bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Care of Children: the Influence of Medical Innovation and Medical Institutions on Infant Mortality 1750-1914
Authors: Morel Marie-France
Published: October 2023

The many historical demographic studies that have been undertaken during the last 20 years have shown, in spite of the disparity of available data, that infant and child mortality fell significantly everywhere, and that the fall gathered pace after the First World War. This decline is well documented, even though in some cases it was irregular, and the initial levels, the rate of fall, and the conditions associated with the decline have differed in different countries.As is true of overall mortality, the mortality of infants and small children may be interpreted in different ways. Its decline could be seen as a consequence of the improvements of the general standard of living of the population (improved nutrition, higher standards of personal hygiene, better water supply, higher quality of foodstuffs, better housing), or it could be attributed more specifically to increases in medical knowledge and a wider diffusion of this knowledge among mothers. Since 1970 the medical explanation has been strongly criticized, particularly by Ivan Ilich and Thomas McKeown, whose arguments are well known.
Statistical Analysis of Cointegration Vectors
Authors: Johansen Soren
Published: October 2023

We consider a nonstationary vector autoregressive process which is integrated of order 1, and generated by id. Gaussian errors. We then derive the maximum likelihood estimator of the space of cointegration vectors and the likelihood ratio test of the hypothesis that it has a given number of dimensions. Further we test linear hypotheses about the cointegration vectors.
Privatization
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

The trend towards privatization has been particularly strong in the 1980s and 1990s. In the UK, some of the most important public utilities such as telecommunications, gas, and electricity have been privatized. Following unification, Germany is having to privatize an entire economy. This book examines the form of privatization, a topic which has not previously been subjected to rigorous economic analysis, and provides a comprehensive and thorough survey of arguments both for and against it. Both positive and welfare-economic approaches to deal with the complex problems of the transition from public to private ownership are discussed. The author also examines the central issues of privatization such as why efficiency increases can be expected as a result of privatization, whether full privatization coupled with subsequent regulation is better than partial privatization with the government regulating from within the firm. He also looks at the role of trade unions in the privatization process.
The Economic Borders of the State
Authors: Helm Dieter
Published: October 2023

One of the central themes of politics in the 1980s was the rolling back of the state's economic borders, placing greater emphasis on the role of individual choice and markets allocating resources. This book is a collection of papers, largely specially commissioned, which assess this theme, and which have been written by economists and political scientists. * Contributors: Dieter Helm, Alan Ryan, Wilfred Beckerman, Amartya Sen, Partha Dasgupta, John Gray, Robert Skidelsky, Gillian Peele, Christopher Allsopp, John Kay, Andrew Dilnot, Colin Mayer, and Stephen Smith.
The Economic Borders of the State
Authors: Helm* Dieter
Published: October 2023

The ‘economic borders of the State’ have shifted markedly in the twentieth century. Governments, throughout the industrialized world, have extended their activities from the provision of minimal basic services—such as the maintenance of the value of the currency, defence, and law and order—to a much more comprehensive role in allocating resources, in providing education, health, and social security, and in macro-economic management. In addition, a new feature of twentieth century government has been the conscious attempt to alleviate poverty and redistribute income. This expansion has involved the development and use of a wide variety of policy instruments and a vast expansion in the scale of public expenditure and taxation.
Contemporary Conservatism and the Borders of the State
Authors: Peele* Gillian
Published: October 2023

The question of the borders of the State—of what are the proper limits and purposes of governmental activity—is currently the central one in British political debate. That so fundamental and general a question should be on this country’s political agenda at all is a reflection of the changes which have occurred in the political system over the past fifteen years. In particular, it reflects changes which have occurred within the Conservative party which, under Mrs Thatcher’s leadership, has enjoyed a remarkable degree of electoral success and has been able to set the terms of the political argument.
The Economics of Order and Disorder
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

This book addresses some basic questions in economics, all of which have a common core - they all refer to forming behaviour, to the emergence of order, its adaptation, its transformation, and its ultimate dissolution into chaos. Starting with the notion of self-organization, the author analyses the operation and the demise of institutions in economics. In doing so, he takes into account the consequences of the intervention of history, chance, necessity, and will - a subject little undertaken in contemporary economic theory. Starting with the theory of microeconomics itself, the author builds precise models based on explicit hypotheses and draws out the significance of the propositions obtained. The book draws on systems theory, evolutionary theory, the literature on institutional economics, and existing general equilibrium theory, and steps outside the present conceptual framework of microeconomics.
The Traditional Market
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

The time has now come to take a look at a more complex market in which a connection will be made between two categories of agent interested in the same unstockable goods: individual buyers, the purchasing intentions of individual k taking the form of a demand, which is a decreasing function of the price and nul for any price above or equal to a price limit particular to each individual; retailers choosing at the start of each period the quantity of goods that they will buy in view of sales and the firm sales price they will propose throughout the entire period. The additional complexity has a double origin: on the one hand each individual may buy a greater or lesser quantity of goods and on the other each retailer has to make two decisions, one concerning the quantity placed at the buyers’ disposal, the other about the price proposed.
Italy The Sheltered Economy
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

This volume describes in considerable detail the structural features of the Italian economy. It is based on the results of a major three-year project analysing the Italian economy, and its primary focus is on the role of state and private economic agents. Italy has a huge and interventionist governmental economic policy: the state spends over 50% of National Income. Professor Padoa Schioppa Kastoris argues that much of this state action and regulation is irrational and counter-efficient. She then argues that the Italian economy is also characterized by a large and efficient `black market', and that much of the private sector already evades the command and control imposed by the state. Since de facto deregulation therefore exists to a large extent in the Italian economy, Professor Padoa Schioppa Kastoris calls for legal deregulation and privatization. She argues that a decrease in, and an altered character of, state action will enable the Italian economy to achieve higher rates of growth, and to reconcile the goals of efficiency and public interest. The book reflects a blend of theoretical and empirical work: although much data on the Italian economy is given in the book, the analysis is not technical.
Introduction
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

For over a hundred years British governments have increasingly become concerned with the seeming inability of British companies to match the performance of those of competitor nations. Before 1900 such concerns were episodic and usually relatively minor parts of the political concerns of the day. Since the turn of the century the concern has become both almost continuous and increasingly central to public debate. Whilst 1900 is an arbitrary date with which to begin an examination of the character and consequences of this concern, it can be taken to coincide with a significant sharpening of worries about the state of the economy brought on above all by the failures of British arms in the Boer War (Friedberg 1988). To some degree the turn of the century conveniently marks the beginning of a period in which enterprise efficiency was never to be far from political concern.
1900-1914: National Efficiency and the Enterprise
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

History did not stop at the end of the nineteenth century and start afresh in 1900. Nevertheless, beginning a book about the government and industrial efficiency at that date has a logic beyond convention and convenience. At the turn of the century Britain was at war, and as is so often the case war exposes the weaknesses of an economy and society as few other events can. On this occasion the Boer war, and especially the early defeats sustained by Britain in that war, served to crystallize perceptions of weaknesses and proposals to remedy them. Of course, if elements are to be crystallized they already exist, and the water shed aspect of the Boer war should not be exaggerated. But coming on top of two or three decades of growing worries about the strength of Britain ‘s industrial economy, the shock of war led to a highly illuminating debate, and some little action, to try and address the economy ‘s perceived deficiencies.
1951-1961: Consumption and Competition
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

The return of a Conservative government in 1951 carried no simple implication for future economic policy. On the one hand, the Conservatives had based much of their election appeal on ‘setting the people free ‘ from the austerity and rationing of the l 940s, and this suggested a much more liberal economic regime would follow their victory (Zweiniger-Bargielowska 1993). On the other hand, Labour actually secured more votes than the Tories in 1951, and Tory leaders were conscious that they did not have a mandate to reverse the major shifts in economic (or social) policy of the l 940s. The key post-war statement of policy, the Industrial Charter (Conservative Party 1947) had signalled a broad acceptance of the ‘post-war settlement ‘, especially if the focus was on actual policy proposals rather than the more liberal rhetoric of the document (Ramsden 1980: 110-11).
Imperfect Information
Authors: Andersen Torben M
Published: October 2023

A reason for the failure of prices to adjust instantaneously to changes in the state of the market may be that firms have insufficient information about market conditions. Prices determined with insufficient information about market conditions obviously cannot be adjusted fully to the state of nature. It is less obvious, however, how the price will be adjusted to information on market conditions that becomes available; nor is it clear what incentives firms will have to acquire such information. Section 6.2 deals with the interaction between price-setters having different information about market conditions, while Section 6.3 considers the price adjustment of a firm over time as it learns about the development in market conditions. The importance of information dissemination from market signals such as quantities sold or prices is addressed in Section 6.4, while Section 6.5 endogenizes information acquisition.
Implications for Conceptualizing and Measuring Poverty
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T
Published: October 2023

In this chapter we explore the implications of the analysis and results that have been set out in previous chapters for the way poverty is conceptualized and measured, focusing particularly on how they throw a good deal of light on current debates. We begin by reiterating our understanding of the key concepts of deprivation and poverty, and setting out the central message of our own empirical approach and results. We then structure the discussion around a set of distinct but related concerns of the recent literature: the influential capability approach put forward by Sen, debates about defining and measuring deprivation and the implications of its multidimensionality, the relationship between poverty and social exclusion, the rights approach to poverty and minimum income, and poverty and the underclass.
The Effects of Cohort Size on Marriage Markets in Twentieth-Century Sweden
Authors: Bergstrom Theodore , Lam David
Published: October 2023

Large, short-run fluctuations in the birth-rate have been an important demo graphic feature of industrialized, low-fertility populations in the twentieth century. Since females normally marry men who are two or three years older than themselves, these fluctuations result in large imbalances between the size of male and female cohorts who would normally marry each other. These imbalances must somehow be resolved, either by a change in traditional patterns of age at marriage or by changes in the proportions of the population of one sex or the other who never marry.
Public Intergenerational Transfers as an Old-Age Pension System: A Historical Interlude?
Authors: Bengtsson Tommy , Fridlizius Gunnar
Published: October 2023

One of the major benefits modern industrial society offers the individual is a relatively long period of active life following retirement from full-time work. This provides an opportunity for inner reflection, travel, the pursuit of hobbies, and a number of other activities. However, financial security is necessary to assure a fulfilling life for the individual after retirement. Without adequate financial resources these possibilities instead pose increasing risks for the retired. Without adequate financial resources, instead of satisfaction, they find themselves unable to maintain meaningful social functions and are estranged from society at large. Today, persons above 65 years of age are guaranteed a certain standard of living through the Swedish national pension system, which is a public intergenerational transfer system.
Monetary Regimes and Inflation
Authors: Heymann Daniel , Leijonhufvud Axel
Published: October 2023

Models of perfectly anticipated inflation suggest that high inflation rates have little or no effect on the real performance of the economy. An ‘as-if legislated’ inflation tax will indeed distort individual choices on some margins. But so do the regular taxes that are the relevant alternatives. When these models are taken literally, they yield no presumption as to whether second-best policy ought to produce no inflation, low inflation, or high inflation. These models are influential. They shape the ways in which most economists perceive inflation and its costs to society.
Disadvantaged Farmers and Problem Regions
Authors: Fennell Rosemary
Published: October 2023

The Mansholt Plan and the attempt to define and promote the efficient farm were based on an interpretation of Art. 39.1(b) of the Rome Treaty which equated a ‘fair standard of living’ with the achievement of a labour income comparable to that in other sectors. However, the problems of the fanning sector were considerably more complex than this equation would suggest. Running through the agricultural Articles of the Rome Treaty, there is an awareness of the need to pay particular attention to the diversity of circumstances in which farming takes place. There was a requirement to bear in mind, when devising and implementing the CAP, ‘the structural and natural disparities between the various agricultural regions’ (Art. 39.2(a) ). In addition, under Article 42, provision was made for a derogation from the rules on competition so as to allow the granting of aid ‘for the protection of enterprises handicapped by structural and natural conditions’.
Improvements in the Organization of Production and Marketing
Authors: Fennell Rosemary
Published: October 2023

Reference has been made in earlier chapters to Reg. 17/64 on the conditions for granting aid from the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (Sp. OJ 1963-1964): in particular in Chapter 2 in setting out the requirements which a project had to meet before it qualified for structural aid, and in Chapter 9 where the Community Programmes were outlined. These Programmes should have provided the sectoral and regional framework for aid but, as already indicated, they were never put in place and the derogation in Reg. 17/64, which allowed individual projects to be grant-aided for the first two years, continued throughout the lifetime of this Regulation, i.e. to the end of the 1970s.
Japan’s Present-Day Economic System and Its Historical Origins
Authors: Okazaki Tetsuji , Okuno-Fujiwara Masahiro
Published: October 2023

A number of characteristic features serve to differentiate Japan’s present-day socio-economic system from its counterparts in the West, particularly those of the Anglo-Saxon countries. One is the relationship between corporate ownership and its management: Japanese management is directed to benefit employees rather than shareholders. Another feature is the long-term nature of relationships within firms, as demonstrated in the lifetime-employment system, pay based on seniority, enterprise-based labour unions, and so on. Long-term relations between different firms are also important, as seen in the main bank system, the subcontracting system, or in relations among affiliated firms in keiretsu groupings. For the provision of capital, indirect financing centred on bank lending predominates over the floating of shares and bonds on the open market. A further feature is the close-knit relationship between government and private-sector firms, seen in official control through administrative guidance or via industrial associations or similar business organizations.
The ‘Japanese-Model’ Fiscal System
Authors: Jinno Naohiko
Published: October 2023

The eventful period heralded by the 1970s oil shocks has been characterized by calls for ‘reform of the tax system’ and ‘administrative reform’, and as a result the tax and public-finance system that underpinned Japan’s post-war high¬ speed economic growth has come in for fundamental re-examination. This chapter represents a quest for the origins of Japan’s modern fiscal system now so much in the spotlight, from among the many other aspects of the economic system being pressed to reform. As we see from the fact that discussions on the tax system or administrative reform refer directly or indirectly to the Shoup Report, there is a shared belief that Japan’s current fiscal system took shape through the reforms introduced after the Second World War. In this chapter, however, I intend to show that it was formed, like the other economic systems discussed in this book, during the war years as a ‘full mobilization’ system to support the war effort.
Introduction: The Emergence of “Economic Society”
Authors: Hayami Akira
Published: October 2023

When the Muromachi shogunate breathed its last in 1573, it was the culmination of a long process of disintegration at the center, and reorganization in the provinces. For more than a century, daimyos (regional lords) had worked to build militarily and economically coherent domains; for the last quarter-century, they had sought to use their provincial power bases gradually to expand their influence toward the center.
The Dynamics of Market Economy and Production
Authors: Shimbo Hiroshi , Hasegawa Akira
Published: October 2023

Scholars today agree that the Japanese economy was basically expanding throughout the Tokugawa period. However, this economic growth was not uniform in either pace or pattern. From the beginning of the seventeenth to the early eighteenth century, population size rose, new fields were opened up for cultivation, and rice production increased.
Demography and Living Standards
Authors: Hayami Akira , Kitô Hiroshi
Published: October 2023

In order to fully grasp the conditions of a society or country, it is important to examine the scale, structure, and trends of its population. Through such analyses of the behavior and organization of individual men and women, married couples, and households, we can arrive at a more accurate understanding of the lives of ordinary people than if we were to look only at institutional and governing structures.
Japan’s Postwar Civil Service: The Legal Framework
Authors: Haley John O
Published: October 2023

However contentious many of the issues may seem regarding the postwar role of Japan’s civil service, few question the basic proposition that Japan’s economic bureaucracies played a significant if not defining part in Japan’s stunning economic recovery and growth. The paradox may remain of an interventionist civil service ostensibly directing industrial and financial policies alongside a vigorously competitive market economy as well as a political system seemingly dominated by bureaucratic interests that was equally often acutely responsive to the demands of national and local constituencies, political leaders, and business enterprises. Yet the ubiquitous presence of a policy-directing civil service is a fundamental premise in nearly all analyses of Japan’s postwar economic performance.
Administrative Reform
Authors: Ito Mitsutoshi
Published: October 2023

Since the end of World War II, the Japanese government has carried out significant administrative reform three times: in 1949, the 1960s, and the 1980s. These reforms were attempts to limit the size of government, increase the efficiency of administration, and promote economic development. Small, efficiently managed government has been a vital factor in Japan’s economic growth.
Policies for Small Business in Japan
Authors: Miwa Yoshiro
Published: October 2023

One of the most striking features of recent Japanese public policy, viewed both in comparative context and against the backdrop of Japanese history, has been the fluctuating but generally pronounced bias shown toward the small, across a range of industrial, trade, and credit-policy sectors, often at the expense of the large.
The Japanese Civil Service And Economic Development: Lessons For Policymakers From Other Countries
Authors: Kim Hyung-Ki
Published: October 2023

Japan’s remarkable economic and political transformation to a modern economy and polity may hold some vital lessons for developing and transforming economies and for international financing institutions.1 Some of these lessons pertain to the high savings rate and the ‘catch-up’ efforts that have helped spur Japan’s development. Equally important, however, is the role played by Japan’s bureaucracy, particularly its administrative institutions. It has been argued that the skillful economic management that guided Japan through the turbulent years of modernization and brought it prosperity are due in no small measure to these institutions. It should be noted at the outset, however, that the Japanese bureaucracy, which has taken pride in its role as ‘guardian of the national interest’, is now having that role challenged.
Population and Reasoned Agency: Food, Fertility, and Economic Development
Authors: Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

Mr. Condorcet 's picture of what may be expected to happen when the number of men shall surpass the means of their subsistence is justly drawn, ' said Thomas Malthus in 1798.1 He was commenting on an ana lysis of Condorcet, published a few years earlier, that we now associate with Malthus himself. After quoting Condorcet with approval, Malthus proceeded to express his emendations, in some important ways, of Condorcet 's approach, in particular, replacing Condorcet 's optimism (founded on his belief in the human ability to make intelligent use of science and to take rational decisions to deal with identified problems).
Economic Analysis of Fertility: Micro Foundations and Aggregate Implications
Authors: Willis Robert J
Published: October 2023

Perhaps the greatest challenge facing students of population is to understand the causes of the historical association between economic growth and development and the demographic transition from high to low levels of fertility and mortality. Every 'advanced country ' that has successfully achieved a high level of living has undergone such a demo graphic transition. Moreover, a substantial fertility decline is currently under way in a number of countries now undergoing rapid economic growth in East and South-East Asia and, to a lesser extent, in Latin America. Conversely, it is much less apparent that countries in South Asia and, especially, in Africa are as yet on a path either of sustained economic development or of demographic transition.1 In addition to purely scientific reasons, it is of obvious importance to seek an understanding of the connection between economic development and demographic transitions in order to develop policies that serve broadly accepted goals of increasing the well-being of current and future generations of human beings in all parts of the world, including protecting the natural and biological resources that contribute to their well-being.2 In this chapter, I will argue that modern developments in the economic analysis of fertility behaviour can help us understand some of these issues.
The Way to the Gender-Segregated Swedish Labour Market
Authors: Hoem Britta
Published: October 2023

Swede ‘s reputation as a country with a higher than usual level of gender equality is based on a few striking indicators, mainly labour force participation rates and the character of family policies. There is little difference between women and men in labour force participation rates in Sweden, and it is currently predicted that even these differences will disappear before long (Statistics Sweden 1990). Sweden’s progressive family policies have as an explicit goal the sharing of family responsibilities between men and women. Maternity leave has been an established right since 1939 (paid leave was introduced in 1955), and in 1974 Sweden became the first country in the world to introduce the father’s right to take paternity leave as well. In fact, the law allows the father and the mother to share the statutory parental leave between them in any way they want after a delivery.
Industrial Organization In the European Union
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

This book fills an important gap in our knowledge of the organization of EU manufacturing industry. At the empirical level, it draws on a newly constructed micro-level database (the European market share matrix) to present the first ever comprehensive picture of the concentration, integration, multinationality, and diversification of EU industry and firms. However, its purpose is not primarily descriptive. At the theoretical level, it develops a new way of integrating the insights of international trade, industrial organization, international business, and corporate strategy. A central thesis is that by understanding the reasons for the industrial structure we observe, much can be understood about the underlying competitive process that generated this structure in the context of current European integration.
Introduction
Authors: Jones Gavin W
Published: October 2023

In terms of population, Indonesia is the world’s fourth-largest country, with a 1990 population of 179 million. Although its land area is less than that of a number of countries with smaller populations, it is a far-flung archipelago, stretching across a distance greater than that from London to Moscow. The island of Borneo, most of which lies within Indonesia, is the third-largest island in the world, after Greenland and New Guinea, almost half of which also lies within Indonesia.
Introduction
Authors: Sawyer Donald
Published: October 2023

With an area of 8,522,965 km2, Brazil is the fifth-largest country in the world. It is nearly as large as the continental United States and covers half of the territory of South America. The landscape is dominated by the Amazon basin in the north and the Brazilian highlands in the south-east and south regions. The climate is tropical and sub-tropical, humid in the Amazon, mostly covered by forest, and semi-arid in the north-east. There are vast areas of savannah in the centre-west.
Economic and Demographic Concentration in Brazil: Recent Inversion of Historical Patterns
Authors: Martine George , Diniz Clelio Campolina
Published: October 2023

To the uninitiated, Brazil has long stood out as an immense country with a quasi unlimited potential for growth in its many and diversified regions (see fig. 10.1). Aggressive and well-publicized efforts have been made in recent decades to occupy the interior, through the relocation of the capital city, through massive road-building programmes, through large-scale colonization projects and through regionalized fiscal-incentive policies. Undoubtedly, the agricultural frontier has expanded, while interiorization of the population and of the economy has occurred to some extent. Nevertheless, during most of this century, economic activity and population have tended to concentrate increasingly-in the region dominated by the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo.
Urbanization of the Brazilian Frontier
Authors: Sawyer Donald
Published: October 2023

The Amazon region has become the main stage for frontier expansion in Brazil in the last two decades. Although it is usually depicted as an ‘agricultural frontier’, in which one would expect rapid growth of rural population, the region has in fact undergone rapid urbanization, with levels similar to the rest of the country out side the urban-industrial core. It may now be more appropriate to speak of urbanization of the frontier than of urbanization on the frontier.
Alpine Patterns of Infant Mortality in Perspective
Authors: Viazzo Pier Paolo
Published: October 2023

In the 1970s the received wisdom about the population history of the Alps was that in pre-industrial times the whole region had been characterized by a sort of ‘primitive’ demographic regime. Solid empirical evidence was admittedly scanty. But it seemed sensible to assume that the only response to the ‘permanent challenge of the mountain environment’ was represented by very high levels of fertility, which were virtually offset by equally high levels of both infant and adult mortality (Guichonnet, 1975: 157-8). The results of a spate of recent studies show, on the contrary, that all over the Alpine area both fertility and mortality tended, at least from the mid-eighteenth century up to the First World War, to be consider ably lower than in the surrounding flat regions.
The International Setting
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal
Published: October 2023

In the post-war period the international trade relations of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland were moulded to fit the design imposed by the Soviet Union. The Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was the international trade bureaucracy of the Soviet bloc. It applied the principles of quantitative economic planning to the sphere of international trade. Multilateral trade flows were agreed upon collectively within the organization. Monetary values of trade flows used the rouble as the unit of account at administratively determined exchange rates.

Large as it was, the Soviet bloc was not economically self-sufficient. To varying degrees all of the members of the CMEA had economic relations with the non-communist world. Typically they had a foreign debt contracted with Western banks or governments, and they had commercial relations with Western countries. Czechoslovakia signed a trade agreement with GATT in 1948.
The effects of debt management
Authors: Missale Alessandro
Published: October 2023

Public debt management has important effects on the real economy. Only under restrictive assumptions about private agents’ altruism and rationality, complete ness and efficiency of financial markets and type of taxes, the government’s choice of the composition of its outstanding liabilities and/or of the securities to issue does not matter. Studying such conditions is, however, important for two reasons. First, the neutrality result for tax-borrowing decisions known as Ricardian Equivalence (Barro 1974) has become a reference point in public finance. Second and more importantly, this analysis is a necessary first step toward a better understanding of the effects of debt management.
Minimizing cost
Authors: Missale Alessandro
Published: October 2023

A realistic representation of the policymaker’s objective function implies a trade-off between the minimization of the expected cost of debt servicing and the minimization of budgetary risk. Implications of the implicit-contingent approach reviewed in Chapter 5 follow from a specification of this trade-off which gives all the weight to risk minimization. Indeed, issuing securities which yield low returns in low-output states reduces budgetary risk but increases the expected cost of debt servicing. High-interest costs have to be paid for a policy which insures the government against the risk of having to adjust tax rates in response to macroeconomic shocks affecting its budget. Risk-averse investors will ask for a premium in order to hold securities with returns positively correlated to their income.
Determinants of Rates of Early Childhood Sickness and Death, and of Long Birth Intervals: Evidence from the Khanna Study, Rural Punjab, India, 1954-1969
Authors: Wyon John B
Published: October 2023

This chapter reports selected findings from a longitudinal study of community¬ based rates of deaths, sicknesses, and birth intervals in eleven villages of the Punjab, India. These findings were the result of broader studies of births, deaths, migrations, and population dynamics, and a test of birth-control methods villagers could use on their own to cause lower birth rates in some village communities.
Population Movement and the AIDS Epidemic in Thailand
Authors: Singhanetra-Renard Anchalee
Published: October 2023

The intensity of the HIV/AIDS epidemic among highly mobile populations and in dynamic areas comprised of various mobile groups in Thailand points to the importance of population movement as a crucial factor in this epidemic. Determining the patterns of population mobility is thus critical to understanding the diffusion patterns of HIV/AIDS. Areas seemingly not linked with one another may in fact actually be closely tied through spatial mobility. Such connections are pertinent to interpreting epidemiological data, formulating policy for control intervention, and care.Routine surveillance of and epidemiological data on HIV/AIDS in Thailand show the northern region as having the highest concentration of HIV/AIDS in fection among blood donors, pregnant women, military conscripts, male STD patients, commercial sex workers, and intravenous drug users from 1990-2. This situation points to the need for a closer look at structural changes of migration and their implication on the spread of HIV/AIDS in this country.
Control as Care: Interaction between Urban Women and Birth Planning Workers
Authors: Milwertz Cecilia
Published: October 2023

In China, according to the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women passed in 1992, ‘Women have the right to child. bearing in accordance with relevant regulations of the state as well as the freedom not to bear any child.’ The ‘relevant regulations’ of the state are defined within the framework of the national population policy. The main objective of the post-Mao population policy is to limit population growth rates and ultimately to stabilize population at zero growth. The main remedial measure for reaching these targets has been to lay down a fertility limit of one child per couple. Although, especially since 1984, this limit has been revised so that the rural majority of the Chinese population are permitted to give birth to two children per couple when the first child is a girl, the fertility limit in cities, and especially among state employees, has consistently been one child per couple.
Party Policy and ‘National Culture’: Towards a State-Directed Cultural Nationalism in China?
Authors: Clausen Søren
Published: October 2023

High on the list of mankind’s current ills since the late 1980s is the rekindling of ethnic and nationalist fervour from the Balkans to the Indian subcontinent; and apparently the fever is spreading to East Asia too. ‘Ignorance is tom apart, I The dragon can now scream into the heavens,’ goes a song by the Chinese rock band with the heavily symbolic name ‘Tang Dynasty’, and the Chinese government quietly approves of the imagery. The Chinese bid in I 993 to host the year 2000 Olympic Games turned into a massive display of nationalist emotions. Towards the end of 1993 Newsweek captured much of the ongoing concern with a special issue on reawakened nationalism in East Asia; the cover illustration shows a Japanese samurai warrior battling a Chinese dragon. Are we going to see a global replay of Europe’s tragic mistakes?
Sweden
Authors: Andersson Krister , Muten Leif
Published: October 2023

Following the 1986 US tax reform, Sweden, like so many other countries, remodelled its tax system in 1990 according to the principle of lower rates and broader bases. The repeal of special reserves and relief provisions was accompanied by a considerable reduction in corporate and individual income tax rates. Another major change was the abolition of the traditional global (or synthetic) income tax in favour of a dual tax, with lower nominal rates on income from capital. In the area of taxes on goods and services, the base was likewise broadened, although the general VAT rate was kept at its high 25-percent level.
The United Kingdo
Authors: Dilnot Andrew , Stears Gary
Published: October 2023

This chapter aims to give a general outline of the tax system in the UK, how each of the main taxes works, and some sense of recent and prospective reform. We begin with a disaggregation of total revenue which shows that in the UK, as in many other countries, public discussion about taxation focuses more heavily on income tax than is justified by its contribution to total revenue. We move on to discuss personal income tax, taxes on companies, the national insurance contribution (social security tax) system, indirect taxes, capital taxes, and local taxes. We then discuss a number of economic and social issues, broadly following the topics discussed in the other chapters.
Cultural Models and Demographic Behaviour
Authors: Carter Anthony T
Published: October 2023

Demography is sometimes said to suffer from an absence of theory. Just over a decade ago, for example, Geoffrey McNicoll observed that ‘[i]t is widely agreed that we do not have an adequate theory of fertility, if by theory we mean a coherent body of analysis linking a characterization of society and economy, aggregate or local, to individual fertility decisions and outcomes, able to withstand scrutiny against the empirical record’ (1980: 441). More recently, Susan Greenhalgh noted that ‘the closer we get to understanding specific fertility declines, the further we move from a general theory of fertility transition’ (1990: 85).
Trade Shock, Oil Boom and the Nigerian Economy, 1973-83
Authors: Oyejide T Ademola
Published: October 2023

Nigeria attained its political independence from British colonial rule in 1960 and the economy experienced a period of relative calm over the next four or five years. But between 1966 and 1990, the Nigerian economy experienced a series of shocks of varying magnitudes. Not all of these can be classified as trade shocks, temporary or permanent, but neither were all of them necessarily negative. In fact, it is commonly agreed that as a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and as exporter of the much sought after premium Bonny light crude oil, Nigeria derived a large wealth transfer from the oil price increases which occurred first during 1973-74 and again during 1979-80 (Gelb 1986; Oyejide 1986; Pinto 1987).
Economic Reform in Chinese Industry: Efficiency and Instability
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: October 2023

This study of economic reform in China’s industrial sector has grown out of a research project, originally instituted by the Chinese University of Hong Kong in cooperation with the Institute of Economics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. It has two principal goals: first, to assess the extent to which industrial deregulation in China has affected central planning and control-formerly, the dominant elements in the Chinese economic system; second, to analyse the changing responses of Chinese industrial enterprises to various policy levers (for example, taxes, prices, bank loans, and interest rates) and to assess their implications for micro economic efficiency and macroeconomic stability under the impact of economic reform.
Readjustment of the Managerial and Organizational Structure of Chinese Enterprises
Authors: Nyaw Mee-Kau
Published: October 2023

In a nutshell, the Chinese industrial reform programme has embraced three major aspects: (1) streamlining the relationship between state and enterprise; (2) delegating greater authority to factory directors; and (3) introducing incentive schemes in order to motivate workers and staff within enterprises. All these aspects entailed new organizational and managerial practices.
Measuring the Changing Degree of Enterprise Decision-Making Autonomy and Constraints
Authors: Kueh Shuguang , Kueh Y Y
Published: October 2023

Two major aspects of the Chinese industrial reforms have implications for overall economic efficiency and the macroeconomic context in which those reforms have taken place. The first is the extent to which the central planning authorities have delegated important output and input decisions to the production units-the enterprises-themselves. The second is the degree to which a similar mechanism of decentralization of decision-making power has simultaneously pushed enterprises towards a sustained process of self-motivated economizing. Following the familiar terminology of the Hungarian economist, Janos Kornai, the latter aspect addresses the question of whether enterprises’ ‘soft budget constraint’ has hardened under the impact of reform.
Growth and Employment in Developing Countries: Where Do We Stand?
Authors: Grilli Enzo , Zanalda Giovanni
Published: October 2023

Demand for labour is derived demand. It depends on output. Economic growth, intended simply as the growth of output over time, should increase the demand for labour and thus positively affect employment. Demand for labour should also be affected by movements in factor prices, by technological change, and by the composition of output. There are good reasons to believe that this relationship may vary over time and that, at a certain point in time, it may be considerably different from one country to another, depending on their respective stages of development. The composition of national output does in fact change with the stage of growth of a country, and employment elasticities are quite different from one sector to another.
Macro-Requirements for Sustained Mineral-Driven Development
Authors: Auty Richard M , Mikesell Raymond E
Published: October 2023

This chapter deals with the macroeconomic conditions necessary for sustained development, with particular reference to mineral-exporting countries. The fundamental condition for sustained growth in a mineral-exporting country is that the contribution of mineral exports to growth must be maintained over time, regardless of the capacity of the county to maintain its mineral production. This contribution includes not simply the current volume of mineral exports, but the investment of a sufficient portion of the mineral revenues to maintain the rate of growth induced by the initial mineral exports. As countries grow, mineral exports are likely to constitute a smaller proportion of GDP, even if mineral production is maintained or increased. Hence, the original stimulus to GDP from mineral exports is likely to decline. Also, the domestic demand for minerals will grow, thereby reducing minerals available for export. lf the rate of national savings as a percentage of GDP is maintained or enhanced, the rate of growth of GDP will be maintained provided there is a proper allocation of national savings into productive investment.
The Mineral Economies’ Economic Performance, 1970–1993
Authors: Auty Richard M , Mikesell Raymond E
Published: October 2023

This chapter begins by comparing the economic performance of the mineral economies with that of other developing countries with different natural resource endowments. It focuses on the 1970-93 period which was characterized by sharp fluctuations in both oil and metal prices (Borenzstein et al. 1994). Figure 6.1 shows the sharp real increase in oil prices through the 1970s and the subsequent collapse, and traces the movement of metals and minerals prices from boom to prolonged decline. These sharp changes in real prices impacted on the mineral revenue streams to provide a stem test of the mineral economies’ ability to respond in ways that did not impair their achievement of sustainable development.
Governance and Comparative Politics
Authors: Peters B Guy
Published: October 2023

The question we are faced with here is how can a governance perspective inform and improve the study of comparative politics? What do we gain by using governance to frame a discussion of differences among nation states as opposed to using the variety of other theoretical and analytical perspectives that have been advocated (Dogan and Pelassy, 1990)?
Governance and Public Administration
Authors: Rhodes R A W
Published: October 2023

Over the years, the study of Public Administration has seen many fashions come and go, often fun, sometimes instructive, rarely long-lived; this chapter focuses on the currently fashionable notion of ‘governance’. It is widely used, supplanting the commonplace ‘government’, but does it have a distinct meaning? What does it tell us about the challenges facing the study and practice of Public Administration?

The coming of the New Right with its love of markets heralded lean times for Public Administration.
External Trade and Payments
Authors: Lushin Andrei , Oppenheimer Peter
Published: October 2023

Foreign trade has been a highly visible and important sector of Russia’s economy. It might be supposed that the collapse of Communism would have a lesser impact in this respect upon Russia than upon the economies of central Europe, whose natural commercial linkages with western Europe had been denied them by Soviet domination. Russia’s vast land mass and large (150 million) and well-educated population make it a stronger looking candidate for self-sufficiency. The supposition is, however, mistaken. The reason lies not in the globalization of markets that is affecting long-established capitalist economies, though Russian consumers are, of course, influenced by demonstration effects emanating from western countries. Rather, it lies in certain other hitherto deeply rooted characteristics of Russia’s economy and society.
The Oil Industry: Structural Transformation and Corporate Governance
Authors: Moser Nat , Oppenheimer Peter
Published: October 2023

Oil, together with gas, was arguably the most important sector of the Russian economy in the 1990s, providing a key direct support to the domestic economy as well as a substantial proportion of both export earnings and of government tax revenue.1 Whereas the gas industry remained a monolith under a single company, Gazprom, in which the state was the major shareholder,2 the oil industry underwent far more extensive change in structure and ownership. Indeed, the post-Soviet struggle for control over the oil industry and its lucrative export revenue streams was fierce.