bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction: Restructuring and Dislocations
Authors: Ley David
Published: November 2023

Late in November 1972, Mrs Edna Shakel received an eviction notice. Mrs Shakel, a widow in her seventies, had lived in a three-room apartment in a converted house in the Fairview district of Vancouver for three years, a house she shared mainly with other elderly women like herself. She suspected that the tenants had not been given adequate notice, but she had no plans to protest, nor indeed did she know the channels for protest: ‘At our age, you know, we’re not exactly fighters.’ None the less, with Christmas and winter at hand, the prospect of a move for an elderly woman in a very tight rental market was extremely unwelcome, particularly as Mrs Shakel wished to remain within easy walking distance of her friends, familiar services, and her church.
The Changing Inner-City Housing-Market
Authors: Ley David
Published: November 2023

Around 1977 the first scholarly studies began to appear of a trend that had been noted in the media a few years earlier: the movement of middle-class households into lower-income, and sometimes deteriorating, inner-city neighbourhoods in the United States, England, Australia, and Canada. Research in non-anglophone countries, such as France, Germany, and Sweden followed soon after. In the United States, this settlement attracted great interest from politicians and policy-makers. In early 1977, Mayor Schaefer of Baltimore declared that ‘people are starting to come back and live here ... they’re beginning to find out there is something alive here. They’re coming back for ... life, pride and activity.’
‘Follow the Hippies’: The Cultural Politics of Gentrification
Authors: Ley David
Published: November 2023

The placement of the Hare Krishna cult on Mrs Shakel’s block in Vancouver had accelerated the street’s turnover, and precipitated her eviction from her own apartment. Was this a chance event to which no further attention should be given? Or were the various tribes of the counter-culture part of a broader blockbusting of the inner city, an historically convenient group who permitted the last economic return to be wrung from hand me-down housing that had for long served the bottom end of the market, and who could then, like their dwellings, be cast aside to make way for more profitable uses and users? But there is another possibility which broadens the contexts still further.
Containing Epidemic Spread
Authors: Haggett Peter
Published: November 2023

If the first lecture was programmatic, the second regional, and the third speculative then this final lecture represents a still further shift of focus. For I now turn to an immensely practical matter, that of containing epidemics. Here, the essential question is pragmatic: How do we delay or stop epidemic waves spreading in geographical space?

First, I set out a fourfold schema for the different spatial and non-spatial control strategies. Then, examples of each of the four types is considered in turn, culminating in an examination of the prime achievement of inter national public health during the twentieth century—the global eradication of smallpox. We ask how far smallpox provides a model for other communicable diseases. In conclusion, we note briefly some of the problems that are likely to effect disease control in the next few decades.
Introduction: The Process of Socio economic Restructuring and its Spatial Consequences
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

Social scientists generally agree that in the last decades the Western world has undergone a deep process of socio-economic restructuring, which has led to the decline of the traditional ‘Taylorist’ system of mass-production and to the establishment of what has been called the ‘post-industrial society’. The former, identified as ‘mass production’ or ‘the Fordist system’, was based on principles such as the rationalization of labour, vertical integration, the minimizing of the required general education and training, the hierarchical control of company branches, and the application of Taylorist principles to work (Boyer 1989).
Regional Growth Patterns in Western Europe
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

The choice of growth variable to be used in the analysis is related to the question of the influence of the national dimension on regional growth rates. Having established in the previous chapter that regional growth rates are closely linked to national growth behaviours, what type of growth should we examine: monetary or real growth? growth measured in Ecus, or in purchasing power standards? In the first steps of the analysis (cf. Chapter 1), annual rates of GDP per capita growth were used with no national dummy or weighting factor. The mapping of the data revealed a strong national influence on regional growth trends.
Social Conditions and Regional Growth in Western Europe
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

In the Introduction it was argued that social and political conditions today play a greater—or, at least, more visible—role in the determination of the growth potential of an area than they did at the high point of the model of mass production. The flexibilization of the productive system seems to have shaken the traditional bases of locational analysis, allowing a greater decentralization of the centres of production and a reduction of the initial costs of setting up industries. In this context, technological advances have rendered physical distances and the dependency levels on raw materials and labour less important. In addition, the organizational systems of most firms have been substantially transformed. A vertical organization is no longer an essential element in order to maximize benefits, neither are economies of scale, scope, or the existence of externalities absolutely necessary. Instead, the creation of both production and informational networks is sought after, as is a way in which different productive entities can be integrated with them. As a result, one can say that the spatial spectrum of the location of firms has expanded enormously, owing to the fact that the basic factors which determine the placement of production plants-capital, raw materials, and labour—now possess greater mobility than ever before.
Labour Market and Education
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

The cluster analysis presented in the previous chapter revealed a robust connection between sets of social conditions and economic growth trends in different areas of the EU. Generally speaking, and in spite of significant exceptions, regions with similar growth rates since the beginning of the process of socio-economic restructuring tend to share a similar social structure.
Regional Politics and Growth in the European Context
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

In spite of the rich literature on the association of politics and institutions with growth based on national cross-sections and on case studies, little has been published about the actual connection between regional politics, policies, and growth at a cross-regional level. In light of this shortage of scientific literature, some questions arise. Is there a positive connection between regional politics and growth levels at the European level? Or is it just a place-specific phenomenon, limited to industrial districts in Italy and other dynamic areas? And, if this association exists, is it robust? Do active and efficient regional governments generate greater growth than inefficient or passive ones? Or are regional politics quite unrelated to economic outcomes at a regional level? These are some of the questions which this chapter will-to the extent that the available data allows-try to address.
Accessing Resources
Authors: Widlok Thomas
Published: November 2023

As has been demonstrated in the previous chapter, Hai‖om hunting and gathering are in many ways incorporated into the commercial economy and linked to other subsistence strategies. It is therefore inappropriate to take the exploitation of specific natural resources as the main criterion for defining Hai‖om economy and culture because to do so overstates the difference between hunting wild animals and gathering wild fruits, on the one hand, and other forms of foraging for things that one has not planted, bred, bought, or produced, on the other. In popular descriptions of ‘Bushmen’ in Namibia and abroad, wage labour is considered the exact opposite of living off nature.
Born and Bred
Authors: Edwards Jeanette
Published: November 2023

Born and Bred is an ethnography of Bacup in the north-west of England. At the heart of the cotton industry in the nineteenth century, this Lancashire town has undergone deep social and economic change during the twentieth, yet it remains a hive of social activity. The book dwells on the way in which the past features large in people’s talk about the place and about each other, but it questions the claim that such a preoccupation is simply due to nostalgia for better times. Narratives about the past, like narratives about the kind of place Bacup is, mobilize cultural understandings of kinship, which are also deployed when people talk about the implications of new reproductive technologies. Jeanette Edwards argues that kinship is resonant in the way in which residents of the town belong to pasts, places and persons. She challenges the idea that kinship is no longer an organizing principle in post-industrial Western society.
Spatial Attributes and Relations
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

It is perhaps not possible to identify a clearly delineated subset of the attributes of an object which are to count as the spatial ones. Attributes may be more or less spatial. At one extreme are those properties of an object, such as shape, size, and position, that can be expressed in purely geometrical terms; they can be regarded as properties of the space occupied by the object just as well as properties of the object itself. Next come physical properties which include a spatial element as an essential component of their definition, but which are not purely geometrical; an example is density, which involves both volume (geometrical) and mass (non-geometrical). Third, there are attributes which are spatial only in the sense that they are dependent on more immediately spatial attributes; an example is colour, which can only be attributed to extended, and hence spatial, objects. In this chapter I draw the line between the second and third categories: I shall regard density as a spatial attribute, but not colour. One reason for this is that change in density always involves an overt spatial change, whereas change in colour need not.
Qualitative Continuity
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 I stated that ‘the qualitative is supervenient on the quantitative’. There can be no qualitative distinctions without underlying quantitative ones. This does not in itself necessarily imply that qualitative distinctions arise from quantitative ones, but that conclusion is all but irresistible in very many cases. In particular, the qualitative spatial attributes I have discussed in the previous chapters can to a very large extent be defined in terms of partitions of an underlying space of quantitative attributes. This was quite explicit in

§1.4.1, where I considered the admittedly very simple qualitative division of the range of a real variable into the three qualitative attributes ‘negative’, ‘zero’, and ‘positive’. Elsewhere in this book we have repeatedly witnessed a pervasive interplay between the qualitative and the quantitative; I have often illustrated qualitative distinctions by means of examples which were, or could have been, fully specified quantitatively. And I have used the language of ‘phases’ (quantitative) and ‘modes’ (qualitative) on numerous occasions.
Changing Inner Mongolia
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

Since the Chinese Communists took control of Inner Mongolia, very little has been written about the region. This book is an attempt to redress the balance. It is a study of the effect of decades of social engineering on a Minority Nationality in China. David Sneath charts the recent history of the pastoral Mongolians of Inner Mongolia since they became the subjects of the Chinese Communist state, and examines the society that has emerged since the abolition of the Communes in the 1980s. He explores the history of local economic and political forms to illuminate the transformations and continuities of life in pastoral Mongolian society, and offers an account that includes both the swings of national and regional government policy and the experiences of individuals subject to those changes. By taking a historical perspective his study reveals underlying modes of symbolism, and notions of domestic organization and paternalistic authority, that have remained fundamental to pastoralism in Inner Mongolia. It suggests an indigenous mechanism for economic inequality and dependency in pastoral society, one that has helped to shape the pastoral nomadic sociopolitical order of the past.
Introduction
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

This book distinguishes two fundamentally contrasting sets of politico religious dynamics which may be dubbed ‘doctrinal’ and ‘imagistic’ modes of religiosity. Modes of religiosity constitute tendencies towards particular patterns of codification, transmission, cognitive processing, and political association. The imagistic mode consists of the tendency, within certain small-scale or regionally fragmented ritual traditions and cults, for revelations to be transmitted through sporadic collective action, evoking multivocal iconic imagery, encoded in memory as distinct episodes, and producing highly cohesive and particularistic social ties. By contrast, the doctrinal mode of religiosity consists of the tendency, within many regional and world religions, for revelations to be codified as a body of doctrines, transmitted through routinized forms of worship, memorized as part of one’s ‘general knowledge’, and producing large, anonymous communities.
Interacting Modes of Religiosity
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

The foregoing arguments may have created the impression that religions gravitate towards either the doctrinal mode (e.g. the Pomio Kivung, the Paliau Movement) or the imagistic mode (e.g. the Baktaman initiation complex, the Taro Cult). If this were so, however, it would make little sense to speak of modes of religiosity. Rather, we would be dealing simply with a typology by means of which different religions may be classified.

It is true that, prior to colonization, the communities of the Ok Mountain region, who included the Baktaman, had an abundance of imagistic religious practices, whereas the doctrinal mode was unelaborated. This state of affairs helps to account for the radical differences of ritual and cosmology between proximate and contiguous tribes. In attempting to convey a sense of this fragmentation, Barth wrote: ‘If one were to imagine a Christian from one English village who entered the church of a community some miles away and found an image of the devil on the crucifix, and the altar wine being used for baptism, this seems the closest analogy I can construct.
Modes of Religiosity and Political Evolution
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

This volume has been concerned with the historical dynamics of modes of religiosity in Melanesia, including their entanglement with religious forms originating in Europe. The question of whether the imagistic/doctrinal dichotomy might be applied to a much wider range of ethnographic examples around the world has been deliberately set aside. In part, this is because a considerable body of evidence is required to demonstrate the operation of modes of religiosity in any given case. Even limiting the discussion to Melanesia has involved focusing heavily on a small number of detailed case studies. Any attempt to generalize the approach to religions in other continents is likely to appear superficial and unconvincing, unless it is carried out in comparable detail, and then perhaps only by those with specialist knowledge of the ethnography. Even if general tendencies towards the coalescence of modes of religiosity in far-flung regions could be established, critics would immediately point to other cases where doctrinal and imagistic features are so thoroughly enmeshed that the distinction breaks down.
Environmental Change, Entitlements, and Poverty in Pastoral Systems
Authors: Sporton Deborah , Thomas David S G
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines society-environment links arising from the expansion of commercial pastoralism into the dry subsumed to arid Kalahari Desert of Botswana. The context of structural and land-use changes in Botswana is provided by the 1975 Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP) which aimed to enhance national economic and social development by reforming the organization of Botswana’s livestock industry, improving the livelihoods of rural dwellers, and ameliorating environmental degradation.
Children of the Japanese State
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

In Japan today over 30,000 children are in the care of the state because their parents or guardians cannot, will not, or are not considered competent to look after them. Drawing on his long-term fieldwork in an institution for such children, Roger Goodman describes what happens to them in a country that has no professional social workers and little tradition of adopting or fostering children in need of care, and explains how, in the 1990s, the convergence of several factors - in particular Japan's rapidly declining birth-rate, its signing of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, and its `discovery' of child abuse - led to a new role for child protection institutions which had otherwise scarcely changed over the past 50 years. In the process, he provides the first full account in English of the development and delivery of child welfare in the world's second largest economy.
Introduction
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

This study introduces a people called Keo who reside in the south-central part of the Indonesian island of Flores. To an even greater extent than their Nage neighbours immediately to the north (Forth 1989a, 1998), inhabitants of the Keo region are among the least described populations, not only of Flores but of the whole of eastern Indonesia. The present monograph more particularly concerns a part of this population I specify as western Keo. In describing western Keo society, I focus on its most pervasive feature: dualism.
Ancestors and Descendants: ‘Mothers’ and ‘Children’
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Following a tradition widespread in central Flores, the earliest ancestors of the Keo people were a group of siblings, all surnamed Ga’e, who came from the So’a region, to the northwest. From these derive the principal ‘land mother’ (inetana) clans as well as their ‘defenders’ (ana tuku), among whom the former divided their territories in an initial partition.1 Although the entire population ultimately recognizes an external origin (a notion of local autochthony being absent from their mythology), Keo reserve the term ‘immigrant’ for a number of clans that arrived in the region significantly later.
Clans, Estates, and Houses
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Keo conceive of relations among clans (suku) and villages (nua) largely as relations among male ancestors. As noted, recipients of territory granted by original Land Mothers were frequently male affines, husbands of female relatives, who then founded villages and erected sacrificial instruments of their own. In this way, their children and descendants formally established themselves as separate clans. Hence clans have their origin in, or as, villages. In the course of time, however, settlements have split, moved, and merged with others, so that at present a single village can comprise two or more clans.
Introduction
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

Kimatuumbi is spoken in the area of Kipatimu in Kilwa District of Tanzania, south of the Rufiji river. It is a member of the Bantu language family, and is designated as P13 in Guthrie (1971). In the Guthrie scheme of classifying Bantu, languages are grouped into ‘relatedness’ zones indicated with letters between A and S (excluding I, J, 0, and Q). Within a zone, sets of more closely related languages are indicated by being within the same decade, and individual languages are indicated by distinct digits (and occasionally letters). Therefore, by this system Kimatuumbi would be most closely related to Ndengereko (Pll), Rufiji (P12), Ngindo (P14), and Mbunga (PlS), and less closely related to Yao (P21), Mwera (P22), Makonde (P23), Ndonde (P24), Makua(P31),Lomwe (P32), and Chuabo (P34).In the Nurse (1988)classification of Eastern Bantu Languages, Kimatuumbi is part of the Rufiji group, which also includes Manda (Nl 1), Ngoni (Nl 3), Matengo (Nl 3), Ndendeuli (no Guthrie classification), Mpoto (N14), Ngindo, Ndengereko, and Rufiji. The Rufiji group is a component of the Rufiji-Ruvuma group, which additionally includes Yao, Mwera, Makonde, and Ndonde. As of 1967, the last census where linguistic data was collected, the Matuumbi population was set at 60,583 (Legère, 1992).
External Sandhi
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

Bantu languages commonly have rules applying at the phrasal level, as illustrated by Chimwi:ni (Kisseberth and Abasheikh, 1974), Luganda (Hyman, Katamba, and Walusimbi, 1987), Jita (Downing, 1988), Kinyambo (Bickmore, 1989), and Chaga (McHugh, 1990). Kimatuumbi has quite a number of rules which apply between words, and these rules are the focus of this chapter. The first section describes the syntactically sensitive rules, namely Shortening, Perfective Tone Loss, Phrasal Tone Insertion, Initial Tone Insertion, and Lengthening. The rule Shortening applies to the head of a phrase, i.e. X in X ‘. Perfective Tone Loss applies between verb and complement within the VP. Phrasal Tone Insertion takes the syntactic seam between two X” elements in an X” phrase as its conditioning environment. Initial Tone Insertion is constrained so that it cannot apply across a righthand S bracket, although it applies across a left-hand S boundary. The last rule, Lengthening, only applies to members of the same S.
The Phonological System Of Portuguese
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

This chapter is divided into three sections. After presenting the phonetic data including salient differences betweeen EP, BP and other dialects of the language (2.2), we describe, in 2.3, the EP sound system within the framework of feature geometry (see Clements and Hume, 1995) going on to consider segmental representation in the light of radical underspecification theory (2.4). The main purpose of this chapter is to describe the sound system of standard European Portuguese (Lisbon region). To begin with, we identify the consonants (C), vowels (V) and glides (G) that occur in this variety of the language at the phonetic level, and point out their distributional characteristics.
Portuguese Morphology: Inflection
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

The understanding of Portuguese phonology requires some degree of familiarity with its morphology. As in other languages, a number of phonological rules are interrelated with word-formation rules. The present chapter and the following one are concerned with the most relevant and basic morphological aspects and with the morpho-phonological processes involved in Portuguese word inflection (this chapter) and derivation (Chapter 5). Morphologically, EP and BP do not diverge. There are a few interesting differences with respect to morphologically triggered phonological rules, however, which call for a comparison between the two varieties. Except in such cases, the phonetic transcriptions of the two chapters correspond to an EP pronunciation; for comparison with a BP pronunciation, however, the information given in Chapters 2 and 3 is relevant.
Remarks on the Paradigms of Connectionism
Authors: Compiani Mario
Published: November 2023

Connectionism is the most interdisciplinary branch of Artificial Intelligence [1]. The current state of this very recent line of research is characterized by a certain openness towards the current cultural context and to historical contingencies, typical of the high-level sciences [2], and implies a substantial osmosis of methodology and paradigms originating in other disciplines. Naturally there is a counteracting effect through which the acquisitions of computer science and AI influence the directions taken by other disciplines (e.g. the theory of cognitive processes [3, 4] ). In this paper, however, we will not consider the historical details of these reciprocal influences (more generally outlined in [5]) but will compare the paradigms of connectionism with the paradigms of other disciplines, confident that this will contribute towards a critical evaluation of the connectionist approach especially as compared with classical AI.
ΣUMП ΛOKH EIΔΩN
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

Cornford translates sentence S thus: ‘Any discourse we can have owes its existence to the weaving together of Forms.’ In his commentary he writes: ‘All discourse depends on the “weaving together of Forms.” ... It is not meant that Forms are the only elements in the meaning of all discourse. We can also make statements about individual things. But it is true that every such statement must contain at least one Form.’ A few lines later Cornford says that the point made by Plato in S is ‘that every statement or judgement involves the use of at least one Form’; and later he remarks that Plato ‘has said that “all discourse depends on the weaving together of Forms,” i.e. at least one Form enters into the meaning of any statement’ (p. 314).
Aristotle’s Theory of Definition: Some Questions on Posterior Analytics II. 8-10
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

In working on Aristotle’s theory of definition in An. post. II I have been impressed by the difficulty and complexity of the problems, both philosophical and philological. I have been equally impressed by the excellence of the commentators, ancient and modern, who have examined the problems with tremendous thoroughness and brilliance. In what follows I do not claim to ask any novel questions or to offer any novel answers. I simply try to open up a few of the philosophically interesting issues with a view to provoking further discussion of them.
Aristotle on Eudaimonia
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

Like most great philosophical works, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics raises more questions than it answers. Two central issues as to which it is not even quite clear what Aristotle’s view really is are, first, what is the criterion of right action and of moral virtue? and, second, what is the best life for a man to lead? The first question is raised very explicitly by Aristotle himself at the beginning of book VI, where he recalls that moral virtue (or excellence of character) was defined as a mean determined by the rule or standard that the wise man would employ, and now says that this statement, though true, was not clear: we need also to discover what is the right rule and what is the standard that fixes it. Unfortunately, he does not subsequently take up this question in any direct way. The difficulty about the second question is not that he fails to discuss it–it is, after all, the centre of his target – or that he fails to answer it, but that he seems to give two answers. Most of the Ethics implies that good action is–or is a major element in–man’s best life, but eventually, in book x, purely contemplative activity is said to be perfect eudaimonia; and Aristotle does not tell us how to combine or relate these two ideas.
Focus Constructions: Clefts and like
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

Following the overview of general highlighting/focusing constructions in Chapter 5, we will examine in some detail two sets of highlighting devices in spoken English. One set consists of the three cleft constructions (outlined in § 6.2) and the other consists of two constructions with LIKE. The cleft constructions occur in both spoken and written English but are relatively rare in our data compared with highlighting particles such as LIKE. The IT cleft is exceedingly rare, while WH clefts function simultaneously as micro-and macro-focusers, highlighting a particular constituent and at the same time signalling a boundary in text. (See § 5.5 for micro- and macrofocusing.) LIKE is a micro-focusing item but has two different functions. At the end of a clause it signals that the speaker has uttered the clause in order to counter possible objections to a previous statement. In other positions, it functions as a non-contrastive focuser. LIKE is a particularly interesting item because it is generally assumed that it is a mere pause-filler, enabling the speaker to hold the floor while resolving planning difficulties. Our data from the Map Task dialogues does not support the planning-difficulties hypothesis but shows that the occurrence of LIKE has its own patterns.
Historical Linguistics and Typology
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

The purpose of Chapters 3 and 4 was to demonstrate, on the basis of data from different languages, that the structure of phrases and clauses in spontaneous spoken language is very different from the structures found in writing. The goal of this chapter and the next is to demonstrate that the spontaneous spoken data and its analysis bear directly on research topics occupying a central position in linguistics. This chapter begins with a note on historical linguistics but focuses on typology, and Chapter 8 is largely devoted to first language acquisition, but ends with a note on the spoken-written dichotomy, non-standard language and education. Educational difficulties affecting speakers of non-standard varieties of a given language are exacerbated by the differences between spontaneous speech and written language.
Laryngeal Features And Consonant Shifts
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

This chapter contributes to our knowledge of the laryngeal features involved in voicing and aspiration through an investigation of the phonological behavior of voiced and aspirated consonants, paying particular attention to the voiced aspirates found in the Armenian dialect of New Julfa. Some of the theoretical claims that emerge from my investigation include the idea that nasal voicing is constrained by a marking statement governing occurrences of the configuration [+nasal, +spread glottis]; that aspiration can induce voicing; that voiceless but not voiced fricatives are [+spread glottis]; that the reasons behind the development of the Armenian voiced aspirates may be related to the ones that give rise to the distribution of voicing and aspiration in English; and that the consonant shifts found in Armenian dialects and modem Indic languages are properly viewed as the results of the various repair strategies proposed by Calabrese (1988).
Introduction
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

The development of word order in Welsh is one of the greatest puzzles in the study of the historical syntax of the language. In its simplest terms, the puzzle is as follows. In Modem Welsh, the unmarked main clause word order is Vero–Subject–Object (VSO). In Middle Welsh, on the other hand, the verb-initial order is not common. The unmarked pattern is that known to traditional Welsh grammarians as the ‘abnormal sentence’ (brawddeg annormal), in which some element precedes the verb, resulting in orders such as Subject–Verb–Object (SVO), Object–Verb–Subject (OVS), Adverb–Verb–Subject–Objectand so on. When we go back further, however, to Old Welsh, the Modern Welsh pattern apparently re-emerges: VSO is once again dominant. The question that arises is: can the language really have moved away from VSO and back again in the course of a thousand years? This is the puzzle that I consider in this book, in particular, the second part–whether (and if so how) Welsh word order moved back to VSO in the transition from Middle to Modern Welsh. In doing so, I shall use a Government and Binding (GB) (Principles and Parameters) framework to trace the development of Welsh word order from the fourteenth to the early nineteenth century. A number of related issues that have been overlooked in the substantial literature on the subject seem to have considerable relevance to this question, in particular the development of the subject pronoun system, the emergence of a system of affirmative main-clause complementizers in Modern Welsh (the ‘pre-sentential particles’), and patterns of clausal coordination.
Syntactic Change
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

One of the central concerns of any linguist looking at historical change must be the cause or causes of linguistic change. What aspect of the structure of a language or the environment in which it is spoken allowed a given change to take place? This is the Actuation Problem, formulated in Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog (1968: 102) as ‘Why do changes in a structural feature take place in a particular language at a given time, but not in other languages with the same feature, or in the same language at other times?’ Actuation is essentially an internal linguistic question. It is concerned with changes in the formal structures of language, specifically in linguistic competence. These changes may be influenced by performance during language acquisition. With syntactic change, the answer to why a change takes place typically involves such notions as structural ambiguity or external factors, such as phonological erosion.
The Loss of Verb-Second
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

The V2-system described in Chapters 3 and 4 began to break down in Late Middle Welsh. Some aspects of this have already been noted, in particular, exceptions to the V2-rule with subject pronouns and the affirmative complementizer fe. In this chapter other sources of the loss of the V2-ru1e are examined. Particular attention will be paid to the role of language acquisition in this process. This chapter begins with an examination of how V2-systems, and the Middle Welsh V2-system in particular, may be acquired. It is subsequently argued that, during the period when topicalization was lost, the three typical V2-structures—SVO, AdvVSO, and OVS —ceased to be acquired as a single, unified V2-phenomenon. In so far as these orders were replicated in successive generations of speakers, they were generated using grammatical rules unconnected with verb-second. The V2-parameter was thus reset to a negative value and V2 was Jost from the grammar. Textual evidence suggests that this change does indeed show the characteristics usually associated with parametric change. In particular, sudden changes in the output of the grammar are manifested—in this case, the sudden innovation of unmarked VSO, and the obsolescence of a number of minor syntactic structures.
Metaphysics A 1
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: November 2023

Scholars nowadays tend to agree that Metaphysics A originally was written by Aristotle as an independent treatise, just as it seems fairly obvious that originally the books Zand H were written as the beginning of a new, independent treatise, rather than as a continuation of a series of books beginning with Metaphysics A. In any case, this is the assumption which I presuppose in my discussion of A 1, but which also is shared by the authors of the remaining essays in this volume. It is yet a further question whether A was integrated by Aristotle himself or only by a later editor into the collection of writings which came to be known as the ‘Metaphysics’.
Metaphysics A 4
Authors: Crubellier Michel
Published: November 2023

And if we inquire what are the principles or elements of substances and relations and qualities-whether they are the same or different, clearly, since these things are said in several senses, there are  for each ,2 and when these senses are distinguished, the  are not the same but different, except in a special sense. They are in a special sense the same, i.e. by analogy, because matter, form, privation, and the moving cause are common to all things; and the causes of substances may be treated as causes of all things in this  special sense, that when they are removed all things are removed; further, that which is first in respect of fulfilment .
The Phonology of Norwegian
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

A the end of the fourteenth century, Norway, having previously been an independent kingdom, became by conquest a province of Denmark and remained so for three centuries. In1814, as part of the fall-out from the Napoleonic wars, the country became a largely independent nation within the monarchy of Sweden. By this time, however, Danish had become the language of government, commerce, and education, as well as of the middle and upper classes. Nationalistic Norwegians sought to reestablish native identity by creating and promulgating a new language based partly on rural dialects and partly on Old Norse. The upper and middle classes sought to retain a form of Norwegian close to Danish that would be intelligible to themselves and to their neighbours in Sweden and Denmark. The controversy has gone on ever since. One result is that the standard dictionaries of Norwegian ignore pronunciation, for no version can be counted as 'received'. Another is that there has been considerable variety and change in Norwe
Syllable Structure
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the principles by which segments are grouped into the basic prosodic constituent type, syllables, will be discussed. Section 5.1 will be devoted to syllable structure in general. In Section 5.1.1, the prosodic hierarchy and its relationship with morphological structure will be discussed. Approaches to syllable structure will be taken up in Section 5.1.2, while the topic of Section 5.1.3 is the representation of quantity and syllable weight. Section 5.1.4 deals with the Sonority Hierarchy and how sonority determines intrasyllabic phonotactics. The structure of surface syllables is the topic of Section 5.2. In Sections 5.3 and 5.4 the rules that are needed to account for syllabification in UEN are discussed. Core sy11abification rules in the sense of Clements (1990), which are needed to derive the structure that is necessary for stress assignment, are discussed in Section 5.3. In Section 5.4 the language specific syl1abification rules will be stated which must be assumed in order to account for exhaustive syllabification of any morphologically well-formed string. Prosodic structure above the syllable will be discussed in Chapters 6.3 and 7.3.
Cyclic Stress Assignment
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

This chapter is divided into two main sections where different aspects of the interaction between morphology and stress assignment are discussed. Section 7.2 is concerned with cyclic application of the Main Stress Rule (MSR), while the subject of Section 7.3 wil1 be stress demotion in compounds. An important assumption in many versions of Lexical Phonology has been that the lexicon can be divided into even more sublevels than the two assumed in Chapter 4.1, the cyclic and the postcyclic (or word) level. These levels are usually morphologically defined, such as the difference often assumed in analyses of English between two levels which are defined by the set of non-native, stress-affecting derivational suffixes, and the set of native, stress-neutral derivational suffixes respectively.
Khotet’ [to want] and its Synonyms: Notes about Words
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

Academician V. V. Vinogradov’s book, The History of Words (Vinogradov 1994), is remarkable in being essentially an extended illustration of two programmatic theses which are formulated in the introductory essay: ‘The structure of a language is determined by the interaction of its grammar and lexis’ (Vinogradov 1994: 5). Moreover the grammar of a language is constantly being lexicalized (note the idea of the breakdown of the once unified copula verb byt’ [to be] into the independent words est’, byt’, sut’, sushchii, bude, originally parts of byt’), and its lexis grammaticalized (for example, because the meaning of a word is shaped by, among other things, ‘its function in a sentence’). ‘Just as it is customary to speak of the grammatical structure of a language, so we should speak of its lexical structure’, and of the ‘lexical system’ characteristic of any given period in the development of that language (Vinogradov 1994: 5). The lexical system of a language as a whole is composed of smaller lexical systems—of ‘semantically dosed’ series of words. The elements of these series are united by shared meanings and are therefore subject to the action of the same historical processes.
Fungu la nne Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The sounds represented by the letters b, d, g, and j as normally pronounced in Swahili are different from English. In Swahili there is a momentary sucking in of breath for the production of these sounds. (In phonetic terms, they are implosives.) What happens is that the vocal cords come together closing the glottis, at the same time as, say, the tips come together for a ‘b’. Then the glottis is lowered, causing rarefaction of the air between the glottis and the lips. Then when the lips part for the ‘b’, air enters the vocal tract from the outside. This makes a rather ‘hollow’ sound. The following face diagrams show the sequence of movement (imagine a head cut in two, front to back).
Fungu la sita Wapi? — Where?
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

You recall asking Habari  za  nyumbani?  nyumbani means ‘(those) at home,nyumba means ‘house/home’, On the same model, shule means ‘school’ and shuleni means ‘at/in school’.
Fungu la tisa Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The letter e in Swahili normally represents a vowel sound similar to the first part of the vowel in the English word ‘grey. This vowel in English (Received Pronunciation) is actually a diphthong, i.e. the vowel starts with an ‘e’ quality and moves to an ‘i’ quality. If you say it slowly you should be able to hear the change of sound. In the following Swahili words, try to imitate the speaker, avoiding a final T sound, especially when the vowel is final in the word.
Fungu la kumi na mbili Kupika chai — Making tea
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The imperative verb (singular) is simply the ‘stem’, i.e. without the ku— infinitive prefix. So kupika ‘to cook, cooking’ has imperative pika! ‘cook!’. Exceptions are verbs with one—syllable stems, such as —/a ‘eat’, —nywa ‘drink’. The imperative of these verbs normally keeps the ku— prefix for the sake of somewhere to put the stress. There is also a plural form of the imperative, consisting of the ‘root’ (‘stem’ minus final vowel, e.g. —pik—) plus —eni, e.g. pikeni! ‘cook ye!’, ‘you—all cook!’, kuleni, ‘eat’ pl.
Fungu la kumi na tatu Kununua mahindi — Buying maize
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

Note various words for place: hapa ‘here’ (occurred in Unit 3). hapa  hapa ‘right here’, ‘just in this spot’; pale  — ‘there’, In that spot’; penginepo— ‘somewhere else’, ‘in another place’; huko ‘over there’. These words and others will be dealt with more fully later.
Fungu la kumi na nne Sokoni — At the market Matamshi ya kiarabu — Arabic—type Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

If possible, with a friend practise buying and selling, using anything to hand — real goods, or pebbles etc. to represent them. The goods should first be laid out neatly in piles, or singly in front of the seller.
Fungu la ishirini na saba Barua — A letter
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

In the following version of the above letter, punctuation is inserted to assist the student, and where non—standard forms are used, the standard variant is given in italics.
The Phonology of Hungarian
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

This is the first comprehensive account of the phonology of Hungarian to have been published in English. Hungarian is a Uralic (Finno-Ugric) language. It is unlike other European languages, and atypical among the members of the Uralic family. The lexicon reflects the country's history, with the earliest layers of loanwords coming from Iranian, various Turkic and Slavonic languages, and German. The book is divided into three parts. Part I introduces the general features of the language and its major dialects. Part II examines its vowel and consonant systems, and its phonotactics (syllable structure constraints, transsyllabic constraints, and morpheme structure constraints). In Part III the authors describe the phonological processes that vowels, consonants, and syllables undergo and/or trigger. They provide a new analysis of vowel harmony, as well as discussions of palatalization, voice assimilation, and processes targetting nasals and liquids. The final chapters of the work are devoted to processes conditioned by syllable structure, and to surface phenomena. The book concludes with a full list of references and a comprehensive index. The authors have framed their discussions within a rule-based, non-linear framework to achieve optimum accessibility and concision. Their authoritative account of the sound-system of this unique language will interest phonologists and their advanced students throughout the world.
Ingredients
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

As we have seen, the reformers’ overriding desire was to get rid of Arabic and Persian borrowings, even if the proposed replacements were equally non-Turkish: hudut [A] ‘frontier’ was dislodged by sintr [G] (sýnurori), millet [A] ‘nation’ by ulus [M], şehir [P] ‘city’ by the Sogdian kent ‘small town, village’, isttlah [A] ‘technical term’ by terim [F]. But at least these were natural-born words. This chapter discusses the more noteworthy suffixes used, even invented, in the creation of Öztürkçe. The squeamish reader may find some of what follows disturbing.
The Socio-Linguistics of Old Jerusalem: Jewish Languages in the Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

THIS chapter will look in particular at the status of the three major Jewish languages spoken in Jerusalem in the nineteenth century. As background, we will first sketch the make-up of the Jewish population of the city in I 881, choosing that year to take advantage of the detailed description provided by Luncz (1882) in his first year-book, originally prepared to answer a set of questions posed by the Board of Deputies of British Jews in 1876.

Leaving aside the Karaites, a small Jewish sect which rejected Talmudic Judaism, Luncz divided the Jewish population into Sephardim and Ashkenazim: the former were subdivided into Sephardim proper, who spoke Judaco-Spanish, and Moghrabim, who spoke Arabic; the latter differed from the Sephardim, he said, by ritual and by the fact that they spoke Judaeo-German.
Language Learning
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L
Published: November 2023

THE Old City is manifestly multilingual. As Chapter I has shown, close to half of the population in our sample, of whatever age, Vas reported to know at least one other language besides a mother tongue, a fifth of tl1c total was said to know two other languages, and a quarter was claimed to know three or more languages. The task of this chapter is to help to account for that knowledge by showing how these languages were learned.