bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Investigations into the watertightness of the proposed Gordon-above-Olga hydro-electric storage South-west Tasmania
Authors: Roberts Glyn T. , Andric Miodrag
Published: November 2007

The Gordon-above-Olga scheme is one of several major hydro-electric developments under investigation in the south-west of Tasmania. The proposed storage area includes a zone of Palaeozoic limestone forming part of the eastern limb of a synclinal structure which provided a potential for the existence of leakage paths capable of threatening the viability of the scheme.

The geology of the area is described and the methods used in assessing the likelihood of existence of subjacent karst are detailed. The conclusion is drawn on several grounds that neither recent nor ancient activity is likely to have markedly affected the limestone through the synclinorium. In consequence the water-tightness of the proposed reservoir is predicted.
The relationship of the estimated former burial depth of the lower Oxford Clay to some soil properties
Authors: Jackson J. O. , Fookes P. G.
Published: November 2007

The paper concerns the relationship between the estimated former depth of burial under sediments deposited later and engineering characteristics of the Lower Oxford Clay. Detailed studies of engineering index properties, clay mineralogy and other geological characteristics were carried out on samples from six principal sites. Former depths of burial of the Oxford Clay were approximately 5000 ft in the Dorset area of England and over 1000 ft in Lincolnshire.

It was concluded that the geological condition of deposition for identical palaeontological zones of the clay were approximately similar and that the influences on engineering index, strength and low stress consolidation properties due to the different depths of burial were small. Of more significance on the engineering properties are the positions of samples in the stratigraphical column.

The influences of organic content and local weathering phenomena on the engineering performance are noted and aspects of laboratory simulation of deep burial are discussed.
Review of groundwater pollution from waste disposal sites in England and Wales, with provisional guidelines for future site selection
Authors: Gray D. A. , Mather J. D. , Harrison I. B.
Published: November 2007

Preliminary results are presented of a multi-authority review of the water pollution hazard represented by 2494 landfill sites in England and Wales. Of these, desk studies indicate that only 51 represent a serious pollution risk to major or minor aquifers. River authorities have classified 80 sites as being unacceptable for future use out of 714 locations they have examined.

In defining provisional guidelines for the selection of landfill sites, a generalized threefold classification of wastes is proposed. A policy of confinement for hazardous wastes is recommended until and unless further research enables adoption of a less rigorous system. A flow diagram is provided for use in site selection.
Low cost geophysical well logs for hydrogeological investigations
Authors: Robinson V. K.
Published: November 2007

A geophysical well logging equipment is described which is suitable for hydrogeological investigations in aquifers found in the British Isles. The electronic equipment used is available “off the shelf” commercially and although not designed for borehole logging has been found to be ideal for this purpose. The logging sondes, cable drums, and other borehole equipment are now available to order from a British company.
Engineering aspects of the chalky boulder clay at the new town of Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire
Authors: Denness Bruce
Published: November 2007

The paper outlines some engineering aspects of tills, particularly at Milton Keynes, and demonstrates methods for their investigation. The methods discussed include the display in vertical section of geotechnical index parameters determined for samples taken from a trench, shallow geophysical techniques and large scale
in situ
testing. These are all seen as complementary to a preliminary geological investigation.

The objects of this specific study were twofold: to establish the variability of engineering properties with its consequent effect on representability of results and necessary sampling interval, and to investigate the presence of depositional features detrimental to engineering operations in tills, particularly at the Milton Keynes site. The variability was found to be so great that borehole methods were not applicable. A pre-existing shear plane extending from ground surface to about 3.5 m depth was also discovered. These considerations prompted the recommendation of special investigation procedures to suit the circumstances.
The influence of faulting on the instabilities at Mutiscua, Colombia, S. America.
Authors: Denness Bruce
Published: November 2007

Local instabilities in the mountainous terrain at Mutiscua, Colombia, S. America are associated with a continuous supply of groundwater from arenaceous Tertiary strata several kilometres to the south-east.
Potentially dangerous surges in an Antrim mudslide
Authors: Hutchinson John Neville , Prior David Baxter , Stephens Nicholas
Published: November 2007

Measurements of surface movements and pore-water pressures in a mudslide at Minnis North, north-eastern Ireland, are presented. This feature comprises steep feeder mudslides leading down to a more gently inclined accumulation mudslide, from which a steep front slope descends to the coast road. Frequent surges of the mudslide, which discharges considerable quantities of debris on to this road, are described and discussed. In one of these, pore-water pressures and surface movements were monitored up to failure and the surge itself witnessed by one of the authors. It is concluded that the surges generally originate through‘undrained loading’ of the rear of the accumulation slide by the feeder slides. Attention is drawn particularly to the danger inherent in situations where large volumes of underconsolidated and therefore potentially highly mobile material can collect above a steep front slope and to the difficulty, in the case studied, of obtaining warning of failure. Evidence is also presented to show that this danger is increased if surface streams are present on the mudslide.
Rates of seasonal creep of silty clay soil
Authors: Fleming Robert W. , Johnson Arvid M.
Published: November 2007

Profiles of displacement caused by seasonal creep of an expansive silty clay soil were measured at several times of the year with a tiltmeter and flexible pipes installed in two areas near Stanford University in central California. The displacement profiles typically are convex upward and net creep displacement at the ground surface of an undisturbed slope with a gradient of 12 to 14 per cent is about 0.4 in/yr (1 cm/yr) for a layer of soil of five feet (1.5 m) thickness The soil apparently expands and creeps on wetting of the soil and while the soil is at a high moisture content, but the creep rate diminishes with time, as predicted by laboratory tests by Mitchell and Singh. On drying, a point on the surface of a slope contracts roughly along a normal to the slope but directions of horizontal displacements during drying appear to be random and to depend on the location of the point with respect to local shrinkage cracks.
Slope failures in Hong Kong
Authors: Lumb Peter
Published: November 2007

The recurrence of slope failures in residual soils of Hong Kong is analysed for the period 1950 to 1973, and various factors contributing to the instability are described. It is postulated that the prime cause of the failures is direct infiltration of rain water into the surficial zones of the slopes, producing a loss of effective cohesion following the saturation of the soil. Prevention of slips implies protection against excessive infiltration.
The behaviour of two- and three- dimensional model rock slopes
Authors: Stacey Thomas Richard
Published: November 2007

This paper describes centrifugal tests on small-scale two- and three-dimensional models of rock slopes in a simple sedimentary structure comprising continuous bedding planes crossed by joints. The bedding planes dip towards the slope, the dip angle being gentle enough to preclude planar failure. The results indicate that failure occurs throughout the slope height and is strongly influenced by the relative joint and bedding plane spacings. No unique surface of failure occurs. Extension to three dimensions indicates that stability and magnitude of failure are affected by the curvature of the slope in plan.
The scope of Hydrogeology
Authors: Gray D. A.
Published: November 2007

The scope of hydrogeology is reviewed with the aim of deriving a definition of the subject which embraces the numerous facets of the role of groundwater in the hydrological cycle and as a geological agent. The definition adopted is that hydrogeology can be defined as the study of:

the occurrence and movement of aqueous solutions through porous and permeable rock media, regardless of the phase or concentration of the solutions.

the modifications caused to the chemical composition of the solutions, of other subsurface fluids and of the rock media by their mutual interaction.
Quality, Shape and Degradation of Aggregates
Authors: Lees Geoffrey , Kennedy Christopher K.
Published: November 2007

Whether considering artificial aggregates or natural aggregates, the most important factor in obtaining optimum utilization is the recognition that ‘quality’ when used as a term in respect of aggregates is relative to the usage to which the material is to be put. There is no such thing as a ‘high quality roadstone’ until one has specified the context of its use in the road.

The present paper lists the qualities which are generally considered desirable and relates them to the particular usage. Some important cases of requirements which are conflicting are presented.

The paper continues by discussing with reference to case histories the importance and effects of particle degradation on the engineering properties of aggregates in construction materials. The process of degradation is considered in its two principal divisions: physical (disintegration) and chemical (weathering). Mathematical solutions to the degradation phenomena are reviewed and the effects of petrological variation, both in terms of primary and secondary minerals are discussed.

Finally various methods of measurement of degradation are considered and an assessment of a suitable technique made.
Geotechnical Mapping as an Integral Part of Site Investigation-Two case Histories
Authors: Clark Alan Roy , Johnson David Keith
Published: November 2007

The use of geotechnical mapping in two different engineering geological situations is discussed. The methods used in the preparation of the geotechnical plans and their subsequent uses are outlined. Recommendations are made for a simple drainage classification, an additional notation for drainage mapping is suggested and the cost effectiveness of the technique is examined.
Information on groundwater composition obtained from a laboratory study of sediment-water interaction
Authors: Spears D. A.
Published: November 2007

The dissolution of some superficial sediments was studied experimentally to determine the sediment's influence on groundwater composition and also to check the previous findings based on analyses of the sediment and of the natural pore water from a site at Dunsforth, 21 km north-west of York. In the experiments Ca was dissolved from carbonates, Mg from dolomite and clay minerals, K and probably Na also from clay minerals and possibly feldspars. Higher concentrations of Ca, Mg and K were dissolved from unweathered sediments than from weathered, whereas the concentration of Na remained relatively constant. These conclusions are in agreement with those based on a study of the natural system and thus some of the reactions can be reproduced in the laboratory. Equilibrium was achieved relatively rapidly in the experiments. It is therefore claimed that relatively simple experimental work can provide meaningful information in studies of groundwater chemistry.
A laboratory study of the relationships between induced polarization, permeability and matrix electrical conductivity in Bunter Sandstones
Authors: Collar F. A. , Griffiths D. H.
Published: November 2007

Various investigators (e.g.
Vacquier, Holmes, Kintzinger & Lavergne 1957
,
Ogilvy & Kuzmina 1972
) have noted a connection between clay content in sandstones and induced polarisation (I.P.). A correlation between I.P. and permeability has also been briefly mentioned or inferred by some of these workers, though little systematic work has been done in this field. The investigations described below had two objectives, one of which was to find out if I.P. could be used to determine matrix conductivity (
Patnode & Wyllie 1950
,
Worthington & Barker 1972
) and the other to ascertain whether there was any simple relationship between I.P. amplitude and permeability in Triassic sandstones.
A logical loop for the geological investigation of dam sites
Authors: Stevenson P. C. , Moore W. R.
Published: November 2007

The investigation for the dam sites on Whitewater Creek, Tasmania illustrates two principles for site investigation in areas where geological exposures vary from good to poor: (1) The need for an integrated approach to the investigation using all the geological, geophysical and sampling techniques that are available, and (2) that even when all these tools are applied together only a certain level of geological knowledge may be attained by the investigation and the process has to be repeated by a series of logical loops to obtain a higher level of geological knowledge.

This process is illustrated by the comparison of two geological maps of the Whitewater Creek area. One loop, including mapping, geophysical work, drilling and pressure testing resulted in a map produced in 1967, when the investigation was halted because of a financial emergency due to the Hobart bushfires.

The second map illustrates the final investigation which was resumed in 1969 and completed in 1970 after subsequent loops. Both sites were abandoned because of the location of an unexposed and unsuspected Tertiary drainage system unrelated to the present Whitewater Creek.
The problem below
Authors: Jennings R. A. J.
Published: November 2007

In 1958 a site investigation was carried out for a housing scheme at Bo'ness near Edinburgh. The investigation was an interesting one and a film was made showing various aspects of the work.

The following account describes the investigation in greater detail than was possible in the film and in particular endeavours to show how the conclusions were arrived at.

The case history is detailed in a manner which it is hoped is suitable for the young engineering geologist encountering the problems of urban re-development schemes for the first time. The impact of old industrial legacies and attendant folk-lore on environmental geology is illustrated in the script.

It must be remembered that the year was 1958 and the techniques that were employed then may today be rather old hat. In 1974/75 there were eleven copies of the film in circuit and it was sent out to one hundred and fifty four different organisations.
Engineering Characteristics of East Anglian Quaternary Deposits
Authors: Funnell Brian Michael , Wilkes Peter Francis
Published: November 2007

Approximately 80 per cent of the surface of East Anglia is composed of Quaternary deposits, and even where it is made up of pre-Quaternary deposits these are highly likely to have been modified by glacial and periglacial processes. The initial Quaternary deposits consist of pre-glacial marine, estuarine and freshwater gravels, sands, clays and peats. Widespread glacial tills and outwash sands and gravels form the middle part of the succession. Later fluvioglacial and fluvial and marine inter glacial sands and gravels occupy the major valleys and some coastal sites. Post-glacial deposits consist of extensive freshwater and marine alluvial peats and clays at lower elevations in the major valleys and in the coastal zone. This account briefly reviews some qualitative engineering characteristics of these East Anglian Quaternary deposits, and provides references to further sources of information on them.
The influence of genetic processes on some geotechnical properties of glacial tills
Authors: Boulton G. S. , Paul M. A.
Published: November 2007

The principle characteristics of debris in transport by glaciers are described and the way in which this material is subsequently deposited as till. Three principal types of till are described, lodgement till, melt-out till and flow till, which can be related to typical sediment/landform models and which can form a good basis for site investigation planning. A proglacial/sub-glacial sediment association and land system is defined, in which lodgement till and proglacial outwash are the principal sediments, and in which drumlins, fluted moraines and push moraines, and kettle holes and eskers are the principal landforms. A supraglacial sediment association and land system is also defined, in which a suite of supraglacial sediments and landforms are superimposed on the subglacial/proglacial land system. The sediments comprise flow till, melt-out till and supraglacial outwash sediments, and the landforms largely comprise kame moraines. A third land system, the glaciated valley land system comprises chiefly medial and lateral moraines, in which the till is derived supraglacially from flanking valley sides, and kame terraces.

Till genesis influences the geotechnical properties of tills through its control on several important characteristics: grain-size distribution and its spatial variation; the stress history of the till; the nature of the sequence in which the till lies, e.g. the presence of stratified horizons; and jointing in the till. Post-depositional processes which change these characteristics are also important. The processes considered are: post-depositional wetting and drying; freezing and thawing; remoulding; and downward percolation of fines.
The engineering geology of Devensian deposits underlying P.F.A. Lagoons at Gale Common, Yorkshire
Authors: Taylor R. K. , Barton R. , Mitchell J. E. , Cobb A. E.
Published: November 2007

Gale Common is the disposal site for some 1 million tonnes of Pulverised Fuel Ash per annum. By the end of the century the lagoons with their 8 km of retaining embankments will form an artificial landscaped hill some 47 m in height.

The paper discusses the geological and sedimentary characteristics of the 12 m of Quaternary sediments which overlie Permo-Triassic bedrock at the site. Variations in the geotechnical properties (particularly c
v
and ') of the 25-Foot Drift foundation clay are related to macro-and micro structure and to the depositional conditions which obtained in the near-shore zone of Lake Humber during Devensian times.

The stability of the lagoon embankments which are being constructed in conditioned P.F.A. and colliery shale is considered in relationship to the underlying sediments.
The Quaternary deposits of the Somerset Levels
Authors: Kidson C. , Heyworth A.
Published: November 2007

Large areas of Somerset, known as the Levels, are at an altitude approximating to that of present High Water Mark. Below this surface lie buried valleys, filled by considerable thick-nesses of Quaternary sands, gravels, clays and peats. These are shown to be mainly of Holocene age, deposited in estuarine or coastal environments, over the last 9 000 years, at heights determined by the progression of the Holocene sea-level rise.

Older Quaternary estuarine sediments are also present, at heights above that reached by the Holocene sea, being related to trangressions probably of Ipswichian age. These interglacial deposits show evidence of reworking, around their margins, by the Holocene sea.
The foundation for an oil storage tank on Quaternary soils near Bridgwater, Somerset
Authors: Hinch L. W. , Martin P. L.
Published: November 2007

The site investigation carried out for an oil storage tank at a distribution terminal near Bridg-water, Somerset showed that a surface foundation could be adopted provided that the first filling of the tank was controlled to allow sufficient gain in strength of the foundation soils. The design of the instrumented flexible pad foundation, and the behaviour of the foundation during the controlled test filling of the tank with water, and when subsequently filled with oil, is described.
The evaluation of the engineering design parameters for glacial clays
Authors: Marsland A.
Published: November 2007

The wide variation in composition, fabric and stress history of glacial clays is reflected by large variations in engineering parameters. Undrained shear strengths obtained from laboratory tests can vary by a factor of six or more. In order to make reasonable assessments of the values to use in design it is necessary to study the fabric, composition and pore-water pressure response during shear. Procedures used at the Building Research Station are outlined and illustrated by a field example. Operational parameters determined from deep
in situ
loading tests on 865 mm diameter plates can differ appreciably from those determined in laboratory tests. Undrained shear strengths determined from laboratory tests can be up to twice the operational values. On the other hand, moduli determined from laboratory tests are often only a fraction of those applicable to the field situation.

Similarly the ratio of the parameters determined from small
in situ
tests, such as the static cone penetration, pressuremeter and vane tests, can vary from around unity to three. The actual ratios probably depend on the fabric and composition of the clays, but comparisons have not yet been made in a sufficient number of different glacial clays to make even tentative recommendations.
The principles and applications of grouting
Authors: Cambefort H.
Published: November 2007

Soils are injected with grouts, the choice of which depends on the nature of the medium to be injected (fissured rock or sand and gravels) and the results desired: imperviousness, consolidation, cavity filling, the jacking-up of buildings.

Grouts may be unstable, stable, liquids or foams, and are characterized by their decantation, setting time, viscosity and rigidity.

They produce their effect either by impregnation or by “claquage”. For the injection of unstable grouts, the final injection pressures must be limited to a high value, whilst for stable or liquid grouts it is the quantity injected that must be fixed in advance.

The applications envisaged relate to:

The treatment of galleries,

cavity filling, and

the jacking up of buildings.

Over-strict specifications lead to disappointing results because of the heterogeneity of soils. Controls must relate to results and not to methods.
Flow of fossil groundwater
Authors: Burdon David J.
Published: November 2007

The great groundwater basins of North Africa and Arabia extend over an area of some 6.5 million square kilometres. Gradients on the isopiezometric surfaces of their confined ground-waters are generally interpreted as indicating present-day flow of groundwater. Can such flow occur in basins where most or all of the groundwater is fossil and where effective infiltration and recharge may have ceased some 10 000 years ago?

Assuming that there is indeed no current recharge in these arid and sem-arid regions, the paper identifies seven groups totalling 12 possible mechanisms which can contribute in varying degrees to maintaining flow of groundwater long after effective recharge has ceased. These are: (i) Residual heads; (ii) Tilting of basin; (iii) Compaction effects, in terms of sediment loading, basalt loading and water loading/unloading; (iv) Thermal drive; (v) Gas drive; (vi) Lowering of discharge level, by tectonic displacement, by pressure bursts and by collapse of cover; and (vii) Evaporation in the discharge zone, such as lowering of lake levels and evaporation from sabkhas. Nine additional mechanisms were considered but rejected.

Combinations of these mechanisms can produce heads inducing flow of fossil groundwater, but appear to be insufficient to account for present hydraulic regimes without some current surface recharge. The findings have direct application to studies leading to the development, use and management of these major water resources of the arid zones of the Sahara and Arabia.
The analysis and planning of step drawdown tests
Authors: Clark Lewis
Published: November 2007

A step drawdown test is a pumping test in which the drawdown in a well is observed while the discharge rate from the well is increased in steps. The methods of analysis and the criteria for planning step drawdown tests are discussed and evaluated in order to produce an optimum test programme and a comprehensive test analysis.

Step drawdown tests can be used to determine the aquifer transmissivity and the well loss component of the drawdown in the pumped well. The aquifer storage coefficient can also be estimated.
Short discussion on “Geochemistry of Groundwaters in British Triassic Sandstones” by W. M. Edmunds and M. Morgan-Jones
Authors: Coleman J. D.
Published: November 2007

May I congratulate Messrs. Edmunds and Morgan-Jones on their paper on the Geochemistry of Groundwaters in British Triassic Sandstones. They have amassed a useful mine of data in an area where it is urgently needed, and gone a long way in interpreting the results.

May I comment in just one area, namely that concerned with the mineralogy of the sandstones, and, specifically, the first paragraph of that section (page 78) in the paper. The material on iron oxides there given seems unclear in that it is not made clear what is conjecture and what is experimentally established fact.

In particular, the redness of the sandstone is attributed to “haematite, goethite and a variety of amorphous hydrated ferric oxides”. Later, we are informed that “the iron present in the sandstone is in a hydrous, amorphous form, approximately FeO(OH)”. What, please, is the experimental evidence for these statements, when the X-ray analysis consistently shows only haematite?

If the authors suspect other oxides from microscope studies, unsupported by X-ray evidence, then I suggest that “haematite was confirmed and limonite was suspected” would cover the situation, where limonite has the meaning defined by Deer, Howie and Zussman i.e. “hydrated oxides of iron with poorly crystalline characters whose real identity is not known”.
An experimental scheme for the disposal of micaceous residues from the china clay industry
Authors: Hird C. C. , Humphreys J. D.
Published: November 2007

In the disposal of mining wastes, economic, safety and environmental considerations must be reconciled. The paper describes a new method of lagoon construction for disposing of fine residues (tailings) from the English China Clay industry which promises substantial economic and environmental benefits. A full-scale trial is in operation.

The design of the scheme is based on the assumption that the tailings will not be susceptible to liquefaction. This assumption is discussed in relation to the nature of the tailings and previous research before the initial results of a current laboratory investigation are presented.

Seepage from the new lagoon is being investigated by means of instrumentation. The seepage pattern depends on a complex distribution of permeability, which is also highly anisotropic. An account is given of an approximate prediction of future seepage patterns as development continues and of the alternative drainage measures which are being investigated.
Inclined drilling for the Kielder tunnels
Authors: Coats D. J. , Carter P. G. , Smith I. M.
Published: November 2007

Vertical and near vertical joints can have an important effect on tunnelling operations in rock. This paper describes an inclined drilling programme to study jointing along nearly 5 km of tunnel within the Kielder Water Scheme. Drilling problems are discussed, logging methods are described and the results are given. It is concluded that inclined drilling can have an important role in tunnel site investigations.
Improvements in the Lugeon or packer permeability test
Authors: Pearson R. , Money M. S.
Published: November 2007

The Lugeon or packer test for estimating rock permeability is not standardized and often yields anomalous results. A programme of repeated tests has been carried out in shallow drillholes in sandstones and greywackes making use of constant head tanks with continuous monitoring of flow rate and pressure measurement in the test section. These improved techniques make it possible to distinguish during tests between test system faults, such as packer leakage, and non-equilibrium effects due to the hydraulic properties of the rock mass. It is shown that the results obtained depend on the duration of the test and on the sequence in which different test pressures are applied and it is suggested that these effects are due to the presence of small but significant storage capacity in the rock mass. The relationship between equilibrium flows and pressures appears to be non-linear in both rock types.
Geophysical detection of disused mineshafts in the Newcastle upon Tyne area, North-East England
Authors: Dearman W. R. , Baynes F. J. , Pearson R.
Published: November 2007

The ground conditions associated with old mineshafts are reviewed. Both the resistivity and magnetic geophysical methods have been applied to the search for old mineshafts. Magnetic methods are preferred because they can be applied to the occasionally difficult terrain conditions likely to be associated with disused shafts. Two case histories of the application of the magnetic method in the Newcastle upon Tyne area are given in detail.
Peterhead Power Station cooling water intake tunnel: An engineering case study
Authors: Edmond J. M. , Graham J. D.
Published: November 2007

The paper describes in outline the cooling water intake tunnel for Peterhead Power Station from its inception in the latter part of 1973 to its completion in 1976. The choice of site investigation, the results thereof, the design specification for the tunnel tender enquiry together with subsequent developments during the construction phase are covered.

The very weathered nature of the granite rock mass through which this tunnel was driven presented problems in interpretation of the site investigation and in the design and construction of the works which are of a fundamental nature. The more important of these aspects are dealt with in the paper.

Detailed comparisons are made between the rock as encountered in the tunnel and conditions predicted by the site investigation. Reasons are given to account for discrepancies between predicted and
in situ
conditions.
Micropalaeontological investigations for the site of the Thames Barrier, London
Authors: Carter D. J. , Hart M. B.
Published: November 2007

The Thames Barrier, now being built across the Thames between Silvertown and Woolwich, to prevent tidal flooding in London will consist of a series of rotatable gates built across the river and supported by massive concrete piers, the majority of which are founded in the chalk bedrock.

As part of the site investigation in early 1972 a micropalaeontological investigation of the chalk was undertaken to determine an accurate stratigraphic correlation of the chalk across the site, the position and nature of any faults which affected the site, and the distribution of
in situ
, soliflucted and frost-shattered chalk. As a part of the work various biostratigraphic techniques were employed and these are described in detail.

Following this investigation it was shown that that chalk had been gently flexed prior to pre-Thanetian erosion. Two sets of weak folds were detected, trending SE-NW and NE-SW. Five faults were recognized near the site. One trends slightly north of east, with the remaining four being en echelon along the navigation channel. Although some of these faults cut the pier sites their throws were considered too small to produce any significant difference in engineering properties across them.
Genetic influences on the properties of tills
Authors: McGown Alan , Derbyshire Edward
Published: November 2007

Tills are a distinctive geological and engineering group of soils which are characterized by a wide range of behavioural patterns and a high degree of variability. As a means of identifying the various geological types of tills, a classification system based on their modes of formation, transportation and deposition has been developed. To accommodate the inherent variability of tills, sub-division of these classifications has been carried out on the basis of their gradational characteristics. Further, the fabric features contributing to variability in engineering behaviour are identified. From this, extended classifications are tentatively suggested to aid the prediction of the engineering properties of tills and the selection of the most appropriate sampling and testing techniques for them.
Jointing and rock slope stability in north-east Freetown, Sierra Leone
Authors: Chinsman B.
Published: November 2007

The main quarries producing quality aggregates for heavy civil engineering and road construction in Freetown can be found along the mountains directly overlooking the north-eastern area of the city. At these sites, the rocks are first dislodged by blasting after which they are crushed down to commonly required sizes. Recently, quarry owners have been beset by two problems arising from slope stability and the threat of closure resulting from claims for damage to private property. Previously the land around quarries was mainly wasteland but the scarcity of land in the city has led to an extension of the area of development so that a greater use is now being made of land occurring around and at the foot of quarry sites. This development has brought property owners directly into conflict with quarry owners who ironically are required to increase their output to meet increasing construction demands. To meet this demand, steeper slopes and more extensive faces are being excavated with the result that the frequency of accidents and instability has increased.

This paper presents the results of a discontinuity survey undertaken to determine safe and economic slope inclinations and alignments in the area.
Geotechnical aspects of route location studies for M4 north of Cardiff
Authors: Newbery John , Siva Subramaniam A.
Published: November 2007

Route location studies involve the identification of a study corridor within which alternative routes are evaluated on economic and environmental grounds. Four stages are generally adopted: inception; comparative assessment; finalize preferred route; design. The scope of the geotechnical input at these stages is illustrated by reference to the Castleton to Coryton Section of the M4 Motorway north of Cardiff. Geology exercises a significant control because of its influence on the earthworks, upon which construction costs are dependent.

Geological issues were raised at the Public Inquiry and these are described.
Middle East—The Geological Background
Authors: Kent P. E.
Published: November 2007

The Middle East is an area of widely varying geography and topography, mostly characterised either by low rainfall or full desert conditions. These present an abundance of engineering and environmental problems. It has diverse mineral resources of which only one—oil—has been developed on a large scale in modern times, Fig. 1.

Central to the area is the Arabian peninsula, which is geologically a prolongation of the African Continent. The various sedimentary and structural belts further east and north-east are peripheral to the edge of this old nucleus. It is, consequently, convenient to describe the region in terms of four parallel zones; the Arabian shield, shelf and the submerged sedimentary terrain of the Gulf; the Iranian coast and foothills; the mountain ranges of the Zagros; and finally the high Iranian Plateau. Geological columns through Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran and Iraq are indicated on Fig. 3, and a generalised cross section shown in Fig. 4.

The Arabian peninsula has three major elements, see Fig. 2.

The westernmost element is the outcrop of the Crystalline Shield, which flanks the Red Sea from Jordan to the Yemen, widening to 400 km in a broad flat dome in west-central Saudi Arabia. The crystalline rocks have a peneplaned surface which dips gently eastwards beneath the strata of the Interior Homocline (see Fig. 4).

The sediments directly overlying the Crystalline Shield are the Palaeozoic clastics, which are succeeded by Permian and Mesozoic rocks, dipping gently northeastwards. The older Palaeozoics are undisturbed at outcrop, but appear to have
Middle East—Geotechnical Data Collection
Authors: Eastaff D. J. , Beggs C. J. , McElhinney M. D.
Published: November 2007

An attempt has been made to draw up a list of sources of geotechnical information, both in Britain and locally in the Middle East.
Middle East—Highway and airfield pavements
Authors: Tomlinson M. J.
Published: November 2007

Problems in the design of highway and airfield pavements in the arid or semi-arid countries of the Middle East are concerned more with the detrimental effects of the environment on the completed pavement than with the capacity of the subgrade soil to carry the traffic loads. These problems occur even when pavements are constructed on soils which would be regarded as providing an excellent subgrade by Western European standards. In most Middle Eastern countries the soil conditions are such that the graded soil when compacted by traffic provides a good running surface for road vehicles or taxi-ing aircraft without any need for paving. Until quite recently many inter-city roads were unpaved, and propeller-driven and even jet aircraft operated successfully from unsurfaced runways (Fig. 1). Paving was required only when the intensity of road traffic reached the stage when ravelling of the road surface commenced with the consequent unpleasant ‘washboard’ effect. Similarly heavy trafficking on unsurfaced runways and taxiways resulted in ingestion of stones into aircraft engines and damage to wing surfaces.

The silty and clayey soils of parts of Jordan, Iraq and Iran, and the silty sabkha soils fringing the Trucial Coast undergo appreciable softening during rainy weather. Hence pavings are provided where all-weather serviceability is required from highways or airfields. Also run-off from the semi-impervious crust on the desert surface during heavy rain causes washouts of unpaved roads, requiring the attention of a grader to backfill the erosion gullies and restore the running surface. However, when a decision is
Middle East-Canals and Irrigation Problems
Authors: Swan C. H.
Published: November 2007

Irrigation has been defined as the artificial control of soil moisture for agricultural purposes (Rydzewski 1974). Therefore the soil is probably the first consideration in any proposed scheme for irrigation, and geological survey must be a starting point to provide a clear understanding of the origin and distribution of the soils and groundwater conditions underlying them. The study of soils and their suitability for irrigated agriculture is a specialized subject. Its basis is an appreciation of the geology and in particular the geomorphology of the region.

Problems in irrigation engineering associated with ground conditions usually arise as a result of changes in moisture content of the soils or of the ground water regime in the underlying material. This paper deals with problems that are universal in irrigated agriculture of arid or semi-arid lands, but the experience on which it is based and the examples quoted are derived from the Middle East. Irrigation drawing its supply from ground water is becoming increasingly important in the region, but this paper does not deal with strictly hydrogeological problems associated with supply.

At the present time in the truly arid areas of the Middle East there is only limited experience of large scale irrigation. In some peripheral areas however, soils exist which, if irrigated, would be potentially of agricultural value. Extensive irrigation projects for semi-deserts and dry grassland indicate some of the problems that undoubtedly would be encountered if large scale irrigation schemes were attempted in the truly arid areas of the
Middle East—Sewerage Projects for Coastal Towns of the Libyan Arab Republic
Authors: Newbery J. , Siva Subramaniam A.
Published: November 2007

Over the past two decades a number of main drainage and sewerage schemes constructed or currently under construction in coastal towns of LIbya have encountered a variety of ground problems. Locations involved are Tripoli, Benghazi, Tobruk, Derna and Misurata.

The geological setting of the work includes coastal dunes, sabkha deposits, terra rossa, limestone and marls—often with a capping of duricrust. Along the shore and in sabkha areas ground water is at or near sea-level, rising gradually inland. Thus, for a project serving large areas, excavation conditions vary significantly from place to place.

This paper describes in a geological context the construction methods adopted, with special reference to the works at Benghazi. Problems encountered include: culvert construction across soft sabkha deposits with a high water table; the penetration of caprock; high ground water inflows from karstic fissures; the provision of suitable materials for use as concrete aggregate and filter media.
Petrographical factors relating to porosity and permeability in the fell sandstone
Authors: Bell F. G.
Published: November 2007

Samples of Fell Sandstone were taken from approximately every 3 m from the core material left at Shirlawhope Well, Longframlington, Northumberland. Most of the core remains and it extends to a depth of 94 m.

Various analyses were made at each 3 m depth interval. These included a modal analysis, particular attention being given to the cement and matrix material, as well as the void space; and a petrographic analysis of grain packing. Grain size analyses were also carried out at each depth to determine the individual median size and sorting coefficients. The absolute and effective porosities were obtained for each depth interval, together with permeabilities of intact specimens. The results of the individual parameters were compared statistically by means of correlation coefficients and Student's t tests in order to evaluate the significance of their relationships.

Porosity and permeability were shown to be influenced by void percentage and grain packing. Particle size distribution, however, does not influence porosity, although it has some influence on permeability. Cement-matrix content has little influence on porosity. A highly significant relationship was found to exist between effective porosity and permeability. Both porosity and permeability decrease with increasing depth from the surface.
A numerical model for the prediction of long term well yield in an unconfined chalk aquifer
Authors: Connorton B. J. , Reed R. N.
Published: November 2007

The prediction of the long term yield from individual pumped wells is one of the main problems to arise from the Thames Ground Water Scheme. A numerical method for solving this problem, more versatile than conventional non-equilibrium pumping test analysis techniques, is described. The method is based on the discrete space/discrete time radial flow model, developed recently by Rushton
et al.
(1974). Factors modelled include the detailed spatial distribution of aquifer parameters, a variable pumping rate, natural recession and wellfield interference effects. An outline of the fundamental hydrogeological aspects of the modelling work is also given.
Hydrogeological characteristics of artesian boreholes in the Chalk of Hampshire
Authors: Headworth H. G.
Published: November 2007

The characteristics of over fifty shallow overflowing artesian boreholes in the Chalk at twelve watercress farms in Hampshire have been studied as part of the monitoring programme for a river augmentation scheme. The boreholes are mainly 150 and 200 mm in diameter and are relatively shallow, with 90 percent of them less than 40 m in depth. Artesian flows of all the boreholes in the period 1972–75 averaged 12 litres per second and in one case exceeded 40 litres per second. Flow and caliper logging show their flows are concentrated in discrete fissures, and a number of distinct fissure levels can be identified over a wide area. Analysis of piezometric heads and artesian flows show that ground-water flow is concenrated in a narrow width of aquifer of high permeability.
Effect of deicing agents and sulphate solutions on concrete aggregate
Authors: Gillott J. E.
Published: November 2007

Concrete durability is adversely affected by deicing agents and sulphate solutions. Sodium chloride and calcium chloride are the commonly used deicing agents—salts thrown on roads and other pavements to help ice melt in winter. Sulphates are common in soils and clays in Britain, Europe, the Middle East, western North America and elsewhere, while chlorides and sulphates are also present in sea-water. Scanning electron micrographs of limestones (used quite commonly as aggregate in concrete) show that the surfaces of limestones scale and disintegrate when soaked in solutions of sodium chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium sulphate. The morphology of both calcite and dolomite is changed, but calcite is attacked most rapidly, the progress of the reactions being observed to be controlled by cleavages and grain boundaries; the morphological results depend on the angle between the plane of weakness and the surface. Some limestones show dimensional change during continuous soaking in salt solutions at constant temperature. The adverse effect on concrete durability of deicers and sulphate solutions may thus result from attack on limestone aggregate as well as on cement paste.
Drift deposit influences on the Triassic Sandstone aquifer of NW Lancashire as inferred by hydrochemistry
Authors: Sage R. C. , Lloyd J. W.
Published: November 2007

The hydrochemical distributions as illustrated by bicarbonates in the Triassic Sandstone aquifer of NW Lancashire are discussed and related to glacial sand distribution in the overlying drift deposits. Recharge through the sands is inferred from the hydrochemistry as being one of the most important recharge mechanisms influencing the aquifer. Hydrochemical inference is also used to discuss the possible groundwater flow conditions in the north of the area.
Critical state parameters and peak stress envelopes for Bangkok Clays
Authors: Balasubramaniam A. S. , Zue-Ming Hwang , Uddin Waheed , Chaudhry A. R. , Li Y. G.
Published: November 2007

This paper is concerned with a detailed study of the critical state parameters and peak stress envelopes for undisturbed samples of Bangkok Clays (‘Weathered Clay’, ‘Soft Clay’ and ‘Stiff Clay’) taken from a site called Bangpli which is about 28 km from Bangkok. Both triaxial compression and extension tests were carried out with a wide variety of applied stress paths in a manner similar to that adopted by
Parry (1960)
. For all types of tests the end points are presented in (
q, p
), (
w
, log
p
) and (
w
, log
q
) plots;
q
is the deviator stress,
p
is the mean normal effective stress and w is the water content. The Mohr Coulomb strength parameters are also evaluated for each series of tests. The results are discussed in relation to the critical state concept of
Roscoe et al. (1958)
and the water content-strength relationships of
Henkel (1959)
.
Preliminary evaluation of the groundwater resources of the western part of the Vale of Pickering
Authors: Reeves M. J. , Parry E. L. , Richardson G.
Published: November 2007

An investigation of the water resources of the fissured limestone/sandstone Corallian Series aquifer was carried out between 1970 and 1974. The techniques employed and the interpretation of flow mechanisms and development potential may be relevant to other similar areas of the United Kingdom as well as further afield. Groundwater movement and chemistry are shown to be strongly related to geological structure. The aquifer is characterized by a relatively high recharge rate and, in some zones, high transmissivity; storage is very limited. This latter characteristic leads to difficulties in the formulation of development proposals, particularly if the aquifer is to be employed in river regulation.