bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Structural and electronic properties of self-organized quantum dots
Authors: Ustinov Victor M. , Zhukov Alexey E. , Egorov Anton Yu. , Maleev Nikolai A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter includes an overview of the basic principles of quantum-dot formation using self-organization phenomena in lattice-mismatched materials. A relationship between lattice mismatch and critical thickness for dislocation formation and island growth mode is discussed. Main structural and optical properties of self-organized quantum dots are then discussed and how they correlate to each other. Special attention is paid to the methods that allow control of the emission wavelength, localization energy, and surface density of QDs. A majority of experimental examples relates to InGaAs/GaAs material system. In addition, quantum dot formation driven by the elastic strain relaxation is reviewed for a wide class of alternative material systems, including GaSb/GaAs, InP/GaP, InGaAsN/GaAs, III-N, III-V/Si, and Ge/Si. The specific aspects of QD formation in these systems as well as the structural and optical properties are discussed.
Optical gain and threshold characteristics of a self-organized quantum dot diode laser
Authors: Ustinov Victor M. , Zhukov Alexey E. , Egorov Anton Yu. , Maleev Nikolai A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the peculiar properties of lasers based on self-organized quantum dot arrays. A correlation between density of states, saturated gain and transparency current is discussed taking into account inhomogeneous broadening and higher-energy states. Ground-to-excited state lasing transition, which is observed in QD lasers, is explained. Empirical and analytical expressions are considered, which are capable of describing gain-current relation in self-organized QD lasers in the presence of wetting layer, matrix, and excited quantum dot states. A method to prevent gain saturation by multiple stacking of quantum dots is described in connection with the effect of the QD surface density on the threshold current. The effect of temperature on the gain and threshold characteristics is also discussed in realistic QD lasers.
Quantum dot vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
Authors: Ustinov Victor M. , Zhukov Alexey E. , Egorov Anton Yu. , Maleev Nikolai A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the fabrication and performance of QD vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) as well as their possible applications. The physical fundamentals of optical microcavities and VCSELs are briefly reviewed. Some fundamental issues and specific features of QD VCSEL design and fabrication are considered. Specifically, scalability properties of QD VCSELs in comparison with quantum well structures are discussed. The effects of realistic (existing) QD active media on VCSEL design are examined. A technique of selective wet oxidation of AlGaAs alloys is described, and its use in QD VCSEL technology is justified. The current status of QD VCSELs is presented, and their possible device applications are also discussed. Advantages of InGaAs quantum dots for GaAs-based long-wavelength VCSELs are considered.
8 Dynamical diffraction in highly asymmetric coplanar and non-coplanar geometries
Authors: AUTHIER ANDRÉ
Published: January 2010

The first part of this chapter is devoted to the derivation of the generalized dispersion equation in highly asymmetric coplanar geometries (grazing incidence or grazing emergence). The deviation from Bragg's angle of the middle of the reflection domain and the Darwin width are calculated and the generalized equation of the dispersion surface is given. The specularly and Bragg reflected intensities are then derived. The case of non-coplanar geometries is considered in the last section of the chapter and a three-dimensional representation of the dispersion surface introduced. The chapter shows how the tiepoints are obtained and the expressions of the reflected amplitudes are given.
12 Ray tracing in perfect crystals
Authors: AUTHIER ANDRÉ
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the propagation of wavefields inside the crystal close to the Bragg angle. It shows that the direction of propagation of packets of wavefields as obtained by their group velocity is identical to that of the Poynting vector. The geometrical properties of wavefields trajectories (ray tracing) within the Borrmann triangle are determined and the intensity distribution along the base of the Borrmann triangle is calculated. A detailed account of the experimental observation of the double refraction of the X-ray wavefields at the Bragg angle is given. The propagation of wavefields in finite crystals giving rise to partial reflections and interference effects is then described. The Bragg–Laue, Bragg–Bragg, and Laue–Bragg geometries are successively considered, and the formation of the Borrmann–Lehmann fringes in the latter case analyzed. In the last section, the coherence properties of X-ray sources are discussed.
Finding a pendulum’s axis of rotation
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

To determine a pendulum's axis of rotation, a small piece of paper is temporarily mounted on the front of the pendulum rod at the rod's top end, so that the paper extends up an inch or two past the suspension spring. With the pendulum stopped, two small dots (A and B) are marked on the paper about an inch directly above and another inch directly below the top end of the free unclamped part of the suspension spring. Although the one-inch dimensions are not critical, they accurately measure the actual distance between the two dots (A and B). The pendulum must be set swinging at its normal swing amplitude, and an accurate ruler (a six-inch machinist's scale calibrated in decimal inches is ideal) is used to measure the horizontal motion of each dot. The location of the axis of rotation changes slightly with the pendulum's swing amplitude.
Bob shape
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

The sphere and the vertically oriented cylinder are more repeatable and predictable bob shapes than the more efficient, lower-drag prolate spheroid and football shapes. As a bob shape, prolate spheroids have low air drag for their volume, and give a high Q pendulum. Only football-shaped bobs, that is, bobs with pointed ends (120 degrees included angles) in the direction of travel give a higher Q. A prolate spheroid shape can be obtained by rotating an ellipse 360 degrees around its long axis. The improved repeatability and predictability of spheres and vertically oriented cylinders can be attributed to their not having the rotational alignment uncertainty that is present in the prolate spheroid and football bob shapes.
Rate adjustment mechanisms
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

The usual coarse adjustment for trimming a pendulum's clock rate is a threaded nut beneath the bob, which moves the whole bob up and down the pendulum rod. The surface of the thread is somewhat rough, particularly if the material is invar, which machines poorly. The thread's roughness prevents any sort of smooth adjustment. Axially, 0.001 inch equals 1 second per day on a pendulum with a 2-second period. To get an adjustment sensitivity of 1 second per day, the thread must be lapped, or more correctly, rubbed smooth. And if the thread is not smooth, the whole bob weight will rest on the small raised points of the rough thread's two facing surfaces, creating high stress points and a potentially unstable joint (at the micro-inch level). Using a sleeve bushing or a thick washer of predetermined length underneath the bob as a coarse rate adjustment, and a small threaded nut at the top of the pendulum rod as a fine rate adjustment provide a better way to trim a pendulum's clock rate.
An electronically driven pendulum
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

An electromagnetically driven pendulum is more accurate than a mechanically (escapement) driven pendulum. This is because a pendulum is disturbed less by an electromagnetic drive pulse than by hitting and dragging a pallet across an escape wheel's tooth. This is empirically based on Q —the less disturbed a pendulum is, the more accurate it will be. A short drive pulse at the center of swing is superior to the continuous sine wave drive approach. This is due to the difficulty in avoiding spurious electrical drive currents at the ends of swing, where unwanted low level electrical currents in a continuous sine wave drive can cause significant time errors over long time intervals. In this clock, the pendulum is electronically driven by a short current pulse in each drive coil at the center of swing. This chapter describes some features of an electromagnetically driven pendulum clock. The clock's mechanical layout is presented.
Application to Few-Particle Systems
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

This chapter illustrates the concept of restitution via two examples of few-particle systems. It shows that the detailed mechanics of collisions is important to overall behaviour: even small systems consisting of only viscoelastic particles behave qualitatively different from equivalent systems when a constant coefficient of restitution is assumed. Thus, it can be expected that details of pairwise particle collisions determine the properties of a granular many-body system, that is, a granular gas, qualitatively too.
Cooling Granular Gas — Haff's Law
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses cooling granular gas. During the first stage of its evolution, a force-free, initially uniform granular gas remains homogeneous, while the mean velocity of its particles decreases continuously. This stage is called the homogeneous cooling state. In this regime, the granular temperature decays according to Haff's law.
Velocity Distribution And Temperature Of A Granular Gas For The Case ε =Const.
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

For the ε = const the Boltzmann equation may be reduced to a set of two uncoupled equations. One of them describes the evolution of temperature and the other determines the scaled distribution function. This chapter solves this equation using the Sonine polynomials expansion.
Coefficient of Self-Diffusion
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyzes the coefficient of self-diffusion. The coefficient of self-diffusion for granular gases with the simplified collision model ε = const differs from the coefficient for granular gases of viscoelastic particles. For the former case, the mean square displacement depends logarithmically on time; the latter case obeys a power law.
Two-Dimensional Granular Gases
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

It has been shown for molecular fluids that the velocity-time correlation function in ddimensions exhibits a power-law dependence for t >> 1. This function reveals a long time tail compared with an exponentially decaying function. According to the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, the kinetic coefficients are expressed by time integrals of the corresponding correlation functions. For d > 2, these integrals converge; for two-dimensional systems the convergence of these integrals is problematic and hence, the existence of the kinetic coefficients is questionable. For force-free granular fluids, one can expect convergence of these integrals, since there exists an additional decay of correlation functions due to the decay of temperature. This problem has not been addressed for granular gases. This chapter presents the results for d-dimensionless gases.
Granular Gas as A Continuum: Hydrodynamic Equations
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers a highly inhomogeneous granular gas with small spatial gradients of temperature and density. It derives equations for the zero, the first, and the second moments of the velocity distribution function which characterize the density, flow velocity, and the temperature of the gas. A closed set of hydrodynamic equations are obtained by introducing phenomenological kinetic coefficients such as shear viscosity, thermal conductivity, etc.
Structure Formation for ε =Const.
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins with a discussion of linearized hydrodynamic equations for ε = const. It then discusses hydrodynamic modes, vortex formation due to instability of the transverse modes, and cluster formation due to the instability of other hydrodynamic modes.
Basic Dynamics of Point Particles and Collections
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

Modern mechanics begins with the publication in 1687 of Isaac Newton’s Principia, in which he explains mathematically the motions of planets, moons, comets, and tides in what is now known as the three laws of motion. This chapter assumes that Newton’s three laws of motion refer fundamentally to point particles. After deriving the laws of momentum, angular momentum, and work-energy for point particles, it is shown that, given certain plausible and universally accepted additional axioms, essentially the same laws can be proved to apply to macroscopic bodies, considered as collections of the elementary point particles. This chapter also discusses Newton’s space and time, single point particle, collective variables, the law of momentum for collections, the law of angular momentum for collections, the work-energy theorem for collections, potential and total energy for collections, the center of mass, center of mass and momentum, center of mass and angular momentum, center of mass and torque, change of angular momentum, center of mass and the work-energy theorems, center of mass as a point particle, and special results for rigid bodies.
Linear Operators and Dyadics
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

Linear vector functions of vectors, and the related dyadic notation, are important in the study of rigid body motion and the covariant formulations of relativistic mechanics. These functions have a rich structure, with up to nine independent parameters needed to characterise them, and vector outputs that need not even have the same directions as the vector inputs. The subject of linear vector operators merits a chapter to itself not only for its importance in analytical mechanics, but also because study of it will help the reader to master the operator formalism of quantum mechanics. This chapter defines linear operators and discusses operators and matrices as well as special operators, dyadics, resolution of unity, complex vectors and operators, real and complex inner products, eigenvectors and eigenvalues, eigenvectors of real symmetric operator, eigenvectors of real anti-symmetric operator, normal operators, determinant and trace of normal operator, eigen-dyadic expansion of normal operator, functions of normal operators, exponential function, and Dirac notation.
Kinematics of Rotation
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

This chapter deals with techniques needed to define the location and orientation of a moving rigid body. Rigid bodies are characterised and the center of mass of a rigid body is discussed along with rotation operators, rotation matrices, some properties of rotation operators, proper and improper rotation operators, rotation group, kinematics of a rigid body, differentiation of a rotation operator, angular velocity vector, velocities of the masses of a rigid body, Savio’s theorem, infinitesimal rotation, addition of angular velocities, fundamental generators of rotations, rotation with a fixed axis, expansion of fixed-axis rotation, eigenvectors of the fixed-axis rotation operator, Euler theorem, rotation of operators, rotation of the fundamental generators, rotation of a fixed-axis rotation, parameterisation of rotation operators, differentiation of parameterised operator, Euler angles, fixed-axis rotation from Euler angles, time derivative of a product, angular velocity from Euler angles, active and passive rotations, passive transformation of vector components, passive transformation of matrix elements, body derivative, passive rotations and rigid bodies, and passive use of Euler angles.
The molecule: structure, size and shape
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO
Published: January 2010

The relationships between atoms and molecules are mediated by the theory of chemical bonding. Atoms were forged in the extreme conditions that occurred at the cores of stars in the early stages of the development of the universe, but they did not survive as isolated systems in the much milder conditions of mature planets, where more stable structures are formed by highly stabilising interactions between electrons of different atoms, in terms of lowering of the potential energy and of spin pairing. This chapter discusses molecular structure, size and shape, along with classification concepts in many particle systems, symmetry and order, enthalpy and entropy, mass and length dimensions of a molecule, atomic radii, molecular volume and surface, and molecular size in terms of electron density.
Crystal polymorphism and crystal structure prediction
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO
Published: January 2010

Organic molecules can provide an almost infinite variability in shape and electrical polarisation, and the solid state has a high degree of structuring and anisotropy. These are the reasons why much is expected from structure-activity relationships in solid-state chemistry, with promise for constructing a wide range of diverse materials. Moreover, since molecules in solids are blocked into a fixed conformation, and rotation and translation are forbidden, one may expect to be able to construct many different buildings with the same bricks, and one may fancy that the same organic compound can make a piece of rubbish in one crystal and a touchstone in another. This chapter discusses crystal polymorphism and crystal structure and how they are predicted, taxonomy of organic crystals, phenomenology of crystal polymorphism, analysis of crystal polymorphism by Pixel and quantum chemical calculations, construction of crystal structures by computers, molecular clusters with one symmetry operator, pros and cons of the Prom algorithm, and computer prediction of crystal structure.
Distributive Justice
Authors: LUCY WILLIAM
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by introducing some distinctions that will structure our thinking about distributive justice. Although not all of the distinctions will be to the forefront of all that follows in this chapter, all are in play at some point. These preliminary matters are tackled briskly in the first section. The second section analyzes three indirect arguments about the relation between private law and distributive justice and culminates with some speculation about why such arguments are more common than direct arguments. That speculation leads directly to the fulcrum of the third section. It examines an argument which, if successful, pre-empts all talk about a relation between distributive justice and private law. The fourth section analyses two examples of the direct argument and inter alia assesses how well they deal with this pre-emptive objection.
7. The Rise of the Action of Assumpsit
Authors: IBBETSON D. J.
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows how, in the 16th century, the action of trespass on the case came to be established as the primary, ordinary remedy for the imposition of liability on informal contracts. The route by which this was achieved was the same as that followed in other situations: first of all the argument that trespassory remedy was simply supplementing the remedies that were otherwise available, followed by a wholesale expansion into the ground covered by other remedies.
Networks and the International System
Authors: Thompson Grahame F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter extends the analysis of networks explicitly to the international sphere by addressing the whole area of information and communications technology (ICT) and networks and particularly how they are argued to be radically transforming the nature of international relations, organised under the conceptual umbrella term of ‘globalisation’. The internationalisation of ‘production networks’ and how these are also argued to be recasting the nature of global economic relationships are also discussed. Both of these aspects to international networks are critically analysed. The relationship between national and international networking as well as the relationship between networks and other mechanisms of socio-economic coordination and governance is reviewed. The role of the Internet and the World Wide Web in reshaping the whole nature of domestic and international social and economic relationships is discussed, along with the notion of value chains or commodity chains as networks and the role of networks in the governance of the international system.
Success Snatched from Defeat: London and the Bar
Authors: Lacey Nicola
Published: January 2010

This chapter details H. L. A. Hart's preparations to become a barrister and the start of his legal practice. By the time of his graduation, Herbert had already preparing to qualify as a barrister. The Bar provided nothing in the way of formal training: it was simply a matter of equipping oneself with the knowledge necessary to pass the entry examinations. From the very beginning of his student career, Herbert had entertained an ambition to follow up his classics degree with an undergraduate degree in law based on just one further year's study. Spurred on by his brilliant success in his finals, and by the story of another student who had gained a First in a year, Herbert set out to match this achievement.
Jenifer
Authors: Lacey Nicola
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's wife, Jenifer Williams. Jenifer came from an educated, moneyed upper-middle-class background. She was the daughter of Sir John Fischer Williams and Eleanor Marjorie Hay Murray, his second wife. Sir John was a well-known international lawyer and the author of a number of books on the development of the League of Nations, of which he was a strong and influential supporter. Jenifer and her three sisters had travelled widely with their parents, spending time not only in London, Oxford, and at Lamledra, but also living and being educated for much of her childhood in Paris. On going to university in 1932, she became involved in the Women's University Settlement Movement, devoting some free time to working with the poor. Her reading and conversations during her student years gradually moved her politics leftwards, and the summer of her graduation saw her working at a camp for the unemployed organized by the National Unemployed Workers Movement. Though she was initially unaware of it, the camp was run largely by members of the Communist Party.
Oxford from the Other Side of the Fence
Authors: Lacey Nicola
Published: January 2010

This chapter details H. L. A. Hart's post-war career. In September 1945, Herbert returned to an Oxford that was a cloistered, parochial, and largely masculine community. New College was not, in most ways, substantially different from the small community of scholars he had left in 1929. It was surrounded by thirty-odd other such communities, only five of which were for women; and it operated within the framework of only a fragmentary university structure. The small number of Fellows at New College further contributed to an intense and emotionally complex network of social relationships which in many respects resembled a family more than a workplace.
American Jurisprudence through English Eyes: Harvard 1956–7
Authors: Lacey Nicola
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on the time H. L. A. Hart's spent in Harvard University. In early September 1956, Herbert set out from Southampton on the Queen Elizabeth, bound for New York. He was heading for the pinnacle of the American University system, Harvard, where he had been invited to spend a year visiting both the Law School and the Philosophy Department. Harvard Law School — indeed Harvard University — presented him with an intellectual environment strikingly different from Oxford, and one which he could not reasonably have expected to be particularly welcoming.
The Geography, Topography and Land Transport Networks of Egypt
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

This chapter places transport in Roman Egypt into its physical context, discussing the geography and topography of the Nile Valley, Fayum, and desert regions. It studies both the literary and papyrological evidence for this, discussing roads and canals, and the problems for transport created by a hydraulic civilization: canals, irrigation channels, dykes, and embankments. It surveys the difficulties encountered by travellers and transporters, and the concern of the state in the upkeep of roads and routes. It considers the nature of desert travel, desert routes, and their transport infrastructure: these routes connected the oases of the Western Desert to the Nile Valley, and gave access, across the Eastern Desert, to the Red Sea and its ports, facilitating trade with the East.
Deserts and Military Supply
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

Communities in the desert, whether ports or military outposts, were almost wholly reliant on the Nile Valley for their supplies. This chapter considers how the ports of the Red Sea, quarry installations, military outposts, and hydreumata were supplied, in the light of the ever-increasing body of evidence provided by ostraca. It also studies the transport of decorative stone, one of the most impressive technological feats of the ancient world. An impressive infrastructure of desert routes and cisterns was developed to support those engaged in the protection of routes and their supply. Requisitioned animals from the Nile Valley provided the necessary labour. Finally, the transport of military supply is considered, both requisition of supplies and their transport.
Rhetoric
Authors: Wiseman Susan
Published: January 2010

Women's theoretical exclusion from the political sphere generated not silence but highly developed linguistic and figurative responses in seventeenth century England. This chapter analyses women's involvement in politics by examining the use of the example in seventeenth century texts. It concentrates on exemplarity because of its pervasive presence in early modern writing, because of the tensions it sometimes generated for readers, and because of the way it shows gender at work in the interpretative acts of readers and writers. Although the seventeenth century is often characterised as a time when exemplarity became synonymous with mere authority, it might be more accurate to say that the seventeenth century had its own debates on exemplarity. Rather than being ‘merely’ ornament, the examples in an early modern text gave the reader a route, but one which, by the seventeenth century at least, not only was uncertain but might be experienced as such.
Test Cases: Brilliana Harley and Anne Clifford
Authors: Wiseman Susan
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses two writers who have not usually been considered in the same frame as politics, Brilliana Harley and Anne Clifford. They, and the language they use, are test cases for this study in two ways. First, when we ask what are the relationships between their writing and politics we find, in different ways, that each corpus is deeply immersed in political concerns. Second, however, the ways in which tier writings register political concerns requite that we expand and refine what we mean by politics. The reception and transmission of these women's texts tell us about changes in the understanding of politics and of women's relationship to it. As test cases, these writers invite us to understand that women were deeply enmeshed in political ideas, and to begin to reformulate what we think of as political.
Concepts and Theories of Remedies
Authors: SHELTON DINAH
Published: January 2010

The theoretical foundations of remedies are rarely discussed in international human rights law and practice. Yet, in order to construct and afford appropriate remedies, human rights law must develop not only a primary legal framework expressing the duties of states and other actors in this field, but a secondary theory of what duties exist when a primary duty is violated. In most legal systems, including the international legal system, the aims of compensatory justice and deterrence are most often cited as the foundation for the law of remedies. Restorative justice, retribution, and economic analysis recently have provided other theoretical models to approach the issue of responding to human rights violations. This chapter discusses the meaning of and theoretical approaches to remedies and the differences between private law and public law cases.
Reparations in the Law of State Responsibility
Authors: SHELTON DINAH
Published: January 2010

Prior to the development of international human rights law, violations of international law were met with responses under the law of state responsibility. This traditional body of law, particularly the part of it that concerns the mistreatment of aliens, contains useful precedents for evaluating the nature and scope of remedies afforded in state practice. Clearly, the law of state responsibility remains applicable to a human rights violation by a state in breach of an international obligation contained in a treaty or customary international law. This chapter reviews the law of state responsibility, in particular the redress afforded for injury to aliens, in order to identify general principles and precedents that may be applicable or useful in addressing human rights violations.
Costs and Fees
Authors: SHELTON DINAH
Published: January 2010

The lack of financial resources can be a major hindrance to recourse to international or national human rights mechanisms. Despite the obvious need of many applicants to legal aid, no issue divided international tribunals in their early jurisprudence as much as the issue of awards of costs and attorneys' fees. In national legal systems, fees are often awarded and the amount is usually calculated on the basis of the number of hours reasonably expended during the litigation, multiplied by a reasonable hourly rate. Attorneys who bring human rights cases need to be paid because fee awards encourage them to represent victims who are often indigent, social outcasts, or marginalised.
Conclusions
Authors: SHELTON DINAH
Published: January 2010

One of the most important legal developments of the modern era, both nationally and internationally, has been the opening of avenues of complaint for private citizens against oppressive action by government agents and agencies and the affording of remedies when violations are found. The right of access to judicial remedies is widely guaranteed in international human rights treaties and can be considered as part of the corpus of the customary international law of human rights. Remedies not only provide redress for the individual victim, but they serve the community interest in sanctioning the perpetrator and deterring future violations by the same or other wrongdoers. They thus serve the rule of law at all levels of society. The nature and scope of remedies is generally consistent throughout the world.
30 Enforcement of Sentences
Authors: Mettraux Guénaél
Published: January 2010

Once an accused has been sentenced and has exhausted all possibility of appeal, he will serve his sentence in one of the countries that have signed an agreement to that effect with the ad hoc tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia. Pursuant to Article 27 of the statute of the Yugoslav tribunal (Enforcement of sentences), imprisonment shall be served in a state designated by the International Tribunal from a list of states which have indicated to the United Nations Security Council their willingness to accept convicted persons. Article 26 of the statute of the Rwanda tribunal provides for a similar system although it also provides for the possibility of the sentence being served in Rwanda itself. The statutes of both tribunals also provide that imprisonment shall be in accordance with the applicable law of the state concerned, subject to the supervision of the International Tribunal.
Nietzsche as Educator and the Implosion of Bildung
Authors: Bell Michael
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows how Nietzsche develops Goethe's critique of Bildung. The early essays on Schopenhauer as Educator and on The Uses and Disadvantages of History raise questions about the authority of the mentor and of the relation of humanistic culture to historical agency. These themes come to a culmination in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, which until the late 20th century was commonly read as an expression of Nietzschean doctrine through a rather idealised eponymous mouthpiece. Only recently has it been recognised that Zarathustra is a character who represents the conscious crisis of Nietzsche's own authority, or capacity to make himself understood, is less troubled by his critics than by his disciples, and is at his most despairing the more accurately these repeat the formulae of his doctrine. At the same time, it is precisely his radical, and self-encompassing, critique which gives Nietzsche's thought its almost unique and enduring power.
The Importance of being Frank: Criticism, Collaboration, Pedagogy in F. R. Leavis
Authors: Bell Michael
Published: January 2010

Leavis is often thought of as a naively moral critic, concerned with the moral content and tendency of the work to the exclusion of other values which might be covered by the term aesthetic. To the contrary, the imaginative component in creativity is crucial to his conception of literature, and its relation to history. Since he effectively worked out for himself an understanding of literature, language, and the making of history, this chapter is partly devoted to an exposition of Leavis's thought through these parallels. It illuminates the agon of personality and impersonality in Leavis and shows the intrinsic difficulty for him of collaboration. In this respect, he is a latter-day Rousseau, required to instantiate the virtues he affirms, and with a built-in propensity to paranoia.
Quantum information II
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the principles of quantum information. The quantum mechanical equivalent of the Shannon noisy-channel communication theorem is obtained, along with some profound statements about the behavior of quantum information during generalised quantum measurements. The latter are very important in studies of quantum entanglement, but also in exploring the connections between thermodynamics, information theory, and quantum physics. This chapter also discusses equalities and inequalities related to entropy, the Holevo bound, capacity of a bosonic channel, information gained through measurements, relative entropy and thermodynamics, entropy increase due to erasure, and Landauer's erasure and data compression.
Quantum algorithms
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: January 2010

As computers get faster and faster, the size of the circuitry imprinted onto silicon chips decreases. The size of the circuitry becomes so small that its behavior is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. Such a computer, whose computations would be fully quantum mechanical, is called a quantum computer. Any computational task such as addition, multiplication, displaying graphics, or updating databases is performed by a computer according to an algorithm — an abstract set of instructions. Quantum computers would accomplish tasks by performing quantum algorithms. A quantum algorithm is a sequence of unitary evolutions carried out on a quantum string made up of qubits, which can exist as a superposition of classical strings. This chapter discusses the computational complexity of a quantum algorithm, Deutsch's algorithm and its efficiency as quantified by the Holevo bound, Oracles, Grover's search algorithm, quantum factorisation, quantum Fourier transform, and phase estimation.
1 Ancestral Gods, Ancestral Tombs: The Household and Beyond
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: January 2010

According to a proverb, ‘starting from Hestia’ was for Greeks the proper way to begin; and in describing an Athenians' religious world it seems natural to do just that — by starting from the unit of which Hestia is the symbol, the individual household (oikos) with its associated cults. The Athenians did not think in terms of the religion of the household or household gods, but they did have altars within their homes where members of the household joined together to worship. Some few Athenians were buried along with their great-great-grandfathers and may, before their own death, have brought them offerings. But smaller tomb groupings with less historical depth were much more common. The extending argument is that household gods were merely a subset of the gods whom the Greeks themselves called ancestral gods, a group in some contexts identical with the gods of the city, but more particularly associated with the phratry (or genos).
3 Places of Cult: Athens and the Demes
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: January 2010

Compared to Athens, Attica contains more than a hundred rural demes, many of which will have been felt by their inhabitants to have themselves a religious centre and religious periphery. A cluster of cults are sited on the acropolis; as for the sense of a periphery, the instruction to perform a sacrifice ‘out towards Paiania is eloquent’. The cults of Artemis at Brauron and of Nemesis at Rhamnus appear very similar: both are important cults of goddesses located in outlying coastal regions. But literary sources indicate that their actual roles in religious life were different: one the destination of a procession from the city, and the other a site of a major public festival. Religious organisations of different types, including phratries and private cult societies, all had their own altars somewhere. At one level, all these altars collectively simply constitute the sacred places of the gods and heroes who hold Attica.
6 ‘Those Who Make a Profession out of Rites’: Unlicensed Religion, and Magic
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: January 2010

The Greek expression paraphrased in the title to this chapter occurs in a non-Attic text, the Derveni papyrus, but there were religious professionals in Attica as throughout Greece. And although the things of the gods had to be spoken of with utmost respect, religious professionals such as seers and prophets were always subject to suspicion and often to insult. Expertise could be deployed for payment, a way of making a living, but it is that claim to possess an expertise accessible only on payment that makes the religious professionals of Greece such ambiguous figures. Priests and priestesses in public cults also profited from traditional fees and perquisites. The shadiness of the religious professionals is also the shadiness of unlicensed, free-enterprise religion. Regularly paid and serving the city's military needs, such practitioners had no need to lure clients by offering religious services not available within ancestral tradition.
9 Things Done at Festivals
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: January 2010

The ritual action at Attic festivals is, mostly, a series of variations on familiar themes. Demosthenes accused his fellow citizens of caring more about processions than about preparations for war. Much time and worry must have been expended on these common ritual forms, and supervision of processions occurs regularly when the duties of different magistrates are listed in the Aristotelian Constitution of the Athenians. Little more is known about many of the well over twenty attested processions than that they occurred. No Athenian equivalents survive to the informative decrees that give some clues as to how participation in two great processions at Eretria was organised. In most cases the commonest form involved sacrifices of animals to the gods' main altar. But constant variations will surely have been played on the standard form; the identity of the main participants, what they wore and carried and how they behaved en route, were crucial variables.
The Egalitarian Principle of Fundamental Justice
Authors: BRUDNER ALAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the conception of public reason underlying the egalitarian constitutional paradigm. That conception is mutual concern by all citizens for their success in leading lives of self-authorship and self-rule. It explains the ephemeral features of this paradigm (its militancy against nature, its content-neutrality, its exclusion of particular interests from the public sphere) as overreactions to the downfall of the pre-modern and libertarian constitutions. It also explains how egalitarian public reason generates the durable idea of freedom-based goods capable of overriding liberty rights as well as a duty to entrench the common-law constitution in a written supreme law interpreted by a judiciary. Finally, the chapter argues for the justiciability of welfare rights.
Social and Economic Rights
Authors: BRUDNER ALAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter distinguishes those egalitarian transformations of equality rights that are organic developments of liberal justice from those incompatible therewith. Section 1 discusses the libertarian contribution to liberal distributive justice by depicting the partial justice of market outcomes. Section 2 identifies constitutionally relevant interpersonal inequalites and argues for an egalitarian complement to market justice that libertarians ought, given their conception of individual worth, to accept. Section 3 suggests a principle for distinguishing between claims to social and economic equality whose satisfaction is required by law's rule and those inconsistent therewith. Section 4 discusses the enforceability of social and economic entitlements by courts and suggests a principle for distinguishing between permissible and impermissible judicial activism. Section 5 exhibits in both legal doctrine and legal theory the despotic implications of a fundamentalist egalitarianism and depicts the logical transition from the constitution of equality to the constitution of community.
Stealing
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that the norm against stealing is clearly an essential ingredient in a wide range of criminal law offenses, often combined with some other moral norm to create a distinctive crime: thus, stealing plus deception constitutes fraud or false pretenses; stealing plus disloyalty constitutes embezzlement; stealing plus coercion equals extortion; stealing plus the use of unjustified force equals robbery; and so forth. The fit between stealing and the law of theft is far from perfect. Until recently, the criminal law of theft was quite narrow, applying only to the misappropriation of tangible property, and excluding such intangibles as a ride on a train, a deed to land, and stocks and securities. Thus, there were many instances in which X could be said to have ‘stolen’ something in the moral sense of the term, without being subject to criminal sanctions for theft. Conversely, there are cases in which X is subject to what is referred to by the law as ‘theft’ even though many people would say that he has not stolen anything.
Obstruction of Justice
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

The moral ambivalence that the public feels towards white-collar crime is nowhere more apparent than in the case of obstruction of justice. In one high profile obstruction prosecution after another, doubts have been raised as to whether what the defendant did was something that really deserves to be treated as a crime. This chapter presents a thoroughgoing analysis of the moral content of obstruction-type crimes, a comprehensive framework for thinking about such offenses that could be used across the board in a theoretically consistent manner to evaluate both the statutory treatment of whole categories of criminal behavior and the prosecution and punishment of individual cases.
Insider Trading
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

The law of insider trading demonstrates the doctrinal relevance of the concept of moral wrongfulness. The question of whether and how insider trading wrongs its victims bears directly on the scope of the doctrine. In the United States, the dominant, Supreme Court-formulated theory has been that insider trading is wrongful because it involves a breach of fiduciary duty. This chapter argues that rather than thinking of insider trading as involving a breach of fiduciary duty, we would do better to think of it in terms of cheating. Confidence in the stock market depends on investors feeling that the highly formalized, rule-governed game is being played fairly. The fact that some investors have better information than others is not viewed as unfair. What is viewed as unfair is the possibility that some investors might have access to information to which other investors do not. Market participants who trade on undisclosed inside information in these circumstances are viewed as cheaters, and punishment is viewed as warranted.
Introduction
Authors: TADROS VICTOR
Published: January 2010

This chapter provides an introduction to the book, situating the argument within the existing writing on the philosophy of the criminal law and outlining the main arguments of the book.
Communication and the Character of Criminal Responsibility
Authors: TADROS VICTOR
Published: January 2010

Building on the argument in Chapter 2, this chapter is concerned with the communicative function of the criminal law. It is argued that the limits of criminal responsibility are set by the function that it has in condemning wrongdoers for their conduct. This chapter then explores the implications of this idea for the fault requirements of the criminal law and for the role of the outcomes of the defendant's conduct in the attribution of criminal liability.
Criminal Omissions: Culpability, Responsibility and Liberty
Authors: TADROS VICTOR
Published: January 2010

It is commonly thought that there is a general principle against making a person criminally liable for failing to prevent harm. This chapter argues that there is no such principle. In defending that conclusion, it examines and rejects three familiar explanations for that principle. The first is that those who fail to prevent harm are less culpable than those who cause harm. The second is that we are responsible only for causing harm and not for failing to prevent harm. The third is that criminalizing omissions restricts are liberty more than criminalizing our actions.
The Ethics of Belief
Authors: TADROS VICTOR
Published: January 2010

This chapter is concerned with criminal liability in cases where the defendant had mistaken beliefs about the outcome of his or her actions. It is sometimes argued, by subjectivists, that we can be responsible for causing a certain outcome only if we were aware of at least the risk of that outcome coming about. Objectivists disagree, arguing that we are responsible for an outcome even if we were ignorant of its possibility if the reasonable person would have been aware of that outcome. In this chapter, a middle position is developed which suggests that we are sometimes criminally responsible for outcomes that we did not foresee.
England
Authors: van Dam Cees
Published: January 2010

In England, tort law is characterised by its traditional approach. English common law has its roots in medieval times but is presumed to have been there since time immemorial. In the area of non-contractual liability, there are no rules but only torts that provide a remedy (for example, damages) if something has gone wrong in a particular way. The most important and most general tort is the tort of negligence. This tort imposes liability on someone who has not acted carefully but only if this person owed the other person a duty of care. This latter aspect is the most characteristic feature of English tort law and in a number of tort law areas it still serves as an important obstacle for liability. This chapter discusses the origins of tort law in England, history of tort of negligence, intentional torts to the person, intentional interference with goods, and rules of stricter liability including public and private nuisance.