bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Limited Access Environments
Authors: Yıldız Senem
Published: January 2018

Despite all the benefits of technology on improved learning outcomes, there is a division of equity in terms of access to latest technology in education and beyond. The term limited access environments is used for such situations where either technology is unavailable or is not used to its full potential due to socio‐demographic factors such as income, gender, race, ethnicity, education, age and location, as well as institutional and governmental constraints. This entry explains the term digital divide across the world and the factors that contribute to limited access to technology environments in educational settings and language classrooms. It aims to provide both practical and global suggestions to all stakeholders.
Online Learning
Authors: Gonzalez Dafne , St.Louis Rubena
Published: January 2018

Online learning can be described as learning via the Internet which brings educational content, resources and support to students, allowing meaningful interaction and facilitating the creation of knowledge. This summary overviews how the developments in technology have had a huge impact on online learning, adapting learning theories to fit into this new learning environment. This has resulted in changes in the role of teachers, students, teaching methodologies, and evaluation procedures. This digital environment has also led to changes in the way materials are presented. It has opened a new field for both quantitative and qualitative research involving all aspects of teaching and learning in this new context.
Project‐Based Learning and Technology
Authors: Beckett Gulbahar H. , Slater Tammy
Published: January 2018

Project‐based learning has a long history in education, and has more recently been adopted by language educators to teach a variety of content, skills, and language while socializing their English language learners into this style of classroom contexts. While technology has no doubt become part of what students and teachers include during project‐based work, there have been relatively few empirical reports of technology‐infused project‐based teaching and learning. What has been done in project‐based language teaching in general and in projects that focus on technology use suggests that participating in projects can build decision‐making skills, foster independence while also enhancing cooperative work skills, challenge students' creativity, cultivate creative thinking skills, and improve problem‐solving skills. Moreover, for the most part, students also generally appear to enjoy project‐based learning. A key focus of the literature is that language learners have difficulty seeing how their language is being developed through this approach. A close but succinct look at the literature can thus offer implications for instructors and researchers concerning how English language learners can identify their language learning gains through projects, how structured instructors should make their projects, and how carefully teachers need to consider the fit of the project.
Technology and Autonomy
Authors: Reinders Hayo
Published: January 2018

This entry will describe how technology has been used to foster learner autonomy, or learners' ability to take control over their own learning. It will also highlight some limitations of current approaches and suggest ways in which teachers, materials, and curriculum developers can help prepare learners to make use of technology for learning, and how effectively to support them in learning how to learn by themselves.
Technology and Constructivism
Authors: Weasenforth Donald
Published: January 2018

Constructivism, a philosophical framework that proposes to account for how learning occurs, represents sociocultural views of learning as developed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. A basic constructivist principle is that knowledge is constructed through the learner's interaction with concepts, tasks, and others. Modern technologies, especially “social” communication technologies, support this and other constructivist principles with appropriate instructor guidance. This summary considers the theoretical principles associated with constructivism, critical views of the approach, and implications for the classroom.
Technology and Strategy Instruction
Authors: Ranalli Jim
Published: January 2018

Since the 1970s, one strand of second language (L2) pedagogy has been concerned with imparting behaviors and techniques to learners that they can use independently to improve their learning and use of the target language. This strand, known as strategy instruction (SI), has faced a number of challenges including overdependence on teachers for instruction, competition for space in already crowded syllabuses, and the need to provide individualized practice and feedback on strategy use. This entry explores recent efforts to harness digital technologies in support of SI initiatives.
Technology for Teaching Pronunciation
Authors: Wallace Lara R. , Lima Edna F.
Published: January 2018

From individual phonemes to discourse‐level intonation and rhythm, teaching pronunciation can be quite challenging; however, when used properly, technology can enhance teachers' instruction and help learners improve their intelligibility. This entry provides an overview of technology that can be used to improve both receptive and productive pronunciation knowledge. It shows how learners and teachers can use technology to bend time and space to their advantage by recording speech for later audiovisual analysis and for creating speaking opportunities when alone. Also demonstrated is how technology can be used to alter the environment, thus increasing the amount and variety of input and practice opportunities learners receive in the target language.
Technology in Adult Education
Authors: Gaer Susan
Published: January 2018

The principles of adult education are applied to 21st‐century learning. This entry makes the case for technology to be used in adult education and describes activities and ideas that can be used in the adult ESL classroom.
Technology in Kindergarten to 12th Grade Teaching
Authors: Ware Paige
Published: January 2018

Three main themes dominate discussions about technology integration in kindergarten through 12th grade teaching: defining 21st‐century skills, creating educational standards, and developing appropriate assessments. Research on the integration of technology into language‐learning classrooms in the K–12 context falls into two main types: focus on how technology can amplify language acquisition by making the process faster, more efficient, or more individualized; and focus on how new digital tools and contexts are expanding both the contexts and the means by which languages are learned and used. Teachers need to leverage the existing infrastructure in their educational contexts whenever possible as they seek to use technology in their instruction and adopt a learner's stance toward technology. Teachers can also connect with their learners' literacy and language practices outside of school contexts, as understanding one's students is a key aspect of teaching that also applies to learning about students' technology habits and practices. Teachers can seek options for making technology multifunctional as they integrate more digital media tools into their language teaching. The more pedagogically aware teachers are of what they already know and do, the more they can draw on technology to enhance, amplify, and extend their language teaching practices.
Telecollaboration
Authors: Ware Paige
Published: January 2018

The term telecollaboration has come to describe any combination of text‐based, multimodal‐enhanced, asynchronous, synchronous, monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual collaboration. Telecollaboration research has been primarily qualitative, because the projects are uniquely situated within highly particularized cultural, social, institutional, and technological contexts. Researchers have examined telecollaboration across a variety of these contexts using a number of methodological approaches that cluster around three main areas of inquiry: language development; intercultural communication; and identity. Research has focused on socioinstitutional and cultural norms, on teacher positionality as intercultural learners, on instructional planning that involves task type and sequencing, and on the joint construction of interaction by learners. Although misunderstandings do occur in telecollaboration, instructors who build a rich foundation can help their students leverage such miscommunication to create deeper understanding and respect for the similarities and differences of one another's culturally, linguistically, historically, and socially situated interactions.
TESOL
Technology Standards
Authors: Healey Deborah
Published: January 2018

The TESOL Technology Standards are designed to provide guidance for learners, teachers, teacher educators, and administrators who use technology as a component of English language learning and teaching. The Standards incorporate two complementary sets of standards. The Standards for Language Learners focus on what learners need to know in order to use technology productively, safely, appropriately, legally, and with a critical eye. The Standards for Language Teachers address how teachers can help learners achieve the Learner Standards, be personally productive and creative with technology, and continue to develop expertise in teaching with technology. The Teacher Standards recognize a general and an “expert” level. All teachers are expected to meet the standards at the general level. The expert level describes those who have additional skills, and who should be given the appropriate recognition for sharing those skills with others. Checklists for self‐assessment, program assessment, and online teaching are part of
TESOL Technology Standards, Description, Implementation, Integration
(Healey et al., 2011).
Video
Authors: Duarte Scott F.
Published: January 2018

Video, stemming from the Latin meaning of “I see,” has become a standard tool teachers use in diverse ways to educate their students. In its passive application, video can be a rich source of authentic linguistic, as well as cultural, material. The practice of using video has since expanded to also include more active involvement from students and teachers. Student‐generated videos have the language learners practicing what they have studied in a dynamic format. Teachers and students are creating videos to aid their audience in visually and aurally learning new information. Whatever the purpose, whatever the technique, video continues to be a highly effective medium for English as a second language (ESL) instructors in the classroom.
Academic Vocabulary List
Authors: Gardner Dee
Published: January 2018

In this entry, the author discusses the Academic Vocabulary List (AVL), and the important role that knowledge of such core academic vocabulary plays in the reading success of English language learners in academic settings. The author also describes practical applications that can be used to improve learners’ knowledge of AVL words.
Extensive Reading
Authors: Day Richard R.
Published: January 2018

Extensive reading (ER) in the foreign language (FL) context is an approach to teaching reading whose goal is to get students reading in the FL and enjoying it. Extensive reading is based on the premise that we learn to read by reading. In ER, students read large quantities of easy material (usually books) in the FL. They read for overall meaning, for information, and for pleasure and enjoyment. Students select their own books, and are encouraged to stop reading if a book is not interesting to them or is too hard. When students engage in ER, not only do they learn to read in the FL, but they learn vocabulary, increase their writing, listening, and speaking skills, and develop positive attitudes and increased motivation.
Motivation and Reading
Authors: Komiyama Reiko
Published: January 2018

The role of motivation in reading development has been studied actively by first language (L1) researchers and it is now attracting more second language (L2) researchers. Motivation to read has been found to involve multiple “types” of motivation, and different types of motivation may relate to reading behaviors somewhat differently. L2 teachers, therefore, are encouraged to pay attention to the ways students are motivated to read. In the educational settings where it is important to develop students' ability to read in an L2 for a wide range of purposes, it is suggested that teachers nurture more intrinsically oriented motivation.
Reading and Writing Connections
Authors: Zhang Limei
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the relationship between reading and writing. It first provides a brief review of research into reading and writing connections and then gives a detailed description of the overlapping knowledge and cognitive processes shared by reading and writing. The entry concludes with a discussion of the combined instruction of reading and writing and its practical application and pedagogical implications.
Beginning‐Level Readers
Authors: David Nick , McGovern Jessica
Published: January 2018

Teaching beginning‐level readers can pose a challenge to even experienced instructors. These learners have varied purposes, goals, backgrounds, and levels of literacy in their first language. Instructors should be aware of these variables and should use both top‐down and bottom‐up strategies at this level while seeking to boost student reading rate. Significant adjustments must be made in running the classroom in order to facilitate student comprehension. Teachers should simplify their language and focus students' attention on the content at hand. Teachers should also foster student vocabulary acquisition. This can be done through providing extensive reading opportunities, multiple exposures to vocabulary terms, and through the use of graded readers and realia. Finally, teachers should be aware of and address learner affective variables.
Classroom Comprehension Assessment
Authors: Goertel Rachel Adams
Published: January 2018

Classroom comprehension assessment is the use of a variety of procedures to collect information about learning and instruction. Formative and summative assessments represent two classifications of assessment, each with a distinct purpose. Summative assessment determines what the student has learned at the end of a unit of instruction. Formative assessment is the focus on monitoring ongoing student comprehension. Formative assessment provides immediate feedback to both the teacher and student regarding the learning process while summative assessment helps determine to what extent the instructional and learning goals have been met.
Graphic Organizers
Authors: Thayne Shelby
Published: January 2018

Graphic organizers—visual representations of ideas in a text—are considered powerful instructional tools for developing reading comprehension abilities in students in both first and second/foreign language reading. Research suggests that utilizing graphic organizers as a reading strategy is effective because it develops a reader's awareness of underlying organization patterns in texts, also known as discourse structures, which in turn, aids learners in their overall reading comprehension. This summary overviews the theoretical foundation, empirical support, and research issues related to graphic organizers as a second language reading strategy, as well as provides key principles and practices for integrating graphic organizers into reading instruction.
Standardized Testing in Reading
Authors: Cox Troy L.
Published: January 2018

It is difficult to extricate standardized reading tests from standardized testing in general. Most tests require some degree of literacy creating a tight link between the two. In any case, standardized testing is often maligned because of the perceived negative impact on the classroom. The genesis of these tests arose from the desire to award people with occupational and educational opportunities based on skill and merit rather than social connections. Testing purposes have evolved from simply assessing a person's ability to include evaluating teaching and school quality. While the effectiveness of these new propositions can be debated, it is clear that standardized reading tests are part of the educational landscape. Educators need to understand the purpose of standardized tests, types available (norm‐ and criterion‐referenced), factors to use when selecting or recommending exams and how to best prepare their students to take them.
South African Perspectives on Second Language Writing Pedagogy
Authors: McKinney Carolyn , Kapp Rochelle
Published: January 2018

In the South African context, innovative approaches to second language writing research and pedagogy both at school level and in higher education have been driven by a transformative agenda. Transformative approaches have the dual aim of providing students with access to the dominant language, literacies, and discourses while at the same time developing a critical awareness of these conventions. Since most students are multilingual, enabling students to draw on their full linguistic repertoires is a significant move and we are beginning to see more cases where translanguaging is used as a productive tool.
Asian Perspectives on Second Language Writing Pedagogy
Authors: Sasaki Miyuki
Published: January 2018

This entry provides readers with background on recent trends in English as a second language writing pedagogy in secondary schools in Asia. For this purpose, Asia is divided following Kachru's often‐cited 1998 classification of “outer circle,” with English as an official or common language, and “expanding circle,” where English is used almost exclusively in classrooms. English writing education in secondary schools in these two circles shares similarities, including the use of an “inner‐circle” variety of English as the norm and significant washback from high‐stakes examinations, which often require no discourse‐level writing. Given the increasing use of English as a lingua franca by Asian speakers as well as the recent trend toward socio‐literate L2 writing pedagogies, future directions are suggested to help liberate and empower stakeholders in English writing education in Asia.
Primary School Writing
Authors: Wong Joanna W. , Faltis Christian J.
Published: January 2018

Teachers' pedagogical writing knowledge, knowledge about their emergent bilingual learners, and valuation of students' L1 have implications for instructional contexts of L2 writing development. Pedagogical approaches to children's bilingual and/or L2 and literacy development have traditionally focused on L2 oral language proficiency, followed by L2 reading, and then L2 writing. However, bilingual scholars have argued with evidence that bilingual children can develop L2 writing while they are learning to speak, listen, and read in English. More specifically, bilingual children may begin L2 writing early on, drawing on their L1 and L1/L2 language knowledge to support L2 composing practices. Accordingly, teachers who serve emergent bilingual children must be prepared to provide linguistically and culturally responsive instruction that supports idea articulation through writing as students simultaneously develop oral, listening, and reading skills in their L2. This entry discusses issues relevant to primary‐age bilingual writers and offers pedagogical recommendations to support biliteracy development.
Graduate Student Writing
Authors: Paltridge Brian
Published: January 2018

There are many different kinds of writing that graduate students need to undertake in their studies. While students for whom English is an additional language require a high level of language proficiency in order to do this writing, they also need knowledge of the expectations and requirements of their academic disciplines in order to do it successfully. The writing that students are required to do often requires understanding the values that are shared by people working in their discipline and the expectations of the particular genres that they are required to produce. This includes taking account of the particular audience for their text, the background knowledge and understandings it is assumed students will share with their readers, and the ways in which they can demonstrate this through their use of language.
Self‐Sponsored Writing
Authors: Yi Youngjoo , Angay‐Crowder Tuba
Published: January 2018

Many multilingual writers engage in voluntary, self‐sponsored writing activities in their daily lives. For instance, some English language learners (ELLs) keep a diary in their first or second language (or a mix of the two languages), and others join online communities or social networking sites in order to communicate with other ELLs. These multilingual writers' reflexive self‐sponsored writing activities (e.g., diaries, journals) tend to range more widely and sometimes are more interpersonally meaningful than their school‐sponsored academic writing practices. Yet, self‐sponsored writing practices are likely invisible to many researchers and classroom teachers. This entry attempts to give valuable insights into self‐sponsored writing practices in which many ELLs engage by addressing their voluntary, self‐initiated writing across varied contexts, discussing key research findings, and providing practical applications and recommendations that English as a second and foreign language practitioners can employ with their students.
Theory in Second Language Writing
Authors: Atkinson Dwight
Published: January 2018

The single strongest theoretical influence on second language writing to date has been process writing, but there is no comprehensive theory of second language writing. Two basic positions have been developed regarding the need for such a theory. The first position argues that a comprehensive theory of second language writing is needed in the spirit of grand scientific theorizing: a theory which systematically describes, and eventually explains, the full set of phenomena constituting second language writing. The second position rejects such top‐down theory, putting in its place multiple “theories with a small t,” which are locally situated, diverse, and take into account the unique power of English in the world today. Such theories can provide tools for generating new forms of knowledgeable practice to their main users, who are also their main developers: second language writing teachers themselves.
Literacy Development and Second Language Writing
Authors: Scarcella Robin , Olson Carol Booth , Matuchniak Tina
Published: January 2018

Literacy plays a significant role in the lives of multilingual and second language (L2) writers, impacting their personal experiences, creating opportunities for their academic and employment advancement, and shaping their social identities. Research has identified a number of constraints that adolescent English learners in second‐language settings face, but, fortunately, these can be overcome with the help of informed use of a set of pedagogical strategies.
Task Representation
Authors: Plakans Lia , Liao Jui‐Teng
Published: January 2018

Task representation is a fundamental step in the composing process in which writers comprehend and interpret the expectations of an assignment or assessment. Research has explored how writers think about tasks as they embark on and engage in them throughout the composing process. Evidence suggests that a writer's experience and background impacts their task representation, which may lead to unintended results. Teachers should carefully consider the wording of their directions and prompts and provide modeling, practice, and guidance to help students develop strategies to understand academic writing tasks.
Composing Processes
Authors: Kobayashi Hiroe , Rinnert Carol
Published: January 2018

“Composing process” refers to the entire action of creating a written text, involving three stages—planning, formulating, and revising—where writers recursively apply such specific activities as generating ideas, rehearsing, and word‐searching. Pedagogical process approaches were developed in response to product‐oriented ones and have been incorporated into recent genre/social approaches that combine product and process. Major differences between advanced and novice writers have been identified at each composing stage. Specific composing process teaching activities, such as concept mapping for planning and peer feedback for revising, have proved effective with diverse groups of student writers.
Multilingualism as a Writing Resource
Authors: Gentil Guillaume
Published: January 2018

Running counter to prevailing monolingual instruction practices, a multilingualism‐as‐a‐writing‐resource orientation views the development of writing expertise as closely interdependent across languages and encourages multilingual writers to shuttle across languages, modalities, and communities by drawing on their entire linguistic repertoires as a resource for composing. Empirical and theoretical support for this orientation arises from research at the intersection of bilingual education, multilingualism, literacy, and second language writing studies. To be successful, pedagogical implementation must go beyond instructional strategies in the classroom and also assess possibilities and enact changes at the curricular and institutional levels in specific contexts.
Textual Borrowing and Intellectual Property
Authors: Bloch Joel
Published: January 2018

Textual borrowing has been an important part of text creation since the beginning of time. All texts to varying degrees borrow other texts. Texts can be borrowed from various sources because they are considered to be intellectual property, often without asking permission. In different text types, genres, and communities of practice, the nature and purpose of textual borrowing can vary. The importance of textual borrowing has led to a greater interest in understanding its rhetorical purposes, which can include supporting an argument, motivating the purpose of the research, describing the “shoulders” of the “giants” the author is standing upon, and providing additional resources for further pursuing the topics. As new forms of multimodal texts emerge, new approaches to textual borrowing have appeared. Each community of practice has different practices and rules for how these borrowed texts can be incorporated; the violation of these rules is often referred to as “plagiarism.” The complex nature of textual borrowing, as well as the sanctions that can be placed on rule violation, has necessitated a greater focus on explicit teaching in the composition classroom, with the goal of having students understand various rhetorical purposes and strategies as they become full members of their communities of practice.
Peer Feedback
Authors: Baker‐Smemoe Wendy
Published: January 2018

Peer feedback is a useful method for teaching grammatical and rhetorical conventions in writing and has been used since the late 1980s in second language (L2) classrooms. It supports theories of process versus product approaches to writing and also encourages social interaction, learner autonomy, and collaboration. Benefits of peer feedback include improvement not only in the writing and L2 language skills of the writer, but also in the writing of the peers who provide the feedback. Appropriate peer training, including modeling correct methods of feedback, teaching pragmatically acceptable vocabulary, using teacher‐generated response sheets, and encouraging methods of determining what feedback to use, can enhance its effectiveness.
Automated Writing Assessment
Authors: Ware Paige
Published: January 2018

Automated writing assessment refers to a focus both on scoring essays as well as on providing formative feedback. Scoring features generate summative scores, help sort students into proficiency levels, and offer options for scaling up writing assessment for large numbers of writers. The current research base falls into three main foci: written products that examine outcomes on essay scores; writing processes that explore formative feedback of automated assessment in instructional contexts; and combined process/product that analyzes the interactions among learner use, perception, and writing outcomes. A commitment beyond the individual classroom is needed to ensure adequate teacher training, logistical and technological support, and student and teacher motivation for these automated tools. Even as the scoring features of automated writing assessment programs have correlated highly with human ratings and the feedback features have promoted improvement on writing outcomes, factors related to pedagogical integration need more research.
Integrated‐Skills Assessment
Authors: Gebril Atta
Published: January 2018

Integrated tasks have been increasingly used as a measure of writing ability in different instructional contexts, especially in academic settings. This popularity could be due to the research evidence documenting advantages of integrated tasks, such as providing background knowledge to writers, enhancing authenticity of assessment, and ensuring fairness. In an integrated task, students usually synthesize information from external sources, such as reading and listening texts, in their writing. A number of topics relevant to integrated‐skills assessment have been addressed in the literature, including the integrated assessment construct, reliability and validity of integrated tasks, the impact of proficiency on performance, and the way students use sources in their writing. Guidelines helpful to second language (L2) writing instructors preparing students for integrated‐skills tasks focus on task design, development of discourse synthesis skills, and scoring issues.
Scoring Writing
Authors: Cushing Sara T.
Published: January 2018

The scoring of writing is an essential skill for L2 writing teachers. Valid, reliable, and practical scoring procedures require consideration of the context, the writer, the task, the rating scale, the qualities of the written text, and the rater. While most research on the scoring of writing has been conducted with reference to large‐scale tests, classroom teachers can apply the results of this research to improve their own scoring procedures, particularly in terms of designing scoring rubrics, training raters, and involving students in assessment.
Second Language Writing Materials Development
Authors: Bunting John D.
Published: January 2018

Materials development has been an essential component in second language writing throughout its existence as an area of instruction, but it has been studied as a discrete focus area only recently. This entry examines different aspects of second language writing materials development. These aspects include components, sources, functions, and modalities of second language writing materials development, and the role of innovation in materials development.
Task Development: Narrative, Expository, and Argumentative Writing
Authors: Olson Carol Booth , Scarcella Robin , Matuchniak Tina
Published: January 2018

Narrative, expository, and argumentative writing pose challenges for English learners (ELs). Research‐based practices for developing tasks to help ELs overcome these challenges include scaffolding instruction to promote student ownership, explicitly teaching the language features of each genre, providing models of what is expected, giving students opportunities to collaborate, and enabling students to internalize the conventions of each genre through multiple rehearsals and gradual release toward managing writing tasks independently.
Reading and Writing Connections in Writing About Literature
Authors: Vandrick Stephanie
Published: January 2018

Reading and writing are inextricably connected, and are increasingly taught together in English as a second language (ESL) classes. Reading and writing about literature are useful and engaging activities, although literature's use in writing classes is still contested by some. This entry discusses connections between reading and writing; advantages and possible disadvantages of, and cautions regarding, the inclusion of literature in writing classes; choices regarding canonical versus current and multicultural literature; choices regarding literary genres to include; criteria for deciding which specific works to include; and types and examples of reading and writing assignments.
Corpus Tools for Writing Teachers
Authors: Cortes Viviana
Published: January 2018

Recent developments in corpus‐based studies of written genres have translated into corpus‐based research findings and corpus‐based tools that make excellent resources for writing teachers. There is a wide variety of corpora made up of written texts which are available online and that can be used, for example, to analyze different aspects of a great range of written registers and to study register variation.
Corpus Tools for Writing Students
Authors: Charles Maggie
Published: January 2018

Recent technological advances have made it easy for writing students to consult many different corpora using web‐based tools. Large general corpora, specialized corpora, for example of academic or professional writing, and learner corpora are all freely accessible. Several Web sites also provide free tools to help writers build do‐it‐yourself corpora and concordance software for installation on the student's computer. The concordance tool is widely used, as it supplies lexicogrammatical information which may not be readily available in other reference sources and thus allows students to discover or check collocations and phraseology. Corpus tools also provide lists of words and phrases with their frequency and distribution in numerical or chart form. These are useful for comparing similar items to help writers make appropriate choices. Corpus tools have an important role to play at all stages of the writing process and are considered to foster student writer autonomy and long‐term language acquisition.
Mixed Methods Approaches to Studying Second Language Writing
Authors: Riazi A. Mehdi
Published: January 2018

Mixed‐methods research (MMR) is attracting researchers' attention in the field of second language (L2) writing because of its capability to integrate both quantitative and qualitative research strands in principled ways. When mixed together, quantitative and qualitative approaches to research can complement each other and will enable L2 writing researchers to discuss findings from one research strand in light of the results obtained from the other strand and thus to draw stronger and more beneficial conclusions. The present entry elaborates on this position; it briefly discusses the five purposes of mixing quantitative and qualitative research and how L2 writing researchers may use MMR. As a case in point, a review will be presented of 15 published L2 writing‐research studies, along with some implications and recommendations for L2 writing researchers as how to come to grips with MMR in their research projects.
Future Directions for Writing Teacher Cognition
Authors: Lee Icy
Published: January 2018

“Teacher cognition” refers to the complex networks of knowledge, thoughts and beliefs that language teachers bring to the classroom, which impact decision‐making and classroom teaching within their situated contexts. Research on L2 teacher cognition has focused mainly on grammar teaching, though in recent years there has been a growth of interest in teacher cognition in the field of L2 writing, which examines (1) the factors that influence writing teacher cognition; (2) the relationship between writing teacher cognition and classroom practice; and (3) the role of teacher education in impacting writing teacher cognition. To enhance the effectiveness of writing teacher preparation programs, writing teacher educators have to help teacher‐learners become more aware of the beliefs they bring to teaching, encourage critical engagement with the research literature, foster congruity between beliefs and practice, help teacher‐learners develop strategies to grapple with the contextual factors that influence teacher cognition and practice, and encourage them to explore their own beliefs and experiences as writers themselves.
Listening to Learn versus Learning to Listen
Authors: Vandergrift Larry , Cross Jeremy
Published: January 2018

This entry will clarify the difference between listening to learn and learning to listen. Listening to learn focuses on the development of listeners' ability to complete meaning‐focused tasks as well as their use of language knowledge and listening texts for learning. On the other hand, learning to listen addresses the process of listening, that is, how students arrived at comprehension. This entry will then explore the associated research literature, illustrated with both types of listening activities. Metacognitive instruction is exemplified through process‐based instruction and an alternative framework for strategy instruction is presented. Finally, a range of authentic task‐types are delineated, along with a pedagogical framework regarding how to use technology for learning.
Macro Listening Skills
Authors: Wilson JJ
Published: January 2018

Macro listening skills have received little attention in the literature. This entry first defines macro listening skills through contrasting them with micro listening skills and listening strategies, and provides a taxonomy of the skills. It then uses a classroom scenario to show how macro listening skills can be taught. Finally, the entry looks at the ways in which a formal focus on macro listening skills can influence student behavior as they listen, for example, by encouraging them to focus on ideas, make predictions, and listen critically.
Taxonomies of Listening Skills
Authors: Aryadoust Vahid
Published: January 2018

This entry seeks to examine second language (L2) listening comprehension from a subskill‐based approach. It provides an overview of two models of listening comprehension, that is, the default listening construct and the listening‐response model, and delineates listening subskills. It also proposes a list of the subskills that have been identified and validated through empirical research. The entry concludes by discussing the potential relationships between the subskills and the limitation of the listening comprehension research.
Two‐Way Listening
Authors: Gu Yongqi
Published: January 2018

Two‐way listening refers to the listener's active involvement in a communicative situation where at least one other interlocutor is involved. In two‐way listening, meaning is perceived, inferenced and predicted, synthesized, negotiated, and co‐constructed with interlocutors. In addition to comprehension and interpretation of meaning, the cognitive process is accompanied by the rapid and appropriate exchange of listener/speaker roles so that social purposes and emotional balances are achieved. For learners of English, an awareness of this configuration of listening skills, strategies, and processes as well as an awareness of different communicative purposes in listening will help them decide which listening subskill they need to develop. For second language users of English, this awareness will facilitate the on‐task allocation of cognitive resources during listening. For teachers, knowing the dynamic and interactive nature of two‐way listening will entail classroom efforts in developing this complex skill.
Individual Listener Variables
Authors: Vandergrift† Larry , Cross Jeremy
Published: January 2018

There are differences in listening ability among students that are often perplexing to teachers. This entry highlights some of the variables, with particular emphasis on L2 vocabulary, prior knowledge, auditory discrimination, and metacognitive awareness of listening. The research base for each of these variables is briefly outlined and pedagogical implications are discussed.
Listener Anxiety
Authors: Zhang Xian
Published: January 2018

Listener anxiety is conceptualized as a type of situation‐specific anxiety tied to foreign language listening. Ever since the existence of listener anxiety was recognized and documented, there has been increasing interest in listener anxiety and its relationship with foreign language listening performance. Empirical evidence has shown that listener anxiety is negatively correlated with foreign language listening performance. Listener anxiety may cause deficits in cognitive processes and may discourage learning effort. Thus, listener anxiety should not be ignored by language teachers. To deal with listener anxiety, various treatments related to vocabulary, task difficulty, self‐confidence, and learning strategies can be used.
Schemata in Listening Comprehension
Authors: Nguyen Chi‐Duc , Newton Jonathan
Published: January 2018

In L2 listening instruction, pre‐listening activities such as predicting likely content and activating world knowledge are widely used to help learners listen more successfully. A rationale for such activities is that they activate learners'
schematic knowledge
(i.e., the conceptual frameworks that help organize and interpret information) which learners can then draw on to fill in gaps in their processing and comprehension of the speech stream. From an input processing perspective, activating schemata frees up attentional capacity. This is especially useful when learners are listening without opportunities for conversational interaction. Research provides strong support for the role of schemata in listening comprehension and for the effectiveness of many classroom activities designed for schemata activation.
Socio‐Affective Listening Strategies
Authors: Vandergrift† Larry , Cross Jeremy
Published: January 2018

Socio‐affective strategies are most developed in contexts where listeners are engaged in interaction with a target language speaker in order to manage the social and affective challenges of these listening events. This entry examines the unique challenges of this type of listening and then provides an overview of the types of strategies for listeners to respond to these challenges and reduce anxiety. A number of concrete pedagogical activities are outlined for classroom practice, including the use of multimedia tools. These strategies are important for negotiating meaning in L2 settings, thereby enhancing language acquisition.
Comprehension Approach
Authors: Marczak Mariusz
Published: January 2018

The comprehension approach to foreign language instruction emerged in the 1970s and constituted an alternative to the dominant language‐teaching paradigm of that time, which prioritized performance over reception. Based on the assumption that receptive skills, listening comprehension in particular, provided a foundation for the development of productive skills, the approach placed emphasis on intensive exposure to the target language and the resultant understanding, while also advocating that production be delayed until learners would feel ready for it. Thus it would create a nonthreatening setting where learners would not be coerced to speak prematurely and make errors in public but could engage instead in implicit learning, whereby they would discover target language rules on their own. This entry outlines the historical backdrop of the rise of the comprehension approach, provides an outline of its most important tenets, and reviews a number of practical implementations of the approach as well as of the effects observed.
Information and Communications Technology (
ICT
) in Listening Instruction
Authors: Kiliçkaya Ferit
Published: January 2018

Listening is a complex and active process. Therefore listening needs to be incorporated into class activities on a regular basis. The use of English as the medium of communication in the classroom as well as intensive and extensive activities such as recognizing phonological elements and communicative stimulus–response tasks may increase the amount of input provided to learners; however, it may not be possible to provide enough input in each and every classroom. Moreover, time limitations and the pressure to teach to the test may diminish the amount of time allocated to practicing listening. One solution, then, is to encourage learners to listen to English outside the class, in self‐access centers or other places, through websites that offer a variety of video and audio materials. In this way learners can do a great deal of extensive listening. This entry aims to introduce ICT‐based resources and present their use in facilitating the teaching and learning of listening in a second or foreign language.
Integrating Listening and Speaking
Authors: Newton Jonathan , Nguyen Chi‐Duc
Published: January 2018

Opportunities to improve listening skills and to learn new language through listening in the language classroom can be enhanced through a principled approach to integrating speaking into listening‐based lessons. This entry outlines options and evaluates research support for integrating speaking in all three of the typical stages of a listening lesson (i.e., pre‐, during‐, and post‐listening) for the purposes of not only enhancing comprehension but also fostering metacognitive development and creating opportunities for focus on form.
Listening Activities
Authors: Goh Christine C. M.
Published: January 2018

Listening activities should engage learners in listening for a communicative purpose. Instead of just listening to and answering comprehension questions, learners should be taught to listen effectively. Listening activities should aim to offer them experiences that are close to real‐life listening and at the same time provide them with the support they need in order to understand and manage their own performance. There are two types of listening in everyday communication. The first type, one‐way listening, is nonparticipatory insofar as the listener is not part of a face‐to‐face interaction that requires direct verbal responses. The second type is interactive listening, a process in which the listener participates in real‐time communication with other participants. These interactional contexts form the basis upon which listening activities are designed in the language classroom. These activities should develop essential listening skills and to improve learners' recognition of sounds; at the same time they create opportunities for learners to use their background knowledge in enhancing their comprehension.
Listening for Details
Authors: Martinez Ron
Published: January 2018

The stakes of a listening situation do not always require understanding every word, but when necessary most adults listening in their first language are able to understand most if not all the words in a spoken text, and therefore picking out important details is not usually a challenge. By contrast, second language (L2) listeners usually possess gaps in their receptive vocabulary that can make listening for details much more demanding. This entry first considers key assumptions underlying the act of listening (for example, listener and contextual characteristics), and how genre can be carefully utilized to optimize the benefit derived from listening tasks. Finally, the entry explores which aspects of receptive vocabulary should be focused on in order to help learners better listen for details.
Listening for Gist
Authors: Siegel Joseph
Published: January 2018

This entry explains matters of theoretical background related to listening for gist and how it distinguishes itself from other forms of listening. The entry further introduces various linguistic and personal elements that interact when one is listening for gist. Among the linguistic signals are stress and intonation patterns, as well as the use of coherence devices. Personal factors include motivation and decisions about when and where to focus attention. From here the entry moves on to suggest three categories of practice for the TESOL classroom: response activities, demonstration exercises, and production practice.
Teaching Listening Strategies
Authors: Graham Suzanne
Published: January 2018

This entry takes as its starting point the notion that listening in a second language is a skill that learners find difficult to acquire and teachers find difficult to teach. Against this background it considers the importance of learner strategies for listening comprehension, alongside evidence that suggests that the teaching of listening strategies can improve learners' performance of this skill. The entry concludes by outlining possible forms of instruction for listening strategies.