bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Writing: Characteristics, Instruction, and Assessment
Authors: Albertini John A. , Schley Sara
Published: February 2013

Today’s information-based societies require technological knowledge and sophisticated literacy skills. Society’s literacy expectations are reflected in school standards, and with increased diversity in student populations, educators have had to find alternate models and approaches for students to use to meet these standards. This is true especially in the area of teaching students to write. Focusing on research conducted since the 1970s, this chapter examines what and how deaf students write, educators’ conceptions of writing the development of writing skills, the influence of language and modality on teaching deaf students to write, and assessment. Research indicates that grammatical and lexical performance will improve with direct instruction over time, and that use of familiar genres and functional approaches to the teaching and testing of writing will contribute to the learning of fluency and discourse organization.
Peer Interactions of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children
Authors: Antia Shirin D. , Kreimeyer Kathryn H. , Metz Kelly K. , Spolsky Sonya
Published: February 2013

Peer interaction is an important contributor to social development in all children. Hearing loss can create barriers in communication between children, thus the quality and quantity of peer interaction of deaf and hard-of-hearing (D/HH) children is a topic of interest to both practitioners and researchers. D/HH children have been found to interact less with peers and engage in less social play than hearing children of the same age. In contexts where both D/HH and hearing children are present, D/HH children prefer to interact with D/HH rather than hearing peers. Although D/HH children initiate interaction at rates similar to that of hearing children, they have fewer successful initiations, and have more difficulty maintaining interactions. However, they are able to moderate their initiation strategies based on the hearing status of their peers. Their communication during social play is likely to be focused on literal and current topics rather than on symbolic or fantasy topics. The quality and quantity of peer interaction between D/HH and hearing children appears to be related to language and communication ability, mode of communication, and familiarity. Intervention programs to increase peer interaction have succeeded in increasing interaction of D/HH children with D/HH but not with hearing peers. However, long-term intensive interventions that provide opportunities for peer familiarity, such as co-enrolled programs may be likely to produce positive results. Finally, little current research has been conducted on peer interaction, thus little is known about early-identified or early-implanted D/HH children who are in inclusive programs.
The Role of Cued Speech in Language Development of Deaf Children
Authors: Leybaert Jacqueline , Aparicio Mario , Alegria Jésus
Published: February 2013

Cued Speech (CS) is a manual communication system that makes use of visual information from speechreading combined with handshapes positioned in different places around the face in order to deliver completely unambiguous information about the syllables and the phonemes of spoken language. This chapter reviews research showing that CS (i) enhances speech perception, (ii) facilitates language development in the phonological, lexical, and morpho-syntactical domains, and (iii) allows the development of robust and precise phonological representations, which are recruited in cognitive abilities such as rhyming, remembering, reading, and spelling. Findings from research reviewed also shows that early exposure to CS, before learning to read, facilitates the acquisition of the alphabetic principle. We also discuss two new research lines about CS: (1) How is CS processed by the brain and the similarities and differences with the processing of audio-only and audio-visual language and (2) Is CS compatible with a cochlear implant? We support our view that exposure to CS before or after implantation could be important in the aural rehabilitation process of cochlear implantees.
Assessing Children’s Proficiency in Natural Signed Languages
Authors: Singleton Jenny L. , Supalla Samuel J.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews published or known assessments of children’s language proficiency across a number of the world’s signed languages, including American Sign Language, British Sign Language, Australian Sign Language, Sign Language of the Netherlands, and German Sign Language. Critical issues in sign language assessment are also discussed, with special attention to possible threats to test reliability and validity. For example, test examiners may doubt the authenticity of the elicited language sample from a deaf, signing child, or test developers may question whether an adaptation of a spoken-language test is appropriate for use with deaf, signing children. The authors conclude that there remains a critical need in many countries for commercially available, and easy to administer, signed language proficiency assessments for use in research and education settings with deaf and hearing individuals.
The Neural Systems Underlying Sign Language
Authors: Emmorey Karen
Published: February 2013

For more than a century we have known that the left hemisphere of the human brain is critical for producing and comprehending spoken languages. Evidence from brain-injured deaf signers and from neuroimaging studies indicates that the left cerebral hemisphere is also critical to processing signed languages. This chapter presents evidence that the left hemisphere specialization for language can be dissociated from symbolic gesture, motor control, and spatial cognitive abilities. Damage to distinct left perisylvian areas causes specific types of language impairment for both signers and speakers, and damage outside of these areas does not give rise to aphasic deficits. Specifically, neuroimaging and lesion data indicate that Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area play critical roles in sign language production and comprehension. Data from right hemisphere–damaged signers and speakers indicates that the right hemisphere is involved in discourse processing. In addition, the right hemisphere appears to be uniquely involved in the production and comprehension of spatial descriptions in sign language. Overall, both neural plasticity and invariance are observed for the neural organization of sign language. Neural plasticity is observed for auditory-related cortex (Wernicke’s area), which has received little or no auditory input, but nonetheless is engaged in processing the visual input of sign language. Neural invariance within left perisylvian structures points to a biological or developmental bias for these neural structures to mediate language at a more abstract level, divorced from the sensory and motoric systems that perceive and transmit language.
Working Memory, Neuroscience, and Language: Evidence from Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Individuals
Authors: Rönnberg Jerker
Published: February 2013

This chapter focuses on the concept of working memory and how it relates to visual language processing in deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals. It discusses modality-free and modality-specific aspects of signed and spoken language processing from a variety of behavioral and neuroscience data. The chapter concludes by addressing some abstract working memory processes that constitute general features across language modality and modes of speech understanding
Envisioning Evidence-Based Management
Authors: Rousseau Denise M.
Published: February 2013

Evidence-based management (EBMgt) is an evolution in the practice of management. It is a knowledge-intensive, capacity-building way to think, act, organize, and lead. Its practice incorporates (1) use of scientific principles in decisions and management processes, (2) systematic attention to organizational facts, (3) advancements in practitioner judgment through critical thinking and decision aids that reduce bias and enable fuller use of information, and (4) ethical considerations including effects on stakeholders. It is a no-fad, no-fluff approach to developing better managers and leading effective and adaptive organizations. EBMgt is a product of the distinct yet interdependent activities of practitioners, educators, and scholars. This chapter discusses how each contribute to the advancement and use of EBMgt.
Learning from Other Evidence-Based Practices: The Case of Medicine
Authors: Barends Eric , Ten Have Steven , Huisman Frank
Published: February 2013

Evidence-based practice is all around us. Not only has medicine embraced its principles, but so have education, social welfare, criminal justice and, last but not least, management. With only slight exaggeration, Evidence-based practice can be said to be emblematic of the modern professional. This chapter addresses the implications of this trend toward evidence-based practice, by taking a close look at its first introduction, in medicine. Given evidence-based medicine’s almost paradigmatic status, we then will cover the similarities and the differences between the two professional fields. In doing so, we will show that the hindrances that block the further development of evidence-based management today are the same hindrances that blocked the development of evidence-based medicine two decades ago.
At the Intersection of the Academy and Practice at Asbury Heights
Authors: Zanardelli John
Published: February 2013

As a practicing evidence-based manager over the past two decades, I describe how my use of evidence has been shaped by my professional education and the nature of our organization, a residential care facility for the elderly. Practices I have found particularly valuable in promoting evidence use and good decision making include ongoing management development, regular readings by myself and direct reports of books and articles based on scientific evidence, use of logic models to lay out the critical information and assumptions relevant to managerial decisions, and quality relationships with local universities and their faculty. I also discuss the challenges of making decisions that are evidence based.
State and Local Governments and The National Economy
Authors: Mattoon Richard H. , McGranahan Leslie
Published: February 2013

This article takes a longer-term look at the roles of the state and local government sector in the nation's economy. Over the last four decades, the sector has played a fairly constant, but substantial, role in the national economy as contributors to GDP when measured by their purchases. But there have been important changes in the composition of the sector's spending and revenues. An increasing share of expenditures has gone to social benefits (in particular, for Medicaid) and there has been growing reliance on the federal government as a source of funds. There has also been increasing dependence by states on personal income tax and a heightened sensitivity of state tax revenues to economic conditions. For the states, revenues thus have become more unreliable, while spending has been relatively unaffected by changing economic conditions.
Transportation Finance
Authors: Gifford Jonathan L.
Published: February 2013

No area of state and local government finance has a longer lineage of public spending and intergovernmental relationships (or is more visible to citizens on a daily basis) than the transportation sector. This article provides a tour through the labyrinth of financing arrangements that are now used to meet the nation's surface, air, and water transportation needs. Once the major claimant on state and local spending, transportation's role has eroded in the face of the demands of education and the spiraling needs of health-related programs. Likewise, the shifting public mood and the new age of austerity have brought transportation funding to a crossroads. With prospects for added federal transportation funding bleak because of the long-term pressures on the federal budget, any future initiatives will be seen in the state and local sector.
Capital Budgeting and Spending
Authors: Marlowe Justin
Published: February 2013

This article first lays out the broad contours of state and local government capital spending and the precepts of the capital budgeting process. It then considers how capital spending levels and budgeting processes were affected by the Great Recession. State and local capital spending, which had grown rapidly before the downturn, was slowed considerably by the Great Recession's onset. Federal aid helped to cushion the blow, but capital spending began to decline as many jurisdictions exhausted their influx of federal funds. The Great Recession's effect on capital spending was found to be consistent with the impacts of past recessions, but its depressing effects will continue for several years. Thus, the Great Recession, when its aftershocks are played out, will likely result in unprecedented declines in state and local capital spending and an erosion of the public capital stock.
Infrastructure Privatization in The New Millennium
Authors: Dannin Ellen , Cokorinos Lee
Published: February 2013

This article examines an alternative means of obtaining infrastructure funding, which consists of various techniques that involve private ownership and the operation of public-use facilities. It focuses on highway projects, which constitute a major area for privatization proposals and can involve large-scale projects. After recounting many of the technical and contractual issues that are entailed in the private provision of infrastructure and reviewing the results of large deals done thus far, the article notes that privatization has been around in the United States for a short time, but long enough to raise some important policy issues. Infrastructure privatization has been seen as a novel innovation in financing, building, operating, and maintaining infrastructure. However, the revenue-guarantee measures used to protect investors can be contrary to the public interest.
How Poverty Gets Under the Skin: A Life Course Perspective
Authors: Evans Gary W. , Chen Edith , Miller Gregory E. , Seeman Teresa E.
Published: February 2013

There is a large epidemiological literature documenting inverse relations between socioeconomic status (SES) and morbidity as well as mortality. In this chapter we focus on biological mechanisms to explain how disadvantage gets under the skin. We adopt a life course perspective on this topic because it illuminates several issues: whether the timing and duration of exposure to disadvantage over the life course matter, and factors that may cause biological mechanisms, changed by deprivation in early life, to persist throughout the life course. This chapter is organized into 5 major sections. Sections 1 through 3 review evidence linking SES or one of its primary constituents to disease-relevant biological mechanisms during childhood, during adulthood, and prospectively from childhood to adulthood, respectively, and section 4 examines the durability of early life deprivation and altered trajectories in biological mechanisms over the life course. We conclude with section 5, which presents a research agenda and discusses intervention consequences of a life course perspective on the biology of disadvantage.
Poverty Status and the Effects of Family Structure on Child Well-Being
Authors: Brown Susan L.
Published: February 2013

Children's living arrangements are increasingly diverse and unstable. Growing proportions of children are born to single or cohabiting mothers. The proportion of children born to married parents continues to decline. Family structure at birth sets the stage for living arrangement transitions during childhood, with children born outside of marriage experiencing more instability, on average, than their counterparts born to married parents. Children's family structure and instability have important consequences for their well-being. The goal of this chapter is to address how the relationship between family structure and child outcomes varies by poverty status. Although child poverty is rather high and has actually increased in recent years, the family structure literature has largely overlooked the potential moderating effect of poverty, and instead has emphasized the mediating influence of economic resources more generally. I summarize recent patterns and trends in child poverty and family structure and then turn to an assessment of the theoretical and empirical contributions in the literature. I conclude with suggestions for future research.
Cognitive Development and Family Resources Among Children of Immigrant Families
Authors: Glick Jennifer E. , Clark Rebecca
Published: February 2013

Given their increasing numbers and impact on the young child population in the United States, there are comparatively few studies of very young children in immigrant families. Immigrants come to the United States from different countries, with different resources and with different experiences. All of these factors influence the early cognitive development and school readiness of their children. Here we consider how the cognitive development of young children in immigrant families may differ from that of their counterparts with U.S.-born parents by examining children's school readiness and early performance for a nationally representative cohort (Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Birth Cohort, or ECLS-B). Early cognitive development is associated with subsequent skill acquisition and, therefore, sets the stage for the important transition to formal schooling and academic achievement. Overall, the analyses of children's cognitive and academic skill attainment point to far greater disparities associated with socioeconomic inequality than by simply comparing the nativity status of parents.
Children in Global Adversity: Physical, Mental, Behavioral, and Symbolic Dimensions of Health
Authors: Panter-Brick Catherine , Lende Daniel , Kohrt Brandon A.
Published: February 2013

Early childhood experiences are known to influence key biological systems such as brain development, cell growth, hormonal, and immune development, a process known as “biological embedding” that reflects close associations between the social and the developmental gradients of health. Little is known about the full range of physical, socioeconomic, and sociopolitical experiences that matters for children outside Western contexts, and how these experiences differentially affect biological responses and developmental outcomes. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a global health perspective on child development and poverty. We review the literature on child health and global adversity and outline a conceptual framework to discuss both the research and applied aspects of the social ecology of child development. In addition, we evaluate the existing evidence base for children in global adversity: young people who face significant economic poverty, life disruption, violence, and social inequality within larger-scale processes of sociopolitical crises or rapid socioeconomic transformation demanding intervention. We conclude by discussing the ways in which governments can promote optimal development by supporting early, low-cost interventions as well as providing support for more research.
Humanitarian Crises in Low-Resource Settings: Evidence-Based Mental Health and Psychosocial Interventions for Children
Authors: Singer Daniel A. , Kutlesic Vesna
Published: February 2013

Humanitarian crises can have significant psychological consequences in children, especially among those who suffered from deprivation and adversity prior to the event. As the international community has improved its ability to respond to humanitarian crises, the strategies and practices for enhancing resilience and preventing psychological harm have evolved. Early efforts focused on establishing consensus-based practice guidelines. One goal of these guidelines was to bridge a schism between mental health experts and those who promoted psychosocial well-being. Further experience, including the 2004 tsunami in Asia, invigorated efforts to enhance research on the topic and develop evidence-based programs. This has resulted in international efforts to develop research agendas and to address long-standing ethical challenges in doing research on vulnerable populations during humanitarian crises. Further progress will be dependent on creating partnerships between scientists and practitioners and developing innovative strategies to integrate research studies into humanitarian programs.
Abbreviations and Symbols
Authors: Gonis Nikolaos
Published: February 2013

The first part of this article deals with abbreviations found in Greek documentary papyri and ostraca. The documents in which abbreviation is rife are predominantly those produced on a massive scale and bound to repeat the same words, such as tax accounts and receipts. The most common method of abbreviation is by suspension. to omit one or more of the final letters of a word. Most symbols stem from abbreviations by suspension; these may become reduced to monograms whose original constituents are sometimes no longer discernible. This is the case with most symbols that represent weights and measures, as well as, in the later period, money, which naturally occurred very frequently. In the early days of papyrology, Verschleifungen were given the status of a particular subgroup of abbreviations. This practice is predominantly found with the names and titles of emperors and the names of months in date clauses.
Editing A Papyrus
Authors: Schubert Paul
Published: February 2013

The process of editing a papyrus is undeniably a central aspect in the field of papyrology. This article notes that the task of a scholar who undertakes the edition of a papyrus resembles that of a detective. Following some basic methodological principles, adding a certain amount of experience gained through contact with many texts, and using state-of-the-art tools to find their way around an increasingly vast corpus of primary sources, papyrologists must fit together various pieces of a puzzle. The advent of electronic tools has made possible the quick handling of a huge mass of data, thus changing substantially many aspects of the way in which papyrologists edit their texts. Electronic tools will eventually supersede the main papyrological reference books. Supplements to Friedrich Preisigke's Wórterbuch are becoming redundant now that scholars can search the same data on the Internet.
Archives and Dossiers
Authors: Vandorpe Katelijn
Published: February 2013

Documentary papyri describe ancient people. Where unrelated texts are like instant snapshots, archives present a coherent film of a person, a family, or a community and may span several months, years, or decades. Bilingual archives show how some Egyptians tried to become Hellenized, but their private accounts betray their native language. An archive is bound to be of greater interest than isolated texts, and the possibilities of archival research for any aspect of life in Graeco-Roman Egypt are practically unlimited. This article offers a systematic approach to archival documents and explains what constitutes an archive, how archives come to light, how we can reconstruct them, the type of archives that may be discerned, and the types of documents in them. Such an approach to archival documentation of the ancient world has in general been attracting increasing interest and brings together scholars who are studying different regions.
The Ancient Book
Authors: Johnson William A.
Published: February 2013

From the beginnings of Greek written literature until deep into the Roman era, a “book” was fashioned by taking a premanufactured papyrus roll, writing out the text, attaching additional fresh rolls as the length of text required, and, when finished, cutting off the blank remainder. This article notes that literary texts were produced, in general, with strict attention. It describes what constituted the ancient book. Books on papyrus in the form of rolls (bookrolls) were the norm from the beginnings through the early Roman era. Over the course of the second to the fourth centuries ce, the codex came to replace the bookroll. The article also considers the content of the books, and the Oxyrhynchite texts.
Papyrology and Ancient Literature
Authors: Renner Timothy
Published: February 2013

This article discusses literary and subliterary papyri; papyri and Egyptian literature; the study of Greek literature; and papyri and Latin literature. The texts inscribed on these materials are the source for the longest and most important Egyptian literary compositions known from the Pharaonic and Hellenistic periods. “Subliterary” papyri include papyri containing texts such as commentaries, lexica, and grammatical treatises, which are in some sense ancillary to the study of the major genres and have traditionally been so regarded. Hieratic and demotic papyri, including wooden writing boards and ostraca, are responsible for our knowledge of most of the Egyptian texts that contain narrative tales and fables, instructions or precepts, and love poetry. Meanwhile, the body of ancient Greek literature continued to expand on the basis of papyrological evidence.
The Special Case of Herculaneum
Authors: Sider David
Published: February 2013

Papyrologists have many archives but only one Greek library—the collection of rolls found in a richly endowed villa that had once been on the shore of the bay of Naples in Herculaneum. The modern recovery of Herculaneum began in 1709, when workers digging a well in the Italian town of Resina struck a theater many feet below the surface. The excavations came under the control of the Spanish, who expelled the Austrians in 1734 and whose king, Charles III, ordered the tunnels reopened in 1738, looking to the ancient town as a source of decoration for his own palace, located not far from that of Prince d'Elboeuf in Portici. A noxious or pestilential emanation, mephitis, fact led to the premature closing of the excavation tunnels in Herculaneum. In July 1750, Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre put the highly competent Karl Weber, a Swiss engineer, in charge of supervising the excavations.
Mathematics, Science, and Medicine in the Papyri
Authors: Jones Alexander
Published: February 2013

The sciences that are significantly attested among the papyri are mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and astrology. Medicine and astrology were professions with numerous practitioners who possessed collections of reference texts and whose activity involved producing written documents. Astronomy had a central role in weather prediction, calendrics, and, above all, astrology. Mathematics had its uses in calculation and mensuration, and applied and theoretical mathematics were often components of technical and liberal education, respectively. These were all subjects that were cultivated for external ends at least as much as for pure intellectual satisfaction. The most obvious difference between the evidence of the medieval textual tradition, which was heavily influenced by the intellectual elite of the later Roman and Byzantine periods, and that of the papyri is that much of the papyrological record has a direct bearing on practice and applications.
Arabic Papyri and Islamic Egypt
Authors: Sijpesteijn Petra M.
Published: February 2013

The Arabs enjoyed a long-standing acquaintance with papyrus and its benefits. Papyrus and other traditional media, such as ostraca, leather, parchment, textiles, stone, and bone, were already fully in use on the Arabian Peninsula in pre-Islamic times. After providing a brief history of Arabic papyrology, this article discusses the reading and publishing Arabic texts; Arabic literary and subliterary papyri; the Islamic narrative tradition; and Arabic documentary papyri.
Egyptian Religion and Magic in the Papyri
Authors: Clarysse Willy
Published: February 2013

The first section of this article discusses traditional religion, looking at the Ancient Egyptian worldview, mummification and afterlife, and the role of the temples in economy and administration. The second section considers new developments in Egyptian religion such as listening gods, animal cults, Egyptian “saints”, oracles, dreams, and katochê. The third section describes the growing state intervention, examining the administration of temples, priestly privileges, temple asylum, and dynastic and imperial cults. The fourth section looks at the impact of the Greek, describing interpreatio graeca, the Hellenization of the gods, and astrology. The last section describes the end of Egyptian religion, looking at polytheism, religion without temples, and Egyptian religion within Christianity.
The Future of Papyrology
Authors: van Minnen Peter
Published: February 2013

This article looks at the future of papyrology. It draws heavily on two position papers Peter van Minen gave at international papyrological congresses: in Copenhagen in 1992 and in Vienna in 2001. The first section starts with the immediate context from which the papyri derive as physical objects. The second section concentrates on the texts written on them. The final section focuses on the wider context that produced the texts. The article concludes by noting the need for better communication between papyrologists.
Homicide and Serious Assaults
Authors: Rosenfeld Richard
Published: February 2013

This article considers cultural meanings, empirical patterns, theoretical explanations, and social responses connected with homicide and aggravated assault. It addresses homicide and aggravated assault trends in the United States over the past few decades and cross-national comparisons of homicide and assault. It assesses that rate of aggravated assault and homicide is higher among males and the young than among females and older persons. It discusses characteristics of victims, perpetrators, and incidents; relationships between victims and perpetrators; theories of violence; and policies to reduce violent crime. The main empirical patterns in homicide and serious assault are summarized. The causal factors emphasized in explanations of the violent behavior of morally suspect persons (e.g., criminals) generally involve individual or social defects, whereas those of violence carried out by morally upright persons (e.g., soldiers, physicians) involve considerations of legal or moral obligation.
Antisocial Behavior
Authors: Tonry Michael , Bildsten Harriet
Published: February 2013

This article discusses antisocial behavior orders (ASBOs) in England and Wales and recent U.S. policies based on the broken windows hypothesis. The broken windows hypothesis and its policy progeny and ASBOs implicate different categories of troubling behavior, each of which raises distinct normative and policy issues. It discusses developments and related research. The important questions about ASBOs are the reduction of the prevalence of antisocial behavior, the concern of people with respect to them, and the costs they entail. With broken windows, the important issues are the correctness of the slippery slope hypothesis, the contribution of police initiatives to the crime rate, and the justification of the collateral costs of new policing policies. The article discusses a series of normative and policy issues.
History of Research
Authors: Muhly James D.
Published: February 2013

This article suggests that there is considerable interest today in what can be described as the history of scholarship. Works such as William McDonald and Carol Thomas's Progress into the Past and J. Lesley Fitton's The Discovery of the Greek Bronze Age give excellent accounts of the historical development of Bronze Age scholarship and of Aegean archaeology. Mention should also be made of the excellent short handbook by Carol Thomas, Myth Becomes History: Pre-Classical Greece, written for students of ancient history and containing extensive bibliography. It was the study of seal stones from Crete and their possible evidence for early pictographic writing that first involved Arthur Evans in the antiquities of the island and led to one of his earliest publications, Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Scripts. The study of Minoan and Mycenaean seal stones and clay sealings soon developed into one of the major research areas in Bronze Age archaeology.
Mainland Greece
Authors: Voutsaki Sofia
Published: February 2013

This article argues that the Middle Helladic period is now seen as witnessing important social, political, and cultural changes that lead to the formation of the early Mycenaean polities and the later palatial states. It presents some of the new evidence, as well as new approaches to old data, which have brought about the modification of these earlier views. The core area of the Middle Helladic mainland includes the Peloponnese, Attica, Boeotia, Euboea, and coastal Thessaly, while the areas to the west and the north can be said to belong to the periphery of the Helladic world. The article focuses on the core areas of the southern mainland, although relations and exchanges with neighboring areas are also discussed.
Crete
Authors: Hallager Erik
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the history of Late Minoan Crete as a period of many changes. It finds the flourishing time of the Minoan palaces with the first real urban society on European soil. This palatial society was destroyed by conflagrations all over the island. Of the palaces, it seems that only Knossos survived. Toward the end of the Bronze Age, almost all coastal towns and settlements were abandoned, and people either moved to the mountains or emigrated. Three different systems describe the relative chronology of the Late Minoan period: the traditional chronology, based on stratigraphy and typology of pottery; a chronology based on palatial periods; and a chronology based on administrative issues. The only one of the three where there is a reasonable agreement among scholars today is the first the traditional, relative chronology based on pottery.
Cyclades
Authors: Barber Robin L. N.
Published: February 2013

This article states that the excellent recent survey of Penelope Mountjoy employs a slightly different approach, taking the phases of the Mycenaean pottery sequence as the framework and setting for cultural and historical developments in the Cyclades. It incorporates new evidence and provides some corrections to the former, and shows that the two can profitably be used in combination. Divergences between their methods are most evident from middle Late Cycladic III onward. Evidence cited here is chiefly from the major sites—Akrotiri on Thera, Ayia Irini on Kea, Phylakopi on Melos, and Grotta on Naxos. The sequence at Phylakopi still provides a useful key for much of the period—not least because of its primary role in the history of research. To this, developments at other sites can be generally, if not always precisely, related.
Mycenaean Architecture
Authors: Hitchcock Louise A.
Published: February 2013

Mycenaean architecture is characterized by both continuity and innovation, as well as by the adoption and adaptation of neighboring practices. The most obvious feature of mainland architecture is that it is hall centered, dominated by a central rectangular hall or megaron, thereby combining both axiality and simplicity. It forms the core element of the palaces in Mycenae, with additional rooms and courtyards organized around it. Construction techniques varied regionally and chronologically but include a variety of techniques including mud-brick superstructures on a stone socle, drywall masonry, rubble masonry, Cyclopean masonry, and ashlar masonry on a stone socle. Ashlar was typically sand or limestone, although saw-cut, dressed conglomerate blocks were used in special places such as thresholds and the entrances of fortifications and tholos tombs. There was also a sparing use of decorative stone such as gypsum, which might reference Crete, in the palaces and other monumental structures such as tombs.
Minoan Seals and Sealings
Authors: Weingarten Judith
Published: February 2013

More than any other ancient work of art, seals are intimate objects which are literally bound to their owners. In ancient societies, their primary purpose was to secure property—whether in the home or the public arena—and to assign responsibility by means of clay sealings impressed by a specific individual who is identified by the seal's impression. The study of Minoan seals began even before the discovery of Minoan civilization. Long before archaeologists arrived on the scene, Cretan women were wearing “milk stones”—brightly colored Minoan engraved gems—on their breasts or around the neck. These were believed to contain magical powers to ensure the milk of a nursing mother. When Arthur Evans first traveled to Crete in 1894 and visited Knossos he soon began collecting gemstones. Evans's trips to Crete led to the excavations at Knossos and the revelation of the Minoan world.
Palaikastro
Authors: MacGillivray J. Alexander , Sackett L. Hugh
Published: February 2013

Palaikastro is fifteen kilometers south of Cape Sidero at Crete's northeastern tip. South of Kastri is the tiny sheltered harbor called Chiona, from the Ottoman word for “Customs House.” Overlooking this harbor is the rugged blue limestone peak rising 254 meters above the sea, called Mount Petsophas—“skin eater” in Greek. The remains of east Crete's most important Bronze Age peak sanctuary, the source of many terracotta figurines and stone vases inscribed with Linear A, are situated on the top of Mount Petsophas. Nestled at the foot of Petsophas's northern flank is a little vale called Roussolakkos, meaning “red pit,” named for its fine, impermeable building clay, which has a deep ruddy hue. The British School at Athens has carried out three excavation campaigns at Palaikastro. Robert Carr Bosanquet and Richard MacGillivray Dawkins directed the first campaign, which began in 1902 and lasted until 1906.
Boeotia
Authors: Dakouri-Hild Anastasia
Published: February 2013

Boeotia, is located in central mainland Greece and a number of surveys have taken place in it to date. Other surveys have taken place as part of the Ohio Boeotia Thisbe Expedition, the Stanford Skourta Plain Project, the Grimadha-Tanagra Project, the Plataies Survey, and the Eastern Boeotia Archaeological Project. More specialized surface investigations have clarified Boeotian topography. At least fifty-six Early Bronze Age sites are known in Boeotia, though few have been excavated systematically. Most of the known sites established in this era are located along the eastern coastline or roads to major ports which suggests the importance of maritime resources. Evidence of cave habitation may be connected to transhumant pastoralism. This article discusses imported material, such as Aeginetan ware, which provides a basis for interregional comparison and is helpful in this direction.
Pylos
Authors: Davis Jack L.
Published: February 2013

The discovery of Bronze Age Pylos followed many frustrating efforts to locate the home of Homer's hero, Nestor. In 1829, soon after Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Turks, members of the great French cultural mission, the Expédition scientifique de Morée, sought Nestor's palace not far away, near a village called Pyla. In the 1880s Heinrich Schliemann dug in the medieval fortress at Navarino, looking for prehistoric remains comparable to those that he had already investigated at Mycenae, home of King Agamemnon. Others searched much farther afield, even many kilometers farther north, in Elis, in vain attempts to discover the elusive Palace of Nestor. Both in ancient and modern times, the location to which the place name Pylos was attached shifted.
Thebes
Authors: Dakouri-Hild Anastasia
Published: February 2013

The citadel of Thebes, also known as the Kadmeia, is a pear-shaped, large (800 meters long, 500 meters wide) and relatively low (maximum of 224 meters) plateau, which is in part the outcome of ancient and modern earthworks. It appears to have been narrower and northwest-southeast oriented in prehistory. Access from the west and to some extent the north slope remains arduous to this day and bespeaks the naturally defensive quality of the Theban landscape. The central east, southeast, and south slopes provide easier access to the citadel and connect it to the main routes leading to east and south Boeotia and beyond. The settlement on the Kadmeia seems to have been established in the Early Bronze Age, whereas earlier habitation is attested in the plains nearby. The settlement spread as far north as the Museum hill and Gourna but seems to have been more concentrated at Ayios Andreas and the southeast slopes.
Levant
Authors: Yasur-Landau Assaf
Published: February 2013

The physical distance between the Aegean and the Levant is far from being an insurmountable obstacle since the Mediterranean serves as a connecting medium. However, the cultural distance between the regions created a formidable barrier for any type of contact. It manifested itself not only in the difference between Indo-European and Semitic languages but also in almost every aspect of behavioral patterns from cooking and weaving to the realm of religion. Moreover, the cultural and linguistic distance between the Aegean and the Levant significantly hindered any transmission of culture. This article deals only with the impact of the Aegean on the Levant, defined here as the coastal and nearby areas of the Eastern Mediterranean: the area from the Amuq and the Kingdom of Mukish in the north to Gaza in the south.
Introduction: Rethinking and extending approaches to the history of the English language
Authors: Nevalainen Terttu , Traugott Elizabeth Closs
Published: February 2013

Linguistic research has been undergoing major shifts over the past few years. From thinking in terms of discrete categories and modules of language, as well as large discrete steps in change, the attention has shifted to variation, gradience, and interfaces between modules. In particular, language change is observed at the micro-level. This article introduces the rationale for the selection of topics in the Handbook, first what types of evidence can be used to access changes in English that are attested not only in past historical records but are also currently ongoing in British and American English, and English word-wide. It focuses on major trends in work aimed to rethink diachronic accounts of key factors, language external and internal, such as language contact, socio-cultural change, continua, and typological processes. The article also introduces the topic of relationships between information structure, syntax, and prosody. The overall message of the article is that recent rethinking of the field has led to new findings, connections, and prospects for future work.
Coins as evidence
Authors: Shaw Philip A.
Published: February 2013

Coin inscriptions may be used as evidence for “spelling regulation at a local or national level” and for “practical constraints” affecting orthographic practice and its relationship with phonology. This article presents two case studies illustrating such uses of coin inscriptions. The first case study provides evidence for orthographic change in progress, but also raises questions about the relationship between epigraphic and manuscript orthography, between the processes of minting and the writing practices of ecclesiastical centers. The second case study indicates that an orthographic variation, which would be surprising if read as indicating phonological variation, may be a reflection of practical adaptation of orthographic practice.
Evidence for sound change from Scottish corpora
Authors: Anderson Wendy
Published: February 2013

Completed in 2007, the Scottish Corpus of Texts & Speech (SCOTS, 1945–present) is the main corpus resource for linguistic analysis of present-day Scots and Scottish English. In 2010, the Corpus of Modern Scottish Writing (CMSW, 1700–1945) was introduced as a companion corpus to the SCOTS. Although CMSW is a corpus of written language only, it contains a sizeable component of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century orthoepist works, by writers such as James Beattie, James Elphinston, Alexander Barrie, and Sir John Sinclair. These works provide a rich, complex mine of evidence of changing pronunciation, and offer a glimpse into contemporary attitudes to language which emerge from a blend of prescription, proscription, and description. SCOTS and CMSW provide a diverse range of evidence, and together the two corpora offer a new perspective on sound-change, in the broader context of language variation and change, over 300 years of Scots and Scottish English.
Evidence from historical corpora up to the twentieth century
Authors: Kytö Merja , Pahta Päivi
Published: February 2013

Over the past forty years, empirical research in English linguistics has increasingly relied on material drawn from a wide range of electronic corpora. In particular, the history of the English language has emerged as an area where electronic resources and various kinds of search tools represent a true revolution in the way research has been carried out to investigate mechanisms involved in language change, as well as the factors possibly accounting for it. Examples of areas of linguistic study where corpora have proved particularly influential include historical sociolinguistics, historical pragmatics, historical dialectology, historical variation analysis, genre and register studies, cognitive linguistics, and historical lexicology and lexicography. This article examines the representativeness and reliability of historical corpora as evidence for the history of English up to 1900. It first considers relevant issues associated with representativeness of electronic corpora as evidence of past language use. It then looks at some challenges concerning the reliability of sources and the language-external background information that is available for providing the contextual parameters of texts in historical corpora.
The impact of electronically-mediated communication on language standards and style
Authors: Baron Naomi S.
Published: February 2013

Over the past five decades, the English language has undergone a stylistic shift, becoming increasingly informal. This informality is reflected in both speech and writing, and writing itself is tending to become a medium for recording informal speech. This chapter examines the extent to which contemporary information and communication technologies (ICTs) contribute to destandardization of either spoken or written language. It shows that the impact of ICTs results more from reinforcement of trends already evident in speech and writing and less from technological factors. These trends, in turn, reflect social change. The chapter first looks at variables shaping language standards and language style and then discusses independent changes (including growing social informality, emulation of youth, and multiculturalism) that have manifested themselves in both spoken and written language, predating popularization of computers and mobile phones.
Old news: Rethinking language change through Australian broadcast speech
Authors: Price Jenny
Published: February 2013

Like other forms of spoken language, broadcast speech changes over time. While longitudinal language shift is often difficult to pin down with any certainty, archival news recordings provide a valuable opportunity to gain access to our spoken past. The formal style and British-sounding accents of old news bulletins differ from the way Australian newsreaders speak today. This is due in part to the process of “decolonization,” when Australia developed its own identity, one that was independent of its British heritage. While studies on varieties of the English language tend to focus on society as a whole, this article proposes an alternative approach. It views diachronic language change through the particular prism of news speech to examine the connection between accent and identity at a turning point in Australia’s history.