bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Changes in Middle School Students’ Motivation Toward Physical Education Over One School Year
Authors: Gao Zan , Lee Amelia M. , Solmon Melinda A. , Zhang Tao
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the relationships and mean-level changes of middle school students’ motivation (expectancy-related beliefs, task values, self-efficacy, and outcome expectancy) toward physical education over time, and how gender affected students’ motivation. Participants (N = 206) completed questionnaires over a 1-year period: once in the sixth and seventh grades and again in the seventh and eighth grades. Results yielded that self-efficacy and task values were positive predictors of students’ intention across cohorts. The mean levels of self-efficacy decreased over time for students in Cohort 1 (across sixth and seventh grades). However, results revealed a consistent decline in the mean levels of other motivational variables for both cohorts. No gender differences emerged for the variables. The findings are discussed in regard to the implications for educational practice, and future research areas are presented.
Approach-Avoidance Motivational Profiles in Early Adolescents to the PACER Fitness Test
Authors: Garn Alex , Sun Haichun
Published: August 2016

The use of fitness testing is a practical means for measuring components of health-related fitness, but there is currently substantial debate over the motivating effects of these tests. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the cross-fertilization of achievement and friendship goal profiles for early adolescents involved in the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). Participants were 214 middle school students who reported their achievement goals, social goals, and preparation effort toward a PACER test. Performance was also examined. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the six-factor approach–avoidance model. Cluster analysis highlighted three distinct profiles. The high-goals profile group reported significantly higher amounts of effort put forth in preparation for the PACER test. Our findings suggest that the cross-fertilization of approach and avoidance achievement and social goals can provide important information about effort and performance on fitness testing in middle school physical education.
Instructional Guidance in Reciprocal Peer Tutoring with Task Cards
Authors: Iserbyt Peter , Elen Jan , Behets Daniël
Published: August 2016

This article addresses the issue of instructional guidance in reciprocal peer tutoring with task cards as learning tools. Eighty-six Kinesiology students (age 17–19 years) were randomized across four reciprocal peer tutoring settings, differing in quality and quantity of guidance, to learn Basic Life Support (BLS) with task cards. The separate and combined effect of two instructional guidance variables, role switching and role definition, was investigated on learning outcomes. In all settings student pairs were given 20 min to learn BLS. Individual student performance was measured before (baseline), immediately after (intervention) and two weeks later (retention). Repeated ANOVA showed strong learning gains but no significant differences between groups for total BLS scores. However, at retention significantly more students from the most guided condition remembered and consequently performed all BLS skills. It is concluded that guidance comprising role switching and role definition enhances skill retention in reciprocal peer tutoring with task cards.
A Didactic Analysis of Student Content Learning during the Reciprocal Style of Teaching
Authors: Hennings John , Wallhead Tristan , Byra Mark
Published: August 2016

Peer-assisted learning (PAL) strategies, such as the reciprocal style of teaching, have been shown to be effective in developing motor skills. Despite this research, little is currently understood of how PAL strategies influence the teaching-learning process. The purpose of this study was to use a didactic methodology (Amade-Escot, 2005) to examine the content taught and learned by two pairs of undergraduate students participating in reciprocal style (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002) episodes of indoor climbing. The didactic protocol included collecting data regarding student intentions, actions and interpretations of content, and the identification of problematic episodes in the teaching-learning process or Critical Didactic Incidents. The participants’ improved their knowledge and performance of lower complexity climbing skills. Participants’ failure to construct more sophisticated climbing content was as a result of deficiencies in the peer observer’s in-task error diagnosis feedback and teaching style imposed constraints on teacher intervention.
Physical Education Teachers’ and Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism
Authors: Columna Luis , Foley John T. , Lytle Rebecca K.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to analyze both male and female physical education teacher attitudes toward cultural pluralism and diversity. Participants (N = 433) were adapted physical education specialists, physical education generalists, and teacher candidates. The research method was a descriptive cross-sectional survey (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). Data were collected using a modified version of the Pluralism and Diversity Attitude Assessment survey (Stanley, 1997). Mann-Whitney U tests showed no significant differences in attitude scores between teachers and teacher candidates. However, women’s attitude scores were significantly higher than men’s. Further Friedman’s ANOVA test showed statistical differences on the survey’s constructs for gender and professional status. Post hoc analysis indicated that the groups scored significantly higher on the construct, Value Cultural Pluralism than Implement Cultural Pluralism. This means teachers generally valued cultural diversity, but struggled to implement culturally responsive pedagogy. In conclusion, physical educators may need better preparation to ensure cultural competence.
The Role of Biographical Characteristics in Preservice Classroom Teachers’ School Physical Activity Promotion Attitudes
Authors: Webster Collin , Monsma Eva , Erwin Heather
Published: August 2016

Recommendations for increasing children’s daily physical activity (PA) call on classroom teachers to assume an activist role at school. This study examined relationships among preservice classroom teachers’ (PCT; n = 247) biographical characteristics, perceptions and attitudes regarding school PA promotion (SPAP). Results indicated participants who completed SPAP-related college coursework and had PA-related teaching/coaching experiences reported higher SPAP competence. Significant relationships were found among BMI, personal PA competence and SPAP competence in the contexts of PE and extracurricular settings. Personal PA competence and SPAP competence at recess and in the classroom predicted 19% of the variance in SPAP attitudes. Experiences in PA settings and preservice training may have important implications for the overall success of efforts to enhance school PA promotion.
Review of the Instruments Most Frequently Employed to Assess Tactics in Physical Education and Youth Sports
Authors: Arias José L. , Castejón Francisco Javier
Published: August 2016

Investigators’ increased interest in teaching game tactics requires generalizable assessment instruments that are appropriate to whatever is needed by the tactic. This literature review aims to provide information about the instruments most frequently used to assess tactics in youth sports. We found that very few studies used instruments that fulfilled the criteria required by this review. The most frequently used tool was The Game Performance Assessment Instrument, followed by the Team Sport Assessment Procedure. Some other instruments, labeled Nonhabitual instruments, were only used sporadically. The instruments were mainly used in invasion and net/wall games. Each instrument defined a set of components and indexes to quantify the assessment, but only the Game Performance Assessment Instrument allows the assessment of the attack and the defense both of the player who possesses the ball and the player who does not. Suggestions were proposed for instruments to be used for assessing tactics.
A Preservice Teacher’s Delivery of Sport Education: Influences, Difficulties and Continued Use
Authors: Deenihan J.T. , MacPhail Ann
Published: August 2016

How preservice teachers (PSTs) learn and deliver Sport Education (SE) (Sieden-top, 1994) is an area researchers believe warrants further investigation (Stran &R Curtner-Smith, 2009a). This study explores one PST’s experiences delivering SE during a school teaching placement after undertaking a practical SE module in his Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) program. Data were collected through pre, mid- and postteaching placement interviews, along with weekly visits by the first author where observation reflections and interviews were used to investigate his experiences delivering SE. Data were triangulated and analyzed using thematic coding. Occupational socialization (Lawson, 1983a, 1983b) was used to determine the factors which influenced his delivery of SE. Results showed his SE season was influenced by his teaching orientation, sporting experiences, PETE program and school context where he was teaching. Although he encountered difficulties, he valued SE’s benefits and continued to use it during his subsequent career as a qualified teacher.
Adolescent Expectancy-Value Motivation, Achievement in Physical Education, and Physical Activity Participation
Authors: Zhu Xihe , Chen Ang
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relation between adolescent expectancy-value motivation, achievements, and after-school physical activity participation. Adolescents (N = 854) from 12 middle schools completed an expectancy-value motivation questionnaire, pre and posttests in psychomotor skill and health-related fitness knowledge tests, and a three-day after-school Physical Activity Recall. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to test an a priori model. Results revealed that expectancy belief significantly predicted adolescent psychomotor achievement, and that psychomotor achievement was the only direct significant predictor for physical activity participation (p < .05). Expectancy belief and task values were not significantly directly associated with adolescent physical activity participation (p > .05). The findings suggested the relation between adolescent expectancy-value motivation and physical activity participation is likely to be mediated by their psychomotor skill achievement.
Pedagogical Reflections on the Use of Disability Simulations in Higher Education
Authors: Leo Jennifer , Goodwin Donna L.
Published: August 2016

Disability simulations have been used to provide postsecondary students with experiential learning opportunities in many disciplines including physical education. Critics (French, 1992) suggest that it is not possible to simulate disability experience and therefore question their efficacy. The purpose of this study was to interpret the meanings given to disability simulations by undergraduate students in physical education. A narrative research approach was employed to collect disability simulation stories from a convenience sample of 57 undergraduate students (41 female, 16 male) in a required physical education course. Their hand-written stories were transcribed and analyzed thematically to reveal three themes; thank goodness I don’t have a disability, I see things differently now, and I’m just not sure about all of this. The findings suggested that disability simulations may result in varied learning outcomes, including those which are unintended. Future research into the efficacy of disability simulations as a pedagogical tool is warranted.
A Model for the Structure of Instructional Strategies
Authors: Hurwitz Dick
Published: August 2016

A wide variety of instructional strategies have been identified for possible use in physical education. However, researchers have not been able to effectively compare the strategies and their effects on students and teachers. Nor have they been able to help teachers match strategies to given learning situations. The problems result from the lack of a widely accepted and useful model for the structure of instructional strategies. Such a model is proposed. According to this model, an instructional strategy has a macrostructure comprised of a series of eight different types of instructional steps in a particular sequence. Each step in an instructional strategy is further defined according to a number of variables, each of which has a particular value. The array of these values for an instructional strategy determines its micro-structure. Further study of the model is recommended to enhance its usefulness to teachers and researchers.
Use of Instruction and Supervision in Systematic Observation in Undergraduate Professional Preparation
Authors: Mancini Victor H. , Wuest Deborah A. , van der Mars Hans
Published: August 2016

This article provides an overview of the application of systematic supervisory strategies in an undergraduate teacher preparation program. Furthermore, the results are reported for a series of intervention studies. These studies were conducted to determine the impact of using systematic supervisory feedback on teacher behaviors and interaction patterns of preservice physical education teachers. Also included are the findings of the effects of such feedback on the trainees’ attitudes toward teaching, the degree to which they exhibited behaviors indicative of effective teaching, and their awareness of their own teaching behavior.
The Influence of Teachers’ Perceptions of Student Temperament on Managerial Decision-Making
Authors: Boggess Theresa E. , Griffey David C. , Housner Lynn D.
Published: August 2016

Eleven elementary physical education teachers provided information about their perceptions of 251 students’ temperament characteristics and estimates of four student aptitudes: motor ability, social interaction skills, motivation, and to what level of their potential students generally worked. Estimates of the frequency that teachers would attend to each child in typical instructional situations were also gathered. Factor analysis of the temperament measures revealed three independent factors: physical sensitivity, adaptability, and reactivity/task orientation. Teachers’ decisions to attend to children were regressed on temperament factors and student aptitude measures. The findings indicated that motor ability was the most important variable teachers reported they would use in making decisions about allocating their attention during instruction. The temperament factor reactivity/task orientation was the next most important factor. The analyses suggested that teachers would consider adaptability of students only in organizational patterns that include the whole group.
Effects of Intervention on Differential Treatment of Boys and Girls in Elementary Physical Education Lessons
Authors: Dunbar Raymond R. , O’Sullivan Mary M.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of verbal and graphic feedback on the distribution of teacher verbal behaviors (positive and corrective feedback, praise, desist, and questioning) and the teacher’s use of student demonstrators during elementary coeducation physical education lessons. Data were collected over a 3-month period on two female nonphysical education specialist elementary teachers. A multiple baseline design was used to show the efficacy of the treatment. The results indicated that in baseline both teachers interacted with boys and girls inequitably on all variables. The intervention package and daily follow-up were influential in establishing more equitable teacher interaction patterns with boys and girls. The teachers’ use of demonstrators was also distributed more equitably between boys and girls following the intervention.
Teachers’ Concerns and Participation Styles during In-Service Education
Authors: Faucette Nell
Published: August 2016

During this study, concerns data were collected from 7 elementary physical education teachers in order to determine their types and intensities of concerns as they proceeded through an in-service program, and to determine the degree to which they implemented the proposed changes. The Stages of Concern Questionnaire and open-ended statements of concern were administered to the teachers on three occasions during the 3-month in-service program: at the outset, midway, and upon completion of the sessions. In order to amplify data collected through these instruments, researchers conducted observations and formal and informal interviews. The data revealed three participation styles among the 7 teachers. The 2 teachers who became users of the innovations were categorized as actualizers. The 3 conceptualizers felt positively disposed to the changes but did not become users during the inservice program. The 2 remaining teachers—the resisters—were negatively disposed to the innovations and failed to implement them. Group and individual analyses are discussed as well as factors that influenced the teachers’ participation.
Trends and Analysis of Research on Teaching in Doctoral Programs
Authors: Silverman Stephen
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze research on teaching in doctoral programs. Research on teaching was differentiated from research on teacher education. Abstracts of research were obtained from Dissertation Abstracts International for dissertations completed from 1975 to 1984. Data were recorded for the year the dissertation was completed, primary and secondary (if any) focus of the study, observation instruments used, population, and the type of statistics used to analyze the data. Some 120 studies were identified as research on teaching in physical education. A majority of the studies (55) were comparisons of teaching methods using no observation instrument. Methods research was followed in frequency by descriptive research (22), instrument development (16), and comparisons among student subgroups (15). Systematic observation was not used in 60 studies. Of those studies where systematic observation was used, specific instruments were developed for research and other common instruments were employed. Most research occurred in elementary and secondary schools. A large proportion of the studies used univariate statistics to complete the data analysis.
Relationship of Practice Using Correct Technique to Achievement in a Motor Skill
Authors: Ashy Madge H. , Lee Amelia M. , Landin Dennis K.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between the total number of practice trials and practice trials using correct technique and achievement in a soccer kick-up skill. Eight preservice physical education teachers taught two lessons to 10 fourth-grade students; upon completion of the instructional periods the students were posttested on the soccer skill. Each class was videotaped, and the entire lesson for each day was coded for each student using an event-recording system. Findings indicated moderately high significant relationships between practice using correct technique and student achievement.
Teacher Development and Job Incentives: A Psychological View
Authors: Oliver Bernard , Bibik Janice M. , Chandler Timothy J.L. , Lane Stacey L.
Published: August 2016

Recent efforts to expand the profession of teaching and to enhance the career paths of teachers have led to the development and implementation of various incentive systems. The question of rewards for teaching and teachers has prompted considerable debate and discussion on performance-based or “merit” pay. However, few of the incentive systems implemented have investigated the psychological underpinning of rewards and teachers’ career development. This paper discusses the psychological parameters of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards and the career development of teachers.
The Effects of Performance Standards on Behavior Patterns and Motor Skill Achievement in Children
Authors: Edwards Rosaland
Published: August 2016

The effect of individual performance standards on the relationship between selected process variables and achievement for students in elementary physical education classes is investigated. The subjects were 78 fourth-grade and 80 fifth-grade students from eight classes in two elementary schools. Two fourth grades and 2 fifth grades received standards, and 2 fourth grades and 2 fifth grades did not. A 1-week experimental teaching unit was used. A Solomon 4-group design was used to determine if there was a pretest effect. The data were analyzed in a Treatment (standard-no standard) × Pre (pretest-no pretest) × Sex × Grade MANOVA using posttest and motor-appropriate trials as the dependent measures; this analysis was followed up by two separate ANOVAs. Correlation was used to determine the relationship, if any, between behavior patterns and performance. The treatment group performed better than the control group, boys performed better than girls, and fifth graders performed better than fourth graders. Individuals with standards performed significantly better than those with no standards. The Pre × Treatment interaction suggested that having a pretest tends to standardize the amount of practice an individual takes. There was a positive relationship between motor-appropriate practice and performance regardless of treatment group. These data suggest that performance can be improved by individual performance standards and that care should be taken in using pre- and posttest methods for testing motor skills.
The Effects of Audio-Cueing on Selected Teaching Behaviors of an Experienced Elementary Physical Education Specialist
Authors: van der Mars Hans
Published: August 2016

Audio-cueing was used as the intervention to increase an experienced male physical educator’s use of verbal positive behavior feedback and specific positive skill feedback. The intervention was introduced by using a multiple baseline design across behaviors, with percent of management time as a concurrent baseline. Visual analysis of graphs showed the effectiveness of the intervention. Across both target behaviors, audio-cueing produced immediate and substantial changes as evidenced by changes in level and the absence of data overlap. Subsequent statistical analysis was possible in light of the absence of serial dependency in the data. T-test results supported the findings established through visual analysis. For both target behaviors, differences between baseline and intervention data were statistically significant (p<.01).
An Evaluation of the Implementation of Basic Stuff
Authors: Placek Judith H.
Published: August 2016

The Basic Stuff Series, nine books summarizing the body of knowledge in physical education and giving ideas for teaching this knowledge, was published by AAHPERD in 1981 and has become a best-seller. This study set out to discover who has purchased Basic Stuff and to determine if and how the purchasers are using the books. A survey questionnaire was sent to 966 individuals who had purchased Basic Stuff from 1982 to 1986. Results indicate that about two-thirds of the respondents had read the books and one-half to two-thirds said they were using Basic Stuff in their work. Many asked for more help in implementing Basic Stuff in their classes. An analysis of the change effort was done based on research on planned change in education.
The Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Teaching Tennis Rules and Strategies
Authors: Kerns Mary-Margaret
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in teaching tennis rules and strategies. The subjects were enrolled in two beginning tennis classes at The Pennsylvania State University. The control group (n=24) received instruction by traditional means. The experimental group (n=19) received no instruction on tennis rules and strategies during regular class periods but did interact with computer-assisted tutorials during two scheduled classes. A written test was used to measure learning and was administered during pretest, posttest, and retest. A two-factor analysis of variance with repeated measures on one factor (ANOVR) was employed to determine significant differences between mean performances. The between-groups analysis and the interaction analysis were not significant, but the within-group analysis revealed an F ratio of 99.72 (p<.001). It was concluded that both groups learned tennis rules and strategies significantly from the pretest to the posttest, their learning performance on the retest differed significantly from pretest administration but not from posttest to the retest, and there was no significant difference between the performance of either group on all three testing occasions.
Teacher Feedback Intervention, Motor-on-Task Behavior, and Successful Task Performance
Authors: Grant Bevan C. , Ballard Keith D. , Glynn Ted L.
Published: August 2016

A multiple baseline research design across teachers was used to evaluate the effects of feedback to teachers of behavioral data gathered in baseline lessons. Two teachers received such feedback while a third teacher served as a control. Both teachers who received feedback increased the amount of time students spent in motor-on-task behavior (+15%). Increases in motor-on-task behavior did not occur at the expense of any other student behavior. While this increase provided the students with more learning trials, only one of the two intervention teachers was able to increase the percentage of success of all student achievement groups when performing the learning trials. There were no substantial differences in student behavior between the three classes taught by the teacher who did not receive feedback. The study showed that although there were considerable differences in how physical education lessons were implemented, the two intervention teachers were able to respond to feedback and to modify their lessons so that the amount of student participation was increased.
The Relationship between the Sex Composition of Physical Education Classes and Teacher/Pupil Verbal Interaction
Authors: Macdonald Doune
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between the sex composition of physical education classes and teacher/pupil interactions. Eighteen Grade 9 or 10 hockey lessons were videotaped and verbal interactions were coded using a modified interactional analysis observation system. All teacher/pupil interactions were classified into one of six categories and the relative frequency of each interactional type was compared as a function of the class composition and the sex of the teacher using nonparametric analyses of contingency. To account for variations in lesson duration, interaction rates were also computed and compared between groups using analysis of variance. The results showed that female teachers gave proportionally more skill based interactions than did male teachers in mixed-sex and in all-girls classes. In mixed-sex classes, boys had a greater proportion of verbal interactions as well as more positive interactions with the teacher than girls did. To gauge the perceptions and attitudes of teachers and students toward stereotyping in physical education, interviews were conducted with the teachers and all pupils completed a standardized 35-item questionnaire. Most girls (90%) did not perceive boys as being favored, but 43% felt that teachers expected boys to perform skills better than girls. A greater percentage of boys (63%) than girls (48.5%) agreed that physical education in schools should be made more important.
Classroom Teachers’ Observations of Physical Education Lessons
Authors: Allison Pamela C.
Published: August 2016

Elementary school classroom teachers continue to have primary responsibility for teaching elementary physical education. As a group, they have received little attention concerning their development of pedagogical skills in physical education. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to describe what preservice classroom teachers observe and what perceptual processes they employ while observing physical education field lessons. The participants were seven junior elementary education majors who observed two physical education classes. Data were collected using the techniques of thinking aloud and stimulated recall interview. The constant comparative method of data analysis revealed the following three themes as characteristic of this group of preservice classroom teachers: students’ movement responses dominated their observational attention, the classroom teachers evaluated what they saw, and they observed using the perceptual process of contrast.
Descriptive Analysis of Nonspecialist Elementary Physical Education Teachers’ Curricular Choices and Class Organization
Authors: Faucette Nell , McKenzie Thomas L. , Patterson Patricia
Published: August 2016

This study examined types of activities available to children and how classes were organized when elementary P.E. was taught by nonspecialist classroom teachers. Observations were conducted in 84 elementary schools in southern California. The observation instrument was validated by having independent observers code three videotaped classes and compare their responses to those of three teacher educators specializing in observation methods and elementary P.E. Interobserver reliabilities were 96.3 on the activity selection and 83.3 on class organization. Results indicated that when students were involved in an organized class activity, they usually participated as an entire class in game-type activities such as relays, kickball, and dodgeball. The children had few opportunities to engage in skill practice or gymnastics and dance activities. Frequently, teachers dropped P.E. classes from the day’s schedule or permitted children to engage in free play. Fitness related activities were prominent during less than 3% of the classes.
Addressing Fall-Related Disability in the Older Adult Population: Bridging Kinesiology Theory, Research, and Practice
Authors: Rose Debra J.
Published: August 2016

The discipline of kinesiology has the potential to make significant contributions to the study of fall-related disability and the advancement of national initiatives aimed at reducing disability in the older adult population. Theoretical frameworks routinely used to guide research across the subdisciplines of kinesiology could and should be applied to the study of fall-related disability and the development of movement-based interventions aimed at improving balance and gait and thereby reducing fall incidence rates and/or injury that contributes to premature morbidity and mortality. Current research findings suggest the need for a stronger focus on the learning or relearning of skilled movement patterns and/or cognitive strategies than currently exists in the falls intervention literature. As a profession, kinesiology is uniquely positioned to play an important role in advancing the goals of the Falls Free© national initiative given the important role that exercise plays in the reduction of fall-related disability and mortality.
The Problem Is Falls: The Answer Is Kinesiology
Authors: Rosenblatt Noah , Grabiner Mark D.
Published: August 2016

The expected rise in the number of older adults in the coming decades may exacerbate the social, medical and economic problems posed by falls and fall-related injuries. In part, the growing urgency for effective solutions refects the apparently constant average annual rate of falls by older adults over the past 30 years. Exercise by older adults can significantly reduce fall risk. However, the extent to which it does so raises the question as to whether its effectiveness can be increased. Results from recent studies support the view that avoiding a fall following a large postural disturbance is a complex motor skill that can be significantly improved by practice and thereby reducing fall risk. This reduction in fall risk appears to exceed that achieved by previously reported interventions. The principles on which the associated training protocol is based fall clearly within the discipline of kinesiology.
Fifteen Years of Promise in School-Based Physical Activity Interventions: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Schieffer Tiffany Myers , Thomas Katherine Thomas
Published: August 2016

Increasing physical activity among children and adolescents continues to be a public health priority (Glickman et al., 2012), with a focus on evidence-based physical activity in school settings. While individual studies report benefits from school-based physical activity interventions, no data-based analysis of these interventions has been published. This meta-analysis examined the outcomes of 12 school-based interventions that reported data from both treatment and intervention groups. The design of each study was unique; including one or more of 19 dependent variables representing physical activity, knowledge, body composition, and cardiovascular measures, and one or more component of the Coordinated School Health Model (CSHM). Generally the benefits from the intervention were small and not significant; health knowledge was the exception. Interventions including more components of the CSHM and interventions of greater duration (e.g., more minutes) were associated with enhanced outcomes and explained 89% of the variance. Weaknesses in the design and analysis of some interventions were inappropriate experimental unit (individual rather than school), multiple analyses on the same data without correction (e.g., Bonferroni), multiple publications of the same data, and the inclusion of all students regardless of whether the student needed to increase physical activity/ftness or reduce body mass/fat.
‘Screenagers’ and In/Active Lifestyles: A Socio-Cultural Analysis of Healthy Life Span Promotion
Authors: MacNeill Margaret
Published: August 2016

Young people are increasingly the targets of public health and private-public sector campaigns to promote active lifestyles and longevity of the life span (Arnett, 2012; Faulkner, Kwan, Brownrigg, & MacNeill, 2011). Yet media campaigns alone cannot redress the barriers to physical activity. In this paper I argue that theories of life span and social marketing approaches to health promotion share a grounding in the behavioral sciences that need to be broadened to consider social determinants of active and inactive lifestyles and uncover how youth audiences make sense of health promotions. As such, I suggest how the social marketing of healthy life spans can move upstream to advocate policies and programs for youth activity. In this article I a) critically examine our shifting notions of youth and assumptions about life span, b) highlight trends in media consumption by youth, c) consider how kinesiology can broaden the social marketing lens to active media advocacy for social justice, and d) raise implications for research and intervention.
Biological Influences on Physical Activity During Childhood
Authors: Rowland Thomas W.
Published: August 2016

A growing body of evidence implicates the existence of a functional subconscious governor in the brain, which controls level of habitual physical activity. Such a biologic control, acting in a classic feedback loop mechanism, might serve to contribute to the defense of energy balance. Many questions remain unanswered regarding the pliability of biologic control of activity and the extent that it might dictate daily energy expenditure. A consideration of this concept bears importance for those seeking an understanding of the mechanisms, prevention, and treatment of obesity as well as the link between exercise and health in the general population.
The Effect of Nonspecific Task Constraints on Quadrupedal Locomotion: I. Interlimb Coordination
Authors: Whitall Jill , Forrester Larry , Getchell Nancy
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the effect of nonspecific task constraints on the multilimb coordination task of preferred-speed crawling. Adult subjects undertook three trials each of the following randomly ordered conditions: forward prone (FP), backward supine (BS), backward prone (BP) and forward supine (FS). Subjects adopted specific coordinative solutions consistent with task-related function rather than anatomical specification. The patterns were relatively stable, with BP being least stable. Across conditions, subjects changed their velocity in a predictable order that corresponded to the various constraints. These velocity changes were largely attributable to stride length adjustments and not limb frequency. Within a condition, neither velocity nor anthropometrics appeared to influence the coordinative solution. Overall, rather large differences were found in coordinative solutions, possibly owing to the nature of the tasks and/or individual searching strategies. The results were interpretable within a dynamic approach to coordination and support the idea that coordination is functionally rather than anatomically determined.
Locomotor Patterns Elicited by Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Stem in the Mudpuppy
Authors: Shik Mark L.
Published: August 2016

Microstimulation of the brain stem was performed in the mesencephalic mudpuppy. Repetitive (8-15 pps) stimulation of the lateral mesencephalic tegmentum elicited cyclic side-to-side movements of the tail or the body and stepping of the hindlimbs or forelimbs in different combinations. The association of all four components was most common, followed by the combined movements of the tail and the body; the tail, the hindlimbs, and the body; and the tail and the hindlimbs. Movements of the tail and the hindlimbs also occurred separately, but lateral undulation of the body was observed only in combinations, as was mainly stepping of the forelimbs. The cycle durations varied in different patterns: In particular, a cycle lasted 5 to 7 s for tail movements and 1.3 to 2 s for complete locomotion. Usually only one pattern was evoked by stimulating a particular site in the brain stem, but sometimes increasing the strength or frequency of stimulation involved an additional elementary synergy, thus forming a more complex pattern. Similar patterns could arise from stimulation of different sites. The order of involvement of components in the same complex pattern varied when stimuli were applied to different sites. The combinatorial composition and morphological specification are possible mechanisms of the broad repertoire of elicited locomotor patterns in the mudpuppy.
Neural Basis Subserving the Detection of Postural Instability: An fMRI Study
Authors: Slobounov Semyon , Wu Tao , Hallett Mark
Published: August 2016

Human upright posture is a product of a complex dynamic system that relies on integration of input from multimodal sensory sources. Extensive research has explored the role of visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems in the control of upright posture. However, the role of higher cognitive function in a participant’s assessment of postural stability has been less studied. In previous research, we showed specific neural activation patterns in EEG associated with recognition of unstable postures in young healthy participants. Similar EEG patterns have been recently observed in regulation of posture equilibrium in dynamic stances. This article evaluates participants’ postural stability in dynamic stances and neural activation patterns underlying visual recognition of unstable postures using event-related functional MRI (fMRI). Our results show that the “stable” participants were successful in recognition of unstable postures of a computer-animated body model and experienced egocentric motion. Successful recognition of unstable postures in these participants induces activation of distinct areas of the brain including bilateral parietal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and bilateral cerebellum. In addition, significant activation is observed in basal ganglia (caudate nucleus and putamen) but only during perception of animated postures. Our findings suggest the existence of modality-specific distributed activation of brain areas responsible for detection of postural instability.
Are the Elderly Able to Appropriately Reprogram Their Actions?
Authors: Teixeira Luis Augusto , Franzoni Mariana Marília , da Silva Juliana Bayeux
Published: August 2016

Movement reprogramming in a task requiring timing accuracy was investigated in young and elderly individuals. The task consisted of manually hitting a hemiball in synchrony with the arrival of a moving light stimulus running through an electronic trackway. Movement reprogramming was required by unexpectedly changing the regular stimulus velocity at different moments before the due time of arrival at the interception position. Such changes produced times after velocity decrease (TAVD) between 150 ms and 750 ms, representing the periods of time available for generation of new movement timing specifications. Effect of probability of stimulus velocity change was investigated by comparing the conditions of 25% and 50% of chance of velocity decrease. Analysis of performance in conditions of velocity decrease showed an enlargement of temporal error as a function of longer TAVDs up to 300-375 ms. In conditions in which TAVDs were longer than 375 ms young participants showed a progressive improvement of accuracy over time, while the elderly were unable to improve their performance even for a TAVD of 750 ms. A trend toward a more efficient reprogramming with reduced uncertainty was observed only in the young. These results indicate that movement reprogramming is a continuous process in young individuals, but it is impaired in the elderly, preventing an appropriate reorganization of the action.
A Kinematic Analysis of How Young Adults with and Without Autism Plan and Control Goal-Directed Movements
Authors: Glazebrook Cheryl M. , Elliott Digby , Lyons James
Published: August 2016

We examined the planning and control of goal-directed aiming movements in young adults with autism. Participants performed rapid manual aiming movements to one of two targets. We manipulated the difficulty of the planning and control process by varying both target size and amplitude of the movements. Consistent with previous research, participants with autism took longer to prepare and execute movements, particularly when the index of difficulty was high. Although there were no group differences for accuracy, participants with autism exhibited more temporal and spatial variability over the initial phase of the movement even though mean peak accelerations and velocities were lower than for control participants. Our results suggest that although persons with autism have difficulty specifying muscular force, they compensate for this initial variability during limb deceleration. Perhaps persons with autism have learned to keep initial impulses low to minimize the spatial variability that needs to be corrected for during the online control phase of the movement.
Attentional and Motor Response Priming in a Bimanual Task
Authors: Hansen Steve , Lyons James L. , Keetch Katherine M.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the performance of the upper limbs during responses to previously cued and un-cued locations. Participants made unimanual and bimanual responses under homologous and non-homologous muscular control, within a cuetarget (Experiment 1; n = 10), and a target-target (Experiment 2; n = 10) aiming protocol. The inhibition of return (IOR) to a target location was expected to increase with (a) an increase in the organization of the movement response required, and (b) the decrease in the muscular coupling under which the bimanual movement was performed. IOR was observed in both experiments when participants completed their movements in either the unimanual or homologous conditions, but not in the non-homologous condition. In addition, reaction times were significantly shorter when a movement preceded the response than when no manual response was made to the initial visual cue. The results indicate that common processing delays in response to exogenously cued targets are dependent on the muscular control of those responses. Thus, this study provides evidence that IOR is moderated by the muscular control under which the bimanual movement was performed indicating an influential involvement of the motor system in both the movement planning and movement response to multiple target stimuli.
Visual and Tactile Information in Double Bass Intonation Control
Authors: Lage Guilherme Menezes , Borém Fausto , Vieira Maurílio Nunes , Barreiros João Pardal
Published: August 2016

Traditionally, the teaching of intonation on the non-tempered orchestral strings (violin, viola, cello, and double bass) has resorted to the auditory and proprioceptive senses only. This study aims at understanding the role of visual and tactile information in the control of the non-tempered intonation of the acoustic double bass. Eight musicians played 11 trials of an atonal sequence of musical notes on two double basses of different sizes under different sensorial constraints. The accuracy of the played notes was analyzed by measuring their frequencies and comparing them with respective target values. The main finding was that the performance which integrated visual and tactile information was superior in relation to the other performances in the control of double bass intonation. This contradicts the traditional belief that proprioception and hearing are the most effective feedback information in the performance of stringed instruments.
Joint-Action Coordination of Redundant Force Contributions in a Virtual Lifting Task
Authors: Bosga Jurjen , Meulenbroek Ruud G. J.
Published: August 2016

In this study we investigated redundancy control in joint action. Ten participantpairs (dyads) performed a virtual lifting task in which isometric forces needed to be generated with two or four hands. The participants were not allowed to communicate but received continuous visual feedback of their performance. When the task had to be performed with four hands, participants were confronted with a redundant situation and between-hand force synergies could, in principle, be formed. Performance timing, success rates, cross-correlations, and relative phase analyses of the force-time functions were scrutinized to analyze such task-dependent synergies. The results show that even though the dyads performed the task slower and less synchronized in the joint than in the solo conditions, the success rates in these conditions were identical. Moreover, correlation and relative phase analyses demonstrated that, as expected, the dyads formed between-participant synergies that were indicative of force sharing in redundant task conditions.
Quiet Postural Control of Patients with Total Hip Arthroplasty Following Joint Arthritis
Authors: Rougier Patrice , Belaid Dalila , Cantalloube Sylvie , Lamotte Delphine , Deschamps Jacques
Published: August 2016

To assess the postural strategies developed by patients after total hip arthroplasty (THA), 14 patients were measured 12 days after surgery. The respective role played by both sound and prosthetic legs and the compensatory mechanisms were assessed through a separate measure of the center-of-pressure (CP) trajectories under each foot. The movements of the center-of-gravity (CG) were estimated from those of the resultant CP to determine postural performance. The postural behavior was compared with those of a group of age-matched healthy subjects required to adopt a slightly asymmetrical weight distribution. Patient results indicate greater movements for both plantar and resultant CP displacements, principally along the antero-posterior (AP) axis, a decreased contribution of the hip mechanisms in the production of CP displacements along the medio-lateral (ML) axis, greater resultant CP and CG movements along the AP axis and increased differences between CP and CG along both ML and AP axes. The postural specificity of the THA patients appears to be due to a global sensorimotor impairment that alters the control of the loading-unloading mechanism at the hip level.