bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Acicular ferrite and bainite in C–Mn and low-alloy steel arc weld metals
Authors: Abson D. J.
Published: April 2018

Acicular ferrite is recognised as a desirable microstructural constituent in C–Mn and low-alloy steel weld metals. It is Widmanstätten ferrite that nucleates on the spheroidal non-metallic inclusions and grows by a reconstructive (diffusion-controlled) mechanism that proceeds substantially to completion. With increasing alloy content and/or cooling rate, the transformation to acicular ferrite may not be completed before the formation of bainite begins, the efficacy of inclusions in modern weld metal being such that colonies of bainite can nucleate on inclusions, forming by a displacive (shear) transformation mechanism, and producing colonies of similar size to acicular ferrite laths. Hence, in arc welds deposited with modern welding consumables, both acicular ferrite and intragranular bainite may form. As a consequence of the similarity in appearance of these two microstructural constituents in the optical microscope, some confusion in terminology has been introduced into the literature. This review seeks to eradicate this confusion.
Epidemiology and Outcomes of Hospitalizations With Invasive Aspergillosis in the United States, 2009–2013
Authors: Zilberberg Marya D , Nathanson Brian H , Harrington Rachel , Spalding James R , Shorr Andrew F
Published: April 2018

Background

Though invasive aspergillosis (IA) complicates care of up to 13% of patients with immunocompromise, little is known about its morbidity and mortality burden in the United States.

Methods

We analyzed the Health Care Utilization Project’s data from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality for 2009–2013. Among subjects with high-risk conditions for IA, IA was identified via International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes 117.3, 117.9, and 484.6. We compared characteristics and outcomes between those with (IA) and without IA (non-IA). Using propensity score matching, we calculated the IA-associated excess mortality and 30-day readmission rates, length of stay, and costs.

Results

Of the 66634683 discharged patients meeting study inclusion criteria, 154888 (0.2%) had a diagnosis of IA. The most common high-risk conditions were major surgery (50.1%) in the non-IA and critical illness (41.0%) in the IA group. After propensity score matching, both mortality (odds ratio, 1.43; 95% confidence interval, 1.36–1.51) and 30-day readmission (1.39; 1.34–1.45) rates were higher in the IA group. IA was associated with 6.0 (95% confidence interval, 5.7–6.4) excess days in the hospital and $15542 ($13869–$17215) in excess costs per hospitalization.

Conclusions

Although rare even among high-risk groups, IA is associated with increased hospital mortality and 30-day readmission rates, excess duration of hospitalization, and costs. Given nearly 40000 annual admissions for IA in the United States, the aggregate IA-attributable excess costs may reach $600 million annually.
Rosanjin
Authors: Stalker Nancy K.
Published: April 2018

This chapter integrates culinary nationalism in studying Kitaōji Rosanjin, the most celebrated epicurean of twentieth-century Japan, who has seemingly been raised to the status of culinary saint following the UNESCO award. As a restaurateur, Rosanjin developed a reputation for exacting standards in selecting fresh, local ingredients and for plating his dishes artistically on tableware he often designed himself. His ideals have inspired contemporary chefs and foodies alike and deeply inform idealized conceptions of washoku, such as the one presented by UNESCO. The chapter describes how Rosanjin attempted to elevate esteem for Japanese cuisine among his countrymen during the 1950s, far before Japanese cuisine was considered internationally desirable, by bombastically claiming its superiority over French and other national cuisines.
Eating amid Affluence
Authors: Suttmeier Bruce
Published: April 2018

This chapter investigates the tensions between the pleasures and discomforts of indulgence in the 1960s and 1970s, an era of growing affluence and consumption, through the work of writer Kaikō Takeshi (1930–1989), who frequently waxed rhapsodically and nostalgically about his favorite foods in essays and novels. In his satiric 1972 serial A New Star, a middle-aged bureaucrat is ordered to literally eat his ministry’s budget surplus through lavish meals and regional excursions to consume local delicacies. The chapter observes that, while the novel can be read as a critique of consumption and government waste, there is also a nostalgic tone to Kaikō’s final inventory of dishes that suggests both the pleasure and pain of overconsumption and thus reflects the complex relationship between duty and desire.
1872 to 1875
Authors: Graber Jennifer
Published: April 2018

Tensions on the plains increased as Americans, including Quaker reservation officials, put more pressures and restrictions on Kiowas and other Native peoples. Indians experienced hunger when rations failed to arrive. Diseases circulated with frequency. Attempts at farming withered in the sun. Quakers and other Protestants involved in the Peace Policy continued to celebrate the humanitarian impulse behind their work. Kiowas and their allies, on the other hand, devised plans for pushing Americans out of their homelands. Some invoked dreams and visions that inspired attacks on Americans. By 1874, the region was at war as Kiowas, Comanches, Cheyenne, and Arapahos orchestrated a pan-Indian revolt. The Americans, however, crushed their effort. The Red River War, as well as other Indian-American conflicts, left Quakers and other Peace Policy supporters searching for reasons to justify the nation’s policy of putting religious representatives at the forefront of Indian affairs.
1882 to 1892
Authors: Graber Jennifer
Published: April 2018

As Americans became increasingly dissatisfied with reservations, they called for the allotment of Native lands. The process ended communal landholding and designated 160-acre plots for individuals. “Surplus” lands became eligible for sale to American settlers. Kiowas and other Native people responded with alarm. Allotment not only violated treaties, it also undermined their way of living in relation to the land and each other. As Americans clamored for allotment, the federal government also cracked down on Native cultural practices, including rites for seeking sacred power. Kiowas faced pressures to end communal dances, peyote rites, and healing practices. In this climate, Kiowas sought out new possible power sources, including the Christian God preached by missionaries. They also joined Native peoples across the West in a movement that came to be known as the Ghost Dance, envisioning a future in which their lands were restored and lost relatives and buffalo herds resurrected.
1893 to 1903
Authors: Graber Jennifer
Published: April 2018

With allotment legislation passed, American Protestants vigorously campaigned for the dissolution of reservations and tribal governments. They also amplified their efforts to “civilize” Native people. They sent numerous missionaries to Indian Country. They argued for increased funding for Indian education, especially off-reservation boarding schools that separated Native children from their families. Kiowas struggled to hold on to their lands and maintain communal ties in an increasingly difficult environment. No longer practicing one of their central communal rites, Kiowas turned to other sources of sacred power for healing and protection. Some participated in peyote rites, others affiliated with churches, and still others reinvigorated the Ghost Dance. Even as they tried numerous ritual options, Kiowas worked to delay allotment. Some took their protests all the way to the Supreme Court, which heard one of the most important Indian land cases in American history, Lonewolf v. Hitchcock, in 1903.
Epilogue
Authors: Graber Jennifer
Published: April 2018

The epilogue traces Kiowa history from 1903 to the present, focusing on communal efforts to stay connected to land and kin. It also follows Protestant and Catholic “friends of the Indian,” who eventually lost interest in Indian missions and turned their attention to marginal populations in sites of American overseas activity, such as the Philippines and Afghanistan. The epilogue ends with Kiowa efforts to carry on their cultural practices, including their religious practices, through their tribal museum, churches, and in celebrations such as those sponsored by the Kiowa Black Leggings Society. This work involves Kiowa elders passing on these practices to children.
Personal Relationships and Blame
Authors: Helm Bennett W.
Published: April 2018

Scanlon argues that blame involves revising one’s relationship with a wrongdoer because of the significance for the blamer of that wrongdoing, and he argues that reactive attitude accounts of blame cannot accommodate how blame varies according to that relationship. This chapter argues that a reactive attitude account can nonetheless accommodate this point. To do this, one must turn to broad, interpersonal rational patterns of reactive attitudes in terms of which we can make sense of human communities. The sort of relationship whose impairment is relevant to blame, then, is that of co-membership in such communities, and the significance of the agent's wrongdoing relevant for blame is the significance those actions and attitudes have for us in the community. Examining the connections between one’s personal commitments and one’s communal relationships reveals that revisions to one’s relationship with the wrongdoer are a consequence rather than, as Scanlon claims, a part of blame.
Further Development and Implications
Authors: Peari Sagi
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides further observations, elaboration, demarcation, and application of CEF analysis (and its two foundational pillars of Choice and Equality) as to several key issues and topics of choice-of-law process. In particular, it offers discussion of CEF’s treatment and analysis in the following contexts: (1) CEF’s analysis of the tort law category, including discussion of the centrality of the parties’ reasonable expectations concept, the “conduct regulating”/“loss distribution” distinction, and the experience of the New York Court of Appeal; (2) CEF’s analysis of the lex fori solution to choice of law, including evaluation of Savigny’s rejection of lex-fori and its centrality within choice-of-law practice; (3) CEF’s analysis of so-called “mandatory rules”, including discussion of their origin, popularity, and relation to the party autonomy principle; and (4) CEF’s analysis of the substance-procedure distinction, including discussion of its nature, practice and future direction.
The Implicit Mind
Authors: Brownstein Michael
Published: April 2018

Heroes are often admired for their ability to act without having “one thought too many,” as Bernard Williams put it. Likewise, the unhesitating decisions of masterful athletes and artists are part of their fascination. Examples like these make clear that spontaneity can represent an ideal. However, recent literature in empirical psychology has shown how vulnerable our spontaneous inclinations can be to bias, shortsightedness, and irrationality. How can we make sense of these different roles that spontaneity plays in our lives? The central contention of this book is that understanding these two faces of spontaneity—its virtues and vices—requires understanding the “implicit mind.” In turn, understanding the implicit mind requires considering three sets of questions. The first set focuses on the architecture of the implicit mind itself. What kinds of mental states make up the implicit mind? Are both “virtue” and “vice” cases of spontaneity products of one and the same mental system? What kind of cognitive structure do these states have, if so? The second set of questions focuses on the relationship between the implicit mind and the self. How should we relate to our spontaneous inclinations and dispositions? Are they “ours,” in the sense that they reflect on our character or identity? Are we responsible for them? The third set focuses on the ethics of spontaneity. What can research on self-regulation teach us about how to improve the ethics of our implicit mind? How can we enjoy the virtues of spontaneity without succumbing to its vices?
Implicit Attitudes and the Architecture of the Mind
Authors: Brownstein Michael
Published: April 2018

This chapter argues that the co-activating FTBA components of spontaneous inclinations make up a unified and sui generis mental kind, namely, an implicit attitude. After making some clarifying remarks about terminology, I begin by ruling out more mundane possibilities. First, I argue that implicit attitudes are not basic stimulus-response reflexes. Nor are they mere mental associations that are explainable in terms of the laws of spatiotemporal contiguity. Neither are they best understood as beliefs or as traits. While they are closest to what Gendler calls “aliefs,” implicit attitudes are distinct from these as well. The chapter concludes with considerations that favor interpreting implicit attitudes as a unified mental kind.
Conclusion Bringing the Economy Back In
Authors: Ince Onur Ulas
Published: April 2018

This chapter recapitulates the theoretical conclusions of the book, highlights its contributions, and identifies the further lines of research that it opens up. It is argued that colonial capitalism offers a new perspective on liberalism and empire by shifting the focus from who the colonized are to what the colonizers do as an ideological challenge to the universal claims of liberalism. Secondly, colonial capitalism as an analytic frame can generate systematic explanations of how liberal thinkers parsed and ordered the variety of cultural differences between Europeans and non-Europeans, and why they emphasized certain differences over others as being more relevant for imperial justification or anti-imperial critique. Finally, it is maintained that introducing capitalism into the study of political theory in the imperial context pushes the boundaries of political theory more broadly to encompass questions, such as of dispossession and exploitation, conventionally relegated to critical social theory and political economy.
“A Proper National Policy”
Authors: Ogorzalek Thomas K.
Published: April 2018

This chapter chronicles the formative moments of the national urban alliance in American politics: when city leaders created the U.S. Conference of Mayors and petitioned Congress to develop a national urban policy in response to the massive crisis of the Great Depression. These leaders’ lobbying efforts led to a new kind of politics in which cities saw each other not only as rivals but as allies. This coalition lobbied for new urban policies—intergovernmental aid, relief work, affordable housing, and infrastructure development—that have remained the core of national urban policy and were ultimately institutionalized with the creation of the Department of Housing and Urban Development in 1965. Though the city leaders who created the USCM were from both parties, by the end of the 1940s, differences between the parties’ coalitions and elites meant that the urban political order had found a more comfortable home in the Democratic Party.
Antiracism Without Antiracists
Authors: Ogorzalek Thomas K.
Published: April 2018

This pivotal chapter draws on the insights of city delegation theory and uses a mixed-methods approach to help explain one of the most important changes in American political history—the midcentury partisan realignment in response to civil rights. Using a wide range of evidence and analysis, this chapter illustrates how city representatives, including those with all-white constituencies who were not particularly supportive of civil rights, were cohesively supportive of a new approach to national race relations. Throughout the Long New Deal, city representatives—especially those from cities with strong local institutions of horizontal integration—were the most supportive of civil rights liberalism. This account forces a reconsideration of the forces behind political change and examines how local institutions can build alliances to support inclusive policies and politics, even when the constituencies behind such coalitions are not natural allies.
The Cities on the Hill
Authors: Ogorzalek Thomas K.
Published: April 2018

This largely quantitative chapter zooms out to describe urbanicity in Congress and explore the book’s original dataset of congressional place character to show the downstream effects of the developments in the previous chapters. Several original analyses chronicle the birth of a distinct, national, urban political order and a shift from a “bimodal” Democratic coalition of urban and rural representatives to one in which the relationship between urbanicity and partisanship is monotonic: the more urban a constituency, the more likely it is to be represented by a Democrat. This shift has important implications for urban policymaking: when Democrats are in the majority, big-city representatives are more likely to occupy leadership positions in key policymaking positions. When Republicans hold the majority, however, city representatives are virtually excluded from important chamber positions. While the Long New Deal was a heyday for the city’s place in the national imagination, the urban political order is potentially more powerful, though also more fragile, today.
The United Nations Children’s Fund
Authors: Meier Benjamin Mason , Motlagh Mitra , Rasanathan Kumanan
Published: April 2018

This chapter assesses UNICEF efforts to implement the child’s right to health, reviewing UNICEF’s evolving governance to address global health, examining the influence of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) on UNICEF’s mission, and analyzing the opportunities and challenges in using a rights-based approach to advance children’s health. Where UNICEF had long been concerned by the practical implications of implementing human rights, the 1989 CRC solidified UNICEF’s central institutional role in the development and implementation of child rights. This development under international law created a burgeoning implementation framework to advance child health and human rights. Based upon this CRC mandate, UNICEF has sought to implement the child’s right to health across its health programming, assistance to states, and work with the Committee on the Rights of the Child.
The World Trade Organization
Authors: Moon Suerie , Balasubramaniam Thirukumaran
Published: April 2018

The ability of governments to protect and promote health-related human rights can be constrained by international trade rules, including those of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO rules can increase medicine prices, challenge tobacco control measures, restrict national food safety policies, and facilitate brain drain from public health services. This chapter offers a brief history of the WTO’s origins, a high-level overview of the health implications of various WTO agreements, and a closer look at how two key issues—access to medicines and tobacco control—have created greater policy space for health within the WTO. It then identifies the institutional factors that promote or hinder human rights protection and offers conclusions on the prospects for institutionalization of health-related human rights. This chapter concludes that protecting health within the WTO and broader global trade regime is possible, but remains a significant challenge due to major power asymmetries.
The export world champion
Authors: Fratzscher Marcel
Published: April 2018

Germany’s international competitiveness, a significant part of which is due to its boom in exports, has been a crucial component in the transformation of Germany from the sick man of Europe to the continent’s apparent economic superstar. However, despite this remarkable success, it would be a mistake to ignore the fact that Germany has a dual economy, one wherein the services sectors have had and continue to have major problems, the most significant of which being that productivity, investment, and wages remain low. The present chapter discusses Germany’s dual economy and the flip side of Germany’s success as an exporter.
The refugee crisis
Authors: Fratzscher Marcel
Published: April 2018

Since reunification in 1990, no issue has affected the German public and political debate more than the influx of more than 1.1 million refugees in 2015 alone. It has caused major political upheaval; in 2015 and 2016 it even appeared that Chancellor Merkel could be forced out of power. Soul searching in German society about the country’s identity and its values has also been widespread. The refugee crisis has led to major divisions. Many actively volunteer, donate money, or even accommodate refugees at home. This part of society considers it not just a moral obligation to help but also an opportunity to change and modernize society. But others fiercely oppose the government policies to let refugees come and settle in Germany. Many of these people are worried that the refugee influx might limit their own social services and entitlements and thus endanger their jobs and fundamentally change German society.
Germany’s role during the European crisis
Authors: Fratzscher Marcel
Published: April 2018

Europe, the European neighbors, and the euro have become the perfect scapegoats for the crisis and for policy mistakes. Many give Germany a large share of the responsibility for the European crisis and the fact that recovery still has not fully taken root. They complain about Germany’s lack of solidarity and national egoism. On the other hand, many in Germany resent the scapegoat treatment from their neighbors and are highly suspicious of being used as Europe’s paymaster. This chapter discusses the reasons for the blame game, the mutual scapegoating that can be observed in Europe. Why does Germany feel scapegoated by other Europeans, and why is the country so suspicious that its neighbors ask for more support? What are the consequences and risks of the current conflict among Europe’s nation states, both for Europe and for Germany?
Horizontal Effect and Caboose Constitutionalism
Authors: Mathews Jud
Published: April 2018

This chapter picks up the story where the previous chapter left off, showing how the Supreme Court of Canada initially made a show of rejecting the application of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms to private law relationships in Dolphin Delivery. But at the same time, the Court left itself room to interpret the common law to comport with Charter values. In the years since, litigants have pressed the Court to use this power to meet their normative demands, and the Court has done so on many occasions. At the same time, the Court has showed solicitude for legislative initiatives, often using the Charter to shape private-party obligations to one other only after the legislature has taken some rights-protective action in that area, in a strategy that might be called caboose constitutionalism.
Heterogenizing and Enriching the Self
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M
Published: April 2018

A central feature of a democratic self is its heterogeneity, expressed in its diversity of positions and richness of experience. Heterogeneity is explored by examining three phenomena: the multiplicity of subjective well-being; the polarity between shadow and shining positions in the self; and the dynamic relationship between comfort, challenge and danger zones in the self-space. The existence of shadow positions is elaborated by a discussion of scapegoating and the construction of an enemy image. Furthermore, the concepts of homophily and heterophily are compared. Homophily refers to the finding that contact between similar people occurs at a higher rate than among dissimilar people. Heterophily refers to the tendency to communicate with people who are dissimilar to one’s own views, values, and experiences. Enlarging the communication channels between I-positions requires both tendencies, because homophily facilitates efficiency of communication, while heterophily stimulates innovation.
Dialogue as Generative Form of Positioning
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M
Published: April 2018

For the development of a democratic self, dialogical relationships between different people and between different positions in the self are paramount. After a review of studies on self-talk, the main part of this chapter is devoted to a comparison of the works of two classic thinkers on dialogue, Mikhail Bakhtin and David Bohm. A third theoretical perspective is depicted in which central elements of the two theorists are combined. This perspective centers around the concept of “generative dialogue” that, as a learning process, has the potential of innovation in the form of new and common meanings without total unification of the different positions. Elaborating on central features of generative dialogue, a distinction is made between consonant and dissonant dialogue, the latter of which is inevitable in a time of globalization and localization in which people are increasingly interdependent and, at the same time, faced with their apparent differences.
Introduction
Authors: Délano Alonso Alexandra
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides a conceptual framework to understand the role of origin countries in offering programs focused on social assistance for their migrant populations in other countries. It examines the literature on diaspora policies and immigrant integration, identifying some of the gaps as well as opportunities to put these concepts and policies in conversation considering migrants’ access to social rights. It proposes that a transnational approach to issues of integration offers new ways to understand the processes through which it takes place—particularly considering precarious status migrants—as well as the various actors that participate, including origin-country governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), civil society on both sides of the border, and government institutions in the destination country. This chapter also discusses a transnational methodology for the study of diaspora institutions, specifically consulates.
The Early Ottomans in Idris Bitlisi’s Hasht Bihisht
Authors: Anooshahr Ali
Published: April 2018

The Persian historian Idris Bitlisi (d. 1520), composed a massive chronicle of the House of Osman for the Ottoman emperor Bayezid II (d. 1512). Idris was writing his text at the time of the rise of the Safavids in the east and the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. By relying on a chronicle written after the conquest of Constantinople attributed to Ruhi, Idris downplayed the Turkestani origins of the Ottomans and projected onto their “Eastern” origin undesirable traits associated with Turkic ancestry. Instead, Idris recast his masters as the true inheritors of Roman Empire and the true followers of Alexander the Great. To accomplish all this, Idris drew on biblical, Koranic, and other myths to create a myth for the state separate from a dynastic origin myth.
The Early Safavids
Authors: Anooshahr Ali
Published: April 2018

The nascent Safavid uprising by the militant shaykhs Junayd and Haydar (grandfather and father of Shah Isma‘il) tried to create cohesion among their motley army of Turkic recruits from Anatolia and others through uniformization, the rapid distribution of booty, and even the recruitment of slave soldiers. The goals of this chapter are the most complicated to accomplish, as the period was not captured by a single chronicler. In other words, we must rely on traces scattered across various texts to reach this obscure but much misunderstood period of history. In many ways the early Safavids modelled themselves after the Ottomans and tried to appeal to potentially disaffected soldiers there as the best source of recruits, not simply as Sufis or Turks, but as ghazis.
The Technological Imperative
Authors: Epstein Ben
Published: April 2018

Chapter 3 is the second chapter dedicated to the technological imperative stage of the political communication cycle (PCC). It focuses on the technological component of political communication revolutions (PCRs) and addresses how the cost, rate of diffusion, and perceived benefits of each new information and communication technology (ICT) affects its political utility. In other words, chapter 3 evaluates how new ICTs become politically viable. A politically viable ICT does not enter American politics without active choices made on the part of political actors who try to use these new tools in innovative ways. All widely diffused ICTs do not share wide-scale political utility. As a result, some ICTs—like mass-marketed newspapers, radio, television, and the internet—have had a major impact on communication practices broadly and political communication innovations specifically, while others like the telephone and telegraph have transformed social communication but not political communication.
The Plymouth Brethren
Authors: Introvigne Massimo
Published: April 2018

Plymouth Brethren are a larger Christian movement, including a dozen of different denominations. They originate from a 19th-century revival in the British Isles, around John Nelson Darby—regarded by some of the father of the evangelical fundamentalist movement—and others who dreamed to restore the purity of primitive Christianity. The revival eventually extended to Continental Europe, particularly Switzerland and Italy, and later France and Germany, as well as to United States, Canada, and China. While some lived this dream in ecumenical terms, those who would eventually be called Exclusive Brethren came to believe that true Christians should separate themselves from the corruption of existing denominations, and break bread in their assemblies only with those sharing their interpretation of the Bible. In turn, Exclusive Brethren fragmented into several rival denominations. The book, based on both historical research and participant observation of contemporary communities, presents the different branches of the Brethren, but focuses on a case study of the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, one of the largest groups of the Exclusive Brethren. It discusses their beliefs, daily life, international school system, and charitable activities, mentioning also the controversies surrounding their practice of strict separation from those who are not part of their community, and the accusations brought against the Brethren by media and some former members within the framework of contemporary controversies about cults.
Compulsion in Religion
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

Compulsion in Religion relies on extensive research with Ba’thist archives to investigate the roots of the religious insurgencies that erupted in Iraq following the American-led invasion in 2003. The Iraqi archival records demonstrate that by the 1990s, Saddam’s regime had developed institutions to control and monitor Iraq’s religious landscape. The regime’s ability to do so provided it with confidence to launch a national “Faith Campaign” and to inject religion into Iraqi politics in a controlled manner. Islam played a greater role in the regime’s symbols and Saddam Hussein’s statements in the 1990s than it had in earlier decades. This increase in religious rhetoric did not represent a shift from secular-nationalist ideology to Islamism, however. The regime’s official policies toward religious leaders and institutions remained remarkably consistent throughout the Ba’thist period; Saddam spoke derisively about all forms of Islamist politics in Iraq throughout his presidency. He promoted a Ba’thist interpretation of religion that subordinated it to Arab nationalism rather than depicting the religion as an independent or primary political identity. Saddam did so explicitly to undermine Islamists and the revolutionary religious movements that would emerge after 2003. When the American-led invasion of 2003 destroyed the regime’s authoritarian structures, it unhinged the forces that these structures were designed to contain, creating an atmosphere infused with politically instrumentalized religion but lacking the checks provided by the former regime. Sadrists, al-Qaida, and eventually the Islamic State emerged out of this context to unleash the insurgencies that have plagued post-2003 Iraq.
Neighborhoods and Health
Authors: Duncan Dustin T. , Kawachi Ichiro
Published: April 2018

A large body of research in epidemiology and population health has investigated relationships between neighborhood characteristics (e.g., crime rate, density of fast food restaurants, distance to parks) and a myriad of health outcomes (e.g., obesity, mental health, substance use), with an explosion of research within the last decade, which spans a variety of disciplines, for example, anthropology, sociology, criminology, geography, demography, urban planning, medicine and epidemiology. This chapter provides a historical perspective to neighborhood health research. In addition, this chapter provides a systematic survey of new and notable developments in the field of neighborhoods and health as well as provides directions for future research. It also describes the motivation and rationale for this book and guides the reader through the structure of the rest of the book.
Quantitative Methods for Measuring Neighborhood Characteristics in Neighborhood Health Research
Authors: Duncan Dustin T. , Goedel William C. , Chunara Rumi
Published: April 2018

Research connecting neighborhoods and health has characterized neighborhood factors in multiple ways. This chapter discusses standard and emerging methods to measure and study neighborhood characteristics. In particular, this chapter provides an overview of neighborhood characteristic assessment methods, including self-report, systematic social observation, geographic information system (GIS) methods, Web-based geospatial methods, real-time geospatial methods, crowd-sourced geospatial methods, and information retrieval methods from online sources such as Instagram and Twitter. This chapter also discusses the strengths and limitations of each neighborhood characteristic assessment method (e.g., ease of administration, validity), and readers are provided with examples of each neighborhood assessment method applied in the epidemiology and population health literature.
Food Environment and Health
Authors: Block Jason , Seward Michael , James Peter
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides an overview of research on the relationships between food establishments, including supermarkets, fast food restaurants, and others, and diet and health outcomes, including obesity, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes. This chapter presents mechanisms underlying these potential relationships, explains different methodological approaches to research on this topic, discusses how relationships between the food environment and outcomes might differ across populations (e.g., children, low-income individuals) and geographies (e.g., urban and rural geographies), and identifies strengths, limitations, and barriers to this research field. This chapter also reviews literature on the relationship between the alcohol environment and health and describes novel approaches to examining the food environment.
Strategic Scripts and Nuclear Disarmament
Authors: Harries Matthew , Wilkinson Benedict
Published: April 2018

This chapter spans Freedman’s earliest focus on nuclear weapons and his development of strategic scripts as an analytical tool over three decades later. It discusses the way in which opposing logics of disarmament and armament co-existed in relation to nuclear weapons. It deploys the notion of strategic scripts to explain the contradictions inherent in approaches to nuclear disarmament, developing the concept of strategic scripts as it does so. The notion of scripts can be used to explore and even to promote nuclear disarmament. Two scripts, one of ‘stable reduction’, the other of ‘disarmament’, each serve to frame thinking. These scripts and the interactions they generate facilitate understanding of the way in which opposite instinctive reactions and, stemming from these, scripts about nuclear weapons co-exist, but are fragile as either an analytical or a strategic tool.
A Further Dilemma for British Divines
Authors: Collier Jay T.
Published: April 2018

Chapter 5 continues to investigate the Montagu affair by surveying adjacent doctrines related to the perseverance debate. For instance, Dort’s more narrow definition of perseverance caused difficulties for those holding a more traditionalist view of baptism and regeneration. After looking at Montagu’s baptismal argument against perseverance of the saints, the chapter evaluates published responses to Montagu’s advocacy of baptismal regeneration as well as more private debates where John Davenant and Samuel Ward tried to reconcile a form of baptismal regeneration with Dort’s determination on perseverance. This survey shows division on the efficacy of baptism even within the pro-Dortian party, with readings and receptions of Augustine factoring in. It also reveals further evidence of how a broad-church approach to being Reformed set the Church of England at odds with the international trends of the Reformed churches.
Perseverance, Augustine, and England’s Struggling Identity
Authors: Collier Jay T.
Published: April 2018

This chapter reflects on three major findings from the several debates surveyed. First, it considers the existence of a minority opinion on the doctrine of perseverance in the Reformed tradition and how its presence in England left an abiding uneasiness regarding the confessional reception of the perseverance of all saints. Second, it ponders how two different readings of Augustine on perseverance played a key role in the way English theologians approached confessional documents and made the formal reception of perseverance of the saints so difficult for the Church of England. Third, it contemplates the way polemical labels have obscured the historical data and made it difficult to see the diverse views of perseverance and Augustine in the Reformed tradition. The chapter shows it is better to abandon previous paradigms of understanding of the Church of England and instead view it as a broad-church approach to maintaining a Reformed and ancient catholicity.
In the Shade of the Golden Palace
Authors: d'Hubert Thibaut
Published: April 2018

In the Shade of the Golden Palace explores the oeuvre of the prolific Bengali poet and translator Alaol (fl. 1651–1671), who rendered five narrative poems and one versified treatise from medieval Hindi and Persian into Bengali. The book maps the genres, structures, and themes of Alaol’s works, paying special attention to the poet’s own discourse on poetics and his literary genealogy, which included Sanskrit, Avadhi, Maithili, Persian, and Bengali authors. The monograph shows how a variety of literary experiments fostered by multilingual literacy took place in a seemingly remote corner of the Bay of Bengal: the kingdom of Arakan that lay between todays southeastern Bangladesh and Myanmar. After a careful contextualization of the emergence of Bengali Muslim literature in Arakan, I focus on courtly speech in Alaol’s poetry, his revisiting of classical categories in a vernacular context, and the prominent role of the discipline of lyrical arts (i.e. music, dance) in his conceptualization of the poetics of the written word. The book also contains a detailed analysis of Middle Bengali narrative poems, as well as translations of Old Maithili, Brajabuli, and Middle Bengali lyric poems that illustrate the styles that formed the core of connoisseurship in the regional courts of eastern South Asia, from Nepal to Arakan. The monograph operates on three levels: as a unique vade mecum for readers of Middle Bengali poetry, a detailed study of the cultural history of the frontier region of Arakan, and an original contribution to the poetics of South Asian literatures.
Introduction
Authors: d'Hubert Thibaut
Published: April 2018

The introduction opens with a reflection on the relative marginality of the kingdom of Arakan and what it entailed in terms of historiography. I observe a reconfiguration of cosmographical imaginaries around the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that conditioned the formation of vernacular literary traditions in eastern South Asia and around the Bay of Bengal. Then I provide a brief overview of the Bengali poet Ālāol’s life and works and discuss what the study of his poetics brings to our knowledge of Middle Bengali literature. I highlight the fragmented landscape of Middle Bengali literary production and the need to study Middle Bengali poems as literary texts and not only as sources for social or religious history. The last section of the introduction provides an overview of the contents of the book.
Systems of Governance and Politics of Opposition in the Super-Rentiers
Authors: Freer Courtney
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides a critical background on the country cases by examining their brief political histories as independent states. It also gives critical information about the legal frameworks of such states to highlight where and how Islamist groups can act in these states. By providing such descriptions, this chapter demonstrates the extent to which these states, in regime or popular politics, either adhere or fail to adhere to the government type and political environment normally associated with the rentier state. The chapter also reveals critical commonalities among the super-rentier states—they are governed by powerful ruling families; institutionalized political life is hampered; and civil society and political life remain largely informal—while also indicating their differences, which arose in light of their differing sociocultural and economic backgrounds.
Politicians or Preachers?
Authors: Freer Courtney
Published: April 2018

This chapter continues tracing the development of the Muslim Brotherhood affiliates in Kuwait, Qatar, and the UAE. It focuses on the period of expansion of the Brotherhood after the fall of Arab Nationalism from the 1970s through the 1990s, with a view to how Ikhwan movements used their ties with governments and their social appeal to earn more popular support. It presents case studies of Brotherhood activities within Kuwait, Qatar, and the UAE during this period to show that the forms adopted by Brotherhood movements in the super-rentiers, similar to Ikhwan elsewhere in the region, were dictated by the political opportunities available to them. Opportunities became increasingly available to Ikhwan branches in the Gulf with the fall of Arab nationalism, which had been the Brotherhood’s primary ideological rival. Contrary to the predictions of rentier state theory, Brotherhood groups managed to establish themselves even as super-rentier governments were expanding welfare packages to citizens throughout the 1970s.
The Human Rights-Based Approach to Higher Education
Authors: Kotzmann Jane
Published: April 2018

A human right to higher education was included in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), which came into force in 1976. Yet the world has changed significantly since it was drafted. State legislation and policies have generally followed a neo-liberal trajectory, shifting the perception of higher education from being a public good to being a commodity. This model has been criticised, particularly because it generally reinforces social inequality. At the same time, attaining higher education has become more important than ever. Higher education is a prerequisite for many jobs, and those who have attained higher education enjoy improved life circumstances. This book seeks to determine whether there is still a place for the human right to higher education in the current international context. In seeking to answer this question, this book compares and contrasts two general theoretical models that are used to frame higher education policy: the market-based approach and the human rights-based approach. In doing so, it seeks to contribute to an understanding of the likely effectiveness of market-based versus human rights-based approaches to higher education provision in terms of teaching and learning. This understanding should enable the development of more considered, sophisticated and ultimately successful higher education policies. This book contends that a human rights-based approach to higher education policy is more likely to enable the achievement of higher education purposes than a market-based approach. In reaching this conclusion, the book identifies some strategic considerations of relevance for advocates of a human rights-based approach in this context.
Evaluating Higher Education Policy and Legislation
Authors: Kotzmann Jane
Published: April 2018

This chapter establishes a framework for evaluating higher education policy in relation to teaching and learning. It identifies the proper purposes of higher education, which include furthering individual transformation, improving society, and contributing to social efficiency. In this context, it is contended that social mobility is not a valid purpose of higher education. The chapter then identifies signs that indicate that the teaching and learning within a higher education system is meeting these purposes. These signs are categorized according to the identified purposes of higher education. Finally, the chapter outlines a methodology for measuring these signs within a given state system.
Practical Approaches to Higher Education
Authors: Kotzmann Jane
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores the real-life operation of six higher education systems that align with the theoretical models identified in Chapter 2. Three states follow a largely market-based approach: Chile, England, and the United States. Three states follow a largely human rights-based approach: Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. The chapter describes each system in terms of how it aligns with the particular model before evaluating the system in relation to the signs and measures of successful higher education systems identified in Chapter 3. This chapter provides conclusions as to the relative likelihood of each approach facilitating the achievement of higher education teaching and learning purposes.
Conclusion
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: April 2018

This chapter makes a plea both for intellectual humility, which cautions against overconfidence in one’s opinions, and for deference to experts when one is not well positioned to reach an opinion on one’s own. The chapter also discusses how Descartes’s efforts to find a method that would inoculate inquirers against error encountered problems with the Cartesian Circle. The chapter concludes that intellectual humility and openness to new ideas are appropriate even for those who have immense expertise in their fields. All the more so, they are the appropriate attitudes for nonexperts to have; and since no one has expertise in all fields, they are the attitudes that specialists in one field should have when considering issues in other fields. The chapter concludes by pointing out, in particular, they are the attitudes those in the humanities ought to have toward work in the sciences, and vice versa.