bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Immigrant Place Entrepreneurs in Los Angeles, 1970–99
Authors: Light Ivan
Published: March 2003

Proclamations of the death of Los Angeles’ growth machine are premature. These proclamations overlook the growing role of immigrant Korean and Chinese entrepreneurs in regional property development. Since 1970, Korean and Chinese entrepreneurs have seriously restructured Los Angeles’ morphology, creating hierarchically arranged residential and business clusters for co–ethnic immigrants. Koreatown and Monterey Park are the brand names most familiar to outsiders, but these prominent localities really coexist with a multiplicity of less well–known ethnic communities that owe their origins to immigrant property developers. The immigrant property developers use the classic methods of the growth machine: buy land cheaply, promote it in Chinese or Korean emigration basins, then sell it to co–ethnic immigrants at a profit. In the process, the immigrant property developers reduce the difficulty of immigration to Los Angeles at the same time that they enhance its perceived desirability. The success of the Chinese and Korean developers highlights the hazard of assuming, as is conventionally done, that ethnic residential clustering arises from leaderless social processes. In both these highlighted cases, entrepreneurial elites created residential clusters of co–ethnics from conscious, long–term plans that required political as well as economic savoir–faire. In so doing, the immigrant property developers joined the Los Angeles growth machine whose fortunes, admittedly, have been waning among the native born population of the region.

La mort annoncée de la dynamique de croissance de Los Angeles est prématurée. Ce serait oublier le rôle grandissant des chefs d’entreprise immigrés coréens et chinois dans l’aménagement immobilier régional. Depuis 1970, ces entrepreneurs ont considérablement restructuré la morphologie de Los Angeles, créant des ‘agglomérats’ commerciaux et résidentiels hiérarchisés pour migrants de m?me ethnie. Si Koreatown et Monterey Park sont des noms bien connus des étrangers, ces lieux dominants coexistent en réalité avec une multiplicité de communautés ethniques moins renommées qui doivent leurs origines à des promoteurs immigrés. Ces derniers appliquent les mécanismes classiques de la prospérité: acheter le terrain bon marché, le promouvoir dans des bassins d’émigration chinois ou coréens, puis le vendre à profità des immigrants co–ethniques. Ainsi, les promoteurs immigrés facilitent l’immigration vers Los Angeles tout en en accentuant l’aspect attractif. La réussite des aménageurs chinois et coréens souligne le risque qu’il y a à supposer, comme bien souvent, que tout regroupement résidentiel ethnique naît de processus sociaux non dirigés. Dans les deux cas exposés, les élites commerciales ont créé des regroupements résidentiels de m?me ethnie selon des plans délibérés à long terme, impliquant un savoir–faire à la fois politique et économique. Ce faisant, les promoteurs immigrés ont rejoint la dynamique de croissance de Los Angeles qui, il est vrai, a vu décliner les succès au sein de sa population de souche.
International Petty Trading: Changing Practices in Trans–Carpathian Ukraine
Authors: Williams Allan M. , Baláž Vladimir
Published: March 2003

The opening of borders in eastern Europe, accompanied by partial re–regulation and institutionalization of markets, created exceptional conditions for arbitrage in the form of cross–border trading. Whilst there is evidence that this is in decline in Central Eastern Europe, because of developments in the formal retail sector and convergence in trading and consumption, it persists as a significant alternative economic site in many other parts of eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. This article explores three main aspects of cross–border trading in Trans–Carpathian Ukraine, a region at the frontier between ‘colliding’ economic systems. The article has three main objectives. First, it examines the roles of gatekeepers and operators, and their embeddedness in local economic and political systems. Secondly, based on a survey of 150 Ukrainian traders, it explores the socio–economic backgrounds and practices of the traders, especially gender differences, their modes of trading and capital accumulation. These are partly interpreted in terms of the uneven legacy of capital and social networks dating from the state socialist period. Thirdly, it considers the changing organizational forms of trading, especially a shift from petty cross–border trading to global sourcing of merchandise.

L’ouverture des frontières en Europe de l’Est, associée à une re–régulation partielle et une institutionnalisation des marchés, a créé des conditions exceptionnelles pour l’arbitrage dans les opérations transfrontalières. Si cette forme de négoce s’avère en déclin dans les pays d’Europe centrale–orientale – le secteur officiel du détail s’étant développé, et commerce et consommation ayant convergé– elle demeure une place de repli économique importante pour bien d’autres parties d’Europe de l’Est et de l’ex–Union soviétique. Cet article étudie trois aspects dominants du commerce transfrontalier en Transcarpatie (Ukraine), région aux confins de systèmes économiques `qui s’entrechoquent’. Ce travail poursuit trois objectifs. Il examine d’abord les rôles des garde–barrières et opérateurs, ainsi que leurs imbrications dans les systèmes économiques et politiques locaux. Ensuite, à partir d’une enquÁte sur 150 négociants ukrainiens, il explore les pratiques et milieux socio–économiques de ces derniers, notamment les différences par sexe, ainsi que leurs modalités de commerce et d’accumulation de capital; une interprétation partielle est donnée à partir de l’inégal héritage des réseaux sociaux et de capitaux datant de l’ère socialiste. Enfin, il s’intéresse aux formes évolutives d’organisation commerciale, en particulier au passage d’un petit commerce transfrontalier à un approvisionnement de marchandises à l’échelon mondial.
Determinants of Repayment in Microcredit: Evidence from Programs in the United States
Authors: Bhatt Nitin , Tang Shui–Yan
Published: March 2003

Many microcredit programs have been created in the United States in the past decade that replicate design features of their counterparts in the third world. Yet few systematic studies have been carried out to examine what determines these programs’ loan repayment performance. We attempt to fill this gap by studying the determinants of loan repayment for four of the oldest group–based microcredit programs in the US. Our findings suggest that these programs are faced with a set of social and institutional environments that are both similar to and different from those faced by their third–world counterparts. On the one hand we find that higher levels of education and proximity to the lending agency increase the chances of loan repayment. Low transaction costs for accessing loans and high borrower–costs in the event of default also enhance loan repayment performance. On the other hand key variables such as gender and homogeneity of borrowers are not significantly related to loan repayment. We conclude by examining the implications of these findings for program design in the US.

Au cours des dix dernières années, ont été créés aux Etats–Unis de nombreux programmes de microcrédit reprenant des concepts de leurs équivalents du Tiers monde. Cependant, on a mené peu d’études systématiques pour examiner ce qui décide de la qualité de remboursement des prÁts de ces programmes. En tentant de combler cette lacune, l’article étudie les déterminants de ces remboursements pour quatre des plus anciens programmes de microcrédit américains associés à des groupes. D’après les résultats, les programmes sont confrontés à un ensemble d’environnements sociaux et institutionnels à la fois similaires et différents de ceux que rencontrent leurs équivalents du Tiers monde. D’une part, les niveaux supérieurs d’éducation et de proximité de l’organisme de prÁt augmentent les chances de remboursement. Des frais de transaction faibles pour l’accès aux prÁts, de mÁme que des charges élevées pour l’emprunteur défaillant, favorisent également la réalisation du remboursement. D’autre part, des variables–clés, comme le sexe et l’homogénéité des emprunteurs, n’ont pas de liens significatifs avec le remboursement. En conclusion, sont étudiées les implications de ces résultats sur la conception des programmes américains.
Geography as Interdisciplinary Pivot
Authors: Wu Fulong
Published: March 2003

Books reviewed in this article:

Ronan Paddison (ed.), Handbook of urban studies

Gary Bridge and Sophie Watson (eds.), A companion to the city

Michael Dutton, Streetlife China

Allen J. Scott (ed.), Global city–regions. Trends, theory, policy
US bombing and Afghan civilian deaths: the official neglect of ‘unworthy’ bodies
Authors: Herold Marc W.
Published: March 2003

This article outlines the ways in which the US and allies’ bombing campaign in Afghanistan has resulted in well over 3,000 civilian deaths due to bombing impacts, the indirect deaths of tens of thousands of internally displaced persons, and thousands of injured in an agricultural society where limbs are crucial. In addition, the landscape and environment have been polluted with cluster bombs and depleted uranium. The intense bombing campaign destroyed urban and village residences, bridges, mosques, electricity and water supplies, communication systems, cratered roads etc. In contrast to the victims of September 11th, the dead Afghan civilians remain largely uncounted, faceless, de facto unworthy bodies.

Cet article expose comment la campagne de bombardement des Etats–Unis et des alliés en Afghanistan s’est traduite par plus de 3,000 morts civils sous les impacts de bombes, par le décès indirect de dizaines de milliers de personnes déplacées sur le territoire, et par des milliers de blessés dans une société agricole où l’usage d’un membre est crucial. De plus, paysage et environnement ont été pollués par des bombes à fragmentation et de l’uranium appauvri. Les bombardements intenses ont détruit les habitats urbains et villageois, les ponts, les mosquées, les réseaux d’alimentation en électricité et en eau, les systèmes de communication, les routes défoncées, etc. Par rapport aux victimes du 11 septembre, les civils afghans morts restent pour beaucoup non dénombrés, dans l’anonymat, de facto des corps indignes.
Local autonomy, bond–rating agencies and neoliberal urbanism in the United States
Authors: Hackworth Jason
Published: March 2003

The influence of bond–rating agencies on local autonomy is explored in light of recent research which views autonomy not as the degree of separation from the global economy, but rather as the nature of the interaction that places have with the wider politico–economic sphere. Based on the recent experience of American cities, it appears that the activities of rating agencies influence local autonomy more so now than during the immediate postwar period for three interrelated reasons. First, the governing turn away from federally–organized Keynesianism has transferred certain responsibilities to localities that are often funded with debt. Localities are thus more reliant on capital markets and the decisions that determine their access to such markets. Second, an increased presence of institutional investors in the municipal bond market has strengthened the investment–grade threshold because such investors are legally prohibited from holding a high percentage of speculative securities. Localities with speculative–grade debt are less able to sell their bonds than before. Third, commercial banks and locally–based lenders, which used to lend more frequently to cities (based on their own market research), are less involved in municipal debt markets than before. The knowledge vacuum created by their exit has been filled by the only other reputable sources on municipal credit: bond–rating agencies.

Des recherches récentes montrent que l’autonomie locale ne se mesure pas en termes de séparation de l’économie globale mais à partir de l’interaction entre des localités et la sphère politico–économique au sens large. Dans cette perspective, l’article analyse l’influence des agences financières sur l’autonomie locale. A partir de l’expérience récente des villes américaines, il apparaît que les activités de ces agences de notation ont beaucoup plus d’influence sur l’autonomie locale que dans l’immédiate après guerre et ce pour trois raisons. Premièrement, en se détournant du keynésianisme organisé au niveau fédéral, le gouvernement a transféré des responsabilités aux localités qui sont souvent financées par la dette. Deuxièmement, le rôle accru des investisseurs institutionnels sur le marché de la dette des municipalités a renforcé le poids des notations et de seuils de risque car ces investisseurs n’ont légalement pas le droit de détenir un pourcentage élevé de titres à risque. Par conséquent, les localités dont la dette est considérée comme relevant du domaine de la spéculation sont moins capables d’émettre du papier. Troisièmement, les banques commerciales et les prêteurs locaux sont aujourd’hui moins impliqués sur ce marché. La perte de connaissance et d’information créée par leur départ a été compensée par la seule autre source fiable sur les finances municipales: la agences de notation financière.
Geographical proximity and supplying relationships in modular production
Authors: Frigant Vincent , Lung Yannick
Published: March 2003

The geography of the automotive industry has changed in recent years. This article focuses on the changes that are associated with ‘modular production‘, whose diffusion has reinforced the need for proximity between auto–makers and parts–makers. The new geographical configurations that have cropped up, especially in the field of assembly operations, are based on spatial contiguity. On one hand, this spatial and organizational contiguity comprises a move away from former methods for managing vertical relationships; on the other hand, it has transformed the role that geographical proximity plays in the coordination of such activities. Such a co–evolution needs to be interpreted. Following a brief description of recent experimentation in this area, we try to determine how geographic proximity can drive the emergence of new methods for coordinating vertical relationships by highlighting some of the opportunities for organizational innovation that can result from proximity. Several factors will be discussed: the management of the logistical constraint; the convergence of representations; the site specificity by which vertical relationships can be stabilized; the different ways in which employment relationships can be managed; and the limits of all of these factors. We highlight both the benefits and the shortcomings of geographical proximity by drawing certain conclusions from the first experiments that the automobile industry has conducted.

Cet article analyse les évolutions récentes concernant la géographie de l’industrie automobile autour de la ‘production modulaire‘. Cette production modulaire se traduit en effet par le renforcement de la proximité entre les constructeurs automobiles et leurs fournisseurs de premier rang, notamment par la recherche d’une contiguïté spatiale dans la phase d’assemblage. Cette contiguïté spatiale et organisationnelle marque une rupture à la fois dans la gestion des relations verticales et dans le rôle conféréà la proximité géographique au sein du processus de coordination de ces activités. Une interprétation de ces évolutions conjointes s’avère nécessaire. Après une brève présentation de quelques expériences récentes, le papier s’attache à préciser comment la proximité géographique participe à la construction de ces nouveaux modes de coordination des relations verticales, en spécifiant les opportunités d’innovations organisationnelles qu’elle suscite. Nous discutons des différents facteurs et de leurs limites: la gestion de la contrainte logistique, la convergence des représentations, la spécificité de site pour stabiliser les relations verticales, la gestion des relations salariales sur un même site. Nous soulignons ainsi les avantages et les limites de la proximité géographique en tirant un premier bilan des expériences engagées dans l’industrie automobile.
The development and regional significance of the automotive industry: supplier parks in western Europe
Authors: Larsson Anders
Published: March 2003

Supplier relationships in the automotive industry have changed considerably in recent decades. Increasing levels of outsourcing and modular production combined with just–in–time deliveries have increased the demand for logistical coordination of the manufacturing process. This article specifically looks at the use of supplier parks in the automotive industry. Five supplier parks located in Sweden, Germany and Spain are analysed using case studies. One observation is that the logic of proximity in these cases is highly linked to the use of sequential synchronous just–in–time deliveries. This is combined with a high degree of modular production as well as outsourcing strategies. Together, these factors have pushed supplier companies to establish themselves in supplier parks. The cases also reveal very limited links to the local and regional economy. Most companies have the sole function of serving the adjacent customer with reliable deliveries. One further observation is that investment in infrastructure is to a great extent made through public funding, as supplier parks are typically ‘produced spaces’ in order to support the car–makers in the region.

Les relations d’approvisionnement se sont profondément transformées au cours des deniers décennies dans l’industrie automobile. L’externalisation croissante et la modularisation associés à la gestion Juste–à–temps ont accentué le rôle de la logistique dans l’organisation du processus de production. Dans ce contexte, cet article étudie le rôle des parcs de fournisseurs dans l’industrie automobile. L’analyse se fonde sur l’étude approfondie de cinq parcs de fournisseurs localisés en Allemagne, Espagne et Suède. Une des conclusions de ses études de cas est que la logique de proximité est largement associée à la diffusion de la production synchrone, mais aussi à l’importance de la production modulaire et au degré d’externalisation. Ces trois facteurs explicatifs justifient la localisation des équipementiers dans les parcs de fournisseurs. Les cas étudiés mettent aussi en évidence un impact limité de ces complexes sur l’économie locale. La plupart des fournisseurs ne localisent qu’une simple fonction de préparation des sous–ensembles livrés en temps voulu sur les chaînes d’assemblage. Enfin, on peut noter que l’investissement dans l’infrastructure est pour une large part financée sur des fonds publics, les parcs de fournisseurs pouvant être qualifiés d’espaces produits’ afin de consolider l’implantation locale des constructeurs.
Bring back big government
Authors: Lake Robert W.
Published: March 2003

Despite widespread claims of its demise, the national state is the scale of the state institution best able to marshal the political, discursive and material resources necessary to achieve goals of social justice, defined as a decrease in income inequality, at local, national and global scales. The appearance of the withering away of the state is deceptive, since it is the state itself that is enacting the distribution of functions that some observers interpret as a reduction in state power. The arguments for a return of big government are both strategic and tactical. Strategically, central government has been responsible for every major social policy advance in the United States in the twentieth century. Tactically, the institutions comprising decentralized governance, including local governments, non–profit foundations and community–based organizations, are inadequate to the task. The role of big government in pursuit of social justice entails discursive and regulatory functions, each in turn suggesting an attendant political project for academics and activists. What is at stake is not a quantitative redistribution of state power but a qualitative redirection of the purposes to which that power is applied. Uncritical insistence on the end of the nation state may create a self–defeating self–fulfilling prophecy that conceals important opportunities for political realignment.

L’Etat nation est à la meilleure échelle pour mobiliser les ressources politiques, discursives et matérielles nécessaires à la poursuite de la justice sociale, définie comme la réduction des inégalités de revenu aux échelles locales, nationales et globales, et ce malgré les affirmations répandues sur le retrait de l’Etat. L’apparence d’effacement de l’Etat est trompeuse puisque c’est l’Etat luui même qui organise la réallocation des fonctions que certains observateurs interprètent comme une réduction du pouvoir de l’Etat. L’argument en faveur d’un retour du ‘big government’ sont à la fois stratégiques et tactiques. D’un point de vue stratégique, le gouvernement central a été responsable de toutes les grandes avancées sociales du Xxème siècle aux USA. Sur le plan tactique, les institutions de gouvernance décentralisée comprenant le gouvernement local, les fondations à but non lucratif et les organisations communautaires ne peuvent pas faire face à ces tâches. Le rôle du gouvernement dans la poursuite de la justice sociale comprend des fonctions régulatives et discursives, chacune d’entre elle renvoyant à des projets politiques pour les activistes et les universitaires. Ce n’est pas la réallocation de l’autorité qui est en jeu mais une réorientation des objectifs du pouvoir. L’accent mis sans réserve sur la fin de l’Etat nation pourrait crééer une prophétie auto–créatrice auto–défaitiste qui dissimulerait les vraies opportunités de réorientation politique.
The State, Refugees and Migration in Sub‐Saharan Africa
Authors: Akokpari John K.
Published: March 2003

Population displacements, refugees and migration are not only common phenomena, but are also on the increase in sub‐Saharan Africa.

Although scholarly explanations for the causes include political oppression, economic adversities and environmental degradation, conflicts and wars account for the bulk of sub‐Saharan Africa’s refugees and migration in recent years. These explanations are themselves dependent on, or symptomatic of, more fundamental causes, including “the problem of the African state” and its failure to address the region’s environmental crisis.

States have shown incapacity to equitably distribute scarce resources among competing constituents or promote fair competition for these resources. By this, the state not only revives old tensions and sharpens deep‐seated contradictions in society, but aggravates conflicts which in turn lead to refugees and migration.

Although environmental decadence is known to produce refugees or induce migration, the state is reluctant to establish credible environmental regimes capable of halting or reversing the current trend in ecological degradation.

The exigencies of the international economy create further salutary conditions for conflict and environmental degradation. The pressures to adopt structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) in order to meet external debt obligations, for example, obligate sub‐Saharan governments to be outward‐looking rather than enhance their capacities to address the fundamental internal factors underlying the induction of refugees and migration.

Once refugees and migration are induced, the effects are felt by the refugees themselves, the home governments as well as the host country. Refugees undergo traumatic experiences, the home government suffers from brain drain, and the host country is compelled to stretch its resources beyond limits to accommodate the new arrivees. While refugees further abuse the environment, illegal emigrants may resort to drugs pushing and prostitution (in the case of females) as part of their innovative survival strategies.

Sub‐Saharan African states can significantly minimize the incidence of refugees and migration by shifting from the traditional partisan posture to distribute meagre resources fairly among the diverse social constituents in the state. Also, shifting environmental conservation from the margins to the centre of public policy will go a long way to reduce the number of persons who would otherwise be proactively or reactively displaced by ecological pressures.
The Need to Import Skilled Personnel: Factors Favouring and Hindering its International Mobility
Authors: Iredale Robyn
Published: March 2003

Skilled migration has become a major element of contemporary flows. It has developed in scale and variety since the 1930s and now takes many forms, including “brain drain”, professional transients, skilled permanent migrants and business transfers. Nevertheless, the data are poor, inconsistent and usually not differentiated by sex.

The importance of policies, both national and regional, to control the movement of skilled migrants has escalated. Receiving countries have come increasingly to see the benefits from admitting skilled workers and have adjusted their permanent and/or temporary migration laws/policies to facilitate entry, usually on the proviso that it does not disadvantage their own workers by taking away their jobs.

Another set of policy frameworks within which skilled migration is occurring is regional blocs. The experience of the European Union (EU) in promoting the flow of skilled labour, movement in this direction in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Mercosul, the Closer Economic Relations (CER) Agreement between Australia and New Zealand and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Forum are analysed.

The article poses two sets of issues facing sending and receiving countries. For sending countries they are: whether to free up or tighten migration; whether to support temporary skilled flows; whether to introduce protective or preventive measures to stem skilled emigration; how to encourage the return of skilled nationals; and whether/how to pursue compensation from post‐industrialized countries.

For receiving countries they are: whether to encourage temporary or permanent skilled immigration; the level of entry to permit/promote; how to select/process skilled immigrants; whether/how to protect the jobs of locals; and how they ensure the successful labour market integration of skilled immigrants.

The article argues that the neo‐classical view that skilled migration leads to overall improvement in global development does not apply. “Brain waste” or “wasted skills” occur frequently, to the detriment of both individuals and nations. Improved data and constructive dialogue on skilled migration are needed. Within both regional and international contexts, countries have obligations and responsibilities towards each other which need to be taken seriously.
Chain Migration Through the Social Network: Experience of Labour Migrants in Kuwait
Authors: Shah Nasra M. , Menon Indu
Published: March 2003

Labour migration to the Gulf countries is predominantly contract based and a majority of workers fall below the salary ceiling necessary for sponsoring family members. Despite this, social networks have expanded in Kuwait, primarily in the form of sponsorship of additional labour migrants by those already in the country.

The objectives of the article are to describe how the process of arranging sponsorship works, to delineate the predictors of moving through a friend or relative, or arranging sponsorship for a subsequent labour migrant, and to assess the “multiplier” effect of the above process. The article is based on a survey among 800 South Asian skilled and unskilled male migrants, 200 each from Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

About 34 per cent of all respondents moved through friends or relatives, 50 per cent through agents and 16 per cent through direct hiring or the government bureau. Logistic regression analysis indicated that the factors most likely to predict a move through the social network consisted of being a Pakistani or Indian, being a Muslim, and possessing some skills.

One‐quarter of all migrants had arranged the visa for another migrant since they came to Kuwait. Logistic regression analysis showed the respondent’s duration of stay in Kuwait to be an exceptionally important predictor for arranging sponsorship for an additional migrant.

Monthly income, being married and being a Muslim were also positively associated with arranging sponsorship. In terms of the multiplier effect, about 0.78 visas had been arranged per migrant. Pakistanis, who had the longest average duration of stay in Kuwait, arranged the maximum number (1.6) of visas on average.
To See and Not be Seen: Latin American Illegal Foreign Workers in Jerusalem
Authors: Roer‐Strier Dorit , Olshtain‐Mann Orly
Published: March 2003

The article describes the formation and characteristics of the new evolving community of illegal Latin American foreign workers in Jerusalem while adopting the ecological perspective, which examines human development and behaviour in various contexts of their social and cultural environments.

We have looked specifically at illegal Latin American foreign workers’ reasons for and process of migration, their accommodation and living conditions, allocation of employment, daily cultural and social conditions, education and health issues concerning children and families, perceptions of relations with host culture and perceptions of well‐being and future expectations.

Our findings are based on the investigation of perspectives offered by the foreign workers themselves, by representatives of the various sectors of the host culture who are well acquainted with these workers, and by the researchers themselves, demonstrating how by means of triangulation these perceptions achieve extra validity or differ.

The article further explores the contribution of the case study in the investigation of acculturation stress and migrant’s well‐being, and emphasizes the need to study specific populations of immigrants under specific ecological conditions.
Undocumented Migrants in Greece: Issues of Regularization
Authors: Lazaridis Gabriella , Poyago‐Theotoky Joanna
Published: March 2003

This article studies migration from Albania into Greece and schematically looks at the socio‐economic integration and/or exclusion of Albanians.

It explores the issue of regularization: first, providing an explanation for the choices made by a government by using a simple game‐theoretic framework and, second, it outlines the current efforts made towards regularization of undocumented migrants in Greece.

The game‐theoretic example shows that, under certain conditions, the optimal policy for a government is not to legalize an illegal immigrant, whereas under different conditions the optimal policy is to regularize. These conditions relate to factors such as the relative magnitude of the government’s payoffs which are in turn dependent on public opinion, lobbying activities, the presence of migrants' associations and the like.

The article then reviews the case of Greece, where initially migrant workers were not regularized whereas at present there exists a new legal framework for their regularization.

The character of Albanian migration into Greece reflects two things: the changing global nature of international migration and the way in which migrants in Southern Europe are embedded in the specific model of Southern European post‐industrial society.
Return Migration: Changing Roles of Men and Women
Authors: Sakka Despina , Dikaiou Maria , Kiosseoglou Grigoris
Published: March 2003

The study concerns Greek returnees from the Federal Republic of Germany and explores changes in task sharing behaviour and gender role attitudes resulting from changes in cultural environments.

A group of return migrants was compared with a group of non‐migrants, both living in villages in the District of Drama, Greece. Groups were interviewed to investigate the extent to which each spouse shared house tasks as well as their attitudes towards gender roles in the family.

The data were factor analysed and a t‐test was used to determine any differences between the groups. In addition to demographic variables, those concerning the “time lived abroad” and the “number of years in Greece” after return were inserted into a series of regression analyses for the purpose of explaining task sharing and gender role attitudes.

The results showed that: (a) task sharing of return migrants differs from on‐migrants with respect to tasks which are peripheral to house organization. It seems that migrants’ task sharing behaviour changes to a certain degree as a result of their changing socio‐cultural environments. Results also suggest that migrant husbands and wives either take on new patterns of behaviour or maintain traditional ones only when these are congruent with the financial aims of the family or can be integrated into living conditions in Greece upon return. (b) Lack of differences between groups in an Attitude Questionnaire suggest that gender role attitudes have changed for both migrants and non‐migrants over the last 15 to 20 years, although for different reasons and the different conditions under which these groups had lived.
The Occupational Attainment of Immigrant Groups in Australia
Authors: Forrest James , Johnston Ron
Published: March 2003

It is commonly assumed that immigrants are disadvantaged in the Australian labour market because of a variety of interacting factors, some related to their skills, some to cultural differences between them and the host society, and some to the time it takes to adjust to their new circumstances. Using specially‐prepared cross tabulations from the 1996 Australian Census, this article evaluates the assumption for the country’s 52 largest immigrant groups, as defined by birthplace. Separate analyses for male and female immigrants relate their concentration in ten occupational groups, including unemployment, to their educational qualifications, facility with the English language, and period of arrival. The analyses suggest that the first two variables are particularly relevant to appreciating the occupational distribution of male immigrants, with period of arrival also being important for females, probably reflecting different cultural norms from their host society.
The Role of Immigrants in the Italian Labour Market
Authors: Ambrosini Murizio
Published: March 2003

In little more than a decade, Italy has become a country characterized by immigration from abroad. This pattern is far removed from what central‐northern European countries experienced during the 1950s and the 1960s.

Immigration has not been explicitly demanded by employers, nor has it been ruled by agreements with the immigrants' countries of origin, nor perceived as necessary for the economic system. For all these reasons, immigration has been chaotic and managed in an emergency and approximate way, even though it is deemed useful and is requested by the “informal” as well as the “official” economy.

Following presentations of statistics on trends in the phenomenon, three issues are analysed:

‐ how immigrants are integrated into a labour market that has not called them and into circumstances characterized by the absence of public policies to help them in their job search.

‐ whether it is possible to separate regular immigration involved in the “official” market from irregular immigration in the hidden economy, considering advantages of the first and harmful effects of the second for the Italian socio‐economic system.

‐ whether it is appropriate to address complementarity between immigrant labour and the national labour force in a country with 2,500,000 unemployed workers and heavy territorial unbalances.
The Migration of Professionals: Theories and Typologies
Authors: Iredale Robyn
Published: March 2003

In an historical context, highly skilled migration typically involved the forced movement of professionals as a result of political conflicts, followed by the emergence of the “brain drain” in the 1960s.

In the current situation, highly skilled migration represents an increasingly large component of global migration streams. The current state of theory in relation to highly skilled migration is far from adequate in terms of explaining what is occurring at the high skill end of the migration spectrum.

Continuing growth of temporary skilled migration is heralding changes in the operation of professions. Formal procedures for recognizing the skills of permanent immigrant professionals are breaking down as “fast‐track” processes for assessing the skills of temporary professional migrants are put in place. The increasing globalization of firms and the internationalization of higher education are encouraging professions to internationalize.

In this article, four professions are cited as case studies to show that professional inclusion/exclusion is no longer defined by national professional bodies alone. The operation of professions has become a transnational matter although the extent of internationalization varies with professions.

Typologies for analysing professional migration flows are discussed and a sixth means of categorization, by profession or industry, is introduced to allow for the nature of interactions between the market, the state and the profession/industry. The question whether states should continue to be concerned about self‐sufficiency in national professional labour markets in an increasingly globalized environment is also addressed.
Shifting Paradigms of Globalization: The Twenty‐first Century Transition Towards Generics in Skilled Migration from India
Authors: Khadria Binod
Published: March 2003

Globalization of human capital through international migration is no longer about global physical presence only; it is also about global applicability of skills across various fields of specialization. This marks the main characteristics of skilled migration from India to developed countries in the twenty‐first century. The focus is shifting away from professionals in specific occupations, like doctors, engineers, scientists, architects, bankers, to information technology (IT) professionals embodying, in a way, more generic skills.

In other words, it is the generic applicability of information and communications technology (ICT) which has led to large‐scale migration of Indians skilled in IT.

Moreover, the exodus comprises not only the fully trained and educated workers going abroad for employment, but also students ‐ the semi‐finished human capital ‐ pursuing higher education in onshore as well as offshore universities of the developed countries.

The new emigration is directed towards traditional host countries in the West such as the UK, Canada, and the US, but also towards newly emerging destinations in continental Europe (Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Denmark), Australasia (Australia, New Zealand), East Asia (Japan, Republic of Korea), and South‐East Asia (Singapore, Malaysia).

By using mainly current information and informal data as reported in the media, this article perceives emerging trends and changes in the context of the global labour market for skills, and suggests a possible framework towards evolving strategies of remedial development.
Transatlantic Roundtable on High–skilled Migration and Sending Countries Issues
Authors: Ouaked Said
Published: March 2003

Globalization and the advent of the knowledge economy have created a new context where there is a greater demand for the highly skilled, especially in the information technology (IT) industry. High–skilled migration has become increasingly more complex, even if in recent years the term “brain drain” has become a generic reference to “high–skilled migration” of all types. It has also become clear that brain mobility does not automatically translate into “brain drain”, and that impacts vary by the types of skills held by migrants.

The meeting demonstrated that while much is known about high–skilled migration and its effects on source countries, there is also a great deal yet to be learned in a dynamic environment. Many participants deplored the lack of reliable data, which makes it difficult to know what is really going on and to establish appropriate policies. Clearly, there are an array of policies that can offset possible adverse effects of skilled mobility and even leverage the flow into positive outcomes for source countries. A key element is improvement of the population’s general level of education. Low levels of skills keep average labour productivity and wages low and therefore retard development. Long–term strategies to promote economic growth are needed to enable developing countries to retain and draw back their highly skilled and address the negative effects of the brain drain. Migrants themselves can play an important role through their remittances, diaspora networks, and own willingness to return – at least temporarily — to share their skills and contribute to economic progress. Finally, destination countries can facilitate the process through policies that promote circulation of highly skilled migrants.
The Migration–Development Nexus: Evidence and Policy Options
Authors: Nyberg–Sørensen Ninna , Hear Nicholas Van , Engberg–Pedersen Poul
Published: March 2003

Migration and development are linked in many ways – through the livelihood and survival strategies of individuals, households, and communities; through large and often well–targeted remittances; through investments and advocacy by migrants, refugees, diasporas and their transnational communities; and through international mobility associated with global integration, inequality, and insecurity.

Until now, migration and development have constituted separate policy fields. Differing policy approaches that hinder national coordination and international cooperation mark these fields. For migration authorities, the control of migration flows to the European Union and other OECD countries are a high priority issue, as is the integration of migrants into the labour market and wider society. On the other hand, development agencies may fear that the development policy objectives are jeopardized if migration is taken into consideration. Can long–term goals of global poverty reduction be achieved if short–term migration policy interests are to be met? Can partnership with developing countries be real if preventing further migration is the principal European migration policy goal?

While there may be good reasons to keep some policies separate, conflicting policies are costly and counter–productive. More importantly, there is unused potential in mutually supportive policies, that is, the constructive use of activities and interventions that are common to both fields and which may have positive effects on poverty reduction, development, prevention of violent conflicts, and international mobility.

This paper focuses on positive dimensions and possibilities in the migration–development nexus. It highlights the links between migration, development, and conflict from the premise that to align policies on migration and development, migrant and refugee diasporas must be acknowledged as a development resource.
The Migration–Development Nexus: Somalia Case Study
Authors: Gundel Joakim
Published: March 2003

The humanitarian disaster in 1992 made the Somalis known throughout the world. The first image that appeared in the Western part of the world was the broadcast of the famine caused by the civil war. This was followed by the international intervention known as UNOSOM, when CNN covered the landing of the American intervention forces in December 1992. The next image was the fatal confrontation between UNOSOM and the local warlord, General Aideed, which resulted in the withdrawal of UNOSOM in 1995. During that period the West also came to know the Somalis more intimately as thousands of them had fled and spread to North America and Northwestern Europe. This encounter was not without problems, and raised issues such as how to integrate Somalis into society, and how and when they could be expected to return to Somalia. Today, this experience has spurred a new policy trend among Western governments that aims at directing aid to the “neighbouring” areas of refugee–generating conflicts to keep the refugees in their region. These debates are unfortunately often full of myths, and tend to suggest policies often lacking a substantial basis. Hence, this article is part of a project that attempts to shed some light on contemporary migration processes and the possible linkages between the diasporas and the social and economic development in their country of origin. The case study describes the main flows of migration in modern Somali history, and how the emerging Somali diaspora maintains links to their kin via inventive remittance systems. The possible impact of remittances on local development in Somalia is addressed in the paper, and it concludes that the linkages between aid and migration–related resource transfers are multidimensional and that development can lead to migration and vice versa.

It also concludes that there is a dire need for more knowledge on the issue, which is reflected in the lack of data found for this specific case. The case shows that poverty is not the only factor for the Somali migration history. Rather, the main reason has been the intertwining of political conflict and the search for economic opportunity. Furthermore, the important effect of remittances on socio–economic development correlates with political stability, providing an environment for productive investments. It is also shown that remittances have been far more important for livelihood and survival in Somalia than development and humanitarian aid put together.
Rules Governing the Transfer of Ownership: Wealth Effects and the Influence of Ownership Structure
Authors: Berkman Henk , Navissi Farshid
Published: March 2003

This paper studies a unique change in regulation governing the transfer of share ownership in New Zealand. The new regulation requires all listed firms to adopt one of three proposed takeover regimes, ranging from almost free transferability of shares to a uniform pricing rule. Our empirical results indicate that a higher proportion of shares held by blockholders makes adoption of a liberal takeover regime more likely. We also find that an increase in the proportion of non‐beneficial shares held by directors and shares held by trust companies increases the probability that a firm adopts a more restrictive takeover regime. Furthermore, the results from an event study show that firms adopting the liberal takeover regime experience substantial positive abnormal returns compared to firms adopting the standard or restrictive regime.
Privatization, Efficiency and Intra‐industry Effects: Analysis of China’s Privatization
Authors: Otchere Isaac , Zhang Zonglan
Published: March 2003

In this study, we use both accounting and stock market data to examine the performance of privatized firms in China and that of their rivals. Consistent with our conjecture, we find that competitors reacted negatively to the privatization announcements. However, the magnitude of the abnormal returns, together with the significance level, increases as the event window widens. For example, while the rivals marginally lost 0.5% of their value on the announcement date, they lost 1.3% (3.3%) of their value during the five‐day (21‐day) period surrounding the privatization announcement date. The results suggest that privatization of state owned enterprises in China signalled a change in the competitive balance in the industries, since most of the rivals reacted negatively to the announcements. Analysis of the operating performance measures also shows that the privatized firms outperformed their industry counterparts in the post‐privatization period. Furthermore, we examine the long‐term stock market performance of the privatized firms relative to that of the industry rivals and find that the privatized firms outperformed their industry rivals only by the end of the third year after privatization. Although most of the sample firms are partially privatized, and may probably be required to meet some social objectives during the post partial privatization period, we did not find any evidence that the proportion of government ownership explains the returns of the privatized firms.