bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
P
armigianino,
F
rancesco (1503–1540)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Real name: Francesco Mazzola. Italian painter, native of Parma. A precocious talent, he began painting at the age of 16 when he painted
Baptism
, which reveals his study of Correggio. At the age of 19 he painted frescoes in the three chapels of San Giovanni Evangelista in Parma. Thereafter most of his paintings were on the theme of Madonna and Child, with studied elegance, long limbs, finely drawn features, and impressive coiffures. The best examples of his work are
Madonna and Child with St. Margaret and Other Saints
(1529),
Madonna and Child with Mary Magdalene and St. Zaccaria
(1535), and the unfinished
Madonna and Child with Angels and St Jerome
, also known as
Madonna of the Long Neck
(1535). His sophisticated ability to paint features, gestures, and poses are evident in
Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine
(1525) and
Vision of St. Jerome
(1527). He was working on the latter picture during the Sack of Rome, when the marauders were so overawed by the beauty of the painting that they allowed him to escape to Bologna. During his stay at Bologna he produced a series of large religious works, notably the
Conversion of St. Paul
and the celebrated
Madonna of the Rose
, both of which share his signature trait of exaggerated refinement. He returned to Parma and resumed work on the Church of the Steccata. But his neurotic temperament brought him into conflict with the church authorities, who dismissed him. The landscape backgrounds to his religious works have a mysterious and visionary quality.
P
ascal,
B
laise (1623–1662)
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

A mathematician, physicist, and Christian apologist, famous for his scientific work as well as philosophical and religious ideas, such as “Pascal's Wager,” Blaise Pascal was born in Clermont‐Ferrand, France. His mother died when he was young, whereupon his father, a tax lawyer and prominent mathematician, moved to Paris to raise Pascal and his two sisters. Despite lifelong ill health, Pascal was a scientific prodigy, composing an original treatise on conic sections around the age of 17. A few years later he constructed a machine to help his father in his tax computations; the device is regarded as the first digital calculator and an important step in the development of computers (the modern computer language Pascal commemorates him and his achievements). Other scientific achievements included work on barometrics and hydrodynamics that led to the discovery of several physical laws, the invention of the syringe and hydraulic press, and also mathematical work on probability and the rudiments of calculus.
Passion
Authors: Stoltzfus Philip
Published: January 2012

The term “passion” refers to a chanted, dramatized, or sung setting of the events leading up to the crucifixion of Jesus. As a musical form, the passion reached its most significant expression in the 18th century in J. S. Bach's
St. Matthew Passion
and
St. John Passion
.
Pastoral Care and Counseling
Authors: Shields Candace C.
Published: January 2012

Pastoral care and counseling implies people caring for others in a manner which mirrors the way Jesus cared for people and taught his disciples to do the same. It is not just about caring for people who are in crisis and despair, but also about empowering people to be able to live life to its fullest, all the while leaning on the hope that can be given through the resurrection story. Pastoral care and counseling involves the members of the church congregation caring for people within the congregation and the surrounding community. Caring for the surrounding community gives the church and the congregation the opportunity to make known the salvific story, which is the basis for pastoral care and counseling. In the early years of pastoral care and counseling it was thought that pastoral care was only carried out by ordained clergy. Furthermore, for some time pastoral care and counseling were only carried out by ordained clergy. However, in the postmodern world pastoral care and counseling are being rendered by clergy and laity working side by side, meeting the needs of those within the congregation who are hurting, discouraged, and in need of healing. The ordained clergy are training those lay members who feel the call to assist others within the congregation and community in need of care and counseling. Pastoral care and counseling are promoted by professionals and individuals who make it their business to intentionally care for others.
P
aton,
J
ohn (1824–1907)
Authors: Poston Larry
Published: January 2012

John Gibson Paton, Scottish Presbyterian missionary to the New Hebrides islands.
Patristics
Authors: Harmon Steven R.
Published: January 2012

Patristics (from the Latin genitive nounpatris, “of” or “pertaining to a father”) is the discipline of Christian theological studies that is concerned with the history, literature, and theology of postapostolic Christianity in late antiquity. In its broadest periodization, its concern is with Christianity betweenad100 and 800, but the span of the patristic period is sometimes shortened toad100–500 or 600 for Latin Christianity. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) offered such a definitive synthesis of the preceding Latin theological tradition that it ushered in a period of development and consolidation of the Augustinian tradition that set the stage for medieval Christianity in the west, and Gregory the Great (c.540–604) fulfilled a similar function for various aspects of the institutional life of the church. From the perspective of the Eastern Church, this formative period extends through the Seventh Ecumenical Council (Nicaea II, 787) and through the career of John of Damascus (c.650–c.749), who played a role comparable to Augustine in the west by virtue of his definitive synthesis of the preceding Greek theological tradition that set the stage for Byzantine Christianity in the east.
Peace
Authors: Beals Michael
Published: January 2012

The idea (and ideal) of peace in the Christian context stretches across a range of meanings and applications: from the evidence of mature Christian character (Gal. 5:22) to the goal of international efforts to abolish war. Christians are directed to pass the peace, charged to pursue peace, and exhorted to live in peace. By exploring the rich and diverse spectrum of usages, a multidimensional perspective of this important concept comes into view.
Pelagianism
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

Pelagianism is a heresy that denies original sin, on the one hand, and affirms perfect human free will, on the other. Semi‐Pelagianism, a closely related heresy, affirms a kind of original sin but believes that a person's initial faith is a result of his own free will, not God's grace.
Penance
Authors: Laing Jacqueline
Published: January 2012

Penance generally refers to repentance or contrition for sin. It refers, more particularly in the Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, to a sacrament, or an outward sign of an inward grace. In these traditions, the authority for regarding penance a sacrament is scriptural: “As the Father hath sent me, I also send you. When He had said this, He breathed on them; and He said to them: Receive ye the Holy Ghost.
Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained
” (John 20:21–23). In both traditions this is ordinarily interpreted as Christ's grant of power to the apostles in keeping with his own acts of explicitly forgiving sin (Matthew 9:2–8; Luke 5:20, 7:47; Revelation 1:5). St. Augustine affirms that the church has the power to “forgive all sins” and urges the faithful to reject those who would deny it. St. Ambrose rejects the Novatianists, who believe the power to forgive sin lies with Christ alone, with the observation that “the Church obeys Him in both respects, by binding sin and by loosing it; for the Lord willed that for both the power should be equal” (
De Poenitentiae
, I, ii,6).
Pentecostal‐Charismatic Movements in the South
Authors: Gerloff Roswith
Published: January 2012

In the 20th century, the center of gravity of Christianity shifted from north to south. Van Dusen of Union Theological Seminary in New York prophesied after a visit to the Caribbean in 1955 a “new reformation” and a “third mighty arm in Christendom” after the eastern Orthodox and western Catholic and Protestant missions (the latter essentially springing from the same roots). In the 21st century, the rapid growth of Christianity in Africa, Asia, and Latin America is largely owing to the “Churches of the Spirit” (Barrett et al. 2001). From 1990, anthropological and sociological (to a lesser degree theological) research has paid close attention to the phenomenon, but there is still a lack of studies for individual countries in Asia and Africa, and many western churches continue to interpret the development as schismatic, meaning an aberration from the norms of traditional Christianity. This is critical for the evaluation of movements that largely attract people from local and culturally very diverse contexts, but perceive themselves as part of a global “Pentecostal revolution” and are the driving force in Christian mission today.
Pentecostalism
Authors: Studebaker Steven M.
Published: January 2012

In the span of a century, Pentecostalism grew from scattered bands of revival seekers to a global movement of over 500 million that comprises nearly one‐third of Christians worldwide. Pentecostals have established over 700 denominations and have members in every traditional Christian church and tradition. During this time the face of Pentecostalism has changed from white to Asian, Latino, and African and it has decentralized from North America to Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The present essay describes the central developmental periods of Pentecostalism, the scholarly interpretations of its origins, and the history of its scholarship.
P
epping,
E
rnst (1901–1981)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

German composer who led the movement to revive church music. He wrote a large number of organ pieces and Lutheran liturgical settings that combine polyphony with diatonic harmony. His first work was the
Choralsuite
, a collection of seven unaccompanied chorale motets. In 1931 he published another cycle of six motets (
Deutsche Choralmesse
), whose favorable reception led to a position in the Spandau Church Music School in Berlin. Over the next decade he composed more than 250 settings in two to six voices for his
Spandau Chord Book
(1934–1941), the largest collection of chorales since 1637. His chorale settings require just three voices. Arranged according to their liturgical function, they are in the same keys as in the hymnal so as to encourage congregational singing. Another collection of chorale settings appeared in 1959 as
Neues Choralbuch
, based on hymns of the evangelical church arranged according to the church year.
P
ersian (
I
ranian)
C
hristianity
Authors: Huntzinger Allyn
Published: January 2012

It might be said that Christianity in Persia began 50 days after the death of Jesus Christ at the celebration of Pentecost in Jerusalem. In Acts 2:5 it says that God‐fearing Jews had come to Jerusalem from every nation. On the day of Pentecost the Holy Spirit came down upon the disciples who were in the upper room such as Peter, James, and John. Acts 2:6–9 notes some of the known 15 languages the disciples of Jesus spoke: “Then how is it that each of us hears them in his own native language? Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia …”
P
erugino,
P
ietro (1448–1523)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Italian painter, born in Perugino. In 1479 he was in Rome and was one of the artists commissioned to complete the fresco cycle on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. He painted three frescoes on the altar wall — the
Finding of Moses
,
the Nativity of Christ
, and the
Assumption
— and the centerpiece where Christ is flanked by St. Peter and St. Paul between windows above the gallery. These were all destroyed in 1535 to make room for Michelangelo's
Last Supper
. Perugino also painted the
Baptism of Christ
,
Moses in Egypt
, and the
Charge to Peter
. His paintings were distinguished by their simplicity and clarity. Thereafter Perugino enjoyed great reputation, undertaking great commissions such as the decoration of the Collegio del Cambio in Perugia and the altarpiece of the Certosa at Pavia. But his works tended to become repetitive. Only occasionally did he rise above his sentimentality, as in his
Pieta
, where the dead Christ is stretched across the Virgin's knees, his head and shoulders supported by an angel and his feet by Mary Magdalene, and in the
Crucifixion with the Virgin and the Saints
, which has a meditative quality. In 1508 he returned to Rome to paint a ceiling for Pope Julius II in the Stanza dell'Incendio in the Vatican. Although Michelangelo described Perugino as a clodhopper, he was greatly admired by the Pre‐Raphaelites.
P
eter the Venerable (
c
.1092–1156)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Born in about 1092, Peter's parents dedicated him at birth, giving him to the monastery in Cluny (modern France), near Lyons. At this monastery he soon gained an honorable reputation, and at the young age of 20 he became a professor and a prior at the monastery of Vezelay.
P
hilosophy,
C
hristian
Authors: Martin Edward N.
Published: January 2012

Philosophy
uses logic and reason to critically evaluate life's most pressing issues.
Christian philosophy
(now “CP”) applies logic (providing models of what is
possible
) to Christian faith and theology (providing theories of what is
actual
concerning God and his actions). The most common model in CP is Augustine's
faith seeking understanding
: philosophy's craft elucidates revealed truths about God, incarnation, miracles, belief in God, and allied topics. Nevertheless, a long debate exists about CP: from Kant's
denying knowledge to make room for faith
to the Émile Bréhier–Étienne Gilson debate among Catholics in the 1920s–early 1930s (cf. Dulles 2000; McInerny 1993: 259ff.), from the claims of positivism to postmodernism, from secular scientists viewing science and religion as “nonoverlapping magisteria” to naturalistic analytic philosophers claiming that Christian philosophers offer only an antiquated metaphysical picture of the world (realism of some stripe) which Kant already destroyed. Yet CP is
possible because it's actual.
Many Christian philosophers testify that faith
significantly improves
their philosophical enterprise.
P
hiloxenus of
M
abbug (
c
.450–522)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Philoxenus was the most important Syriac Orthodox writer of his time. Born sometime in the middle of the 5th century in the Persian province of Beth Garmai, Philoxenus, who is known in Syriac as Aksenaya, the Syriac rendering of the Greek ascetical title Xenos, “stranger,” studied at the theological school of Edessa. Although the pro‐Nestorian Ibas was bishop of the city during this period, Philoxenus became a vigorous opponent of Nestorius. Appointed bishop of Hieropolis (Syriac, Mabbug) in 485, he wrote polemical works against the Council of Chalcedon (451) in defense of Miaphysite Christology. Although he gained temporary victories from Constantinople for the Miaphysite cause, these were reversed under the Emperor Justin I, who banished him along with many of his co‐religionists to Thrace, where Philoxenus died c.522.
Phoebe
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

In Romans 16:1–2, the apostle Paul highly commends Phoebe who was a
diakonos
(deacon in Greek) in the church at Cenchreae, not a “deaconess” or “servant” as found in many English translations of the Bible. The feminine form of
diakonos
in Greek is
diakonissa
. But this word did not exist in any literature until almost 300 years after St. Paul wrote his epistle to the Christians in Rome.
Diakonissa
first appears in
ad
325 in Canon 19 of Nicaea, and later (in about 375) it appears in
The Apostolic Constitutions
.
Pietism
Authors: Maschke Timothy
Published: January 2012

Pietism began as a German Lutheran reform movement originating with Philipp Spener's (1635–1705)Pia Desideria(Pious Desires), which emphasized heartfelt religious devotion, ethical purity, charitable activity, and pastoral theology rather than sacramental ritual or dogmatic precision. The term now refers to various religious expressions that emphasize inward devotion and moral purity.
Pilgrim's Progress
Authors: Turner Michael K.
Published: January 2012

Pilgrim's Progress: From This World to That Which is to Come
is an allegorical story written by the nonconformist preacher, John Bunyan. It was published in two parts, in 1678 and 1684.
Pilgrim's Progress
remains one of the most highly regarded pieces of English literature and has never been out of print.
Plantinga,Alvin (b. 1932)
Authors: Clark Kelly James
Published: January 2012

Alvin Plantinga is John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. He graduated B.A. from Calvin College and proceeded Ph.D. at Yale University. At Calvin, Plantinga began thinking about philosophy from an explicitly Christian perspective, which was counter to the positivist and rationalist presuppositions of the time; at Yale he learned metaphysics in the expansive but undisciplined tradition of idealism. While teaching at Wayne State University with some of the brightest young philosophers of the day, Plantinga and his colleagues honed the analytic style of philosophy that attended to precise but careful argumentation and clarification of key terms. He returned to teach at Calvin College for 20 years before taking up a chair at Notre Dame. In 1978 Plantinga cofounded the Society of Christian Philosophers, which grew to over 1,000 members. In 1980Timemagazine hailed Plantinga as “the leading philosopher of God” in an article on the renaissance of Christian philosophy.
P
olycarp (
c
.69–155)
Authors: Tarwater John K.
Published: January 2012

Polycarp was Bishop of Smyrna (modern day Turkey) during the 2nd century. His writings are representative of the earliest orthodox Christian authors not included in the New Testament, often entitled the Apostolic Fathers. Indeed, Polycarp's letters reflect the apostolic tradition. Irenaeus, the Bishop of Lyons, claims that Polycarp received the tradition from John, the disciple of the Lord, and that he was appointed bishop by other “apostles in Asia.” Thus, Polycarp adopted the Christian life early, and quickly became a leader in the faith.
Poor, Christianity and the
Authors: Burgess John P.
Published: January 2012

Christians have always evidenced a deep concern to relieve the condition of those who suffer from material want. This essay will focus on key theological understandings of poverty that have guided, especially in the west, the establishment of Christian charitable institutions and Christian appeals to society and the state to alleviate the condition of the poor.
Postconservative Theology
Authors: Sleasman Michael J.
Published: January 2012

The term “postconservative theology” is a theological neologism of the mid 1990s adding to the number of “post‐” movements in philosophy and theology (e.g. postliberal, postfoundationalism, and poststructuralism) seeking the outworking of postmodern critiques to evangelical theological methodology. Given its recent emergence, postconservative theology is less reflective of a monolithic movement with standardized doctrinal commitments and formal methodologies than it is a shared concern regarding the role of modern/Enlightenment epistemologies in evangelical theological methodology.
Postmodernism
Authors: Smith R. Scott
Published: January 2012

If there were an “essence” to postmodernism, then the postmodern reaction to modernism would be misguided. For, according to many postmodern authors, modernists claim we have unfettered access to know objective (i.e. mind‐independent, universal) truths from a neutral standpoint, independent of all historical and cultural contingencies, languages, and our finitude. But if all knowledge is situated and conditioned, then modernists would be misguided, for
we
can never be objective (i.e. neutral).
Practical Theology
Authors: Cartledge Mark J.
Published: January 2012

The term “practical theology” has its origins in the European university academy where it was used to refer to the domain of
pastoralia
, that is pastoral skills, required for clergy at the end of their theological studies. Candidates for church ministry had already studied the Bible, church history, Christian doctrine and philosophy, and so practical theology was the crown of such study in preparation for the ordained life. It prepared students for such tasks as preaching, leading worship, conducting pastoral conversations, and educating their congregations in the Christian faith. It is this sense of applying the teaching of the Bible or Christian doctrine to ministerial tasks that has resulted in the term “applied theology” being used. However, with the advent of “liberation theology” and the turn to
praxis
as the focus of theology, this clergy‐dominated paradigm was challenged. Practical theology took seriously the hermeneutical and contemporary turn in theology. The valueladen practices of ecclesial communities became the focus and in the liberationist tradition a hermeneutic of suspicion was added as a means of transforming such practices. This liberationist paradigm is still a dominant one within practical theology as different minority and previously excluded perspectives are brought to bear on issues in church and society. However, there is another strand to practical theology that has emerged in recent years, which uses the empirical research methods of the social sciences in a rigorous way in order to explore, describe, and test the nature of religious beliefs, values, and practices. It is called “empirical theology.” This strand of practical theology does not limit itself to ecclesial studies, although these are in evidence; instead it considers the nature of religious worldviews in society at large and aims to offer specific theological appraisal of them by means of empirical‐theological analysis and construction.
Presbyterian Churches
Authors: Roxborogh John
Published: January 2012

Presbyterian churches are found in Europe, Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas. The designation “Presbyterian” draws attention to leadership by ministers and elders, and is generally associated with theological seriousness, liturgical restraint, a proclivity for education, and a high ethical commitment.
Presbyteries
Authors: Roxborogh John
Published: January 2012

In Reformed and Presbyterian churches the presbytery is the governing body between congregations and synods or general assemblies. Typically comprising equal numbers of ministers and elders from each congregation, they are presided over by an elected moderator. Ordained ministers in other roles (theological education, social services, church administration, or retired) are also members, and equality in the numbers of ministers and elders is maintained by the appointment of additional elders.
Process Theology
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

Process theology is a 20th century theological position deriving from process philosophy. The process philosophers Whitehead and Hartshorne concluded from relativity theory and the Heisenberg indeterminacy principle that one must regard becoming rather than being — process rather than substance — as fundamental and therefore that sharing and involvement are basic to a proper understanding of reality. For Hartshorne, God is to be understood “panentheistically” — as embracing the world — in contrast with traditional theism (which sees the world as an independent creation of God) or with pantheism (which regards God and the world as coterminous). Hartshorne's God is greater than the world but contains it, such that world experience occurs within God and is part of God's own experience.
Proclamation
Authors: Emerick Christopher C.
Published: January 2012

Proclamation, synonymous with preaching, refers to the (primarily) vocal announcement of the gospel of Jesus Christ. It may also involve other varieties of communication such as sign language, drama, and poetic and artistic forms. Whatever the means, this announcement includes the bad news that all humans are sinners and in need of God's justifying and transforming grace, and the good news that God has provided what fallen humans need in the life, death, and resurrection of his Son, Jesus Christ. This announcement may be given by anyone moved by the Spirit to proclaim it, but is typically given by ordained clergy in ecclesial or evangelistic settings.
Prophecy
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

The early Christian church employed two major styles of apologetic: miracle and prophecy, the first directed especially to the Gentiles, the second particularly to the Jewish community. A remarkable feature of the Christian apologetic was the inherent interconnection of the two approaches, owing to the fact that miracles central to the faith (such as the virgin birth of Jesus Christ) had often been the object of specific Old Testament prophecies. Today, three forms of prophetic attestation are offered to support the truth of Christian faith:
Charismatic
(experiential) prophecy,
end‐time
(futuristic) prophecy, and
fulfilled
(historical) prophecy.
Protestant Ethic
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

In 1905, Max Weber, the renowned German sociologist, published
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
. He noted that “business leaders and owners of capital, as well as the higher grades of skilled labor, and even more the higher technically and commercially trained personnel of modern enterprises, [were] overwhelmingly Protestant.” He further argued that Protestantism, which held to Luther's and Calvin's teachings that work for the Christian in his community was a calling (
vocatio
), gave a strong emphasis to the work ethic. In the case of Calvin, Weber further contended that the work ethic was enhanced by Calvin's teaching that taught it was not sinful for Christians to receive interest income. This teaching rejected what numerous church councils called the sin of usury for more than a thousand years.
Protestantism
Authors: Leinweber David
Published: January 2012

The term “Protestant” commonly refers to those branches of Christianity that reject membership in the Roman Catholic Church. Protestant denominations generally derive their heritage from the great religious struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries, collectively called the “Reformation.” Protestant movements occurred within the Latin/Catholic occident. Eastern Orthodox Churches are not historically considered Protestant.
Purgatory
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

In Catholic theology, a term used for a
place
or a
state
for the postmortem punishment or purgation of the unforgiven venial sins of a soul destined for heaven.
Puritans and Pilgrims
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

In 1559, two noteworthy parliamentary acts were passed in England: the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity. Both acts, which reflected the Elizabethan Settlement, occurred during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. They produced the formal separation of the British church from the Roman Catholic Church.
Poussin,Nicolas (1594–1665)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The greatest French classical painter, who worked in Rome from 1624. His religious paintings begin in 1628 withThe Rest on the Flight into Egyptin which the Holy Family is on a boat and theLamentation Over the Dead Christ(1628). In the 1630s he did hisMassacre of the Innocents(1631) andWorship of the Golden Calf. It was not until the 1650s that he began his Madonna and Child series withMadonna on the Steps(1648) and theMadonna with the Basin(1650). There are two versions of hisAnnunciation. Cassiano da Pazzo, a patron, commissioned theAgony in the Gardenpainted on copper (1626). Growing prestige led to other commissions for church altarpieces:The Martyrdom of St. Erasmus(1628), commissioned for St. Peter's, andThe Virgin Appearing to St. Jamesfor a church in the Spanish Netherlands. From the 1650 his works reflect a more human quality, especially the series ofSeven Sacramentsbeginning with theBaptism. He did a second series ofSeven Sacramentsbut they lack the audacity and narrative integrity of the earlier series. The devotional requirements of the Catholic Church interested him less but he brought to his Christian themes a historical imagination that reflected his love of antiquity. Although never grandiose in conception, Poussin's figures sometimes achieve a marmoreal detachment and a silvery, otherworldly quality.
Quietism
Authors: Dawson Connie
Published: January 2012

Quietism was first associated with the mystic teachings of Miguel de Molinos in the 17th century. Molinos was a Spanish priest who received his doctorate in theology at the University of Valencia. He settled in Rome after being commissioned by his native land to promote the canonization of a local Spaniard. In Rome, Molinos quickly gained recognition as a spiritual leader. His book,
The Spiritual Guide
, published in both Spanish and French in 1675, was an immediate sensation. His teachings were not unique but a continuation of the mystic stream which has flowed throughout church history and reflects the influence of two other contemplative Spaniards, St. John of the Cross and Teresa of Avila.
Race and Christianity
Authors: Bradley Anthony B.
Published: January 2012

Christianity has a complex history of both embracing and rejecting cultural norms for demarcating between groups of people according to race. While the scriptures plainly teach that all human persons are of one human race as image bearers of God (Gen. 1:26–27; Acts 17:26), Christians have not always held this position consistently.
Radio Evangelism
Authors: Kreider Glenn R.
Published: January 2012

Almost from the very beginning of the technology, radio and religion, particularly Christianity, were closely linked. Although some fundamentalists condemned the use of radio on biblical grounds, that Satan is “the prince of the power of the air” (Eph. 2:2), Christians across the theological spectrum soon saw this medium as useful for spreading their views, and the industry of Christian radio was born. Although radio programs serve a variety of functions, Protestant Christians, particularly evangelicals, view the major goal of broadcasting as making converts to Jesus Christ.
Rahner,Karl (1904–1984)
Authors: S.J. Harvey D. Egan
Published: January 2012

Karl Rahner has been aptly called the 20th century's “Church Father” and “quiet mover of the Roman Catholic Church.” Born in Freiburg (Breisgau), Germany, Rahner entered the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in 1922 and was ordained priest in 1934. After advanced studies in Freiburg (where he attended seminars taught by Martin Heidegger) and Innsbruck, he taught theology at Innsbruck (1949–1964). During this period, he was appointed one of the official theological experts (periti) of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) — a council whose theological outlook he profoundly influenced. He then became successor to Romano Guardini (d. 1968) in the Chair of Christianity and the Philosophy of Religion at the University of Munich (1964–1967) and was later appointed professor of dogmatic theology at the University of Münster (1967–1971). After retiring from university work, he lived at the Jesuit writers' house in Munich (1971–1981) and afterwards in Innsbruck, and continued his unrelenting worldwide lecturing, writing, and pastoral activity until his death a few weeks after his 80th birthday.
R
amabai,
P
andita
S
arasvati (1858–1922)
Authors: Anderson Allan
Published: January 2012

Ramabai (1858–1922) was a converted Brahmin who was widowed with her baby daughter Manoramabai after less than two years' marriage out of her caste. She became a Christian during her almost three year stay in England, where she studied education at the Cheltenham Ladies' College, and Greek and Hebrew privately. From England she traveled to the USA, where she spent two‐and‐a‐half years (1886–1888) studying education systems and publicizing her planned mission in India. She published a book in 1887 outlining the plight of Indian women, titled
The High‐Caste Hindu Woman
, pleading for the creation of educational institutions for Indian women. She wrote a book in her mother tongue Marathi on her observations of life in the USA, in which she contrasted the free democracy there with the colonial oppression of Britain, and gave her preference for voluntary denominations over state churches. Her rejection of British colonialism remained with her all her life — like most educated Indians, she believed in Indian nationalism, stimulated by the British rulers' repression and arrogance toward Indian social structures that had resulted in determined Indian resistance. She favorably commented on women's rights in American society.
Ramsay,WilliamM. (1851–1939)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Sir William Mitchell Ramsay was born the youngest son of Thomas Ramsay (a third generation lawyer) and Jane Mitchell in Glasgow, Scotland, March 15, 1851, and died April 20, 1939. Ramsay's father died when he was 6 years old (1857), and the family returned to the family home near Alloa. Ramsay was a classical scholar and archaeologist, the principal authority of his day in regards to the antiquities, society, and topography of Asia Minor in ancient times, and also a leading authority of the New Testaments, especially the Book of Acts and the Pauline Epistles.
R
aphael (1483–1520)
Authors: Baltrip Ryan
Published: January 2012

Raphael was an Italian Renaissance painter, and he is considered one of the greatest and most influential painters of all time. He was born in Urbino on April 6, 1483. The arts were very influential in his hometown, and his earliest painting influence was his father who was a court painter for the Duke. After leaving Urbino, Raphael's life can be divided into three time periods based on his location and his works.
R
auschenbusch,
W
alter (1861–1918)
Authors: Patterson James A.
Published: January 2012

American. Born in Rochester, New York, October 4, 1861, to August, an immigrant German Baptist clergyman and educator, and Caroline. He was the last of four children, one of whom died before Walter was born. His upbringing was shaped by the Pietism of his parents, as well as the time he spent in Germany with his mother and sisters from 1865 to 1869. He pursued his education both in Germany and the USA, eventually completing his B.A. in 1884 at the University of Rochester, and finishing at the top of his class at Rochester Theological Seminary in 1886.
Reformation
Authors: Leinweber David
Published: January 2012

The term “Reformation” refers to a major movement for “reform” that shaped much of Western Christianity during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Reformation movement is most commonly associated with the “Protestant Reformation.” However, the era also witnessed a major Catholic Reformation. The Reformation resulted from many centuries of struggle over the issue of reform in the church.
Religious Epistemology
Authors: Geivett R. Douglas
Published: January 2012

From the beginning, being a follower of Jesus Christ (that is, being a Christian) has meant
believing
certain things — including some things that no one else believes. Christianity is a
creedal
religion. Believing a set of definite propositions is part of what it means to be fully Christian. This emphasis is due in no small measure to the conduct of Jesus himself.
Religious Vocations
Authors: Endres David J.
Published: January 2012

Religious vocations in the Christian sense have come to denote specialized service to the church. Derived from the Latin verb,
vocare
, meaning “to call,” the term “vocation” was applied to those chosen by God and confirmed by the church to enter the priesthood or religious life. The church's sacrament of holy orders by which one enters the clergy, as well as the taking of religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, became the marks of those with a “religious vocation.”
Restorationism
Authors: Steinacher C. Mark
Published: January 2012

“Restorationism” describes movements whose stated aim is to reproduce or “restore” what its followers believe to be salient 1st century Christian practices and beliefs. Movements in many eras have tried to return their contemporary church to an imagined pristine purity. These include the Benedictine and Franciscan monastic movements, 16th century Anabaptists, and Plymouth Brethren. A particular outburst of restorationist movements occurred in early 19th century North America.
Reuchlin,Johann (1455–1522)
Authors: Posset Franz
Published: January 2012

German. Born in Pforzheim, to the business manager of the local Dominican friary (Graecized family name, Capnion). He studied at Freiburg (1470), Paris (1473), and Basle (1474–1477). In Paris he learned Greek. In Basle he received his master's degree and published the reworked Latin dictionaryVocabularius breviloquus. From 1479 to 1482 he studied law in Orléans, Poitiers, and Tübingen. He got married, but soon became a widower. During his journeys to Italy in 1482 and 1490 he became acquainted with the Platonic Academy at Florence. He was admired for his polyglot expertise (Latin, Greek, Hebrew). He began to investigate the original Hebrew name of God (Tetragrammaton). In 1492 he represented his territorial lord at the imperial court in Linz, Austria, where Emperor Frederic III made him a nobleman. In 1494 he publishedOn the Wonder‐Working Word, which demonstrates his capacities as a biblical humanist and lay theologian. From 1496 to 1499 he worked for the prince in Heidelberg; there he joined the humanist sodality around Johannes von Dalberg, bishop of Worms. Reuchlin wrote two successful Latin comedies,SergiusandHenno. In 1498 he traveled a third time to Italy (Rome and Venice). After his return he was appointed to the high court of the Swabian League (1502–1512). During pestilence he fled to the monastery at Denkendorf, where he wrote a small manual on preaching. With his epoch‐making textbook on theRudiments of Hebrew(1506), containing both lexicon and grammar, he provided an introduction to the study of Hebrew. In 1512 he published a literal translation of theSeven Penitential Psalmsfrom Hebrew into Latin. Martin Luther used this book for his studies on the psalms and for his exposition of theSeven Penitential Psalmsin German in 1517. In the same year Reuchlin publishedThe Art of the Cabala, dedicated to Pope Leo X. In 1518 he wrote on the Hebrew language, its orthography and accents, including an appendix on music notes. From 1510 he was involved in quarrels concerning the destruction of Jewish books. On this issue he wrote a confidential expert opinion for the emperor in which he declared that the Jewish faith is none of the Christians' business, as he defended the preservation of Jewish books including the Talmud. Against Johann Pfefferkorn'sHand Mirrorof 1511 he published hisEye Mirrorin support of Hebrew studies with Hebrew books. He was widely supported by the humanists of Europe. Late in life he became professor of Greek and Hebrew at Ingolstadt (1520–1521) and Tübingen (1521–1522). Throughout the early Lutheran Reformation, he remained faithful to the Catholic Church while his grandnephew Philip Melanchthon joined Luther's movement. Reuchlin died in Stuttgart, and is buried at St. Leonhard church.
Revivals
Authors: Caldwell Robert W.
Published: January 2012

Revivals are movements of Christian religious renewal that are generated by the Holy Spirit, accompanied by the powerful preaching of zealous ministers, and result in the personal conversions of numerous individuals to the Christian faith and their subsequent incorporation into the Christian community. Revival usually involves a widespread increase of intense concern in the claims of Christianity and an emphasis on “heart religion” or the individual internalization of Christian truths. The term “revival” is closely related to “awakening,” the latter term usually referring to a revival that is far more extensive. “Revivalism” often refers to the systematic practice of expecting and even planning for a revival. A “revivalist” is generally a leader of a revival, such as a pastor or itinerant preacher. Revivals have been a prominent feature of evangelical Protestantism since the 18th century and as such their adherents have generally emphasized the following: an experienced, spiritual conversion as the beginning of the Christian life (rather than baptism or merely being raised a Christian); a pious, warm‐hearted “relationship with God” grounded in the cross and focused on the scriptures (rather than sacramental, moraistic, or “nominal” approaches to Christianity); and a desire to spread the Christian message abroad through evangelism, missions, and social reform.
R
itschl,
A
lbrecht (1822–1889)
Authors: Green Todd
Published: January 2012

Arguably the most influential German theologian of the late 19th century. Ritschl began teaching at Bonn in 1846. He initially lectured and published on the New Testament, but in the 1850s his interests shifted, first to church history and then gradually to systematic theology. In 1864, he accepted the chair at Göttingen where he remained until his death.
R
obertson, A. T. (1863–1934)
Authors: Dockery David S.
Published: January 2012

Archibald Thomas Robertson taught at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary for 46 years (1888–1934). Robertson, who was born on November 6, 1863 in Chatham, Virginia, was the greatest biblical scholar in the history of the Southern Baptist Convention. He died on Monday evening, September 24, 1934. Characteristically, Robertson at his death was writing another book on the New Testament for Harper and Brothers.
R
obertson, Pat (
b
. 1930)
Authors: Coulter Michael
Published: January 2012

Marion “Pat” Robertson (b. March 22, 1930) is best known as a religious broadcaster and political activist, but he has also been a businessman, a religion rights advocate, an educator, an author, and an international symbol. Robertson graduated from Washington and Lee University with a degree in history. In 1948, Robertson enlisted in the Marines officer candidate school, which allowed him to be formally commissioned as a second lieutenant upon graduation. After 2 years of active duty military service in Japan and Korea, where Robertson earned three battle stars from the Marine Corps, he returned to higher education. Robertson earned a law degree from Yale University Law School in 1955 and a Master of Divinity degree from Biblical Seminary in 1959. He is an ordained minister in the Southern Baptist Convention, but his particular brand of theology is an expression of Pentecostalism.
Roman Catholic Church
Authors: Hayes Patrick J.
Published: January 2012

The Roman Catholic Church is a Christian community of believers who center themselves on the person and teachings of Jesus Christ and who, by the power of the Holy Spirit, carry his teachings into every corner of the earth and transmit them from generation to generation, for the salvation of all. The designation “Roman” refers to the adherence of those Catholics in the Latin Rite churches who maintain communion with the Bishop of Rome, presently Pope Benedict XVI, the 265th pontiff. Eastern Rite Christians may also hold communion with the Roman pontiff, but for historical, geographical, or liturgical reasons they are not given the designation “Roman.”
R
omanian Christianity
Authors: McGuckin John Anthony
Published: January 2012

Christianity in Romania today, one of the most flourishing Christian populations from the old Soviet satellite countries, is represented predominantly by the Romanian Orthodox Church, with a smaller representation of Roman Catholics, Byzantine rite Catholics, and a small minority of a few Protestant groups (the largest of them being the Baptists). Modern Romanian Christianity is the heir of the ancient church that was rooted in the imperial Roman province of Dacia. This was a province of the Empire established by Trajan for his veterans, in the 2nd century. The Romanian language and culture, to this day, are marked by a deep basis in Latin, though with many later Slavic elements added, making it, arguably, the only Latin Orthodox culture in the world. There are archaeological remains of 2nd century Christian settlements, especially in the Black Sea region, where proto‐Christian martyr shrines have been discovered; all of which give testimony to the great antiquity of Christianity in these lands. Church tradition looks to the planting of the gospel here by the missionary efforts of the apostle Andrew around the Black Sea shores. By the 3rd century Christians were so strong in the region that they attracted the attention of the Emperor Diocletian, and several were victims of the Great Persecution which he initiated at the dawn of the 4th century. One of the Romanian (or then “Dacian”) church's great patristic theologians was John Cassian, who traveled throughout the ancient church, settling in the west after years spent among the Egyptian ascetics. He became a foundational figure in ascetical theology: having an equally marked influence on the eastern as well as the western Christian monastic culture.
Romanticism, Christianity and
Authors: Masson Scott
Published: January 2012

Christianity developed as Jesus had prophesied, like a vast tree from a mustard seed. What had once appeared to be a Jewish sect in a backwater of the Roman Empire became a global religion with vast cultural influence over the course of two millennia. Romanticism appeared some 18 centuries later. The organic motif was a favorite one for it, but no longer because it was ensured an automatic resonance with an agrarian society. On the contrary, as the English poet William Wordsworth noted in his 1802
Preface to Lyrical Ballads
, in his day there was an “increasing accumulation of men in cities,” and with them and their uniformity of occupation, a subsequent “craving for extraordinary incident which the rapid communication of intelligence hourly gratifies” to which “life and manners” have sadly conformed. William Blake's poem “London” wrote of the “mind‐forg'd manacles” he heard everywhere in that city's “chartered streets”; and in the Preface to his prophetic book
Milton
, now immortalized in the popular hymn “Jerusalem,” he wrote of “England's mountains green” beset with “dark Satanic mills.”
R
ome
Authors: Quantz Amanda D.
Published: January 2012

Roman foundation legend traces the origins of the city to April 21, 753
bce
, although the history of the Roman people may go as far back as 1184, a date believed to coincide with the fall of Troy. The Romans claimed that the city was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus; descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas. Soon after the founding of the city, the Romans launched major building projects, including numerous religious institutions. The Roman Senate was also established, which throughout its history consisted of a body of anywhere between 100 and 900 men of considerable means and high social standing. For more than two centuries Rome was ruled by a series of seven kings until, in 509
bce
, it was transformed into a republican government ruled by consuls. Over the next 500 years, the Romans conquered nearly all of Italy and much of the Mediterranean, as well as North Africa and Britain.