bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Categorization and Behavioral Episodes: A Cognitive Analysis of the Effects of Intergroup Contact
Authors: Rothbart Myron , John Oliver P.
Published: April 2010

The effects of intergroup contact on stereotypic beliefs, it is argued, depend upon (1) the potential susceptibility of those beliefs to disconfirming information and the degree to which the contact setting “allows” for disconfirming events, and (2) the degree to which disconfirming events are generalized from specific group members to the group as a whole. To account for the generalization of attributes from a sample to a population, we present a cognitive‐processing model. The model assumes that impressions of groups are most heavily influenced by the attributes of those members most strongly associated with the group label. In order for group stereotypes to change, then, disconfirming information must be associated with the group labels. However, a number of powerful cognitive processes work against this association. As a consequence, we predict that stereotype change will be relatively rare under “normal” circumstances but may occur when disconfirming information is encountered under circumstances that activate the group label (e.g., when disconfirming attributes are associated with otherwise typical group members).
International Tourism, Ethnic Contact, and Attitude Change
Authors: Amir Yehuda , Ben‐Ari Rachel
Published: April 2010

This study evaluates a cognitive intervention aimed at improving relations between ethnic groups in general, and between Israelis and Egyptians in particular. The intervention comprised a specially designed booklet about Egypt for Israeli tourists, given to them before their visit to that country. The intervention group included 352 Israeli tourists; 131 other Israeli tourists were not exposed to the booklet. Both groups toured Egypt, and both groups were given before‐and‐after questionnaires measuring interethnic attitudes. The measures revealed changes as a result of the tour itself and additional changes related to the booklet. The results are discussed regarding their contribution to interethnic attitude change.
Conceptions of Racial Prejudice: Symbolic Racism Reconsidered
Authors: Weigel Russell H. , Howes Paul W.
Published: April 2010

Research on “symbolic racism” has underscored an important paradox in racial attitudes: whites' rejection of racial injustice, in principle, has developed without diminishing resistance to the social policies designed to correct the injustice. Yet despite the currency of symbolic racism in contemporary research on racial attitudes, questions about the meaning of the concept remain unanswered. The results of two investigations reported in this paper indicate that (a) the conceptual and empirical distinctions between symbolic racism and “old‐fashioned” prejudice have been exaggerated, and (b) symbolic racism may be best understood as one symptom of generalized tendencies to derogate out‐groups—tendencies associated with a configuration of personal attributes that reflect commitments to conservative sociopolitical values and conventional standards of conduct. These findings are discussed in reference to the persistence of racial prejudice, as well as its implications regarding exposure to and the effects of interracial contact.
An Academic Woman as a Token: A Case Study
Authors: Yoder Janice D.
Published: April 2010

Through a case history of the author's experiences as one of the first civilian faculty members at an United States military academy, tokenism under extreme circumstances and its effects on an individual are described. Hypotheses for future work in the area are proposed, and coping strategies are explored. Women's support groups, psychotherapists, social psychologists, sociologists, and policymakers are exhorted to be aware of tokenism and to work together to break the downward spiral of debilitating events that tokenism creates.
Faculty Women's Association: An Instrument for Change
Authors: Anderson Mary R. , Wilson Gloria N.
Published: April 2010

The faculty women at Arizona State University (ASU) who participate in the Faculty Women's Association (FWA) are a viable and respected group, an instrument for change in faculty affairs and governance. This was not always the case. Five major problem areas were identified by the organization during the last decade. The five problem areas were how to (1) persuade administrators to make salary information available; (2) determine whether inequities in salary were present; (3) provide the finances necessary to address inequities, if inequities were found; (4) assist women faculty to participate in faculty affairs and governance; and (5) assist women faculty with retention and promotion. This paper describes these problems, the strategies used to address them, and the consequences of the applied strategies.
Women versus Academe: Who's Winning?
Authors: Farley Jennie
Published: April 2010

A review of more than 250 grievances brought by academic women against their employers suggests that, although few suits have been won in the courts, the efforts have not been in vain. Grievances are traced through internal reviews, state and federal agency investigations, and the courts. Obstacles women encounter at each step are described and the outcomes, for individual plaintiffs and for their institutions, are summarized.
Social‐Psychological Issues in Sex Discrimination
Authors: Kahn Ethel D. , Robbins Lillian
Published: April 2010

National data on rank and salaries for academic men and women, and continuing reports on grievances and court cases, document the continuation of sex discrimination. Yet the literature reveals no conceptual framework to understand or alter this pervasive phenomenon. The authors apply formulations derived from organization theory and Lewin's concept of the life space in order to clarify factors that contribute to women's remaining predominantly marginal despite official commitment to equal opportunity. They recommend changes in the structure and procedures of academe, and a reevaluation of the roles of men and women. They suggest ways to strengthen affirmative action programs and mechanisms to more fully integrate faculty women into university life.
Networks of Leadership: A Quantitative Study of SPSSI Presidents, 1936–1986
Authors: Capshew James H.
Published: April 2010

This article presents a two‐part quantitative analysis of the presidents of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) during its first half century. A collective biography of the successive incumbents of SPSSI's highest office reveals centers of education and employment, and distinct demographic trends. A content analysis of available presidential addresses suggests enduring themes in the rhetoric of SPSSI leaders. The influence of significant individuals and events in fostering networks among members of the presidential cohort is explored, along with the role of SPSSI leaders in the development of social psychology. Biographical and other data are presented in tabular as well as summary form.
Screening People In, Not Out: Comment on Morawski
Authors: Miller Doris K.
Published: April 2010

My own perspective on the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) differs from Morawski's (1986). Whereas other professional organizations may have shared SPSSI's assumptions about the importance of “science” in the solution of societal problems, they operated far more in the mainstream of the professionally acceptable and the commercially remunerative. I think that the members of most other contemporary organizations incurred little professional risk and also contributed little to broadening the horizons of the psychological establishment.
Reflections on Some SPSSI Issues
Authors: Proshansky Harold M.
Published: April 2010

After being asked to write a comment for this historic collection, I found myself reviewing my own SPSSI involvement over a period of 10 to 15 years—as a council member, committee member (and there were some 10 of these committees), committee chairman, president, and finally as SPSSI's representative to the APA Council. Several “themes” began to emerge in my reflections.
Gender Discrimination as an Intergroup Issue: Comment on Capshew and Laszlo
Authors: Deutsch Cynthia P.
Published: April 2010

Because women are the majority sex, it has been easy to avoid seeing gender discrimination as an example of prejudice. As men and women are in constant contact with each other, it has been possible to avoid viewing the problems of discrimination in a vein similar to those of racial discrimination. Yet if we refer to Allport's 1954 contact hypothesis, we see that he said, “Prejudice … may be reduced by equal‐status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. The effect is greatly enhanced if this contact is sanctioned by institutional supports … and if it is of a sort that leads to the perception of common interests and a common humanity between members of two groups” (p. 281).
Authoritarianism from Berlin to Berkeley: On Social Psychology and History
Authors: Samelson Franz
Published: April 2010

Emerging conceptions of authoritarianism, their transformation, and their fate are traced through the recent history of social psychology. The issue was first formulated around 1930 by Wilhelm Reich in an attempt to combine Freudian and Marxist ideas into an explanation of political developments in Germany. Erich Fromm pursued the idea further in the analysis of a questionnaire study of German workers, and later in his book Escape from Freedom (1941). Subsequent work by the Frankfurt Institute merged with research at Berkeley and produced The Authoritarian Personality (1950). Initially received enthusiastically, the theory gradually succumbed under the impact of two different lines of attack. This series of transformations in changing historical contexts points both to the need for a better historical understanding of our discipline and to some unresolved questions in our approach to its subject matter.
Looking Toward the Future by Looking at the Past: Social Activism and Social History
Authors: Unger Rhoda K.
Published: April 2010

This article examines the value of social history for researchers interested in current social problems. It reviews the critiques of early leaders of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) of a particular problem area—social power—and surveys research practices subsequent to these criticisms to see if there was any response to them. The impact of ignoring specific individual and global circumstances, and the effect of implicit theories and unexamined definitions, are considered as factors impeding the development of a truly problem‐focused social psychology. An integration of social history, the sociology of knowledge, and social psychology is suggested as an alternative to the search for “timeless truths.”
Personal Epistemology and Personal Experience
Authors: Unger Rhoda K. , Draper Richard D. , Pendergrass Michael L.
Published: April 2010

The world view of students was investigated by measuring covert causal assumptions about the relationship between the person and physical and social reality. The Attitudes About Reality Scale was designed to measure a philosophical dimension ranging between a belief in social constructionism and a belief in logical positivism. These personal epistemologies are related to demographic markers such as religion and birth order, and to experiential variables such as age and sociopolitical identification. Personal epistemology may predispose individuals to seek courses with a content that is consonant with their preexistent ideology. Epistemological position, however, appears changed only slightly by exposure to courses whose paradigmatic focus emphasizes a particular relationship between the person and reality.
Two Faces of Identity: The “I” and the “We”
Authors: Taylor Donald M. , Dubé Lise
Published: April 2010

This paper focuses on research that has implications for two important components to self‐identity: personal identity and social identity. Three questions are addressed: (1) How do people derive a unitary sense of self out of membership in many different social categories such as those of age, gender, race, and social class? (2) Do people respond differently when the social as opposed to the personal aspects of their identity are evoked? (3) How do people respond to collective injustice? A major theme in the results is that, although the social component of self confronts the individual with fundamental problems, the need for a shared identity motivates people to maintain this dimension of self despite the problems it generates.
The Continuing American Dilemma: White Resistance to Racial Change 40 Years After Myrdal
Authors: Kinder Donald R.
Published: April 2010

In the wake of dramatic changes in public opinion and social custom over the past 40 years, why do many white Americans continue to oppose efforts to bring about racial equality? One possible explanation centers on self‐interest: from this perspective, whites' resistance to racial change reflects their perception that blacks pose real and tangible threats to their personal lives—to their neighborhoods, their jobs, their children's education, and their safety. Another possible explanation centers on “symbolic racism”: from this perspective, whites' opposition to racial change reflects their endorsement of racist sentiments and traditional American values, particularly individualism. This paper argues against the first explanation, for the second, and more generally that our understanding of the American dilemma would be enhanced by frequent and vigorous empirical confrontations among an expanded set of alternative explanations. With this objective in mind, the paper concludes by promoting several such explanations, each of which has a strong claim on the research agenda of the future.
Reflections on American Racism
Authors: Sniderman Paul M. , Tetlock Philip E.
Published: April 2010

In response to Kinder's critique of our assessment of the symbolic racism research program, we cite both the research procedures and actual writings of symbolic racism researchers, paying particular attention to contradictions between positions previously taken by Kinder and those he now takes in response to our paper. We also maintain the following: (a) there is no persuasive evidence that symbolic racism represents a new, qualitatively different form of racism—one cannot, after all, establish that there is a new kind of racism without demonstrating that it is in fact different from the old; (b) the term “symbolic racism” is logically defensible only if one adopts a definition of the construct that Kinder eschews; and (c) symbolic racism research systematically blurs the distinction between racist and nonracist sources of white opposition to policies to assist minorities and, in the process, politicizes both the concept of racism and the social science research process. We conclude by sketching a constructive agenda for research on racial policy reasoning.
Postscript: The Nature of Connections
Authors: Clayton Susan D. , Crosby Faye
Published: April 2010

What commonalities appear among the richly diverse set of articles we present? What conclusions about the interface between personal life and social issues can be drawn from the theories and research findings contained in this issue? Some of the authors represented here (e.g., Elms; Stewart & Healy) have presented evidence for a social‐personal link, while others (e.g., Crosby & Herek; Tyler & McGraw) have demonstrated a discontinuity between the social and the personal. How can the different types of finding be reconciled? Without obscuring the differences (or, indeed, the disagreements) among the various authors, we find some points of convergence, which we believe hold lessons for our understanding of the connections between personal life and social issues.
Problems of International Crisis Management in the Nuclear Age
Authors: Janis Irving L.
Published: April 2010

When the topic to be discussed has to do with the dangers posed by international crisis and the threat of nuclear war, the very first thing we must talk about is the problem of hope. It is common knowledge that if we allow ourselves to adopt a hopeless outlook, we will not want to think or talk about the dangers of nuclear war at all, or listen to what anyone else has to say about these dangers. And those of us who do research and teaching will certainly not be willing to devote time and energy carrying out relevant research on conflict resolution or trying to educate others about the threat of nuclear war and about political actions that might be constructive ways to minimize it. My own conflict theory of decision making specifies that lack of hope is one of the major determinants of defensive avoidance–the tendency to avoid thinking about distressing issues that might require action.
Family Experiences and Television Viewing as Predictors of Children's Imagination, Restlessness, and Aggression
Authors: Singer Jerome L. , Singer Dorothy G.
Published: April 2010

This article examines some of the ways television may influence the imagination, motor activity, and aggressiveness of preschool and early school‐aged children. A model is proposed in which a number of family and personal variables influences the growing child's response to television. The results of several empirical studies that investigated family influences are reported. It is concluded that television may contribute to children's restlessness, dysphoria, fears about daily dangers, and their proneness to aggression. Those parents who are themselves heavy viewers, who lack other interests, and who do not exert efforts to establish rules about television viewing, may provide a home atmosphere that puts their children at risk for a greater dysphoric tendency. Along with modeling their parents' own emotionality, reacting to power‐assertive discipline, or forceful prescriptive communications, children's aggressive and emotional styles seem to reflect the heavy dose of frightening and arousing content that makes up television fare.
Psychological Processes Promoting the Relation Between Exposure to Media Violence and Aggressive Behavior by the Viewer
Authors: Huesmann L. Rowell
Published: April 2010

A developmental theory is presented to account for the relation between increased exposure to media violence and increased aggressive behavior. It is argued that the effect of media violence on individual differences in aggression is primarily the result of a cumulative learning process during childhood. Aggressive scripts for behavior are acquired from observation of media violence and aggressive behavior itself stimulates the observation of media violence. In both childhood and adulthood, certain cues in the media may trigger the activation of aggressive scripts acquired in any manner and thus stimulate aggressive behavior. A number of intervening variables may either mitigate or exacerbate these reciprocal effects. If undampened, this cumulative learning process can build enduring schemas for aggressive behavior that persist into adulthood. Thus, early childhood television habits are correlated with adult criminality independently of other likely causal factors. It is concluded that interventions directed at mitigating the effects of media violence on delinquency and criminality should focus on the preadolescent years.
Media Violence, Antisocial Behavior, and the Social Consequences of Small Effects
Authors: Rosenthal Robert
Published: April 2010

This paper shows in practical, quantitative, yet intuitive terms just what the social consequences are likely to be of the “small effects” typically found in research on media violence and antisocial behavior. Estimates are provided for how well we can predict (a) adult antisocial behavior from childhood antisocial behavior; (b) current antisocial behavior from current exposure to media violence; (c) subsequent antisocial behavior from earlier exposure to media violence, adjusting for earlier levels of antisocial behavior; and (d) how much we can decrease antisocial behavior by means of special intervention. Although proportions of variance accounted for appeared low, the practical consequences associated with these estimates were found to be substantial.
Interventions to Mitigate the Psychological Effects of Media Violence on Aggressive Behavior
Authors: Eron Leonard D.
Published: April 2010

The purpose of this paper has been to determine if there have been any successful interventions to mitigate the effect that observation of television violence has on young children. Only two interventions directly aimed at reducing the effect of violent television have been reported in the literature. Studies attempting to increase prosocial behavior by observation of filmed prosocial sequences are also reviewed to see if they have any relevance to the stated purpose of this paper. There were many more such studies. However, they were primarily laboratory experiments, and even though successful in temporarily encouraging prosocial behavior, no long‐term effects on such behavior have been noted. Further, for maximum effectiveness, observation of the prosocial programs had to be accompanied by additional training, e.g., role playing. Interventions designed to teach children and/or their parents essential critical viewing skills are then reviewed in the expectation that development of such skills would limit the effect television has on the subsequent behavior of the viewer. Finally, interventions aimed at reducing aggressive behavior without reference to television are reviewed for possible relevance. It appears that interventions that combine both cognitive and behavioral approaches have the most promise. A major difficulty facing all intervention programs is the intractability of aggression itself. Aggression is a problem‐solving behavior learned early in life, usually learned well and therefore quite resistant to change.
“Everything Within Me Rebels”: A Letter from Kurt Lewin to Wolfgang Köhler, 1933
Authors: Lewin Kurt
Published: April 2010

This letter was drafted in 1933 in Berlin, Germany, by Professor Kurt Lewin of the Psychological Institute, University of Berlin. It is addressed to Professor Wolfgang Köhler, the director of the institute. It was never mailed. Mailing it could have been very dangerous to both the sender and the receiver. It remained in Lewin's files for many years after his death, where it was recently rediscovered. The letter was translated by Dr. Gabriele Wickert (Department of German, Manhattanville College) and Dr. Miriam Lewin (Department of Psychology, Manhattanville College).
Depression, War, SPSSI, and SSSP
Authors: Lee Alfred McClung
Published: April 2010

SPSSI arose in the late 1930s and 1940s out of a clash between two contrasting tendencies in social psychology and in social science generally. One was concern for expanding the usefulness of critical findings to people. This is illustrated by the propaganda analysis movement. The other was scientistic mechanization and commercialization of research, such as that organized in the Research Branch of the Army during World War II. SPSSI and later SSSP, its sociological counterpart, grew out of struggles between those preoccupations of social scientists.
McCarthyism: A Personal Account
Authors: Smith M. Brewster
Published: April 2010

The history of McCarthyism in the 1950s is reviewed. The author's experience in testimony under subpoena before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee and his blacklisting for ten years as a potential consultant to the National Institute of Mental Health are described, drawing in both cases on documents made available through the Freedom of Information Act.
The SPSSI Investigation, or Special Prosecutors for Stopping Soviet Infiltration
Authors: Kimmel Paul R.
Published: April 2010

The SPSSI Investigation was presented at the Capital Hilton in Washington, D.C., on August 21, 1986. It was produced and directed by Paul Kimmel with technical assistance by Ramona Rhoades. Music was arranged and provided by Phyllis Katz. The cast in order of appearance was as follows:

RONALD MCDONALD Frances Culbertson

JUDGE #1 Sandra Tangri

JUDGE #2 Jacqueline Goodchilds

JUDGE #3 Michele Wittig

CLERK Ronald Fisher

DR. STRETCH Paul Kimmel

DR. LIGHT Stuart Oskamp

DR. RUIN John Seymour

DR. DRIPPIT Edward Kelty

DR. STARK Dalmas A. Taylor

DR. ICEBERG Jeffrey Rubin

MS. LASTSTRAW Lois Hoffman

DR. MOLE Valerie T. Dull
Beyond Deterrence
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Stein Janice Gross
Published: April 2010

Part I of this essay reviews cases of deterrence failure and assesses the political, psychological, and practical obstacles to the success of deterrence. The evidence suggests that the utility of deterrence is limited to a narrow range of cases. It is appropriate only when leaders are motivated largely by “opportunity” rather than by “need,” have the political freedom to exercise restraint, are not misled by grossly distorted assessments of the political‐military situation, and are vulnerable to the kind of threats a deterrer can make. Deterrence must also be practiced early on, before an adversary commits itself to a challenge and becomes correspondingly insensitive to warnings that its action is likely to meet with retaliation. Unless these conditions are met, deterrence will at most be ineffective and at worst counterproductive. Part II examines deterrence successes and those cases where deterrence might have succeeded had it been attempted. A case‐by‐case review makes it apparent that there are few unambiguous examples of the success of deterrence. Inevitably, proponents of deterrence resort to counterfactual reasoning to allege that deterrence would have worked had it been tried. A review of these arguments suggests that they too are frequently open to multiple interpretation. Because the evidence of success is ambiguous and because deterrence can be ineffective, uncertain, and risky, it must be supplemented by other strategies of conflict management. Part III looks beyond deterrence to strategies of “reassurance” that might substitute for or complement deterrence and reduce some of its obvious risks. Strategies of reassurance presume ongoing hostility but, unlike deterrence, root the source of that
Psychological Characteristics of Childhood Accidents
Authors: Matheny Adam P.
Published: April 2010

Research on the psychological characteristics of children injured inadvertently has been beset by criticisms reflecting partly concerns about research methodology and partly a view that the research may detract from wide‐scale public health approaches to injury prevention. Moreover, the research has often led to the too general application of the notion of accident proneness, presumably reflecting a trait. Because of these criticisms, the search for systematic psychological factors affecting children's injuries has been disparaged. A longitudinal research program is described that concentrates on the behaviors of children in conjunction with injury history. Extended data incorporating measures of parents, home environments, and children demonstrate that injury liability is associated with psychological characteristics of the child, but the association is qualified by age and sex of the child, as well as by attributes of the parents and the home. The accumulation of evidence shows that psychological characteristics of the child enter into the injury equation and there is a need for psychologists to trace them along developmental lines.
Process Structure of Parent‐Child‐Environment Relations and the Prevention of Children's Injuries
Authors: Valsiner Jaan , Lightfoot Cynthia
Published: April 2010

This article outlines a theoretical perspective for conceptualizing and undertaking prevention of unintentional injuries in childhood. This structural‐dynamic conceptualization of child‐environment transaction concerns the reasoning and actions of care givers. The process of caregivers' reasoning about prevention of accidents with children consists of their integrating populational and personal knowledge with information about children's current action within particular settings. The coordination of reasoning processes leads to particular actions that the caregiver performs in respect to the child in the environment. Examples of parent's actions and thinking illustrate how the theoretical perspective is linked with real‐life phenomena.
The Role of Health Education in the Prevention of Injuries to Children
Authors: Pless I. B. , Arsenault L.
Published: April 2010

This paper summarizes and assesses studies published over the past two decades describing the effects of health education on the prevention of childhood injuries. The definition of health education here includes patient education as well as aspects of legislation and regulation. A critical distinction is made between studies that use reported changes in behavior or knowledge as end points, and those that use either observed changes in behavior or an actual reduction in injuries. The results of the former often appear encouraging while those in the latter category are less convincing. In general, it appears programs based on social learning principles are more successful than those relying on traditional approaches. Overall, the most successful are programs that combine education with legislative change or modifications in regulations. The policy implication of these findings is that heavy investments in health education of a traditional kind, if used in isolation, will have only limited success. Instead, strategies that use health education along with other preventive strategies are most likely to achieve the goal of reducing the frequency or severity of nonintentional injuries to children.
Behavioral Approaches to Prevention of Childhood Injuries
Authors: Roberts Michael C. , Fanurik Debra , Layfield David A.
Published: April 2010

The authors discuss contributions of behaviorally based interventions to injury prevention in children. Behavioral procedures include rewards and punishments, modeling, prompting and feedback, skills development, and guided practice. This paper reviews examples of behavioral approaches to selected problems in the child safety area including home hazards, car passenger safety, emergency skills, and unsupervised children at home.
The Select Panel for the Promotion of Child Health: Injury Recommendations in Retrospect
Authors: Butler John A. , Mitrovich Kimberly A.
Published: April 2010

In December 1980, the Select Panel for the Promotion of Child Health made a series of recommendations regarding the health needs of the nation's children. Among the panel's recommendations were several on the topic of injury prevention. This article reviews the formulation, nature, and implementation of these recommendations. Three problems in formulating the recommendations are discussed: (1) a limited knowledge base, (2) disagreement on appropriate social strategies, and (3) concern over the tepid national will to do something about childhood injuries and violence. Despite these problems, recommendations were made on the topics of motor vehicle safety, and of home and neighborhood safety, as well as on the development of a national data base on injuries and violence that could adequately inform future social policy. Since 1980 there has been a decline in most types of nonintentional death for children as well as for other age groups. Significant developments have been realized in each of the areas of the panel's recommendations, although not always those anticipated by the panel's report.
Policy Research and Child Passenger Safety Legislation: A Case Study and Experimental Evaluation
Authors: Fawcett Stephen B. , Seekins Tom , Jason Leonard A.
Published: April 2010

Car accidents are the leading cause of death for children over 1 year old. Successful attempts to enact child passenger safety legislation illustrate a potential role for public policy in reducing the risk of injury and death to children. This report describes the development and use of research information to influence decisions on child passenger safety bills before state legislatures in Kansas and Illinois. In a case study in Kansas and a controlled experiment in Illinois, data were presented to respective legislatures on direct observations about how often the problem occurs; also presented were ratings on the importance of child passenger safety and the social acceptability of government regulation in this area. This research study examines the implications of using psychological research methods to influence policy formulation and the enactment of social legislation.
Kurt Lewin and the Invisible Bird on the Flagpole: A Reply to Graebner
Authors: Lewin Miriam
Published: April 2010

Our conceptual understanding of democratic leadership in small group or organizational settings is inadequate. The differences between legitimate democratic leadership, manipulative pseudo‐democratic leadership, and laissez‐faire leadership are poorly understood, even by scholars. Recent criticisms by Graebner (1986), “The Small Group and Democratic Social Engineering, 19001950,” Journal of Social Issues, 42(1), 137–154) of Kurt Lewin's research on leadership are assessed in the context of Lewin's ideas about democracy, and are rejected.
Impairment as a Human Constant: Cross‐Cultural and Historical Perspectives on Variation
Authors: Scheer Jessica , Groce Nora
Published: April 2010

The social science literature on physical disabilities suffers a curious omission in the relative lack of attention paid to a cross‐cultural or historical perspective. We argue that disability is a human constant—that is, all human societies have and have always had disabled members. While the presence of such individuals is a constant, culturally shared responses to them vary greatly across time and social context.
Aging and New Vision Loss: Disruptions of the Here and Now
Authors: Ainlay Stephen C.
Published: April 2010

This paper treats time and space as two central perceptual categories that are disrupted when an older person confronts new vision loss. Qualitative research findings are presented, describing (1) the “invisible,” “unknowable,” and “hostile” relationships to objects and space often experienced by older persons with recent blindness; and (2) the consequent disruption of their previous ordering of time. Such challenges to these perceptual categories force newly blind older persons to question their ability to manipulate the environment and to participate in social relationships. Consequently, these perceptual disruptions make them vulnerable to both self‐imposed tentativeness and externally generated labeling processes that identify them as incompetent.
Beyond Stigma: Visibility and Self‐Empowerment of Persons with Congenital Limb Deficiencies
Authors: Frank Gelya
Published: April 2010

Goffman's (1963) theory of stigma holds that rejection by “normals” leads people with disabilities to adopt practices that help them to pass as normal or cover the immediate impact of their physical difference. However, such an attempt to mitigate the effects of stigma does not characterize the life histories of three adults with severe multiple congenital limb deficiences described in this paper. For them, self‐display, within the context of American culture in the 1980s, is a strategy for self‐empowerment in which the primary focus is the experience of the person with disabilities rather than the reactions of people who are “normal.” Their adaptations suggest some limitations to the applicability of Goffman's theory in a changing social context.
Image and Action in Peace Building
Authors: Boulding Elise
Published: April 2010

That images of the future motivate behavior in the present is a theory with both socio‐historical and psychological evidence. Due to the difficulty of generating positive images of the future in the nuclear age, in contrast to the Utopian imagery of earlier ages, an experimental workshop was developed by Boulding and Ziegler to help people imagine positive futures—specifically, to image a future world without weapons. The workshop procedures are described, and three case examples are given of imaging groups with widely different background characteristics. Participants were able to create positive imagery in the workshop setting, and their imagery varied according to the background of the participating group. The paper explores the relationships among the intensity of the imaging experience, its saliency for the imager, and the action readiness of the imager; and it raises questions about the role of imaging workshops in the peace movement and the kinds of research that might make such workshops more effective.
The Evolution of Caring and Nonaggressive Persons and Societies
Authors: Staub Ervin
Published: April 2010

This article explores ways to shape individual personalities, societies, and the relations among them, with the ultimate aim of diminishing inter group hostility and war. The evolution described in the article requires committed individuals and groups to work for change. Certain human proclivities, such as us‐them differentiation, the devaluation of outgroups, and stereotyping are sources of intergroup hostility. Socialization practices by parents and schools that promote positive connection to and caring about people are described, as well as ways to bring about their use. Parent training and family system diagnoses can impart awareness and skills and influence parental attitudes. On a societal level, institutions and culture can be shaped by creating systems of positive reciprocity among groups, by cross‐cutting relations among members of different groups, and by other steps along the continuum of benevolence.
Monitoring the Integrative Complexity of American and Soviet Policy Rhetoric: What Can Be Learned?
Authors: Tetlock Philip E.
Published: April 2010

Research psychologists cannot tell us the ultimate motives behind Soviet foreign policy or the true causes of the cold war. They can, however, use content analysis methods with records of successful application in other contexts to explore the links between rhetoric and action in American‐Soviet relations. This article describes a series of studies on the integrative complexity of American and Soviet foreign policy rhetoric. An ongoing time‐series study (1945–1986) reveals a variety of determinants of policy rhetoric: the rhetoric of the other side, impending or current policy initiatives, American presidential election campaigns, and changes in both the American and Soviet leadership. The paper also describes preliminary work on the integrative complexity of statements of key Soviet leaders on economic and foreign policy issues, demonstrating that the current Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, is significantly more complex than either his immediate predecessors or his traditionalist rivals for the leadership. The article considers implications of the “Gorbachev effect” for our understanding of domestic Soviet politics and for designing American policy toward the Soviet Union.
Disarmament, Arms Control, and Peace in the Nuclear Age: Political Objectives and Relevant Research
Authors: Plous S.
Published: April 2010

The present paper differentiates the political objectives of nuclear disarmament, nuclear arms control, and peace, and it selectively reviews psychological research relevant to each of these areas. The term nuclear disarmament—originally intended to indicate the complete elimination of nuclear weapons—is now commonly used to describe the reduction of any militarily operational nuclear weapons. Nuclear arms control, or the regulation of the nuclear arms race, includes attempts to (a) reduce the perceived probability that nuclear weapons will be used; (b) limit damage in the event that nuclear weapons are used, intentionally or unintentionally; (c) reduce the economic burden posed by various weapon systems; or (d) improve international relations through military restraint. In contrast to nuclear arms control and nuclear disarmament, there is no generally accepted definition of peace in the nuclear age. Peace has been defined variously as (a) the prevention or cessation of armed conflict, (b) a state of active cooperation, or (c) a condition resulting from the absence of unmet needs.
Commensurate Security: An Alternative Defense Paradigm
Authors: Wehr Paul
Published: April 2010

Commensurate security is proposed as a national defense paradigm that will compete increasingly with those of nuclear deterrence and arms control for the attention of the peoples and governments of Europe. The paradigm includes the concepts of threat assessment, unprovocative armaments, territorial defense, civilian resistance, and restructuring of military forces to provide better utilization of a nation's defense resources. It addresses the common weakness of deterrence and arms control, their reliance on nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction. Nations' adoption of commensurate security will stimulate the emergence of a composite paradigm integrating aspects of current models but increasingly focused on defense of homeland and avoidance of offensive threat.
Grief: The Social Context of Private Feelings
Authors: Rosenblatt Paul C.
Published: April 2010

Although the psychology of grief focuses on individuals, grief occurs in the context of social relationships and culture. The dynamic effects of the social and cultural context on individual grief are discussed from the perspective of symbolic interaction theory and family systems theory. Implications of these theories presented here include problems for the bereaved due to loss of a person who was an important part of the social context, the role of material objects in bereavement, problems when bereavement occurs in ethnically mixed close relationships, the effects of family dynamics in reaction to a loss, ambivalence of bereaved people toward social interactions, the value of casual social support in bereavement, the occurrence of misinformed professional prescriptions for the bereaved, and limits on our knowledge of what another may be feeling. The theoretical analysis leads to discussion of difficulties in providing social support and social services for the bereaved.
Psychological Resilience Among Widowed Men and Women: A 10‐Year Follow‐up of a National Sample
Authors: McCrae Robert R. , Costa Paul T.
Published: April 2010

Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) I Epidemiologic Followup Study were used to examine some long‐term consequences of widowhood. Beginning with a sample of over 14,000 respondents between the ages of 25 and 74, a 10‐year follow‐up traced 94% of those initially married and 93% of the widowed. There were no differences between these groups in mortality rate when adjusted for age and education differences. Three groups—those married at both times, those widowed during the follow‐up interval, and those widowed at both times—were then compared on measures of psychosocial status and functioning at the time of the follow‐up. Longitudinal analyses were also conducted for subsamples with data on the same variables at initial survey and follow‐up. The widowed had lower family income and were more likely to have been institutionalized. However, they showed little or no difference on measures of self‐rated health, activities of daily living, social network size, extroversion, openness to experience, psychological well‐being, and depression. These results highlight the psychological resilience of most individuals and their capacity to adapt to stressful events and conditions.
Individual and Situational Differences in Recovery from Bereavement: A Risk Group Identified
Authors: Stroebe Wolfgang , Stroebe Margaret S. , Domittner Günther
Published: April 2010

The Tübingen Longitudinal Study of Bereavement was designed to provide information on (a) health deterioration and recovery following bereavement, (b) risk factors in bereavement, and (c) selection and social desirability as potential biases in health findings in this type of research. A sample of widows and widowers were interviewed three times during the first two years following their loss. Measures of their health and well‐being were compared to those of a matched sample of married individuals. Data were also collected on the health status of some of the widowed who refused participation. The findings suggest the following conclusions: (1) Partner loss is associated with an increased level of depressive and somatic symptoms during the first six months, but the majority of bereaved gradually recover over the two‐year period. (2) Individuals with low internal control beliefs who have experienced an unexpected loss constitute a risk group of individuals who suffer most and recover least. (3) Due to selection, the impact of bereavement is likely to be underestimated for widowers and overestimated for widows. Implications of these findings are discussed.
In Conclusion: Current Themes in Bereavement and Widowhood Research
Authors: Hansson Robert O. , Stroebe Margaret S. , Stroebe Wolfgang
Published: April 2010

A number of important themes and controversies emerged from the preceding papers. These include (a) what kinds of losses lead to grief; (b) how long grief lasts; (c) how to conceptualize “recovery,” (d) the nature of “normal” grief; (e) whether bereavement has lasting effects on health; and (f) what characteristics of the individual, the relationship, or the nature of the death create a greater risk for poor outcome of bereavement. Consideration of these issues should help develop more effective strategies for intervention with sufferers, and social policies sensitive to the needs of those at greatest risk.
Recent Research on the Psychological Effects of Unemployment
Authors: Dooley David , Catalano Ralph
Published: April 2010

Economic turbulence in the early 1980s stimulated not only popular and governmental concern about the effects of unemployment, but also extensive research on the topic. This journal issue presents 10 representative reports of such recent research from the United States and Europe. Of the two principal methodologies used in this field, aggregate time‐series analysis and individual‐level surveys, this issue is limited to the individual‐level literature. Two papers provide a social psychological and human developmental orientation to the topic. Then, six papers address the psychological costs of unemployment, four based on population surveys and two dealing with plant closings. Finally, two papers describe policy responses being considered or implemented in North America and Europe.
Unemployment and Mental Health: Some British Studies
Authors: Warr Peter , Jackson Paul , Banks Michael
Published: April 2010

Within the context of the British labor market, 11 investigations into the mental health impact of unemployment are described. These reveal significant decrements for people of all ages as a result of moving into unemployment, and for middle‐aged men additional effects of continuing joblessness. Research into factors mediating the harmful impact of unemployment has covered time since job loss, employment commitment, social relationships, gender, ethnic group membership, social class, local unemployment rate, and personal vulnerability. Findings with respect to each are summarized, and a model of influential environmental characteristics is introduced. Additional British investigations are cited throughout the paper.