bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The geography of prescription pharmaceuticals supplied to the USA: levels, trends, and implications
Authors: Shivdasani Yashna , Kaygisiz Neriman Beste , Berndt Ernst R , Conti Rena M
Published: November 2020

Prescription pharmaceuticals are frequently used consumer products whose manufacturing location is commonly held as a trade secret by firms and US regulatory agencies. Here we use previously non-publicly available data to describe levels and trends in the manufacturing locations of the most commonly used prescription pharmaceuticals, off-patent generic drugs, intended to be consumed by Americans. We find that the base ingredients required for the manufacturing of these prescription drugs are overwhelmingly and increasingly manufactured in non-domestic locations, specifically India and China. The manufacturing of finished prescription drugs for the American market is more equally split between domestic and foreign locations, but is increasingly foreign as well. The American reliance on non-domestic manufacturing of prescription drugs is important for stakeholders to appreciate, given current quality and pricing concerns and their potential susceptibility to interruptions in supply due to natural disasters, pandemics, and international trade negotiations. We discuss implications of these levels and trends for current domestic and international policy discussions.
Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) Nymphal Survival and Host-Finding Success in the Eastern United States
Authors: Tufts Danielle M , McClure Max , Diuk-Wasser Maria A
Published: November 2020

The blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis Say) is the primary vector of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (Spirochaetales: Spirochaetaceae), the Lyme disease agent in North America. The basic reproduction number (R0) for B. burgdorferi in I. scapularis in the Northeast is highly sensitive to the probability that engorged larvae survive the winter, molt into nymphs, and find a host. These processes are dependent on local environmental variables, including climate, host population size and movement, and tick behavior. A simple model is presented for estimating host-finding success from the ratio of tick abundance in two subsequent years, accounting for overwinter survival and possible differences in host associations between nymphs and larvae. This model was parameterized using data from two sites in mainland Connecticut and two on Block Island, RI. Host abundance and tick burdens were estimated via mark–recapture trapping of the primary host, Peromyscus leucopus Rafinesque. Overwintering survival was estimated using engorged larvae placed in field enclosures at each site. Only nymphs were recovered alive, and no significant differences in model parameters were observed between Connecticut and Block Island. Host-finding success was predicted to be high across a wide range of host association patterns at three of four sites. Assuming equivalent host association between larvae and nymphs, R0 was also estimated to be greater than one at three of four sites, suggesting these conditions allow for the persistence of B. burgdorferi. The model output was highly sensitive to differences between nymphal and larval host associations.
Vector Competence of Peruvian Mosquitoes for Two Orthobunyaviruses Isolated From Mosquitoes Captured in Peru
Authors: Turell M J , Dohm D J , Fernandez R , Klein T A
Published: November 2020

We evaluated the potential for mosquitoes collected in the Amazon Basin, near Iquitos, Peru, to become infected with and transmit Murutucu (MURV) and Itaqui viruses (ITQV) (Order Bunyavirales, Family: Peribunyaviridae, Genus: Orthobunyavirus). Viremia levels in Syrian hamsters peaked 2 d after infection with either virus, and both viruses were highly lethal in hamsters with virtually all hamsters dying prior to 3-d postinfection. For almost all of the mosquito species tested some individuals were susceptible to infection and some developed a disseminated infection after oral exposure to either MURV or ITQV. However, only the Culex species (Culex (Culex) coronator Dyar and Knab [Diptera, Culicidae], Culex (Melanoconian) gnomatos Sallum, Huchings, and Ferreira [Diptera, Culicidae], Culex (Mel.) pedroi Sirivanakarn and Belkin [Diptera, Culicidae], and Culex (Mel.) vomerifer Komp [Diptera, Culicidae]) successfully transmitted virus by bite. However, even among these species, only about 37% of the individuals with a disseminated infection successfully transmitted these viruses, indicating a significant salivary gland barrier. Although little is known about the medical or veterinary importance of many members of the genus Orthobunyavirus, we have demonstrated that Culex spp. (Diptera, Culicidae) could be potential vectors.
Motivators of Inappropriate Ovarian Cancer Screening: A Survey of Women and Their Clinicians
Authors: Macdonald Courtney , Mazza Danielle , Hickey Martha , Hunter Morgan , Keogh Louise A , Investigators kConFab , Jones Sandra C , Saunders Christobel , Nesci Stephanie , Milne Roger L , McLachlan Sue-Anne , Hopper John L , Friedlander Michael L , Emery Jon , Phillips Kelly-Anne
Published: November 2020

Background

This study examined why women and doctors screen for ovarian cancer (OC) contrary to guidelines.

Methods

Surveys, based on the Theoretical Domains Framework, were sent to women in the Kathleen Cuningham Foundation Consortium for Research into Familial Breast Cancer and family physicians and gynecologists who organized their screening.

Results

Of 1264 Kathleen Cuningham Foundation Consortium for Research into Familial Breast Cancer women, 832 (65.8%) responded. In the past 2 years, 126 (15.1%) had screened. Most of these (n = 101, 80.2%) would continue even if their doctor told them it is ineffective. For women, key OC screening motivators operated in the domains of social role and goals (staying healthy for family, 93.9%), emotion and reinforcement (peace of mind, 93.1%), and beliefs about capabilities (tests are easy to have, 91.9%). Of 531 clinicians 252 (47.5%) responded; a minority (family physicians 45.8%, gynecologists 16.7%) thought OC screening was useful. For gynecologists, the main motivators of OC screening operated in the domains of environmental context (lack of other screening options, 27.6%), and emotion (patient peace of mind, 17.2%; difficulty discontinuing screening, 13.8%). For family physicians,, the strongest motivators were in the domains of social influence (women ask for these tests, 20.7%), goals (a chance these tests will detect cancer early, 16.4%), emotion (patient peace of mind, 13.8%), and environmental context (no other OC screening options, 11.2%).

Conclusion

Reasons for OC screening are mostly patient driven. Clinician knowledge and practice are discordant. Motivators of OC screening encompass several domains, which could be targeted in interventions to reduce inappropriate OC screening.
Who Is a Political Prisoner?
Authors: Steinert Christoph Valentin
Published: November 2020

Who is a political prisoner? The classification of inmates as political prisoners has important real-world implications such as deciding over accession to international organizations or triggering international advocacy. However, the concept is ambiguously used in academic studies referring to both theoretically and empirically distinct groups of individuals. Building on a systematic review of the academic literature, I identify that definitions of political prisoners differ primarily with regard to (1) the source of politicization, (2) the timing of politicization, (3) the question of nonviolence, (4) the inclusion of identity prisoners, and (5) the criteria for biased state actions. In order to establish political prisoners as analytically consistent concept, I suggest to reserve it for victims of politically biased trials while remaining agnostic toward prisoners’ political motivations. I introduce explicit criteria grounded in international law to identify politically biased trials in practice. The new conceptualization allows to disentangle political imprisonments from other types of illegitimate and non-illegitimate imprisonments. A disaggregation of the concept further highlights that only a subset of political prisoners is entitled to demands for unconditional releases. Taken together, this article sheds light to the underlying meanings of different actors’ claims about political imprisonments and contributes to the systematic study of this type of human rights abuse.
Strain difference in transgene-induced tumorigenesis and suppressive effect of ionizing radiation
Authors: Dutta Bibek , Asami Taichi , Imatomi Tohru , Igarashi Kento , Nagata Kento , Watanabe-Asaka Tomomi , Yasuda Takako , Oda Shoji , Shartl Manfred , Mitani Hiroshi
Published: November 2020

Transgenic expression in medaka of the Xiphophorus oncogene xmrk, under a pigment cell specific mitf promoter, induces hyperpigmentation and pigment cell tumors. In this study, we crossed the Hd-rR and HNI inbred strains because complete genome information is readily available for molecular and genetic analysis. We prepared an Hd-rR (p53+/−, p53−/−) and Hd-rR HNI hybrid (p53+/−) fish-based xmrk model system to study the progression of pigment cells from hyperpigmentation to malignant tumors on different genetic backgrounds. In all strains examined, most of the initial hyperpigmentation occurred in the posterior region. On the Hd-rR background, mitf:xmrk-induced tumorigenesis was less frequent in p53+/− fish than in p53−/− fish. The incidence of hyperpigmentation was more frequent in Hd-rR/HNI hybrids than in Hd-rR homozygotes; however, the frequency of malignant tumors was low, which suggested the presence of a tumor suppressor in HNI genetic background fish. The effects on tumorigenesis in xmrk-transgenic immature medaka of a single 1.3 Gy irradiation was assessed by quantifying tumor progression over 4 consecutive months. The results demonstrate that irradiation has a different level of suppressive effect on the frequency of hyperpigmentation in purebred Hd-rR compared with hybrids.
Long-term follow-up of ciliated muconodular papillary tumor of the lung by computed tomography: a case report
Authors: Matsushima Ryohei , Mori Takeshi , Saeki Sho , Hinokuma Hironori , Tanaka Hidekazu , Yokomizo Hiroshi
Published: November 2020

Ciliated muconodular papillary tumor (CMPT) is an extremely rare pulmonary tumor and the clinical characteristics are still unknown. We report the preoperative long-term clinical course and changes in computed tomography (CT) findings of CMPT. A 60-year-old man underwent lower bilobectomy for squamous cell carcinoma in the right lower lobe 18 years before the surgery for CMPT. Twelve years before the surgery for CMPT, a 4-mm small ground glass nodule arose in the left lower lobe. The nodule gradually grew and became dense over time. Because it became mostly solid with central cavities, the patient underwent wedge resection and the tumor was diagnosed as CMPT. There were no recurrences 20 months after surgery. The preoperative CT findings of CMPT were similar to progressive preinvasive lesion, whereas it followed the benign clinical course. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on long-term preoperative follow-up of CMPT.
The Hercules cluster in X-rays with XMM-Newton and Chandra
Authors: Tiwari Juhi , Singh Kulinder Pal
Published: November 2020

We present a detailed X-ray study of the central subcluster of the nearby ($z\, \sim$0.0368) Hercules cluster (Abell 2151) identified as A2151C that shows a bimodal structure. A bright clump of hot gas with X-ray emission extending to radius $r\, \sim$304 kpc and $L_X = 3.03_{-0.04}^{+0.02}\times 10^{43}$ erg s−1 in the 0.4–7.0 keV energy range is seen as a fairly regular subclump towards the west (A2151C(B)). An irregular, fainter and cooler subclump with radius $r\, \sim$364 kpc is seen towards the east (A2151C(F)) and has LX = 1.13 ± 0.02 × 1043 erg s−1 in the 0.4–7.0 keV energy band. The average temperature and elemental abundance of A2151C(B) are 2.01 ± 0.05 keV and 0.43 ± 0.05 Z⊙, respectively, while these values are 1.17 ± 0.04 keV and 0.13 ± 0.02 Z⊙ for A2151C(F). Low temperature (1.55 ± 0.07 keV) and a short cooling time (∼0.81 Gyr) within the central 15 arcsec region confirm the presence of a cool core in A2151C(B). We identify several compact groups of galaxies within A2151C(F). We find that A2151C(F) is a distinct galaxy group in the process of formation and likely not a ram-pressure stripped part of the eastern subcluster in Hercules (A2151E). X-ray emission from A2151C shows a region of overlap between A2151C(B) and A2151C(F) but without any enhancement of temperature or entropy in the two-dimensional (2D) projected thermodynamic maps that could have indicated an interaction due to a merger between the two subclumps.
The UCSC Genome Browser database: 2021 update
Authors: Navarro Gonzalez Jairo , Zweig Ann S , Speir Matthew L , Schmelter Daniel , Rosenbloom Kate R , Raney Brian J , Powell Conner C , Nassar Luis R , Maulding Nathan D , Lee Christopher M , Lee Brian T , Hinrichs Angie S , Fyfe Alastair C , Fernandes Jason D , Diekhans Mark , Clawson Hiram , Casper Jonathan , Benet-Pagès Anna , Barber Galt P , Haussler David , Kuhn Robert M , Haeussler Maximilian , Kent W James
Published: November 2020

For more than two decades, the UCSC Genome Browser database (https://genome.ucsc.edu) has provided high-quality genomics data visualization and genome annotations to the research community. As the field of genomics grows and more data become available, new modes of display are required to accommodate new technologies. New features released this past year include a Hi-C heatmap display, a phased family trio display for VCF files, and various track visualization improvements. Striving to keep data up-to-date, new updates to gene annotations include GENCODE Genes, NCBI RefSeq Genes, and Ensembl Genes. New data tracks added for human and mouse genomes include the ENCODE registry of candidate cis-regulatory elements, promoters from the Eukaryotic Promoter Database, and NCBI RefSeq Select and Matched Annotation from NCBI and EMBL-EBI (MANE). Within weeks of learning about the outbreak of coronavirus, UCSC released a genome browser, with detailed annotation tracks, for the SARS-CoV-2 RNA reference assembly.
Designing Differently with Dance
Authors: Ritter Julia M.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 2 brings to light the fact that although choreography has been overlooked in discussions of immersive performance, it has in fact long been invisibly operating as a strategy for immersing spectators in these productions. Drawing upon interviews with practitioners of immersive productions, the author examines how the compositional tools of dance are being adapted and combined with tools from other disciplines to create choreographic structures for both dancers and spectators. The chapter also considers the ethical and political implications of creating productions that seemingly offer spectators opportunities to perceive performances as singular and customized when in fact the choreography is functioning as a powerful mechanism to guide experience.
The Last Ghetto
Authors: Hájková Anna
Published: November 2020

The Last Ghetto is the first in-depth, analytical history of a prisoner society during the Holocaust. Terezín (Theresienstadt in German) was operated by the Nazis between November 1941 and May 1945 as a transit ghetto for Central and Western European Jews before their deportation to be murdered in the East. Rather than depict the world of the prisoners as an atomized state of exception, this book argues that the prisoner societies in the Holocaust are best understood as existing among the many known versions of societies. This book challenges the claims of Holocaust exceptionalism and insists that it be viewed with the same analytical tools as other historical events. The prisoner society Terezín produced its own social hierarchies, but the contents of categories such as class changed radically; seemingly small differences among prisoners could determine whether one ultimately lived or died. During the three and a half years of the ghetto’s existence, prisoners created their own culture and habits, bonded, fell in love, and forged new families. The shared Jewishness of the prisoners was not the basis of their identities; rather, prisoners embraced their ethnic origin. Based on extensive archival research in nine languages, The Last Ghetto is a transnational, cultural, social, gender, and organizational history of Terezín, revealing how human society works in extremis.
Baby, It’s in Your Nature
Authors: Brogaard Berit
Published: November 2020

In its new guidelines to help psychologists address male violence, sexism, and misogyny, the American Psychological Association suggests that misogyny stems from the masculinity ideology our culture adheres to. While the masculinity dogma is part of what inspires men to hate women, two other ideologies are needed to explain the misogyny incarnate in contemporary culture: doctrines here called “the feminine ideal” and “the myth of female filth.” It’s imprinted into the minds of little girls that they need to live up to society’s standards of femininity. Women who deviate from traditional gender norms become the targets of misogynistic hatred. The flipside of the feminine ideal is that women’s implicit association with bodily “stuff,” manipulation, and irrationality makes all women prone to misogynistic contempt. Along the way, this chapter shows how sexism differs from hateful and contemptuous misogyny, and why women who belong to multiple marginalized or stigmatized groups are particularly prone to misogynistic attacks.
And Justice for All
Authors: Brogaard Berit
Published: November 2020

There is a strong sentiment in the general population that we need to put an end to the hate crisis in our society. Politicians and policymakers have it in their power to prevent this crisis from escalating further by regulating not only (physical) hate crimes but also hate speech. This has already been done in many European countries, where hate speech typically is considered a form of group libel that defames members of the targeted group. Law professor Jeremy Waldron has offered an argument for this perspective on hate speech. Hate speech, he argues, is criminal group libel. This chapter argues that Waldron’s argument doesn’t accomplish what he says it does, because most hate speech doesn’t make, or imply, any factual claim and therefore fails to be defamatory. The chapter then offers an argument for curtailing hate speech that is premised on the political philosopher Jürgen Habermas’ notion of communicative rationality. Finally, other solutions to the hate crisis are considered.
Frontiers into Borders
Authors: Embree Ainslie T.
Published: November 2020

The contemporary status of the eight South Asian nations were determined by creation of the British Indian empire and by the process of decolonization. This book by the late Ainslie T. Embree is an insightful exploration of how the boundaries of these states were created between 1757 and 1857. During these one hundred years, political and military developments in the Indian subcontinent made a significant impact upon the definition of borders as they (almost) exist today. The narrative begins after Aurangzeb’s death, when vast areas of the Mughal Empire were taken over by regional powers, following which the East India Company swiftly expanded its territory, thus altering the boundaries of the region. Embree explores the meaning of ‘boundaries’ and ‘frontiers’. While the British stressed on ‘natural frontiers’, those shaped by natural landscape, there was also the French sense of ‘natural borders’, which represented state borders reflecting social composition. Artfully written, with a careful examination of archival materials from England and India, this book reveals the colonial and local interests at work while modern states were carved into being.
Political and Civic Institutions
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

The chapter breaks from the main narrative to discuss and explain various key political and civic institutions, shedding light on how different Athens was politically in the Hellenistic period. There is a survey of Classical Athenian radical democracy to show what the constitution used to be like, followed by a consideration of the restrictions on the constitution and political participation under Macedonian hegemony and Roman rule. There is also a discussion of two major civic institutions: the ephebeia and the guilds.
The End of “Hellenistic” Athens
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

With Athens crippled after the Sullan sack, the city suffered greatly afterward and was without the financial means to repair buildings damaged or destroyed by Sulla’s men. Then a series of prominent Romans visited, donating money, which ironically helped to rebuild some things destroyed by the previous Romans. The first was Pompey the Great, who might have helped fund the Tower of the Winds; then Caesar, who gave money for the start of the Roman Agora. But then the Roman Civil War broke out. Athens was not part of it, although after Caesar’s assassination Brutus did spend time in Athens. After Brutus’ and Cassius’ defeats in Greece, the victor, Mark Antony, moved to Athens where the people showered honors on him to earn his favor. He spent time with Cleopatra in Egypt, but made Athens his home. Increasing tension with Octavian, especially over his relationship with Cleopatra, led to the showdown at the battle of Actium and their defeat; the following year Octavian conquered Egypt. Athens thus became subject to another Roman master: Octavian, the future Augustus, at which point the Hellenistic period is commonly seen as ending.
Yiddish
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This book provides an introduction to Yiddish, the foundational vernacular of Ashkenazi Jews, both as a subject of interest in its own right and for the distinctive issues that Yiddish raises for the study of languages generally, including language diaspora, language fusion, multilingualism, language ideologies, and postvernacularity. By approaching the study of Yiddish through the rubric of a biography, rather than following a more conventional chronological, geographical, or ideological approach, this book examines the story of Yiddish thematically. Each chapter addresses a different “biographical” topic concerning the character of the language and how it has been conceptualized, ranging across time, space, and speech communities. These chapters interrelate discussions of the language’s origins, characteristics, and development with the dynamics of its implementation in Ashkenazi culture from the Middle Ages to the present. These thematic chapters also examine the symbolic investments that Jews and others have made in Yiddish over time, which are key to understanding both general perceptions and scholarly analyses of the language, especially in the modern period.
Value
Authors: Kedhar Anusha
Published: November 2020

Chapter 5 theorizes flexibility in relation to the neoliberal discourse of value through a close reading of the 2013 dance film The Art of Defining Me. Following the 2008 global financial crisis and subsequent austerity measures and budget cuts to the arts, artists had to justify (even more than before) the economic value of their work vis-à-vis their “Unique Selling Point.” While neoliberalism demands that all artists frame their work in economic terms such as cost and profit, multiculturalism layers an added demand on South Asian artists to perform ethnic and racial difference in recognizable and sellable terms. Through the subversive power of satire, the film exposes the neoliberal underpinnings of multicultural arts funding in Britain and brings into sharp focus the economic value of authenticity and exoticism in an increasingly market-driven dance industry that prizes difference insofar as it can be made profitable. Taking a humorous look at the arts funding system in Britain and the complex racialized landscape that British South Asian dance artists must navigate, the film renders visible the absurdity of British multiculturalism and funding demands on South Asian dancers, and the flexible, auto-exoticizing maneuvers they deploy to thrive within it.
The Market Economy
Authors: Vallier Kevin
Published: November 2020

The market economy can create trust for the right reasons. Markets and property rights promote social and political trust in the real world by creating social cohesion through exchange and generating economic growth. Markets also arise from private property rights, which are publicly justified based on the essential role private property rights play in protecting individual rights and the rights of associations. This includes private property rights in capital, that is, productive property, which means that a broadly market-based economy will be a central feature in any society that maintains high levels of social and political trust in the right ways.
A New Criterion of Fairness
Authors: Olson Kristi A.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 2 begins with envy-freeness as a possible criterion of fairness and then refines it. A distribution is envy-free when no one prefers someone else’s bundle of goods to her own. Yet eliminating envy is not always possible, and minimizing envy when it cannot be eliminated is not always fair. In response to these problems, this chapter distinguishes two types of envy: personal envy depends on the assignment of bundles; impersonal envy does not. The chapter then argues that the two types of envy are not normatively equivalent: claims based on impersonal envy but not personal envy satisfy the requirement of mutual justifiability. The upshot is a new criterion of fairness: impersonal envy-freeness.
Silent Witness
Authors: Turow Scott
Published: November 2020

Forensic DNA evidence has helped convict the guilty, exonerate the wrongfully convicted, identify victims of genocide, and reunite families torn apart by war and repressive regimes. Yet many of the scientific, legal, and ethical concepts that underpin forensic DNA evidence remain unclear to the general public; judges; prosecutors; defense attorneys; and students of law, forensic sciences, ethics, and genetics. This book examines the history and development of DNA forensics; its applications in the courtroom and humanitarian settings; and the relevant scientific, legal, and psychosocial issues. It describes the DNA technology used to compare the genetic profile of a crime scene sample to that of a suspect, as well as the statistical interpretation of a match. It also reviews how databases can be searched to identify suspects and how DNA evidence can be used to exonerate the wrongfully convicted. Recent developments in DNA technology are reviewed, as are strategies for analyzing samples with multiple contributors. The book recounts how the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo searched for children kidnapped during military rule in Argentina, as well as more recent efforts to locate missing children in El Salvador. Other chapters examine the role that DNA forensics played in the identification of victims of genocide in Bosnia and of terrorism in the post-9/11 era. Social anthropologists, legal scholars, and scientists explore current applications of DNA analysis in human trafficking and mass catastrophes; border policies affecting immigration; and the ethical issues associated with privacy, informed consent, and the potential misuse of genetic data.
Taking Stock
Authors: Steadman Dawnie , Wagner Sarah
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the evolving role of forensic genetics in human rights investigations and as a technology of postmortem identification for missing persons in ongoing conflict and post-conflict societies. How has DNA’s increasingly privileged place as a line of evidence impacted the field in terms of both medico-legal standards and heightened expectations among surviving kin and their communities? Drawing on interviews with leading figures in the field of forensic science and human rights/transitional justice (e.g., the International Commission on Missing Persons, the International Committee of the Red Cross, the Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense, and the Colibrí Center for Human Rights), buttressed by ethnographic analysis of exhumation and identification efforts in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Uganda, the chapter provides an overview and commentary about the technology’s complicated place in unearthing truths and effecting repair.
Denaturalising Security
Authors: Epstein Charlotte
Published: November 2020

This chapter assesses how security was established as the first absolute and natural right of the subject. Thomas Hobbes remains in focus, insofar as he articulated the furthest what had already become an established dogma of early modern thought, notably in natural right theories, and of nascent state practice. The chapter then considers the different kinds of natures that troubled the enterprise of naturalisation. For nature was also appearing, as a result of the scientific revolution, as a source of disorder. It was no longer simply the stable referent for the task of political ordering. This new, epochal instability in the constructions of nature and the way it was addressed by Hobbes in his epistemological writings contains resources for short-circuiting the naturalising work that Hobbes, amongst others, was engaged in. These resources include Hobbes’s nominalism, which marks him as the original constructivist, and his critique of universals, including ‘paternal dominion’, his term for patriarchy. Hence, the purpose of the chapter is to parse the initial naturalisation of security as the subject’s constitutive right, in order to denaturalise it. Ultimately, Hobbes played a central role, not only in theorising the state, but in securing what the author seeks to unsettle with this book: the body as history’s great naturaliser.
From Liberties to Liberty
Authors: Epstein Charlotte
Published: November 2020

This chapter studies how liberty in the law evolved from being attached to a collective, metaphorical body—the medieval corporation—to being rooted instead in the individual body across a range of practices in seventeenth century Europe. It analyses the early modern forms of toleration that developed from the ground-up in Protestant Europe (Holland and Germany in particular), including the practices of ‘walking out’ (auslauf) to worship one’s God, and the house church (schuilkerk). These practices were key to delinking liberty from place, and thus to paving the way to attaching it instead to territory and the state. The chapter also considers the first common law of naturalisation, known as Calvin’s Case (1608), which wrote into the law the process of becoming an English subject—of subjection. This law decisively rooted the state-subject relation in the bodies of monarch and subject coextensively. Both of these bodies were deeply implicated in the process of territorialisation that begat the modern state in seventeenth-century England, and in shifting the political bond from local authorities to the sovereign. The chapter then examines the corporeal processes underwriting the centralisation of authority, and shows how the subject’s body also became—via an increasingly important habeas corpus—the centre point of the legal revolution that yielded the natural rights of the modern political subject. Edward Coke plays a central role in the chapter.
Privatising Property
Authors: Epstein Charlotte
Published: November 2020

This chapter describes how the body served to privatise property and to establish the human subject, instead of the natural order, at the centre of the law. Whereas modern science expelled humanity from the world’s centre, a second revolution in the law achieved the opposite. It begat legal modernity and the right to private property that supports capitalism. The site for this revolution was early modern theories of natural rights. The chapter traces the genealogy of the concept of private property, from Hugo Grotius via Samuel von Pufendorf to John Locke, through this tradition and under the lens of the body, underscoring the extent to which they broke from premodern Thomist theories of natural law, whose default mode of property relations were communal. It then shows how Locke deployed the most effective legitimation of capitalism by locating the original mechanism by which property is privatised in ‘the hand that grabs’ – by corporealising it. The chapter then turns to the particular, labouring bodies that were explicitly excluded from Locke’s embodied labour theory of value: slaves. Slavery was not simply a practice Locke was deeply invested in personally, or an embarrassing but secondary feature of his political writings. It was, rather, part and parcel of the constitutive logic by which he articulated a racialised right to private property.
Conclusion
Authors: Epstein Charlotte
Published: November 2020

This concluding chapter returns to modernity’s defining problematique: ordering, understood coextensively as an epistemological and a political project. It discusses the extent to which the body operated as the great naturaliser of history—working to stabilise political construction, and notably the racialised and gendered figures that entered into the making of the modern category of ‘the human’ from the onset. The chapter also considers the two sets of processes, of putting together and of dividing up, that took the body as their referent and produced, respectively, the state and the individual who bears rights. It then examines the relations between construction, constitution, and another kind of corporeal agency altogether: generation (giving birth). Generation, as the distinctive agentic capacity that indexes only one kind of body, the female one, functioned throughout the seventeenth century as the ‘other’ to constitution, to the agency that was being expended and experimented with to craft the state and the subject of rights. Finally, the chapter looks at the duty of critique, considering it in its relation to agency and to the urgency of taking responsibility for the world in which people live, and therefore for changing it.
Calculating Race
Authors: Wiggins Benjamin
Published: November 2020

Calculating Race: Racial Discrimination in Risk Assessment presents the historical relationship between statistical risk assessment and race in the United States. It illustrates how, through a reliance on the variable of race, actuarial science transformed the nature of racism and, in turn, helped usher racial disparities in wealth, incarceration, and housing from the nineteenth century into the twentieth. The monograph begins by investigating the development of statistical risk assessment explicitly based on race in the late-nineteenth-century life insurance industry. It then traces how such risk assessment migrated from industry to government, becoming a guiding force in parole decisions and in federal housing policy. Finally, it concludes with an analysis of “proxies” for race—statistical variables that correlate significantly with race—in order to demonstrate the persistent presence of race in risk assessment even after the anti-discrimination regulations won by the Civil Rights Movement. Offering readers a new perspective on the historical importance of actuarial science in structural racism, Calculating Race is a particularly timely contribution as Big Data and algorithmic decision-making increasingly pervade American life.
On the Value of Recognizing Imperfect Virtue
Authors: Stangl Rebecca
Published: November 2020

Returning to the contrast with which this book began, this chapter urges the value of recognizing the existence of imperfect virtue. One advantage of recognizing the existence of imperfect virtue is that it allows us to construct an account of supererogation. A theory of supererogation makes room for both recognizing the truly extraordinary virtue that is often on display in supererogatory actions and recognizing that actions can be truly good and right even if they are not maximally virtuous. The former is important insofar as it allows us to give others their due and the latter important insofar as it avoids an inhuman and possibly counterproductive overdemandingness. But just as important, and far from encouraging a kind of complacency, the recognition that there can be genuine goodness short of perfection is precisely what opens up theoretical space for appreciating the goodness of striving toward an ideal. And striving toward an ideal is good; indeed, self-improvement itself can be morally excellent, and the disposition to seek and engage in it, where appropriate, can itself be a virtue. Thus, while the purity of vision represented by the insistence that the only virtue is perfect virtue has its undeniable attractions, such an insistence risks obscuring as much as it illuminates.
Collaborative Pairings
Authors: Garner Robert , Okuleye Yewande
Published: November 2020

Farrell’s model of a collaborative circle predicts that much of the creative work is conducted within pairings in which instrumental intimacy—the sharing of unpublished and often unwritten ideas—occurs. This chapter examines two key such pairings in the Oxford Group, between Peter Singer and Ros Godlovitch, and between Peter Singer and Richard Ryder. The chapter considers the impact on Singer’s intellectual development of his association with the Oxford Group in general and Ryder and Ros Godlovitch in particular. It demonstrates how the transformation in Singer’s thinking about animals was startling. He learned from Godlovitch and Ryder in particular but, at the same time, he impacted their thought too. It is plausible to suggest that Singer’s participation in the Oxford Group was a vital component of his emergence as the most important animal ethicist.
Conclusion to Part I
Authors: Allen Barry
Published: November 2020

The value of experiments as instruments of inquiry presupposes that experience is a source of knowledge distinct from reasoning, which was the medical idea Democritus and Epicurus drew into natural philosophy. The genius of empiricism is to use perception as an instrument with which to colonize the imperceptible for cognition. The European experiment with empiricism unfolds in two phases, the first spanning the centuries between Alcmaeon and Galen; the second, modernizing phase running from the sixteenth to eighteenth century, when experiments finally consolidated their role as the leading method in natural philosophy. Profiles of empiricism from antiquity to the twentieth century divide along the lines of theorematic and problematic accounts of the relation between experience and knowledge. Part I demonstrated the prominence of a problematic concept of experience in seventeenth century experimentalism. Part II reaches the same conclusion about the radical empiricists of the twentieth century.
The Beginning of Radical Empiricism
Authors: Allen Barry
Published: November 2020

William James introduced the expression “radical empiricism.” The chapter explains what was supposed to make empiricism radical, and why James thought that was worth trying to do. That requires explaining the connection between radical empiricism and other themes in James’s work, including pluralism and the idea of pure experience. His work belongs to an effort from the latter nineteenth century to make empiricism more consistently empirical by overcoming the legacy of Ockham and nominalism, and it is this anti-nominalist animus that radicalizes James’s empiricism.
Gratitude in the Classical Worlds
Authors: Rushdy Ashraf H. A.
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines four classical writers who have something to say about gratitude—Aristotle, Homer, Cicero, and Seneca. It explores what gratitude can mean in societies that operate through ritual reciprocal gift-exchange, and then examines how that idea—that one gives a gift in order to get a gift in return—evolves from the Homeric world through the first century of the Roman Empire.
Gratitude in the Early Eighteenth Century
Authors: Rushdy Ashraf H. A.
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the writings of four philosophers who were either directly or implicitly responding to the philosophers of the seventeenth century discussed in the previous chapter. The chapter looks at two philosophers who seem to adopt parts of the Hobbesian worldview—Pufendorf and Mandeville—and two who explicitly contest it: Shaftesbury and Butler. The primary questions they ask involve human motivations—whether they can be altruistic or must be acts of self-interest or self-love.
Conclusion
Authors: Rushdy Ashraf H. A.
Published: November 2020

This chapter returns to two key questions about the ways to think about gratitude. One has to do with the question of the sense of self—can humans be independent?—and the ways that someone might approach a benefactor’s generosity with the belief that it curtails her sense of independence. The other has to do with the question of the human sense of obligations—can someone be indebted?—and the ways that someone might approach any benefit as something that oppresses her. The chapter examines how these concepts—dependence and debt—have been described, and how it is possible to construe a very different meaning of what gratitude can be than what these two concepts seem to suggest.
The Messenger
Authors: Miller William Ian
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides a discussion of the messenger as the Ur-mediator, the go-between par excellence. He is often a double agent of sorts and cannot help but be a spy even against his will. The chapter deals with him both in his more sacred form as angels, Christ, and the prophets and in his most mundane form as a simple courier. It mostly draws on ancient Near Eastern materials with expansive reading of some biblical texts, from Ehud to messengers sent by Saul, David, and Joab. There are classical and medieval instances, as well as early modern examples. The deep issue is the importance of the ‘third party’ as he begins to emerge fully embodied from merely being an agent of a first and second party. There is an extended discussion of killing the messenger bearing evil tidings, and even not so evil tidings, and the work of intercessors between an angry Deity and sinful mankind.
Lord of the Table: Judges 19 and the Last Supper
Authors: Miller William Ian
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides an extended treatment of how giving and receiving food is perhaps the primal obligation-creating and -discharging of social actions. The chapter deals with what it means to be host and guest, two sides of the same Indo-European verbal root, yielding also opposites like hospitality and hostility. The chapter also deals with adoption, grafting a person into one’s kin group as an heir by means of rituals where drinking and eating figure as the sine qua non of offializing the new relation. One ceremony is of Salian Frankish origin, another one old Norwegian. The chapter ties these in with baptism and circumcision and covenant formation by means of mixing blood, or cutting flesh, human and animal. This leads to a discussion of the dismemberment of the Levite’s concubine in Judges 19. After she had been gang-raped to death her husband cuts her into twelve parts which are sent out to summon the nation and oblige them to take revenge on the tribe of Benjamin, the tribe of the inhospitable rapists. The argument is that Jesus is referring directly to Judges 19 when he divides his body into twelve parts just as the Levite did his concubine, the ceremony obliges one to carry out his mission, in effect, to take revenge.
Syncretism and Christian Tradition
Authors: Kane Ross
Published: November 2020

Studying the history of syncretism’s use indicates wider interpretative problems in religious studies and theology regarding race and revelation. It also indicates the importance of seeing “tradition” as adaptive and amalgamating rather than static. In theology and religious studies alike, discourses of syncretism are positioned within racialized perceptions which construct a center and periphery based upon white European knowledge. In Christian theology more specifically, syncretism’s use also shows ways that theologians try to protect the category of divine revelation from human interference, leading to interpretative problems that sidestep material history. The book makes this case through an intellectual history of the word syncretism, tracking its changing associations and especially its pejorative turn in Christianity in the early twentieth century. After diagnosing challenges related to syncretism, the book makes two constructive arguments. First, it defends the concept of “tradition”—for religious studies and theology alike—as a means of understanding cultural continuity amid the perpetual flux of syncretism. Second, in Christian theology specifically, it offers a constructive response to syncretism drawing from theologians Jean-Marc Éla and Rowan Williams. The Holy Spirit, through tradition, builds knowledge of the divine Logos across history often by way of contested religious mixtures with culture. The book concludes by examining positive examples of syncretism in Christianity like the incorporation of ancestor reverencing.
Sequences of Military Necessity for the Jus in Bello
Authors: Kritsiotis Dino
Published: November 2020

This chapter considers several discrete snapshots or “sequences” in the life of military necessity—as it has come to be understood within the laws of the jus in bello. Commencing with its relationship with self-preservation under the laws of war and peace, the chapter proceeds to examine the idea of “necessity” of self-defense within the laws of the jus ad bellum; it then turns to “military necessity” as invoked in the Lieber Code, the 1907 Hague Regulations, Additional Protocol I of 1977 and the 1954 Hague Convention, the ICRC Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law as well as the advisory jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice. Consideration is given, too, to “necessity” as it features within the law of State responsibility, in order to more fully understand the function, status and standing of “military necessity” more generally within the jus in bello.
Considerations of Necessity under Article 57(2)(a)(ii), (c), and (3) and Proportionality under Article 51(5)(b) and Article 57(2)(b) of Additional Protocol I
Authors: von Heinegg Wolff Heintschel
Published: November 2020

While military necessity as such does not absolve the parties to the conflict from their obligations of avoiding or minimizing collateral damage, of giving an advance warning, or of choosing an alternative target, considerations of military necessity have an impact on the scope of those obligations. The same holds true for the prohibition of collateral damage that is expected to be excessive in relation to the military advantage anticipated and for the obligation to cancel or suspend an attack, if circumstances have changed. Targeting decisions must be based on a complex assessment of a variety of factors that must be taken account of in their entirety. Accordingly, the law of armed conflict obliges those who plan or decide on an attack to adopt an integrated approach.
Specifying the Proportionality Test and the Standard of Due Precaution: Problems of Prognostic Assessment in Determining the Meaning of “May Be Expected” and “Anticipated”
Authors: Oeter Stefan
Published: November 2020

This chapter addresses the challenging legal and operational issues raised by the proportionality requirement to assess the legality of collateral damage. Specifically, the chapter engages closely with the relevant text of Articles 51(5)(b) and 57(2)(b) of the First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions. The chapter first asks what makes an attack that unavoidably includes incidental loss of civilian lives or civilian property an “indiscriminate attack” under Article 51(5)(b). In more concrete terms, it asks how the formula for collateral damage—“excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated”—may be operationalized. The chapter then moves to an analysis of the rule of precautions in Article 57(2)(b), with special emphasis on understanding how the military operator should navigate this rule in light of battlefield realities. The chapter then poses how these rules may be best understood under the regime of international criminal law.