bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Principles of Materials Characterization and Metrology
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

Characterization enables a microscopic understanding of the fundamental properties of materials (Science) to predict their macroscopic behavior (Engineering). With this focus, the book presents a comprehensive discussion of the principles of materials characterization and metrology. Characterization techniques are introduced through elementary concepts of bonding, electronic structure of molecules and solids, and the arrangement of atoms in crystals. Then, the range of electrons, photons, ions, neutrons and scanning probes, used in characterization, including their generation and related beam-solid interactions that determine or limit their use, are presented. This is followed by ion-scattering methods, optics, optical diffraction, microscopy, and ellipsometry. Generalization of Fraunhofer diffraction to scattering by a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in crystals, leads to X-ray, electron, and neutron diffraction methods, both from surfaces and the bulk. Discussion of transmission and analytical electron microscopy, including recent developments, is followed by chapters on scanning electron microscopy and scanning probe microscopies. It concludes with elaborate tables to provide a convenient and easily accessible way of summarizing the key points, features, and inter-relatedness of the different spectroscopy, diffraction, and imaging techniques presented throughout. The book uniquely combines a discussion of the physical principles and practical application of these characterization techniques to explain and illustrate the fundamental properties of a wide range of materials in a tool-based approach. Based on forty years of teaching and research, and including worked examples, test your knowledge questions, and exercises, the target readership of the book is wide, for it is expected to appeal to the teaching of undergraduate and graduate students, and to post-docs, in multiple disciplines of science, engineering, biology and art conservation, and to professionals in industry.
Atomic Structure and Spectra
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

We review the structure of atoms to describe allowed intra-atomic electronic transitions following dipole selection rules. Inner shell ionization is followed by characteristic X-ray emission or non-radiative de-excitation processes leading to Auger electrons that involve three atomic levels. Photon incidence also results in characteristic photoelectron emission, reflecting the energy distribution of the electrons in the solid. We present details of laboratory and synchrotron sources of X-rays, and discuss their detection by wavelength or energy-dispersive spectrometers, as well as microanalysis with X-ray (XRF), or electron (EPMA) incidence. Characteristic X-ray intensities are quantified in terms of composition using corrections for atomic number (Z), absorption (A), and fluorescence (F). Electron detectors use electrostatic or magnetic dispersing fields; two common designs are electrostatic hemispheric or mirror analyzers. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), used for surface analysis, require ultra-high vacuum. AES is a weak signal, best resolved in a derivative spectrum, shows sensitivity to the chemical state and the atomic environment, provides a spatially-resolved signal for composition mapping, and can be quantified for chemical analysis using sensitivity factors. Finally, we introduce the basics of XPS, a photon-in, electron-out technique, discussed further in §3.
Diffraction of Electrons and Neutrons
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

Electron scattering, significantly stronger than that for X-rays, is sensitive to surfaces and small volumes of materials. Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) provides information on surface reconstruction and the arrangement of adsorbed atoms. Reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) probes surface crystallography, and monitors, in situ, mechanisms of thin film growth. Transmission electron diffraction reveals a planar cross-section of the reciprocal lattice, where intensities are products of the structure and lattice amplitude factors determined by the overall shape of the specimen. The amplitude of any diffracted beam at the exit surface oscillates with thickness (fringes) and the excitation error (bend contours). Selected area diffraction produce spot or ring patterns, where low-index zone-axis orientations reflect the symmetry of the crystal, and double-diffraction shows positive intensities even for reflections forbidden by extinction rules. Kikuchi lines appear as pairs of dark and bright lines, and help in tilting the specimen. A focused probe produces convergent beam electron diffraction (CBED), useful for symmetry analysis at nanoscale resolution. Neutrons interact with the nucleus and the magnetic moment of the atom via the spin of the neutron; the latter finds particular use in studies of magnetic order. The atomic scattering factor for neutrons shows negligible angular dependence.
Summary Tables
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

The three tables that follow provide an easily accessible comparative summary of the key points and features of the major characterization methods discussed in the text. The techniques are classified into three broad groups/methods: spectroscopy/chemical, diffraction/scattering, and imaging. For each technique, a concise description of the method and its use is followed, in bullet form, by its salient details and other characteristics, such as resolution, sensitivity etc., as well as specimen requirements that determine its practice. A general estimate of cost and space requirements is also included, but needless to say, this is only a snapshot for comparison and is definitely subject to change with time.
Contracts: Formation and Interpretation
Authors: Darling QC Paul , Bradford James
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the law relating to construction, engineering, and infrastructure contracts. It explains a series of rules developed by the law that guide the courts into making decisions about whether obligations will be enforced and analyses how courts enforce most contracts in circumstances where the parties had an intention to create legal relations. It also identifies parties that have the capacity to contract, such as adults and corporations. This chapter explains how undischarged bankrupt may enter into a contract without committing a criminal offence. It mentions government departments that can contract and sue or be sued pursuant to their contracts.
Assignment, Sub-Letting, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 and Collateral Warranties
Authors: Darling QC Paul , Shipley Melissa
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores assignment, which denotes the transfer of contractual rights from one party to another. It explains how there can be no assignment of the burden of a contract without the consent of the other contracting party. This chapter also looks at sub-letting, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 and collateral warranties.
Certificates and the Right to Payment
Authors: Sawtell David , Higgs Nicholas
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at the payment provisions introduced by the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 (HGCRA) that apply to most substantial onshore construction operations in the UK. It analyses construction contracts defined under sections 104–105 of the HGCRA, which must contain a minimum, mandatory payment, and payment notice regime. It also explains how the HGCRA regulates and prohibits payment provisions, such as ‘pay when paid’ clauses. This chapter probes section 109 of the HGCRA, stipulating that any party to a construction contract in the UK is entitled to payment by instalments, stage payments, or other periodic payments for any work under the contract. It reviews the relevant statutory provisions in the HGCRA and the Scheme for Construction Contracts (England and Wales) Regulations 1998, which provide a payment code that must be followed in every UK construction contract from October 2011.
Bribery
Authors: Darling QC Paul
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on the Bribe Payers’ Index, which ranked the construction industry as the sector in which firms were most likely to pay and receive bribes. It reviews the very nature of the construction industry that makes it more susceptible to bribery than other industries as large projects are complex and will often involve interaction between multiple parties. It also emphasizes how bribery can occur at any stage in a construction project, such as in planning, design, tendering, construction, operation, and maintenance. This chapter recounts the reform of the law on bribery that dates back to the Nolan Committee’s Report on Standards in Public Life in 1995, which was set up in response to concerns about unethical conduct by those in public office. It refers to the Law Commission that first made proposals for reform of bribery in its 1998 Report.
Adjudication
Authors: Sawtell David , Higgs Nicholas
Published: July 2021

This chapter reviews sections 104–117 of the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 (HGCRA), which provide the legislative framework for both the right to adjudication and for payment protections within construction contracts. It mentions the Construction Contracts (England and Wales) Regulations 1998 or the Scheme, which provide the legislative framework for both the right to adjudication and for payment protections within construction contracts. It also talks about the amended versions of the Scheme that were introduced by separate statutory instruments for England, Wales, and Scotland. This chapter recounts how the scheme arose from the report of Sir Michael Latham, which reviewed procurement and contractual arrangements in the UK construction industry. It looks at the effectiveness of the policy of the HGCRA in respect of adjudication.
International Construction Arbitration
Authors: Rees QC Peter , Brynmor Thomas QC David , Bateson David , Abbas Kazmi Samar
Published: July 2021

This chapter explains that an arbitration agreement is an agreement to submit to arbitration present or future disputes. It analyses the Arbitration Act 1996, which governs all arbitrations in England and Wales and provides that an arbitration agreement is made in writing. It also discusses the special nature of an arbitration agreement as it is not discharged by death and survives the repudiation, frustration, or discharge of the agreement with which it is concerned. This chapter elaborates that the first step for any employer, contractor, or sub-contractor involved in a dispute is to check and see whether the dispute is governed by an arbitration agreement. It reviews the most common incorporation by reference, which is when parties agree that a particular set of standard conditions shall govern their agreement.
The position of subjects in Germanic and Romance questions
Authors: Cardinaletti Anna
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses a difference between Germanic and Romance languages in the syntax of subjects: While in Germanic wh-questions, full subjects can occur in the canonical, preverbal position (English: where has John gone?), in Romance, this is impossible, in either order (Italian: *dove è Gianni andato? / *dove Gianni è andato?). The same restriction holds in the Romance languages with overt subject pronouns. Verb – subject inversion is not allowed with full subjects but only with pronouns (French: *où est Jean allé? vs. où est-il allé?). Furthermore, full subjects cannot precede the verb when it does not raise across the subject; only pronouns can (French: *où Jean est allé? vs. où il est allé?). The difference between Germanic and Romance languages is attributed here to the interaction between verb movement and subject placement. In Germanic, the verb/auxiliary raises to C in wh-questions and makes subject movement to Spec-Subj necessary to satisfy the Subject Criterion. In Romance, the verb/auxiliary raises to lower positions, which makes the movement of full subject DPs impossible in wh-questions. Deficient pronouns are exempted from the Subject Criterion, which makes them possible in wh-questions in all languages.
Pro-drop in interrogatives across older Germanic and Romance languages
Authors: Cognola Federica , Walkden George
Published: July 2021

This chapter investigates the mechanisms of null subject licensing in direct interrogatives, an environment which is generally neglected in investigation into null subjects, using data from a range of early Romance and Germanic languages considered to be asymmetric pro-drop languages, i.e. languages in which null subjects are favoured in main clauses. We find that there is subtle variation between the languages in question, but that two factors in particular – interrogative type and person – are crucial in conditioning this variation, and we sketch analyses based on the differential availability of Agree relations with left-peripheral elements. Therefore, null subjects in main interrogative clauses are licensed in two slightly different manners in the two language families – a fact which we show follows from differences in the structure of their left periphery and in agreement morphology
Evaluating the contact hypothesis for Old French word order
Authors: Wolfe Sam
Published: July 2021

This volume revisits the classic and oft-repeated claim that Old French shows a raft of ‘Germanic’ grammatical properties due to contact with Frankish in the early medieval period. These properties include Verb Second, scrambling, Stylistic Fronting, and the loss of the null subject property. Drawing on a mixture of historical, formal syntactic, and acquisitional arguments it is suggested that the hypothesis is extremely problematic and suffers from major empirical and theoretical flaws, alongside major challenges in terms of dating. An alternative scenario is outlined in which left-peripheral verb movement and XP-fronting, middlefield scrambling, Stylistic Fronting, and progressive restrictions on null arguments are natural progressions of the syntactic system attested in late Latin. Finally, it is proposed that the core morphosyntactic parallels between early Germanic and Romance can be captured by their common syntactic inheritance from Proto-Indo-European.
The grammaticalization of SIC
Authors: Egerland Verner
Published: July 2021

The Old Romance continuations of Latin sic, such as Old French si and Old Italian sì, involve four different functions, all of which are referred to here as sic. The first one, which is closest to the original Latin usage, is that of a lexical adverbial, while the other three are functional elements introducing main clauses: the second sic follows elements preposed to the verb, the third one introduces clauses in a narrative sequence of events, while the fourth usage of sic has been described as a ‘weak consequential’ (Salvi 2002) . In this article, it is shown that these instantiations of sic in Old Romance, and in particular the third one, are parallel to the grammaticalized usages of svá in Modern Scandinavian. Furthermore, it is argued that the distribution of these functional elements in Old Romance, here represented by French and Italian, as well as Modern Scandinavian, represented by Swedish, can be successfully accounted for in a theory of syntax that incorporates certain notions of ‘narrative’, building on intuitions originating in Labov (1972) and subsequent work.
On complementizers and relative pronouns in Germanic vs. Romance
Authors: Kayne Richard S.
Published: July 2021

Many Germanic languages have a finite-clause complementizer that resembles a demonstrative, e.g. English that, Dutch dat, German dass. No Romance language does. The traditional view of complementizers as simplex projecting heads that take IP or some comparable category as a complement has no way of accounting for this difference between Germanic and Romance. In this chapter, I will attempt to make progress toward an account, in part by reinterpreting finite-clause complementizers as relative pronouns.
Adjectival concord in Romance and Germanic
Authors: Giusti Giuliana
Published: July 2021

This chapter provides a unified analysis of adnominal and predicate adjectives in Romance and Germanic by distinguishing three types of feature sharing: agreement, concord and projection, along the lines of Giusti (2015). It claims that in both Romance and Germanic, an uninterpretable feature of N agrees with possessive adjectives, while adnominal adjectives concord with N in a Spec-Head configuration checking an uninterpretable feature bundle on A. Romance and Germanic only differ in how concord is spelled out. Romance adjectives (with the exception of Walloon) are inflected for nominal features and concord with null head. German adjectives are uninflected and concord with an overt N-segment. The proposal argues against a unification of concord and agreement and in favour of an autonomous category, adjective, crosslinguistically.
Environmental Guilt and Shame
Authors: Fredericks Sarah E.
Published: July 2021

Bloggers confessing that they waste food, nongovernmental organizations naming corporations selling unsustainably harvested seafood, and veterans apologizing to Native Americans at the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation for environmental and social devastation caused by the United States government all signal the existence of action-oriented guilt and identity-oriented shame about participation in environmental degradation. Environmental Guilt and Shame demonstrates that these moral emotions are common among environmentally friendly segments of the United States but have received little attention from environmental ethicists though they can catalyze or hinder environmental action. Concern about environmental guilt and shame among “everyday environmentalists” reveals the practical, emotional, ethical, and existential issues raised by environmental guilt and shame and ethical insights about guilt, shame, responsibility, agency, and identity. A typology of guilt and shame enables the development and evaluation of these ethical insights. Environmental Guilt and Shame makes three major claims: First, individuals and collectives, including the diffuse collectives that cause climate change, can have identity, agency, and responsibility and thus guilt and shame. Second, some agents, including collectives, should feel guilt and/or shame for environmental degradation if they hold environmental values and think that their actions shape and reveal their identity. Third, a number of conditions are required to conceptually, existentially, and practically deal with guilt and shame’s effects on agents. These conditions can be developed and maintained through rituals. Existing rituals need more development to fully deal with individual and collective guilt and shame as well as the anthropogenic environmental degradation that may spark them.
Environmental Guilt and Shame
Authors: Fredericks Sarah E.
Published: July 2021

With a typology of guilt and shame and philosophical justification for both individual and collectives experiencing environmental guilt and shame in hand, Chapter 5 returns to and expands upon the evidence of environmental guilt and shame to explore how well the theories align with the evidence. It demonstrates that that all of the elements of the typology, including collective guilt and shame, are found in accounts of environmental guilt and shame. As collective guilt and shame are likely to be most controversial to readers and have the least evidence in the previously examined data, Chapter 5 supplements the sources examined in Chapter 2, with additional popular and academic literature about collective guilt and shame, particularly claims about the human species in Anthropocene literature and the existence of naming and shaming campaigns which target governments and corporations judged to contribute to environmental degradation. The presence of so many forms of environmental guilt and shame in popular culture indicate that a multifaceted response to these moral emotions and the actions and conditions that give rise to them is necessary.
Ethics of Environmental Guilt and Shame
Authors: Fredericks Sarah E.
Published: July 2021

Chapter 7 articulates the ethics of intentionally inducing environmental guilt or shame. It considers two competing views: Martha C. Nussbaum’s argument against shaming individuals because of their dignity and the ease with which shamers can abuse power is echoed in the work of the few environmental ethicists who have considered environmental shaming. Jennifer Jacquet’s support of shaming, especially collectives, in an era of climate change given the urgent need to act, offers a counterpoint. These concerns of dignity, power, and expediency are joined by others, including the injustice of the disproportionate shaming of certain groups, especially women, and the unique challenges of shaming collectives in the most prominent types of environmental shaming, environmental marketing and naming-and-shaming campaigns. The risks of shaming are so great that it cannot be used lightly, even as its benefits and apparent inevitability among humans suggests that it cannot be completely ruled out.
The Ethics of Inducing and Responding to Guilt and Shame
Authors: Fredericks Sarah E.
Published: July 2021

If agents are to consider intentionally inducing guilt or shame, as so many do, guidelines are needed to ensure that the practice is ethical and has the desired, and significant, effects. Guidelines to shape responses to environmental guilt and shame are also necessary even they are not intentionally induced given their prevalence in human experience. Chapter 8 addresses these concerns by articulating a set of “conditions” or characteristics needed in the shamer, shamee, their relationship, the broader community and the physical system in order to ethically respond to or induce guilt or shame. These conditions include relationality; trust in, credibility of and authority of those shaming; moral support; values; a vision of identity that takes account of human limits and failure while maintaining the possibility of at least partial success; participatory processes; identifying with an other; critical self-assessment and transformation; and action. As maintaining all of these conditions at once is difficult at best, intentionally inducing shame is even more ethically challenging than suggested previously. Because these conditions are also needed to respond to guilt and shame, people should foster them regardless of their intent to induce guilt or shame.
Thought’s Publicity
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

For Frege it is as central as anything to thoughthood that thoughts be public—not proprietary to any given thinker. That they cannot be is inherent in their intrinsic capacity to recur. Such confers on them an indefinitely extensive footprint in the nature of things. Thus Frege’s dictum: ‘With the step by which I gain an environment I make myself susceptible to error.’
Truth
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

This chapter attempts to understand Frege on the irreducibility of thought, relatedly the indefinability of truth. It unpacks his central argument for this and sets it in the context of a wider enterprise. It also tries to explain why, within the business of truth-transmission any content in the notion true should remain invisible, and points to a different business (truth-yielding) in which substantial content in the notion comes into view. A central concern here is with an argument of Frege’s for the indefinability of truth. This argument can be seen as part of a case against the reducibility of ‘intentionality’ to something else. It is officially a case for making the fundamental player in the business of being true a truth bearer, but not a content-bearer (rather a content itself).
Introduction
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

This chapter provides an overview of British general elections from 1964 to 2019, outlining trends in party support and turnout as well as changes in the numbers of candidates. Developments in campaigning methods and the greatly increased role of opinion polls in elections are discussed. The main academic theories seeking to explain voting behaviour in Britain—from the Butler–Stokes model to ‘performance politics’—are introduced and explained. These underpin and help to account for the change from an electorate that was largely stable and aligned with one of the major parties in the 1960s to one that was volatile and ‘dealigned’ by the twenty-first century.
The Way Things Were
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

This chapter concerns the British general elections of 1964, 1966, and 1970. The first contest ended thirteen years of Conservative government, although Labour secured an overall majority of just four seats. The 1966 election resulted in a comfortable victory for Labour, which was expected to win again in 1970. Instead, the Conservatives confounded the opinion polls and returned to office. In each case relevant developments in the preceding inter-election period are described (including trends in party popularity) and an account of the campaign provided. In addition, the election results themselves—patterns of party support and of turnout—are extensively analysed. The chapter also sets out the contemporary explanation of party choice in Britain offered by the influential work of Butler and Stokes which stressed the primary roles of class and party identification.
‘Decade of Dealignment’
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

This chapter concerns the British general elections of February 1974, October 1974, and 1979 during what came to be known as the ‘Decade of Dealignment’. The first two contests were closely fought, resulting in no overall majority (February 1974) and a slender Labour majority (October 1974). However, the resulting Labour governments were beset by severe economic problems, leading some commentators to claim that Britain had become ‘ungovernable’. In the 1979 general election the Conservatives returned to office under a leader (Margaret Thatcher) who was determined to reverse the country’s post-war decline. In each case, relevant developments in the preceding inter-election period are described (including trends in party popularity) and an account of the campaign provided. In addition, the election results themselves—patterns of party support and of turnout—are extensively analysed. The chapter also focuses on three areas investigated by researchers at the time—explanations for non-voting, the sources of support for the Liberal Party, and the rise of ‘issue voting’.
Conservative Hegemony?
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

This chapter concerns the British general elections of 1983, 1987, and 1992. All three were won by the Conservatives. In 1983, the party was returned with a majority of 144 seats, despite having been deeply unpopular for much of its term of office thanks to economic recession and an unprecedented post-war level of unemployment. The scale of the victory was partly due to the 1982 Falklands conflict, in which the prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, had seemingly fulfilled her promise to restore British pride and prestige. However, the Conservatives also benefited from a divided opposition, with Labour and the newly formed Liberal/SDP Alliance winning a plurality of votes between them. In 1987 the situation was similar, although by this time the economic outlook had improved and the Conservatives benefited from a ‘feel-good factor’. By 1990 Mrs Thatcher had once again become deeply unpopular, and was replaced by the less controversial (but uncharismatic) John Major. Under his leadership the Conservatives secured a record tally of votes in the 1992 election, but their overall parliamentary majority was greatly reduced thanks to the operation of the electoral system. In each case, relevant developments in the preceding inter-election period are described (including trends in party popularity) and an account of the campaign provided. In addition, the election results themselves—patterns of party support and of turnout—are extensively analysed. The chapter also discusses the academic controversy over the extent of class voting in Britain, which emerged at the time, as well as the growing North–South regional divide in party support. Finally, the suggestion that this period was one of ‘Conservative hegemony’ is considered.
Epilogue
Authors: Kopley Emily
Published: July 2021

Toward the end of her life, Woolf’s resentment of the male poetic tradition and rivalry with the poetic present were displaced by affection for this tradition and for the deep poetic past. This attitude comes through in “Anon” (1979), an essay that honors the anonymous poets of medieval England, and in Between the Acts (1941), in which a country pageant surveying British history draws an anxious community together. Having drawn on the tools of lyric poetry in earlier works, now Woolf includes original poetry of her own, both lyric and dramatic. Manuscript drafts reveal how the lyric poetry evolved. It was initially allusive, polyvocal, and sometimes in verse. In the published novel, it is less allusive, monovocal, and exclusively in prose. The elegiac tone of Between the Acts manifested privately, as well: Woolf’s late letters and diaries are full of allusions to canonical British elegies. Woolf’s farewell to poetry serves as the farewell to this book.
The problem of prevention
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

Most people aspire to healthy living but staying healthy and preventing illness carry a cost—counted in money, time, effort, information, trust, and willpower. The principles of prevention can be framed as a conditional, testable hypothesis: prevention is more likely to be favoured when individuals or populations can choose, given the constraints presented in any setting, a low-cost, high-efficacy method of averting a large, probable, imminent threat to health. The decisions that people make about health depend, not only on quantified options, risks, hazards, and timing, but also on the incentives, motives, powers, and values of everyone who has a stake in the outcome—individuals, governments, non-governmental organizations, businesses, and others. Data presented in this chapter suggest that more money and effort are invested in prevention today than is commonly thought, but the enormous, persistent, avoidable burden of ill health is a reason to seek ways of investing still more.
The affordable dream
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

Prevention is integral to achieving health equity and Universal Health Coverage. And yet prevention is a healthcare orphan: it is not usually a priority in the health sector or in any other sector of government. This chapter suggests five ways to redress that disadvantage: give prevention and public health budgets that are separate and protected from medical services, based on demonstrated benefits; define the goals of prevention in collaboration with, and considering the objectives and values held by, those who make the decisions; reassess the value for money provided by preventive methods that presently command large budgets, such as ‘healthy condition monitoring’; stimulate latent public demand for prevention by improving access to screening programmes, calibrating health insurance to favour prevention, and through workplace health promotion schemes, among others; and improve the appeal of prevention across the whole of government (beyond the health sector), using evidence to reinforce the long-standing goal of putting ‘Health in All Policies’.
Our children’s children
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

Climate change is prevention’s biggest challenge—its effects on health and well-being will be wide-ranging, long-term, and global. The pressures and opportunities for action are growing as the risks and hazards become clearer, greater, and nearer. Mitigation—cutting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (primary prevention)—benefits health, economy, environment, and society through agriculture, transport, air quality, energy supply, and waste management. Adaptation (secondary prevention) is the essential back-up when mitigation fails; there are strong incentives for local adaptation to counter predictable local threats such as extreme urban temperatures, flooding, and water scarcity. Carbon taxes are a powerful but underexploited mechanism for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, so need to be reinforced by other incentives, including subsidies for wind, solar, hydrogen, and hydropower. Now more than ever, the pressure for transformative action on climate change has the potential to stimulate sudden and rapid movement towards clean energy sources and technologies.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Richard
Published: July 2021

This chapter introduces the reader to the book’s central endeavour: to make sense of, and critically examine, the social and cultural dynamics that animate human rights law in contemporary policing. The chapter introduces the reader to the general and specific context in which this project takes place. It begins by drawing attention to the emergence of human rights as a normative vision and regulatory basis for police reform across the world and considering the issues that arise from this phenomenon for scholars of human rights and criminal justice. The chapter proceeds to describe and explain the book’s case study of the Police Service of Northern Ireland, situating the study within the country’s post-conflict society, before summarizing how the book develops across its nine substantive chapters.
The Official Police Voice
Authors: Martin Richard
Published: July 2021

The task of this chapter is to trace how and why human rights law has come to be such an integral and sustained feature of the PSNI’s official narrative. The reason, this chapter argues, lies in the apparent power of human rights discourse to cool down, even if not quite neutralize, political tensions, debates and controversies that still animate ‘high-level policing’ (Brodeur, 1983) in the country. To frame this chapter’s analysis of the PSNI’s official vernacular of human rights, a ‘dialogic’ model of legitimacy is drawn upon to better account for the conditional nature of power and legitimation. Doing so enables us to better identify and account for the dynamic struggles in which rights-based claims are deployed as part of efforts to frame, or even resolve, contemporary political and public debates. By closely examining chief officers’ forewords and speeches, as well as their public responses to questions at the Policing Board’s public session, three central properties are identified that define this official vernacular. These are: human rights as legality; as an ethics of power; and as accountability. Each of these major strands of the police voice, it is argued, contribute to a purported vision of the PSNI as worthy of endorsement by elite audiences.
Introduction
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This introductory chapter provides a brief background of three schools of literary criticism: New Criticism, structuralism, and deconstruction. These three schools exposed serious concerns, emphasizing neglected aspects of literature. The chapters in this book focus on genre, realism, and relations with visual art. Concepts of genre figure in any sound literary theory. Meanwhile, chapters on realism demonstrate how the development of representation, far from being one of steadily improving verisimilitude, has gone through several distinct sorts of realism. They distinguish medieval and Renaissance realisms from the realism of pre-modern novels. Finally, chapters on visual art consider how conventions of visual art offer essential parallels with those of literature. The ‘sister arts’ display many family resemblances—obviously so in imagery, less obviously in their strategies of realism. The essays also look at emblems and emblematic poems.
Georgic and Pastoral
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter addresses the laws of genre in the seventeenth century. The idea of laws of genre, at least in their modern form, was imported into literary theory from linguistics. At a time when literary conventions were thought of as supplementary language rules, genres understandably came to be regarded as coding systems. The genres need to be restored to their settings in history and literary tradition, and to see them once more as diachronic existences. Among the strongest claims for the status of law is surely the arrangement of genres in pairs: epigram and lyric; pastoral and georgic; novel and romance. The chapter then looks at the connection between seventeenth-century pastoral and georgic. Pastoral is spoken dramatically by shepherds, and in consequence must use simple diction that avoids any hint of precise knowledge: a language of feeling incapable of particularization or detailed description. Georgic, on the contrary, is spoken in the poet’s own voice, and far from avoiding knowledgeability seeks to inculcate it through didacticism, albeit didacticism concealed by implicitness and sweetened by delightful details.
Twelfth Night and Epiphany
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores William Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. Beyond any reasonable doubt, Twelfth Night is pervasively an Epiphany play; it calls for a set positively festooned with holly. Twelfth Night marks the end of a festive season in which there were other occasions alluded to by Shakespeare rather than Twelfth Night. But the correlations with Twelfth Night itself are salient: its customary activities provide plot material, and its emotional tone, as the last of festivity, can be sensed in the melancholy atmosphere of transience. Viewed as a seasonal mélange, the themes of Twelfth Night fall into place and gain coherence. The chapter then looks at the Platonic and Pythagorean content of Twelfth Night. Meanwhile, in Shakespeare’s unfolding of true love, narrative motifs are not the only resource; others range from implicit emblem to rhetorical explication. If Twelfth Night presents a philosophy of love, and traces the moderating of various erotic passions, there is nevertheless a focus on one excess in particular: love melancholy.
‘Cut without hands’
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter studies the effects of print on literature, considering George Herbert’s altar poems. It particularly looks at Herbert’s The Altar, which has rightly been discussed in relation to emblems. In The Altar, Herbert unites heart and altar into a single image. However, there has not been any recognition at all of the brilliant numerological content of Herbert’s poem, which applies its metaphors so fitly as to make them movingly immediate. Not only has Herbert ordered the metrical parts of his poem eloquently, but also the very distribution of its words. Herbert’s interest in the aesthetics of print shows also in his use of capitalized words.
Shakespeare’s Renaissance Realism
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter illustrates William Shakespeare’s Renaissance realism, an intermediate mode between medieval and modern. Locally, this may imitate reality naturalistically; but in its larger coherence, it adopts multiple-perspective viewpoints that are often related morally or psychologically rather than causally. Shakespeare’s comedies even combine allegory with illusionistic representation. The chapter then turns to Shakespeare’s tragedies, particularly examining Hamlet. In Shakespeare’s Renaissance realism, what may seem gaps are really transitions between perspectives. Realism through relational mirror images seems to have been quite accessible to Renaissance audiences. Direct and indirect mimesis were not conflicting opposites but complementary, mutually supportive perspectives. Shakespearean mimesis could ‘suit the action to the words’, combining indirect with direct representation, ‘external’ metaphors with subjective introspection.
Lord’s Space in Seventeenth-Century Britain
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the ‘Lord’s space’, which refers to the space (or notional space) round a feudal lord, especially a sovereign prince—or, indeed, space symbolically associated with the Lord God. It focuses on literary examples, particularly plays and masques, which were undoubtedly designed in part to assert through their display the prince’s greatness, even if they contained specific contents of an advisory or controversial nature. France and Britain in the seventeenth century are apparently to be regarded as ‘theatre states’. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century, the dominant symbol of nature had become the theatre. In the midst of all the significant theatricality, a prince’s location, both in the cosmic or intellectual and in the material theatre, must be a matter of moment. The prince required to be the cynosure of all the looking, so that theatres must be constructed accordingly. That was possible, because in the early seventeenth century court theatres were hardly ever permanent buildings, but rather temporary facilities, usually erected for a single performance, perhaps in a hall of Whitehall Palace that also served many other functions. The chapter then considers the hierarchic ordering of objects and people that had long governed the visual imagination of medieval people.
Ut Architectura Poesis
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter investigates the analogy between architecture and literature, exploring the metaphors of the analogy and focusing on British examples. Renaissance architectural theory drew analogies with music, painting, or poetry, and developed these in progressively greater detail. The Horatian doctrine ut pictura poesis was restated in terms of architecture. The chapter then looks at shared number symbolisms. Numbers shared gave the ut architectura poesis doctrine a demonstrable basis. The chapter also considers the symmetry, analogies, and allegory in Renaissance poetry. It explores Renaissance shape poems, as well as the metaphor of the Renaissance frontispiece, which often resembled architectural (especially theatrical) façades. Finally, it examines the importance of Solomon’s Temple in the temple–poem metaphor.
Penshurst Revisited
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter reviews Ben Jonson’s To Penshurst, a seminal English estate poem, which has been extensively but sketchily annotated, with key passages treated as mere commonplaces. The estate poem may have originated from the Netherlandish hofdicht or court-piece (perambulation of a country-house estate), but Jonson saw possibilities in the genre more far-reaching than his predecessors had done. The chapter then looks at emblematic trees, embedded anagrams, and the pastoral activity of writing names on trees in To Penshurst. It also considers the literary criticism of Jonson’s estate poem, which offers a mixture of genres. That To Penshurst is a poem of patronage presents difficulties to critics.
Agents beyond the State
Authors: Netzloff Mark
Published: July 2021

The early modern period is often seen as a pivotal stage in the emergence of a recognizably modern form of the state. In Agents Beyond the State, Mark Netzloff returns to this context in order to examine the literary and social practices through which the early modern state was constituted. The state was defined not through the elaboration of theoretical models of sovereignty but rather as an effect of the literary and professional lives of its extraterritorial representatives. Netzloff focuses on the textual networks and literary production of three groups of extraterritorial agents: travelers and intelligence agents, mercenaries, and diplomats. These figures reveal the extent to which the administration of the English state as well as definitions of national culture were shaped by England’s military, commercial, and diplomatic relations in Europe and other regions across the globe. Agents Beyond the State emphasizes these transnational contexts of early modern state formation, from the Dutch Revolt and relations with Venice to the role of Catholic exiles and nonstate agents in diplomacy and international law. These global histories of travel, service, and labor additionally transformed definitions of domestic culture, from the social relations of classes and regions to the private sphere of households and families. Literary writing and state service were interconnected in the careers of Fynes Moryson, George Gascoigne, and Sir Henry Wotton, among others. As they entered the realm of print and addressed a reading public, they introduced the practices of governance to an emerging public sphere.
Introduction
Authors: Netzloff Mark
Published: July 2021

The Introduction situates the study in relation to previous criticism on the role of state agents and practices of governance. The opening section returns to some canonical texts of early modern political theory, particularly the work of Jean Bodin, and explores how their theorization of sovereignty was interconnected with a reflection on the agents and practices of governance. The following section considers state formation in relation to the emergence of the public sphere, and analyzes the ways that state agents contributed to early modern publics through their writings. The latter part of the Introduction examines the extraterritorial histories of the state, looking at the conceptual impasse that resulted from efforts to theorize the place of religio-political exiles in many influential statements on the law of nations, with particular attention to the writings of the Catholic exile William Cardinal Allen.
The Pace of Fiction
Authors: Gingrich Brian
Published: July 2021

We talk about pace, often: the pace of history, modern life, everyday movement. And, really, we have talked about pace for centuries. But we hardly know what it means or how one might analyze it. The Pace of Fiction starts from the notion that all pace is, essentially, a product of narrative, and narrative fiction is what produces pace most elaborately. It moves forward as a history of transformations in narrative movement, from Fielding and Goethe and Austen to George Eliot, Flaubert, Henry James, James Joyce, Hemingway, Woolf, and Mann. Pace reveals narrative in its most elaborate effects. And the way pace changes in fiction expresses much of what we refer to as the pace of modernity.
Rise of the Scene-and-Summary Novel
Authors: Gingrich Brian
Published: July 2021

From the middle to the end of the eighteenth century, two figures above all serve as focal points for the development of a nascent theory of pacing in European literature: Henry Fielding and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In Fielding one encounters a notion of “prosai-comi-epic” pace that is light, centrifugal, and sprawling but opposed to another tendency that is more solemn, centripetal, and grave. Goethe, in his correspondence with Friedrich Schiller, is concerned with epic and drama: he and Schiller begin to distinguish between those two genres in terms of pace. What one can perceive in the intersection of such discourses is a formation, within novelistic fiction, of several axes of narrative movement that lead to the formation of units like scene and summary. If this seems like a straightforward path toward the nineteenth-century realist novel, one must pause and consider the aspects of romance that are embedded in novel pacing. Here, they appear as westering, world entry, and wandering.