bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Bannatyne Recategorization Assessment Procedure: Is it Valid for Individual Diagnosis of LD Children?
Authors: Dundon William D. , Sewell Trevor E. , Manni John L. , Goldstein David
Published: April 2006

The WISC-R subtest scores of 159 black LD children of low socioeconomic status were recategorized into Spatial (Sp), Conceptual (C), and Sequential (Sq) scales as recommended by Bannatyne (1974). As a group, the sample displayed the classic Sp > C > Sq pattern. However, only 18 of the subjects (11.3%) were identified in accordance with the requirement that the differences between categories be statistically reliable for each individual. This subgroup was matched with LD controls not demonstrating the Bannatyne pattern. Analyses of longitudinal reading and math scores revealed no differences between groups. It was concluded that the diagnostic utility of the Bannatyne pattern is questionable.
Longitudinal Stability of LD Subtypes Based on Age- and IQ-Achievement Discrepancies
Authors: Short Elizabeth J. , Feagans Lynne , McKinney James D. , Appelbaum Mark I.
Published: April 2006

A twofold classification system based on discrepancy formulas was employed to subtype normal (NLD) and learning disabled (LD) children into educationally meaningful groups based upon simultaneous consideration of IQ-achievement and age-achievement discrepancies. 52 LD and 58 NLD children were classified into five groups: overachievers, target achievers, underachievers, slow learners, and disabled achievers. This classification system appeared useful by its ability to differentiate disabled learners, who were discrepant in reading achievement as predicted by both age and IQ, from slow learners, who were only discrepant in reading achievement as predicted by age. The longitudinal stability of the classification scheme was examined over a 3-year period. As expected, NLD students' achievement was more predictable over time than their LD peers' LD students became more disabled with age in spite of remedial services. The educational implications and theoretical relevance of discrepancy-based subtypes are discussed.
Communicative Effectiveness of Learning Disabled and Normally Achieving 10- to 13-Year-Old Boys
Authors: Knight-Arest Iris
Published: April 2006

The effectiveness of the communication skills of 25 learning disabled and 25 normally achieving boys was compared using an instructional task (i.e., having the boys teach the experimenter how to play checkers). The speaker's effectiveness in considering listener needs was evaluated based on the speaker's ability to convey essential information about the game of checkers and the speaker's response to the listener's verbal and nonverbal cues of confusion. As predicted, learning disabled boys' communication skills were found to be less effective than those of their normally achieving peers. Specifically, learning disabled boys: (a) talked more (i.e., they used more words and sentences) but said less (i.e., they provided less information) than normally achieving boys; (b) appeared more comfortable doing than describing (i.e., enhancing verbal explanations with gestures and demonstrations); (c) were less effective adapting messages to the needs of the listener than their normally achieving peers (e.g., they often repeated rather than reformulated what they said prior to the listener's expression of confusion). The communication differences between learning disabled and normally achieving boys suggest the need for special intervention and instruction.
Immediate Impressions of Nonverbal Ingratiation Attempts by Learning Disabled Boys
Authors: Bryan James H. , Sherman Richard
Published: April 2006

Learning disabled and nondisabled children were videotaped while being administered a standardized interview by a young adult female. Half of the children in each group received instructions to ingratiate themselves with the interviewer, while the remaining children were told to “act naturally”. The videotapes were subsequently used in three experiments in which the nature of the observers was varied. College students, mothers, and children served as observers and were asked to rate the videotaped child on a variety of items. Videotapes were presented without sound such that the ratings were based on nonverbal behaviors. In general, it was found that observers judged learning disabled children more harshly than nondisabled youngsters.
Development of Cognitive Tempo in Learning Disabled and Normal Children
Authors: Cullinan Douglas , Epstein Michael H. , Lloyd John , Noel Margaret
Published: April 2006

The Matching Familiar Figures Test was administered to 8- to 9- and 10- to 11-year-old learning disabled and normal boys. Time and error data were analyzed separately and in combination according to the Salkind and Wright (1977) model of cognitive tempo to yield two additional variables, impulsivity and efficiency. Normal boys showed developmental changes on time and errors similar to prior findings; no development of time and errors was found for the learning disabled. Significant differences according to age and status were found on impulsivity, but not on efficiency. Results are discussed in terms of learning disabled and normal boys' comparative development of cognitive tempo, and in terms of implications for further investigation of the relevance of impulsive cognitive tempo to learning disabilities.
The Diagnostic Evaluation of Writing Skills (DEWS): Application of Dews Criteria to Writing Samples
Authors: Weiner Eva S.
Published: April 2006

A controlled study using the Diagnostic Evaluation of Writing Skills (DEWS) verifies its efficacy in identifying students requiring special remedial instruction without recourse to batteries of standardized tests. The DEWS provides a basis for directing remediation into specific areas of greatest need. Its 41 assessment criteria enable the classroom teacher or the school administrator to monitor the performance and progress of individual students or classes. Graphical and statistical techniques are suggested that provide a method for obtaining an overall measurement for evaluating the effectiveness of reading and writing curricula.
First-Grade Entry Age in a Sample of Children Labeled Learning Disabled
Authors: Maddux Cleborne D.
Published: April 2006

First-grade entry ages were determined for all LD children in grades one through twelve in a large special education cooperative. The children were classified as early, medium, or late entering. U.S. Census data were consulted to determine the expected frequencies in each of these categories. It was found that there were more early-entering and fewer late-entering children in this sample than would be expected if entry age were a chance variable. Though more research is needed, the results of this study suggest the possibility that children who enter first grade early may be more likely to be labeled LD than children who enter when they are older.
Trends in Bilingual Special Education
Authors: Bernal Ernest M.
Published: April 2006

Handicapped children who are also limited-English proficient (LEP) have generally not been served adequately in the schools. Few practitioners are trained to diagnose and treat culturally and linguistically different children. Furthermore, in school systems which have resisted bilingual programs, special education has been enlisted to carry out the ignominious task of segregating LEP children from mainstream classrooms. As a result, a curious placement pattern has occurred whereby some LEP handicapped children are underserved whereas many normals are placed in special education. The traditional reluctance on the part of special education to recruit minority professionals and its separation from regular and bilingual education have stood in the way of progress. Nevertheless, a number of teacher training institutions have received grants to institute rudimentary bilingual special education programs with courses designed to bridge these gaps. Research developments also suggest that bilingual special education may emerge as a viable specialty within special education.
Hispanic Parents' Perspectives and Participation in Their Children's Special Education Program: Comparisons by Program and Race
Authors: Stein Robert Christopher
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the attitudes, satisfaction and participation in their children's special education program of Hispanic parents with handicapped children. Comparisons were made between parents with children in programs for the learning handicapped (LH) and in other program categories. In addition, cross-study racial and program comparisons were conducted. Although no significant differences were found between Hispanic subcategories, several differences between racial groups are reported. Parents of Hispanic LH students did not participate as actively in the IEP and assessment processes as did LH parents in general or white parents. The consequences of cultural variations for the definition of “participation” and their implication for schools are discussed.
Assessment and Instruction of Reading Skills: Results with Mexican-American Students
Authors: Hoffer Kathleen R.
Published: April 2006

Mexican-American students often demonstrate a reading delay. This apparent delay may be the result of several factors including inappropriate assessment, irrelevant instructional programs, second-language instruction before students have fully mastered their native language, and an absence of special assistance. Reading ability is critical to academic success, which, in turn, plays an important role in social mobility. This paper includes an examination of the tenets of nonbiased assessment, an evaluation of tests for assessing Mexican-American students' reading skills, and a discussion of research relevant to reading instruction programs for limited-English proficient students. For educational equity to be attained, practitioners and researchers must continue efforts to develop new assessment instruments, standardize informal reading inventories and cloze tests, and explore the use of new instructional strategies for teaching reading to limited-English proficient students.
Programming Generalization of Computational Skills
Authors: Blankenship Colleen S. , Baumgartner Maureen D.
Published: April 2006

This investigation assessed the extent to which elementary-age learning disabled students were able to generalize a computational skill. The subjects consisted of nine students, all of whom made systematic errors in arithmetic. Two experiments were conducted using within-subject designs. All students experienced baseline, demonstration and modeling plus feedback, and maintenance. Students who met criteria for generalizing proceeded to a followup condition, while those who did not received further interventions designed to increase their ability to generalize. The effectiveness of the following procedures was investigated: (a) reinforcing students “to generalize,” and (b) a technique which combined training several response exemplars with the use of a verbal cue and an in-discriminable reinforcement contingency. The results indicated that demonstration and modeling plus feedback was sufficient to increase some students' ability to generalize; others required further interventions to facilitate generalization.
Differential Diagnoses Based on the Task-Related Behavior of Learning Disabled and Low-Achieving Adolescents
Authors: Bender W. N.
Published: April 2006

Observations of 18 learning disabled (LD) and 18 low-achieving adolescents were compared to identify differences which may lead to differential labeling and placement. Multiple measures were used, including observations of task-related behaviors and teacher ratings of specific low-frequency problem behaviors. Observational results indicated that LD and low-achieving populations differed in total on-task behavior with the low-achieving groups demonstrating higher percentages of on-task behavior. Also, the LD group engaged in more passive off-task behavior. Teacher ratings of specific problem behaviors showed no group differences, although some LD students tended to demonstrate disturbed peer relationships. Noted behavioral differences were interpreted as leading to application of the learning disabilities label.
The Ethical Appropriateness of Subject-Matter Tutoring for Learning Disabled Adolescents
Authors: Carlson Steven A.
Published: April 2006

The number of special education programs for mildly handicapped adolescents has rapidly expanded in the past few years. Evidence that many such programs serve a primarily tutorial or supportive function raises serious questions about their appropriateness. To date such questions have routinely been approached from a legal standpoint. In this article the issue of tutorial instruction is examined from an ethical rather than a legal perspective. Principles and guidelines for enhancing the ethical appropriateness of tutorial instruction are suggested.
Social Status Differences among Subgroups of LD Boys
Authors: Landau Steven , Milich Richard , McFarland Max
Published: April 2006

The present study examined the sociometric status of subgroups of learning disabled (LD) boys. Groups were based on differences in Verbal IQ/Performance IQ patterns on the WISC-R: V > P (n = 12); P > V (n = 26); and V = P (n = 27). Data were also available for a normal control group (n = 252). Peer nominations of popularity, rejection, and behavioral problems as well as teacher ratings of externalizing behaviors were collected for each subject. Results indicated that, relative to controls, the boys in the V = P group were most often rejected by their peers and were perceived to be more aggressive than participants in the other two LD groups. Additionally, boys in the P > V and V = P groups were significantly less popular than normal controls. In contrast, boys in the V > P group were found to exhibit few peer-relations problems. These results suggest that not all LD boys are at equal risk for peer problems, and that their pattern of scores on cognitive tests may offer insight in to factors that could account for the social status difficulties experienced by LD individuals.
Correlates of Classroom Behavior Problems among Learning Disabled and Nondisabled Children in Mainstream Classes
Authors: Bender William N.
Published: April 2006

A multiple-regression design was used to identify predictors of behavior problems among learning disabled (LD) and non-learning disabled (non-LD) children. The correlates of classroom behavior for groups of 40 LD and 40 non-LD students were identified from among various personality indicators including self-concept, temperament, and locus of control. Only 10 of 66 correlations for the LD group were significant; 30 correlations were significant for the non-LD group. One personality variable —reactivity—predicted total problem behavior for the LD group, yielding an R-square of .19. For the non-LD group, a two-variable model, including reactivity and social flexibility, predicted variance in total problem behavior, yielding an R-square of .60. Implications of the results are discussed stressing the need for additional research on correlates of problem behaviors in mainstream classes.
Verbal Short-Term Memory Encoding of Learning Disabled, Deaf, and Normal Readers
Authors: Swanson Lee
Published: April 2006

The present study investigated the hypothesis that nonstrategic verbal encoding abilities are deficient in learning disabled readers. Normal, deaf, and learning disabled children matched on chronological age, IQ, and sex were randomly assigned to named and unnamed stimulus pretraining conditions and compared on subsequent performance on a probe-type serial memory task. Although overt rehearsal was inhibited, strong primacy effects were found for both the named and the unnamed condition. The named condition was superior to the unnamed condition for both normal and deaf but not for learning disabled children. Results were interpreted to indicate a deficient verbal-visual integrative process in disabled children occurring prior to the application of mnemonic strategies.
Mothers' Attributions for their Learning Disabled Child's Successes and Failures
Authors: Pearl Ruth , Bryan Tanis
Published: April 2006

The attributions of mothers of learning disabled and nondisabled children about the causes of their child's successes and failures were assessed. The results indicated that, compared to mothers of nondisabled children, the mothers of learning disabled children attributed successes less to ability and more to luck, while attributing failures more to a lack of ability and less to bad luck. Responses indicated that mothers of learning disabled children were aware of their child's attributions for performances in reading, and that they belittled their own ability to make things run smoothly at home. Results are discussed in terms of ways in which parents may foster more adaptive attributions in their children.
Peer Acceptance, Teacher Preference, and Self-Appraisal of Social Status among Learning Disabled Students
Authors: Garrett Mary K. , Crump W. Donald
Published: April 2006

Social integration, one aspect of mainstreaming, has become an increasing concern with educators working with learning disabled students. Previous results generally have indicated a low peer status for learning disabled students. The purpose of this study was to compare the peer status of learning disabled children served in mainstream programs with their nonlearning disabled peers and to explore (1) the relationship of teacher preference and social status among children, and (2) the accuracy of self-appraisal of social status among learning disabled and nonlearning disabled students. Findings concerned with peer status were similar to previous research. In addition, learning disabled students were found to be less preferred by teachers. A significant relationship between teacher preference and social status was observed in 78% of the classrooms. Results for self-appraisal of social status were somewhat different from previous research. Implications for research, curriculum, and teacher education are discussed.
Exploring the Reading and Listening Skills of Secondary Mildly Handicapped Students
Authors: Wiseman Douglas E. , Hartwell L. Kay , Hannafin Michael J.
Published: April 2006

Nonreading curricula are being proposed for mildly handicapped students mainstreamed in secondary classrooms. In this study, three probes investigated various conditions for acquiring textbook content through listening and reading utilizing simulated classroom assignments. Statistical analysis showed that reading test scores seemed to have little relationship to performance on the textbook assignments for either reading or listening conditions. The results of the probes indicated that listening to textbook content was generally as effective as or more effective than reading textbook content, but on all probes there was a high degree of variability in performance. The findings seem to suggest that teachers of content courses may need to explore reading and listening performance employing the materials used in class rather than relying on the results of standardized tests to make instructional decisions. Implications for teachers are discussed.
The Significance of Learning Modalities, Modes of Instruction, and Verbal Feedback for Learning to Recognize Written Words
Authors: Meyers Marcee J.
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the effects of modality preference, mode of instruction, and verbal feedback on immediate and delayed recall of new words in 72 elementary-age learning disabled students. These children, classified as either auditory, visual, or multisensory learners based on the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, were randomly assigned to auditory, visual, or multisensory instructional groups. Each of the groups included both a praise and a no-praise treatment. An analysis of variance revealed no significant differences for either the verbal feedback or the mode of instruction variable. Thus, research hypotheses regarding the absence of interaction between modality preference and mode of instruction were supported.
Effects of Picture Fading on two Learning Disabled Students' Sight Word Acquisition
Authors: Knowlton H. Earle
Published: April 2006

Picture-fading methods previously demonstrated to be effective with moderately and severely retarded individuals were used to teach 12 sight words to two learning disabled students. Although previous studies clearly showed picture fading to be superior to stimulus change and standard paired-associate procedures, such studies employed expensive apparatus. The results of the present study indicated that fading the pictures of picture-word pairs using tracing paper was effective in teaching three lists of four words to two students who were receiving half-day services in an elementary resource room. Followup results indicated that although long-term retention was adequate, several confounding subject and task variables might have accounted for inconsistent followup performances by both students.
Increasing Retention of Main Ideas through Questioning Strategies
Authors: Wong Bernice Y. L.
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the effectiveness of questions in increasing learning disabled and normally achieving children's retention of main ideas of a story. The results indicate that questions increase the retention of main ideas in learning disabled children. However, the results indicate that questions have little effect on the retention of main ideas in normally achieving children. The findings are interpreted in terms of cognitively activating the learning disabled children by the questions; the normally achieving children were seen spontaneously and actively to process what they read. The results are interpreted to support Torgesen's conceptualization of the learning disabled child as an inactive learner.
Definition for Definitions of Learning Disabilities
Authors: Kavale Kenneth A. , Forness Steven R. , Lorsbach Thomas C.
Published: April 2006

This article examines the problem of definition in learning disabilities. First, the focus is on the nature of definition. It is suggested that available definitions of LD are not real in the Aristotelian sense of providing an essence. Rather, they are best viewed as providing stipulative meaning by representing information agreed upon by particular groups. What is stipulated, however, cannot be considered either true or false but only useful for practical purposes.

Practice requires operational definitions, which are also fraught with conceptual difficulties. Such difficulties are illustrated in a discussion of discrepancy. It is also suggested that operational definition is too narrowly focused and should be expanded by considering operational interpretations, based on the best available knowledge. Finally, an example is provided of how operational interpretations may be combined into a more comprehensive operational definition for classifying learning disabilities.
Conceptual and Empirical Problems with Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability
Authors: Stanovich Keith E.
Published: April 2006

Most definitions of reading disability and/or dyslexia involve assessment of a discrepancy between reading ability and measured intelligence. In this article, it is argued that the use of intelligence as an aptitude benchmark in defining dyslexia conceals unsupported assumptions about educational potential and makes it difficult to differentiate the cognitive characteristics of dyslexic children from those of other poor readers. The use of a more educationally relevant aptitude measure such as listening comprehension is suggested. However, it is argued that all discrepancy definitions predicated on mismatches between aptitude and achievement are threatened by findings that acquisition of literacy fosters the cognitive skills assessed on aptitude measures. These findings undermine the logic of discrepancy measurement by weakening the distinction between aptitude and achievement.
Selection of Subjects in Research on Learning Disabilities: A View from the Social Side
Authors: Bryan Tanis
Published: April 2006

A series of arguments are put forward to convince colleagues that the selection of subjects for research on learning disabilities is a function of (a) contemporary notions about learning disabilities, (b) purpose of the study and level of knowledge about the topic, and (c) practical constraints inherent in doing research on learning disabilities. While acknowledging the importance of setting high standards for conducting good science on learning disabilities, the position is taken that denigrations of the extant database along with unaffordable demands for subject selection and descriptions threaten the progress otherwise being made in the field. A growing database is the result of challenges to our stereotypes of learning disabilities, diagnostic assumptions and procedures, and teaching techniques. It is important to build upon the work that has been done, to continue this evolutionary process, to challenge public policies and their impact on children and families, and to advance our knowledge about the nature of learning disabilities.
Effects of Cross-Age Tutoring on Word-Recognition Performance of Learning Disabled Students
Authors: Chiang Berttram , Thorpe Harold W. , Darch Craig B.
Published: April 2006

Research has suggested that cross-age tutoring strategies facilitate individualized instruction for children with learning disabilities. Using a multiple-baseline design and direct, daily measures as the dependent variable, the present study evaluated the effects of four fifth-grade LD students tutoring one third-grade and three second-grade LD students on word-recognition skills. The results indicated that the cross-age tutoring procedure was mutually beneficial for the tutors and the tutees. During the intervention phase, all tutees improved their performance on reading sixty morphemes, while all tutors showed impressive gains in reading multisyllable words containing one or more of the morphemes they had taught. The implications of the findings for programming within LD classrooms are discussed.
Readiness as a Variable Influencing Comprehension in Content-Area Reading at the Secondary Level: A Cognitive View
Authors: Huhn Ralph H.
Published: April 2006

A cognitive theory of readiness is offered as a possible explanation of the learning problems of learning or reading disabled secondary students. A discussion of the implications of the theory for secondary content-area reading is included along with a model for implementation of the readiness components.
Whole-Language Approaches: Premises and Possibilities
Authors: Leigh James E.
Published: April 2006

In this article the major principles of a whole-language approach are identified and discussed as they may be applied with learning disabled children. Theoretical assumptions and specific educational practices are described, with recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of whole-language programs for learning disabled children. Finally, the issue of compatibility between a whole-language system and other interventions is addressed.
Two Approaches to Reading Program Evaluation: A Standardized Test and Direct Assessment
Authors: Lovitt Thomas C. , Fantasia Kathryn
Published: April 2006

Pretest and posttest measures of reading were obtained for two groups of learning disabled youngsters for two years. Measures of two types were scheduled to evaluate the program: a standardized test and direct assessment. The standardized test was the Diagnostic Reading Scales, and for the direct assessment passages from the Holt and Lippincott series were used. The two evaluation approaches were compared on: relationship to book levels passed in a year and statistical significance. The data indicated that the approaches were much alike in respect to these features. Nevertheless, the following argument was made that — based on reliability considerations, practical issues, and ethical concerns — teachers might be better off to opt for the direct approach to evaluating their reading programs.
Effects of Mother Presence and Absence on LD Children's and Their Mothers' Causal Attributions for Performance Outcomes
Authors: Dembo Myron H. , Vaughn Wendy
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether mother presence and absence have a differential effect on children's and mothers' attributional responses for performance outcomes. It was hypothesized that children whose mothers were present to observe them perform a task would rate their effort and ability higher under success and lower under failure conditions. It also was expected that mothers' attributional ratings would follow a similar pattern for ability and effort attributions as well as ratings of their children's future performance. Forty male children in grades 3 and 4 and their mothers participated in the investigation. The data indicated a significant performance-(success and failure)-by-maternal-involvement (presence and absence) interaction for children's attributional ratings of effort, task difficulty, and luck and for mothers' attributional ratings of their children's effort, task difficulty, and future performance.
College Graduates with Learning Disabilities — Employment Attainment and Career Patterns
Authors: Adelman Pamela B. , Vogel Susan A.
Published: April 2006

Educational attainment and employment patterns are reported for LD four-year college graduates who participated in a highly coordinated, comprehensive support program for college students with learning disabilities. The majority of graduates had majored either in education or business and management and held business-related jobs. Most graduates responded that their learning disabilities affected their work. Processing difficulties, including retention, amount of time required to complete work, and perception (particularly number and letter reversals), were the most common difficulties. The major compensatory strategies consisted of spending extra time to finish work, asking for assistance, and carefully monitoring work for errors. Even though the graduates indicated that their learning disabilities affected their work, an important finding is that they had developed compensatory strategies. Implications for service at the college level to enhance successful employment of individuals with learning disabilities are discussed.
LD Children's Regular Classroom Behavior before and after Identification and Placement
Authors: White David F. , Saudargas Richard A. , Zanolli Kathleen
Published: April 2006

Regular classroom behavior and teacher ratings of learning disabled (LD), low average (LA), and average (AV) students were compared before and after LD placement in resource. Results showed no Preplacement differences in regular classroom behavior between LD students and their peers. At Postplacement, LD children spent significantly less time doing schoolwork and more time looking around than AV students; also, they initiated more interactions with the regular classroom teacher than LA or AV students. Regular classroom teachers rated the LD students less favorably than LA and AV students at both Pre- and Postplacement. However, according to the observational data, LD maladaptive behavior patterns appeared only at Postplacement. It was hypothesized that these patterns reflect cross-setting generalization between resource and regular classrooms.
An Analysis of Mainstream Consultation Outcomes for Secondary Students Identified as Learning Disabled
Authors: Tindal Gerald , Parker Richard , Germann Gary
Published: April 2006

For secondary students identified as learning disabled, the professional literature increasingly recommends ecological programming in which instruction is delivered in the least restrictive environment. This study explored the effects of a service delivery system in regular content area classrooms using Mainstream Consultation Agreements (MCAs). The essential feature of this system is a contractual agreement between regular class and special education teachers that defines shared responsibilities for delivering instruction to students based on individual performance expectations. MCAs were evaluated for 29 LD students integrated into 157 content area classes, with end-of-year course grades and progress in quarterly grades serving as ecologically valid indices of student success. Both improvement and deterioration in course grades were found. Consequently, MCAs alone may be insufficient to ensure success of students identified as learning disabled in mainstream classes. Furthermore, once mainstreamed, these students' progress appears to require monitoring throughout their courses.
Perception and Interpretation of Ambiguous Sentences by Learning Disabled Twelve-Year-Olds
Authors: Wiig Elisabeth H. , Semel Eleanor M. , Abele Else
Published: April 2006

The present research assessed and compared the abilities of 27 learning disabled twelve-year-olds, 27 academically achieving age controls, 10 academically achieving seven- to eight-year-olds, and 10 normally developing five- to six-year-olds to perceive and interpret lexical and syntactic ambiguities in sentences. Eight lexically ambiguous, eight syntactically ambiguous, and four unambiguous control sentences were presented for interpretation of their alternatives in meaning. Each experimental sentence was associated with four pictorial choices. Significant differences in the ability to perceive and interpret the alternative meanings of both lexical and syntactical ambiguities were found between the learning disabled and the academically achieving twelve-year-olds. No significant difference existed in the ability of the learning disabled twelve-year-olds and the seven- to eight-year-old controls to perceive and interpret lexical ambiguities; however, they differed significantly in the ability to interpret the syntactic ambiguities. Comparison of the ability of the learning disabled twelve-year-olds and the five- to six-year-old controls to interpret the syntactic ambiguities indicated no significant differences. Among the learning disabled twelve-year-olds, performances on the ambiguous sentence test correlated positively with performances on tests of delayed sentence recall (NSST-Expressive) and of comprehension of sentences with linguistic concepts and relationships (Semel & Wiig, 1980). Performances did not correlate significantly with measures of verbal intelligence (WISC-R Verbal Scale). The present findings support previous observations of linguistic deficits among learning disabled children and adolescents and suggest that significant limitations may exist in the acquisition of linguistic competence by some children in this diagnostic group.
Popularity, Decentering Ability, and Role-Taking Skills in Learning Disabled and Normal Children
Authors: Horowitz Elizabeth Cliff
Published: April 2006

Twenty-nine learning disabled and 29 normal children were given impersonal and interpersonal tasks of decentering ability. In addition, 130 children, including 31 learning disabled children, were administered two sociometric tests—a sociogram and a social insight test. The learning disabled children were found to perform less well on the interpersonal decentering task, though no differences were found between them and their normal peers on the impersonal task of decentering ability. The sociometric testing indicated that the learning disabled children were less popular than their normal peers, but no less insightful about how others regarded them. No relationship between decentering ability and popularity was found.
Services for the LD Adult: A Working Paper
Authors: Gray Richard A.
Published: April 2006

The literature provides little structure or guidance for the provision of services to learning disabled (LD) adults. Twenty-five suggestions are presented here for consideration when describing, defining, and assessing LD adults; when designing appropriate instructional and support services for these individuals; and when planning related research. Implications are discussed for elementary- and secondary-level educators, as well as for those designing services for adults.
Effects of a Constant Time Delay Procedure on the Written Spelling Performance of a Learning Disabled Student
Authors: Stevens Kay B. , Schuster John W.
Published: April 2006

A constant time delay procedure was used to teach written spelling to an 11-year-old, school-labeled LD youngster who had severe spelling deficits. The time delay procedure is a near errorless instructional method that transfers stimulus control from a controlling stimulus (a prompt that signals the correct response) to a new stimulus (a target response). As a result of a 5-second constant delay procedure the student acquired, maintained, and generalized 15 spelling words. The procedure is easy to implement, requires little teacher preparation time, and results in a low student error rate. In the absence of published time delay research with LD individuals, the results are encouraging. Based on our findings, the time delay procedure is a viable alternative for LD students who have not benefited from traditional instructional procedures. Since the results of this study and those in the unpublished literature indicate that the time delay procedure is effective, further examination with other LD students is warranted.
Perceived Competence and Self-Worth of LD and Normally Achieving Students
Authors: Kistner Janet , Haskett Mary , White Karen , Robbins Frank
Published: April 2006

Elementary and middle-school learning disabled (LD) and normally achieving (NA) students' responses to the Perceived Competence Scale for Children were compared. This scale measures general self-worth as well as perceptions of cognitive, social and physical competence. In accord with previous research, LD students were found to hold lower opinions of their cognitive abilities than did NA students. Furthermore, compared to their peers, LD students held less favorable perceptions of their physical abilities. LD and NA students' ratings for general self-esteem did not differ, nor did the groups vary in perception of social competence. These results indicate that LD children maintain generally positive self-evaluations, despite their recognition of limitations in some areas. Based on comparisons between teacher and student ratings, subgroups of LD students who held unrealistically positive or negative perceptions of themselves were identified. The characteristics of these subgroups were examined.
Influence of Modeling on Acquisition and Generalization of Computational Skills: A Summary of Research Findings from Three Sites
Authors: Rivera Diane M. , Smith Deborah D.
Published: April 2006

Modeling through demonstration is a viable teaching strategy for helping students acquire a variety of skills. In the present study, modeling is examined as it relates to learning disabled students' acquisition and generalization of computational skills. Data from a number of learning disabled students in three research locations are presented and summarized to validate the effectiveness of this technique.
Competencies for Professionals in Learning Disabilities
Authors: Newcomer Phyllis L.
Published: April 2006

A major role of any professional organization is to establish standards by which professionals and practices in the field can be evaluated. DCLD has taken a major step in this direction by developing a set of competencies for teachers of learning disabled children and youth. This article presents the rationale behind the development of these competencies as well as potential uses of the competency statements. The development of this set of competency statements underscores the Division's commitment to upgrading current practices. Readers are strongly encouraged to provide feedback to Dr. Newcomer's Committee on the scope, format, and content of the competency statements. Meaningful standards can best be derived from these statements through a broad base of input from professionals in the field. - D.D.D.
Memory Subtypes in Learning Disabled Readers
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: April 2006

This study assumes that learning disabled readers may be characterized by different patterns of memory dysfunction. To test this assumption, subgroups of LD readers were determined through a hierarchical cluster analysis, which included a memory classification battery of semantic, elaborative, and effortful encoding tasks. Eight subtypes of memory dysfunction were identified. One LD subtype, 8% of the sample, presented a normal profile; however, all subtypes were inferior to non-LD readers in composite scores reflecting elaboration and central-processing demands. Five subtypes (over 78% of the sample) demonstrated severe memory difficulties primarily with elaboration and high-effort encoding tasks when compared to the other subtypes. The results were generally consistent with memory-capacity theories suggesting that individual differences in recall are related to possessing (a) sufficient amount of structural resources (i.e., word knowledge base) to meet task demands, (b) sufficient supply of required capacity under high-effort encoding conditions, and (c) sufficient resource monitoring policy. The study provides external validation for classification of LD readers on psychometric measures according to patterns of memory performance.
The Effect of Textual Proximity on Fourth- and Fifth-Grade LD Students' Metacognitive Awareness and Strategic Comprehension Behavior
Authors: Simmons Deborah C. , Kameenui Edward J. , Darch Craig B.
Published: April 2006

This investigation examined the relationship between the proximity of critical textual information and selected metacognitive behaviors of elementary-age LD students. Twenty-nine LD students were presented six passages in which information critical to the solution of text-based inferences was either systematically dispersed or centralized within the text. Following a comprehension measure, interrogatory probes were administered to assess three self-reported metacognitive behaviors: (a) awareness of text difficulty, (b) attributions of text difficulty, and (c) strategy usage. Chi-square analyses revealed that textual proximity was independent of LD subjects' ratings and attributions of passage difficulty; however, a significant relationship was found between text proximity and strategy deployment. Subjects who received collapsed versions of passages reported higher percentages of text-based strategies (41%), whereas over 50% of the dispersed condition subjects' responses reflected no strategy use. Analysis of strategy efficacy (i.e., relationship between strategy application and comprehension) further reinforced the significant effect of text proximity on strategy application.
Automatization and Basic Fact Performance of Normal and Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Garnett Katherine , Fleischner Jeannette E.
Published: April 2006

The relationship between automatization ability, as measured by the Rapid Automatic Naming Test (RAN), and proficiency in arithmetic basic fact computation was investigated. Subjects included 120 learning disabled and 120 nondisabled children between 8 and 13 years of age; 60 subjects in each group were designated as either younger or older. Significant correlations were obtained between RAN performance and basic fact proficiency for both the learning disabled and nondisabled groups. In addition, learning disabled subjects were found to be less proficient in basic fact computation and slower on RAN than their nondisabled peers at both younger and older age levels. Correlations were substantial enough to further inquire whether LD youngsters' lack of proficient basic fact skills may be due, in part at least, to weak automatization. The construct of automatization, or automaticity, has applicability to academic skills beyond those previously investigated.
Toward Defining Discrepancies for Specific Learning Disabilities: An Analysis and Alternatives
Authors: Algozzine Bob , Forgnone Charles , Mercer Cecil , Trifiletti John
Published: April 2006

According to the United States Office of Education, the only generally accepted manifestation of a specific learning disability is the existence of a significant discrepancy between expected and actual achievement. Within this context methods for determining the significance of any achievement discrepancies in children's performances become important. The research reported here attempted to evaluate the utility of two procedures for determining severe discrepancy levels; the benefits and liabilities of each are discussed.
A Review and Appraisal of Instruments Assessing Hyperactivity in Children
Authors: Poggio John P. , Salkind Neil J.
Published: April 2006

Hyperactivity is a characteristic often associated with learning disabilities. However, diagnosticians, practitioners, and researchers have been beset by problems related to the definition and measurement of this condition. This article presents an excellent review and appraisal of available instruments for assessing hyperactivity in children. Poggio and Salkind conclude that most instruments have serious flaws that limit their effectiveness in assessment of hyperactivity in children.
Handicapped Labels and Instructional Segregation: Influences on Children's Self-Concepts versus the Perceptions of Others
Authors: Coleman J. Michael
Published: April 2006

Self-concept scores of preadolescent mildly handicapped children enrolled in one of three instructional settings (one- or two-hour resource and self-contained) were compared to those of regular-class students whose teachers indicated they were having sufficient academic difficulties to warrant special education placement. In addition, mothers of children in all groups were asked to complete a copy of the self-concept measure by responding to the items as they would expect their offspring to respond. The relatively higher scores for special education students as opposed to regular-class students was taken in support of the contention that (a) children's self-concepts are largely dependent on social comparisons to others in their primary reference group; and (b) partial instructional segregation in homogeneous groups may enhance young handicapped children's self-concepts by providing them a more favorable environment in which to make social comparisons. The finding that mothers of handicapped children consistently underestimated their children's scores while mothers of regular-class children overestimated their offspring's results was considered evidence that handicapped labels might alter others' perceptions of how special education students feel about themselves. However, no evidence was found to suggest that the low self-concept estimates on the part of handicapped mothers influenced their children's scores. The findings are synthesized within a discussion of new cognitive-developmental models of self-concept formation and maintenance that call into question many long-held assumptions about the influence of special education on children's self-concept.
Learning Disabled Students' Conformity Responses to Prosocial and Antisocial Situations
Authors: Bryan Tanis , Werner Mara , Pearl Ruth
Published: April 2006

Junior-high school aged learning disabled and nondisabled students rated their willingness to conform to peer pressure to engage in antisocial and prosocial actions. In addition, students indicated how many friends they had, how supportive they perceived their peers and parents to be, and how often they participated in antisocial actions with friends. The results indicated that while learning disabled and nondisabled children did not differ in their estimates of likely conformity to engaging in prosocial behaviors, the learning disabled subjects rated themselves more likely to engage in antisocial actions with friends. While learning disabled children estimated having somewhat fewer friends than nondisabled students, the groups did not differ in their perceptions of peer and parent supportiveness. Results are discussed in terms of factors which may affect learning disabled adolescents' social behaviors.