodes by a nanotip operation inside a high-resolution transmission electron microscope. The atomic configuration and electrical resistance of the SNPJs were investigated in situ. The results implied that the electrical resistance of the SNPJ depended on the interface structures of the contacts between the CNC and Au electrodes, i.e., the contact electrical resistance and the greatest portion of the current through the SNPJ flowed along the outermost carbon layer of the CNC. Thus, the resistance of the SNPJs using the CNCs was demonstrated and the electrical conduction mechanism of one of the CNC was discussed in this study.
A Global Analysis of the Personal Care Market
Authors: Owh Cally , Chee Pei Lin , Loh Xian Jun
Published: July 2016

Global trends and macroeconomic factors alike have been indicative of potential in the growth of personal care markets in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). In particular, there has been an observable increase in the purchasing power of consumers, which along with a rising awareness of health and a growing interest in multifunctional products, allows for the fueling of growth and market opportunities in ASEAN regions. Furthermore, a large portion of the ASEAN personal care market is held by active ingredients, which constituted an approximate 30% of the market shares in 2013, out of which 85% was attributed to moisturizing ingredients. This market distribution is thought to be yet another contributing factor in the prediction of the growth of the ASEAN personal care market. This forecasted growth is expected to be further propelled by the regional age distribution, due to an anticipated rise in the population of the middle aged (aged 40–64), as well as the significant proportion of youths within the area, which will serve as a basis for a heightened demand for personal products targeted at the young population. Such circumstances have been predicted to drive the personal care market in ASEAN into a persisting high growth, with a CAGR of 7% between 2013 and 2017. This personal care market is currently dominated by large and growing economies such as Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam with Indonesia and Thailand. Of this, a sizeable proportion of the market share (45% for each country), is held by Thailand and Indonesia. Other notable players in the field are the key emerging markets, which include Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia. The two most popular products are hair and skin care, which make up around 55% of the personal care markets. While technological innovation, consumer spending and greater awareness assist a company in gaining competitive advantage and greater market share, there are also numerous obstacles to the development of new active ingredients. For instance, the competition from China pressurizes global companies to cut costs, reducing the profits that could otherwise be invested for new development. The ability to invest is crucial as the main differentiation, which determines the long term gain, comes from product innovation and research and development. Another obstacle is hostile legislation. Europe and the United States are the major distributors of personal care active ingredients.
Polymers for Personal Care – Natural Protein-Based Polymers
Authors: Yin Xiao Lu , Loh Xian Jun
Published: July 2016

Natural polymers are playing an increasingly important role in formulations and some have become important core ingredients for cosmetic products. In this chapter we will discuss the various natural polymers used in a personal care product. We will focus primarily on protein-based natural polymers, study their production and compare the various chemical and physical properties of these proteins and how they can affect personal care applications.
Antibacterial Polymers
Authors: Heng Hwa Yaw Jonathan , Loh Xian Jun
Published: July 2016

The prevention of bacterial infections has been one of the most important considerations in the field of medical services and healthcare where, in some cases, infections can easily lead to death. Our immune system is able to protect the body during an infection. People with weaker immune systems, such as infants or the elderly, are particularly susceptible to infection. Antibiotic resistant bacteria are evolving, have mutated and developed resistance to current antibiotics. This brings a need to find another method of killing bacteria more effectively. There has been great development in the area of antibacterial polymers as antimicrobial agents. This chapter will focus on the development of antibacterial polymers for the inhibition and eradication of bacteria. Antibacterial polymers are polymers that possess antibacterial properties that are able to inhibit bacteria growth, or even kill bacteria. In this chapter, we will look at antibacterial polymers which can be classified into 3 different groups: (1) polymers with inherent antibacterial activity (2) chemically modified polymers and (3) addition of antibacterial agents.
Silicones: The Future for Beauty and Everyday Care
Authors: Kuah Hao Xun , Loh Xian Jun
Published: July 2016

Silicone has been a highly successful ingredient for many cosmetic products since the 1990s due to its superior properties and excellent versatility. Silicones are used extensively in many different fields to enhance our quality of life. Silicone is frequently known as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or dimethicone, despite there being numerous different types of functional silicones in the market today. Beyond basic hand lotions, shampoos and body foam, the use of cosmetics and protective creams are becoming increasingly popular. Moreover, expectations from consumers continue to increase as they become more conscious of the benefits of personal care. Many personal care companies are required to meet the varying needs of the consumers such as the skin feel, the aesthetical aspects or the product benefits. Silicones have become one major ingredient of investigation for these personal care products. Silicones utilised in personal care products consist of varying types such as linear, cyclic or organo-functional PDMS. Some may even include silicone elastomer dispersions and resins. Silicones may provide varying characteristics and function as water shields, emulsifiers or emollients in the respective products. This class of polymer also provides features such as excellent spreading, high volatility, film forming abilities and permeability. Its unique attribute of being smooth, with a silky and non-greasy texture attracted many consumers to include silicones in their daily lives. Most importantly, silicones are non-toxic, which is especially vital for personal care applications.
Sunlight-assisted, biocatalytic formate synthesis from CO2 and water using silicon-based photoelectrochemical cells
Authors: Son Eun Jin , Ko Jong Wan , Kuk Su Keun , Choe Hyunjun , Lee Sumi , Kim Jae Hong , Nam Dong Heon , Ryu Gyeong Min , Kim Yong Hwan , Park Chan Beum
Published: July 2016

A silicon-based photoelectrochemical cell is developed to convert CO2 to formate with water as an electron donor by using formate dehydrogenase from Thiobacillus sp.
Straightforward catalyst/solvent-free iodine-mediated living radical polymerization of functional monomers driven by visible light irradiation
Authors: Liu Xiaodong , Zhang Lifen , Cheng Zhenping , Zhu Xiulin
Published: July 2016

A simple and highly efficient catalyst/solvent-free iodine-mediated polymerization system for functional monomers (DMAEMA, PEGMA and GMA) was successfully developed under irradiation of visible light or sunlight.
Matrix metalloproteinase-1 induction by diethyldithiocarbamate is regulated via Akt and ERK/miR222/ETS-1 pathways in hepatic stellate cells
Authors: Liu Tianhui , Wang Ping , Cong Min , Zhang Dong , Liu Lin , Li Hongyi , Zhai Qingling , Li Zhuo , Jia Jidong , You Hong
Published: July 2016

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) plays an important role in fibrolysis by degrading excessively deposited collagen I and III. We previously demonstrated that diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC) up-regulates MMP-1 in hepatic stellate cells via the ERK1/2 and Akt signalling pathways. In the current study, we attempted to further explore the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of MMP-1. We treated a co-cultured system that included hepatocytes (C3A) and hepatic stellate cells (LX-2) with DDC. The data revealed that the transcriptional factor ETS-1, which is an important regulator of MMP-1, was up-regulated in LX-2 cells following DDC treatment. Furthermore, the up-regulation of MMP-1 by DDC has been abrogated through employing si-ETS-1 to block expression of ETS-1. We found that DDC significantly inhibited the expression of miR-222 in LX-2 cells. We transfected miR-222 mimic into LX-2 cells and then co-cultured the cells with C3A. The up-regulation of ETS-1 and MMP-1 in LX-2 cells treated with DDC were inhibited after miR-222 mimic transfection. These data indicate that DDC up-regulated MMP-1 in LX-2 cells through the miR-222/ETS-1 pathway. Finally, we treated the co-cultured system with an Akt inhibitor (T3830) and an ERK1/2 inhibitor (U0126). Both T3830 and U0126 blocked the suppression of miR-222 by DDC in LX-2. Collectively, these data indicate that DDC up-regulated MMP-1 in LX-2 cells through the Akt and ERK/miR-222/ETS-1 pathways. Our study provides experimental data that will aid the control of the process of fibrolysis in liver fibrosis prevention and treatment.
Model reference adaptive control for switched LPV systems and its application
Authors: Xie Jing , Zhao Jun
Published: July 2016

In this study, the problem of model reference adaptive control (MRAC) for switched linear parameter‐varying (LPV) systems with parametric uncertainties is investigated. First, a switched LPV controller with the adaptive laws is designed. Then, the proposed LPV controller with the adaptive laws guarantees that all the closed‐loop system signals remain bounded under a class of switching signals with average dwell time, and the state tracking error converges to a small ball centred at the origin whose radius can be made arbitrarily small by appropriately choosing the design parameters. Finally, a practical example about MRAC for a turbofan‐engine is given to demonstrate the validity of the main results.
Effects of area and available energy on fish assemblages of tropical streams
Authors: Bastos Gonçalves Bruno , Tejerina-Garro Francisco Leonardo , Assis de Carvalho Rodrigo
Published: July 2016

A central issue in fish community ecology is to understand how the size of the drainage area and the available energy influence fish species diversity and their spatial distribution. In the present study, we tested whether the species–area relationship (represented by drainage area) and species–energy association (represented by algal biomass and organic matter) drive taxonomic and functional richness in a regional scale. The results indicated that fish assemblages of the two tropical neighbouring basins sampled responded differently to the size of drainage area. Whereas taxonomic richness was influenced by the size of the drainage area in Tocantins River basin streams, it was not affected in Araguaia River basin streams. Both taxonomic richness and functional richness of the fish assemblages were affected by available energy in the system. A possible explanation for these different responses is related to local conditions, such as the percentage of natural vegetation cover encountered in each basin.
Analysis of the body composition of Paralympic athletes: Comparison of two methods
Authors: Lemos Valdir De Aquino , Alves Eduardo Da Silva , Schwingel Paulo Adriano , Rosa João Paulo Pereira , Silva Andressa Da , Winckler Ciro , Vital Roberto , De Almeida Alexandre Aparecido , Tufik Sergio , De Mello Marco Túlio
Published: July 2016

Body composition is a physiological variable associated with physical activity and, in some cases, is related to athletic performance. Our objectives were to describe the body composition of participants in three distinct Paralympic sports and to compare the values of body density and estimated body fat obtained from the Paralympic athletes on the National Team by air‐displacement plethysmography (ADP) and by the anthropometric method (skinfolds (SFs)). The sample consisted of 70 volunteers of both genders. The body composition of the volunteers was evaluated using the ADP in a Bod Pod® and seven SFs. There were no significant differences between the values obtained by ADP and SF for body fat percentage (p = .58) and body density (p = .49). Analysis by Bland–Altman plots showed mean differences of 0.56 ± 4.94 (−9.12–10.23) and −0.0017 ± 0.0113 (−0.024–0.020) for body fat percentage and body density, respectively. In conclusion, body composition analyses of Paralympic athletes by the ADP and SF methods show similar results, and ADP should be used as the first option when available. When the use of ADP is not possible, estimating body density and fat percentage by SF is a viable alternative for Paralympic athletes when future comparisons will use the same analysis method.
The RhoE/ROCK/ARHGAP25 signaling pathway controls cell invasion by inhibition of Rac activity
Authors: Thuault Sylvie , Comunale Franck , Hasna Jessy , Fortier Mathieu , Planchon Damien , Elarouci Nabila , De Reynies Aurélien , Bodin Stéphane , Blangy Anne , Gauthier-Rouvière Cécile
Published: July 2016

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma of skeletal muscle origin in children and adolescents. Among RMS subtypes, alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma (ARMS), which is characterized by the presence of the PAX3-FOXO1A or PAX7-FOXO1A chimeric oncogenic transcription factor, is associated with poor prognosis and a strong risk of metastasis compared with the embryonal subtype (ERMS). To identify molecular pathways involved in ARMS aggressiveness, we first characterized the migratory behavior of cell lines derived from ARMS and ERMS biopsies using a three-dimensional spheroid cell invasion assay. ARMS cells were more invasive than ERMS cells and adopted an ellipsoidal morphology to efficiently invade the extracellular matrix. Moreover, the invasive potential of ARMS cells depended on ROCK activity, which is regulated by the GTPase RhoE. Specifically, RhoE expression was low in ARMS biopsies, and its overexpression in ARMS cells reduced their invasion potential. Conversely, ARHGAP25, a GTPase-activating protein for Rac, was up-regulated in ARMS biopsies. Moreover, we found that ARHGAP25 inhibits Rac activity downstream of ROCKII and is required for ARMS cell invasion. Our results indicate that the RhoE/ROCK/ARHGAP25 signaling pathway promotes ARMS invasive potential and identify these proteins as potential therapeutic targets for ARMS treatment.
Sec24C/D-isoform–specific sorting of the preassembled ER–Golgi Q-SNARE complex
Authors: Adolf Frank , Rhiel Manuel , Reckmann Ingeborg , Wieland Felix T.
Published: July 2016

Secretory proteins are exported from the endoplasmic reticulum in COPII vesicles. SNARE proteins—core machinery for membrane fusion—are incorporated into COPII vesicles by direct interaction with Sec24. Here we report a novel mechanism for sorting of the ER–Golgi Q-SNAREs into COPII vesicles. Different mammalian Sec24 isoforms recruit either the R-SNARE Sec22b or the Q-SNAREs Syntaxin5, GS27, and Bet1. Syntaxin5 is the only Q-SNARE that directly interacts with Sec24C, requiring its “open” conformation. Mutation within the IxM cargo-binding site of Sec24C led to a drastic reduction in sorting of all three Q-SNAREs into COPII vesicles, implying their ER export as a preassembled complex. Analysis of immunoisolated COPII vesicles and intracellular localization of Sec24 isoforms indicate that all ER–Golgi SNAREs are present on the same vesicle. Combined with existing data, our findings yield a general concept of how Sec24 isoforms can recruit fusogenic SNARE subunits to keep them functionally apart and thus prime mammalian COPII vesicles for homotypic fusion.
Marine Scientific Research
Authors: Stephens Tim , Rothwell Donald
Published: July 2016

This chapter begins by considering the definition of marine scientific research (MSR), followed by a brief assessment of the development of the regime dealing with MSR. It then examines the MSR regime contained within the 1982 UN Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) from a zonal and operational perspective, followed by an analysis of how MSR is dealt with in complementary legal regimes. Next, the chapter reviews current coastal State legislative frameworks regulating MSR and comments on future issues confronting the regime.
Piracy
Authors: Petrig Anna
Published: July 2016

This chapter begins with discussions of the necessity of a counter-piracy legal regime; forms of contemporary piracy; and the applicable legal framework and its historical roots. It then analyzes the scope of counter-piracy enforcement powers and the legal regime governing the criminal prosecution of alleged pirates, which assumes a holistic approach that goes beyond the law of the sea.
The Limitations of Traditional Rules and Institutions Relating to the Use of Force
Authors: Glennon Michael
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines the limitations of traditional rules and institutions with respect to the use of force. It considers international cooperation in managing the use of force, and whether and when the use of force is justified, within the framework of the jus ad bellum. The chapter discusses three factors that help to explain why the rules and institutions that regulate the use of force have not been effective. First is the weakness of international law’s secondary rules concerning consent, obligation, and causation. Second is the weaknesses in the UN Charter rules due to deficiencies in the wording of the rules themselves, especially with regard to pre-emptive self-defence. Third is the weakness in compliance resulting from the UN Security Council’s dysfunctionality, in part due to the UN’s professed reliance upon the principle of sovereign equality.
United Nations Security Council Practice in Relation to Use of Force in No-Fly Zones and Maritime Exclusion Zones
Authors: McLaughlin Rob
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines UN Security Council practice with respect to the use of force in no-fly zones and maritime exclusion zones. It considers whether the law governing the zone is based or not based on the law of armed conflict (LOAC) and whether the law on the use of force inside the zone is essentially the same as that outside it. It also assesses the effect of the Security Council’s act of declaring or acquiescing in the zone on the law that is normally applicable in the ocean or airspace enclosed by the zone. The chapter also analyses whether the Security Council can authorize the use of lethal force for the purpose of enforcing a mandate despite the absence of LOAC authorization. It discusses the notion of a ‘third paradigm’ for use of lethal force and the concept of ‘self-defence’ endorsed by the Security Council (and the UN more generally).
The Relationship between the Un Security Council and General Assembly in Matters of International Peace and Security
Authors: White Nigel D.
Published: July 2016

This chapter examines the division of competence between the UN Security Council and the UN General Assembly concerning matters of international peace and security but placed within the context of the prohibition on the use of force. Although the Security Council can authorize the use of force by states, what is not clear is whether the General Assembly can recommend that states take military action. The chapter considers the conundrum faced by the United Nations with respect to an imminent and catastrophic use of force or act of egregious violence, when the UN Security Council is deadlocked because of the lack of agreement between the permanent members. It discusses the debate over the legality of the (in)famous Uniting for Peace Resolution of 1950 within the context of the emerging principle of a Responsibility to Protect (R2P) as well as within existing principles of international law.
Mandated to Protect
Authors: Willmot Haidi , Mamiya Ralph
Published: July 2016

This chapter focuses on the conception and evolution of the UN Security Council mandate to protect civilians during peacekeeping operations from 1960 to the present. The chapter examines the normative and legal framework of the use of force to protect civilians in UN peacekeeping operations, with reference to Security Council resolutions and other bodies of international law such as humanitarian and human rights law. It considers Security Council practice between 1960 and 1999 and its emphasis on the concept of self-defence; Security Council practice from 1999 to 2007 regarding the inception and development of the explicit ‘protection of civilians’ mandate by the Council; Security Council practice from 2007 to 2011; and prioritization of the mandate in certain peacekeeping missions, specifically UNAMID (Sudan (Darfur)), MONUC (Democratic Republic of the Congo), UNOCI (Côte d’Ivoire), and UNMISS (South Sudan). Finally, the chapter describes Security Council practice from 2011 onwards and draws conclusions on impact that the protection of civilians mandate in peacekeeping operations has had on the evolution of the legitimate use of force under the UN Charter.