bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
10 Globalization, Inequality, and Diversity
Authors: Taylor‐Gooby Peter
Published: January 2009

This chapter considers the challenges to social citizenship resulting from greater diversity and inequality in a more globalized world. Migration has led to tensions in social provision in many western countries. Globalization and labour market change have generated greater inequality, and opportunities for social mobility seem to be declining. These changes generate substantial and growing challenges to the stability of welfare states. Evidence from recent studies, however, indicates that the problems can be addressed, provided that governments are willing to show political leadership and pursue policies that redistribute resources on a citizenship basis to mitigate inequalities and offer equal access to opportunities across all social groups.
A Grace to be Cultivated
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

Enjoyment is an essential part of good lives. The development of a style of life is one way of achieving it. Moralism that stresses responsibility and ignores enjoyment makes good lives impossible and gives a bad name to morality. Although styles of life vary with individuals, reasonable and unreasonable ones can be distinguished. Styles of life described by Drabble, Trollope, and Woolf are examined.
Three‐Dimensional Morality
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

Morality has universal, social, and personal dimensions. The context of enjoyment and styles of life is the personal dimension. The goods and conventions of these dimensions often conflict and none is overriding. There is no universally and impartially applicable blueprint for the reasonable resolution of such conflicts. Reasonable conflict-resolutions differ from case to case. The moralist, relativist, and egoist approaches to conflict-resolution are flawed. The right approach is pluralist and particularist. The conflicts of Eleazar and Flaubert are discussed.
An Enemy of Happiness
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

This chapter is about Cato whose moralizing style of life made him and those around him utterly miserable. His attitude was vanity, his manner self-righteous, and his dominant activity was to try to shore up the crumbling Roman Republic. His rigidity, refusal to compromise, and unfeeling moralism made him a precursor of a Kantian life that defeated his own purpose. The moral importance of self-knowledge and affection can be learnt here.
A Wise and Virtuous Man
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

Looking at Hume's life and work it can be seen that Hume led an admirable life, fully enjoyed. Its style was reflective, its attitude sceptical, its manner moderate, and its project was a literary life that was Hume's ruling passion. He made the most of his talents and possibilities, he was eminently reasonable, and he lived and died contented. It can be seen how a reasonable person can cope with adversity, poverty, lack of appreciation, and yet prevail and enjoy success calmly without vindictiveness.
The Felicity we Make or Find
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

This chapter is about the possibility of living enjoyably in the face of adversity and contingency, without seeking consolation in religious or some version of secular faith. The key is to develop realism about the possibilities and limits of life, much as Madame Goesler, Hume, and Montaigne in their different ways have done. It is also to avoid going wrong in the ways Mishima, Cato, and Cellini have done. There are, of course, many other ways of living realistically and enjoyably, and many other ways of living miserably. The importance of literature for living well is that it allows us to reflect realistically on the possibilities and limits of our contingent circumstances.
Introduction
Authors: Harding Christopher
Published: January 2009

This chapter introduces the major questions and problems which the book seeks to tackle, placing them in historical and historiographical context. Following an overview of the conversion movements in India more generally (c.1860-1930), the main protagonists in the book are introduced: rural converts in Punjab, the Belgian Capuchins, and the Church Missionary Society. Methodological and archival issues are discussed towards the end of the chapter, which concludes with an indication of the structure taken by the book.
The Meaning of Uplift in Punjab
Authors: Harding Christopher
Published: January 2009

This chapter sets the socio-economic and cultural scene for the book by looking at the meaning of socio-religious ‘uplift’ in Punjab. It begins by analyzing the socio-economic and cultural background in Punjab, and in particular where rural low-caste peoples were concerned. The shifting yet enduringly dependent and isolated nature of low-caste life is explored, and its manifestation in idiosyncratic and combative forms of low-caste religion analyzed. ‘Uplift’ in the Victorian British context is then examined, followed through to its appearance in Punjab in a variety of forms from the work of mission societies and British officials such as Lieutenant Frank Brayne and Sir Malcolm Darling, to Indian innovations such as the Arya Samaj and Ad Dharm religious movements.
British Evangelicals vs Belgian Catholics
Authors: Harding Christopher
Published: January 2009

This chapter looks at how two starkly differing forms of Christianity took root in the province: British Evangelical Protestantism and Belgian Catholicism. Investigating national and social backgrounds, theological convictions, and personal quirks — as well as a range of often colourfully-expressed tensions surrounding money and policy — the discussion sets out to assess the importance, for the convert-mission encounter, of fissures in the missionary ‘type’. The second half of the chapter introduces four rural mission stations as case studies: the Capuchin stations of Adah and Sahowala, and the CMS stations of Tarn Taran and Narowal.
Conclusion
Authors: Harding Christopher
Published: January 2009

This chapter offers a brief postscript dealing with the effect of Partition upon the new Capuchin and CMS Christian communities of Punjab. This is followed by a summary and discussion of the book's findings.
3 Long‐Run Changes in the Concentration of Wealth: An Overview of Recent Findings
Authors: Ohlsson Henry , Roine Jesper , Waldenström Daniel
Published: January 2009

The objective of this study is to study the dynamics of the wealth distribution over the path of economic development. More specifically, this chapter is interested in distinguishing between changes that seem to be country specific and characteristics shared by all countries. A historical account of the evolution of the wealth distribution in developed countries is interesting in itself, but it can also hold implications for countries that are currently in an early stage of development or in transition. The data used originate from the taxation of wealth and estates.
9 Land Reform and Land Holdings in Brazil
Authors: Assunção Juliano
Published: January 2009

Land and wealth are closely related in rural Brazil, a country characterized by high levels of inequality in terms of income or land holdings. After presenting a historical retrospective of land concentration and land reform in Brazil, this study evaluates the impact of the land reform programme undertaken in the 1990s on land ownership and land distribution. It is shown that the programme increased landownership among poor rural families and those with less‐educated household heads, reducing the fraction of the other families with land holding. Also, the land‐reform programme increased land inequality among landowners.
12 Marketable Wealth in a Poor African Country: Wealth Accumulation by Households in Ghana
Authors: Burger Ronelle , Booysen Frikkie , van der Berg Servaas , von Maltitz Michael
Published: January 2009

The study uses an asset index of consumer durables to track changes in household wealth in Ghana during the recent period of strong growth. Using the Ghana Living Standards Survey of 1998, which contains both wealth data and consumer durable data, the chapter demonstrates that the asset index approximate marketable wealth adequately. Although asset index estimates of wealth cannot match the precision of wealth surveys, this approach can provide useful information on marketable wealth in countries where more appropriate sources are not available. The asset index analysis with the three demographic and health surveys for 1993, 1998, and 2003 suggests that the solid economic growth seen over this period has been accompanied by a strong rise in the average asset index scores.
14 Housing and Personal Wealth in a Global Context
Authors: Muellbauer John
Published: January 2009

Housing is the single most important component of personal wealth in most countries. The special characteristics of housing markets are, therefore, key to understanding personal portfolios, saving, the household distribution of wealth, and the monetary transmission mechanism. This study discusses how housing markets and institutions differ across countries, paying particular attention to the UK and the EU, but extending its reach as well to other OECD countries such as Japan and emerging market countries such as South Africa. It analyses how those differences help to create contrasts in the impact on consumption of housing as a component of personal wealth. The impacts of rates of home ownership, credit market characteristics, interest rates, and macroeconomic conditions are studied. Implications for monetary, fiscal, and other policies are discussed.
18 The Informal Sector in Developing Countries: Output, Assets, and Employment
Authors: Pratap Sangeeta , Quintin Erwan
Published: January 2009

This study documents four key facts about informal economic activities: (1) the size of the informal sector varies greatly across nations; (2) this size is strongly correlated with economic development, the tax burden, and the rule of law; (3) the informal sector emphasizes small‐scale, self‐financed, and unskilled labour- intensive economic activities; and (4), while financial markets are generally segmented along formal/informal lines in developing nations, there is no compelling evidence that this is true for labour markets. The chapter reviews the existing theoretical literature on the informal sector and describe a simple model with a trade‐off between tax evasion and access to formal sources of outside finance that is consistent with much of the existing evidence. Finally, the study discusses the challenges associated with measuring informal sector assets.
Peace by Design
Authors: Brancati Dawn
Published: January 2009

Why does political decentralization reduce intrastate conflict more in some countries than in others? Can political institutions be designed to engender peace? If so, how? Addressing these questions, this book advances the current debate on decentralization beyond a discussion of whether or not decentralization is effective in reducing conflict, to when and under what conditions it is successful. The book bridges opposing views while offering an original one, arguing that decentralization's ability to reduce conflict hinges on the electoral strength of regional parties, which, in turn, varies according to different institutional features of decentralization. Various aspects of political systems likewise affect the extent to which regional parties stimulate conflict and conversely, the degree to which statewide parties mitigate it. This book illuminates the exigent issue of how to design political institutions in order to promote peace.
Introduction
Authors: Brancati Dawn
Published: January 2009

Why does decentralization reduce ethnic conflict and secessionism more in some countries than in others? This question constitutes the central focus of this book. After presenting the puzzle, the book defines political decentralization and lays out the debate between scholars, who argue that decentralization intensifies intrastate conflict, and policy‐makers, who argue that decentralization reduces it. The chapter previews the book's argument, which is that the effect of decentralization hinges on the electoral strength of regional parties. Subsequently, the book describes its methodological approach, consisting of three carefully selected cases studies — Czechoslovakia (1989–93), Spain (1976–present), and India (1947–present) — and a statistical analysis examining the effect on decentralization and regional parties on intrastate conflict, and decentralization, in turn, on regional parties.
Spain
Authors: Brancati Dawn
Published: January 2009

This chapter presents the case study of Spain (1976–present). Spain is widely respected as a successful case of decentralization, which has not only avoided conflict among the country's major ethnic groups, but has also held secessionism at bay since Spain's transition to democracy in the late 1970s. This chapter attributes Spain's success to the relatively small presence of regional parties in the country, which have advocated legislation harmful to other regions in India and have supported violent separatist organizations in the country. This chapter attributes the party system to the structure of decentralization in Spain (i.e. the proportion of national legislative seats regions hold individually, the direct election of most of the country's upper house, and the appointment of Spain's first regional legislatures based on national level representation). This structure has reduced the incentive for politicians to form regional parties and prevented them from blocking the adoption of a new political system during the transition era as in Czechoslovakia. In teasing out the relationship between decentralization and regional parties, the chapter points out that statewide parties decentralized Spain in the transition period, and that regions with the strongest regional parties in Spain are not necessarily those that are economically or ethnolinguistically distinct, and that the distinct regions are not necessarily those with strong regional identities.
Chapter 3 Understanding Consumption in Retirement: Recent Developments
Authors: Hurst Erik
Published: January 2009

This chapter summarizes five facts from the recent literature on consumption behavior during retirement. Most importantly, it shows that there is substantial heterogeneity in spending changes at retirement across consumption categories. Observed declines in spending during retirement are limited to food and work-related expenses. Even though food spending declines during retirement, actual food intake remains constant. Furthermore, the literature shows that there is substantial heterogeneity across households in the change in expenditure associated with retirement. Much of this heterogeneity, however, can be explained by households involuntarily retiring. Overall, the evidence suggests that the standard model of lifecycle consumption augmented with home production and uncertain health shocks does well in explaining the consumption patterns of most households as they transition into retirement.
Chapter 7 Rethinking Social Security Claiming in a 401(k) World
Authors: Mahaney James I. , Carlson Peter C.
Published: January 2009

Previous research has failed to recognize critical factors that greatly impact the discussion on when it is most beneficial to start Social Security retirement benefits. This chapter shows that the effect of taxes can have a dramatic effect on the financial security of retirees, yet the taxation caused by IRA withdrawals and the interaction with Social Security has been largely misunderstood. In addition, changes made under the Senior Citizens' Freedom to Work Act of 2000 make delaying Social Security for married couples much more favorable. This chapter also illustrates how the traditional approach of starting Social Security benefits early and deriving income from stock and bond mutual funds is expected to under-perform a strategy of taking income from personal retirement assets first, followed by later and higher benefits from Social Security.
Chapter 13 Tax Issues and Life Care Annuities
Authors: Brazell David , Brown Jason , Warshawsky Mark
Published: January 2009

A life care annuity combines an immediate life annuity with long-term care insurance. This chapter reviews empirical evidence supporting the claim that the marketing of a life care annuity will produce a lower total price for the combined product, less adverse selection in the individual annuity market, and greater availability of long-term care insurance. It also discusses the institutional, regulatory, and tax aspects of a life care annuity, including its future tax treatment under the recently enacted Pension Protection Act of 2006. The chapter concludes with a numerical illustration of the tax implications of various ways of structuring the life care annuity, and it compares these implications with those produced by an above-the-line deduction for qualified long-term care insurance premiums.
Hilary of Poitiers on the Trinity
Authors: Beckwith Carl
Published: January 2009

Hilary of Poitiers (c300–368), who was instrumental in shaping the development of pro-Nicene theology in the West, combined two separate works, a treatise on faith (De Fide) and a treatise against the “Arians” (Adversus Arianos), to create De Trinitate; his chief theological contribution to the 4th-century Trinitarian debates. Scholars have long recognized the presence of these two treatises in Hilary's De Trinitate but have been unable to settle the questions of when and why Hilary did this. This book addresses these questions concerning the structure and chronology of De Trinitate by situating Hilary's treatise in its historical and theological context and offering a close reading of the text. It is argued that De Fide was written in 356 following Hilary's condemnation at the synod of Béziers and prior to receiving a decision on his exile from the Emperor. When Hilary arrived in exile, he wrote a second work, Adversus Arianos. Following the synod of Sirmium in 357 and his collaboration with Basil of Ancyra in early 358, Hilary recast his efforts and began to write De Trinitate. He decided to incorporate his two earlier works, De Fide and Adversus Arianos, into this project. Toward that end, he returned to his earlier works and drastically revised their content by adding new prefaces and new theological and exegetical material to reflect his mature pro-Nicene theology. These revisions and textual alterations have never before been acknowledged in the scholarship on De Trinitate.
1 Trinitarian Debates from Nicaea (325) to Sirmium (351)
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

This chapter discusses the Trinitarian debates from the Council of Nicaea (325) to the synod of Sirmium (351) and the emergence of the creed from Nicaea in the West as a standard of orthodoxy.
5 Book Two of De Trinitate
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

This chapter offers a close reading of Book Two of De Trinitate. Here we see the influence of the Sirmium manifesto and Basil of Ancyra's theological circle on the revisions to Hilary's text. Book Two demonstrates the thorough integration of Hilary's pro-Nicene theology with the exegetical and theological strategies of Basil of Ancyra and his Homoiousian circle. Particularly noteworthy in this discussion is Hilary's use of St. Matthew's baptismal formula and Basil of Ancyra's father/son analogy. Hilary's alterations to Book Two also constitute his most comprehensive treatment of Photinus of Sirmium's adoptionist Christology.
7 Book One of De Trinitate
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

This chapter offers a close reading of Book One of De Trinitate. Book One never formed a part of De Fide but was added in 358 when Hilary made the other revisions and updates to Books Two to Six. As such, Book One was not retouched by Hilary in 358 but was newly composed by him and deliberately placed as the opening book of De Trinitate. Hilary uses Book One to outline the theological method necessary for a proper discussion of who God is—a method that Hilary sees his modalist and subordinationist opponents compromising. Hilary articulates this theological method through the literary trope of his own troubled soul searching for truth. Book One discusses such issues as the authority of scripture, the priority of faith, and use of analogy and metaphorical language in theological discourse.
8 Faith and Reason
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

Hilary uses Book One of De Trinitate to advance a theological agenda that both apologetically articulates his own theological method and polemically critiques and exaggerates the method of his opponents. The two principal themes highlighted by Hilary are the relationship between faith and reason in acquiring theological knowledge and the normative role of scripture in such a discussion. Although Hilary acknowledges that his various opponents theoretically ground their insights in scripture and give priority to faith, he argues that in practice their theological assertions reveal that they follow not scripture but natural reason. Hilary's polemical charge is that they rely on themselves and their rational insights rather than God and his revelation.

Although Hilary's theological method serves a polemical purpose, it also addresses the criticism that he advanced a simple fideism when faced with difficult theological questions in his original De Fide. Hilary uses the opportunity to revise his works in 358 to address this criticism and develop a nuanced understanding of faith and reason. This chapter looks at Hilary's revised argument on faith and reason and his endorsement of a “heavenly reason” guided by faith.
9 Hilary's Understanding and Use of Scripture
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

Hilary's understanding of scripture and its normative use in discussions about God does not proceed on apologetic grounds. The challenge faced by Hilary is that his Homoian opponents routinely insist that their theological assertions are rooted in scripture. Hilary regrettably acknowledges throughout De Trinitate that his opponents not only assign scripture a normative role in their arguments but also promote what he considers faulty theological positions by appealing to scripture only. Hilary recognizes that the dispute over scripture is not on its place in theological reflection but over its employment and the assumptions made about the text. This first half of this chapter surveys Hilary's understanding of scripture. The second half of the chapter looks at two key texts from the fourth-century Trinitarian debates: Proverbs 8 and the prologue to the Gospel of John. These texts demonstrate not only Hilary's theological and exegetical development in the various editorial stages of De Trinitate but also show his careful handling of scripture in securing a pro-Nicene theology.
Conclusion
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

This chapter offers an historical survey of the place of Hilary in the history of Christian thought and ends with a summary of the editorial changes to Hilary's early works as discussed throughout the monograph.
Constitutional Dilemmas
Authors: Zucca Lorenzo
Published: January 2009

This book deals with one of the most important issues of philosophy of law and constitutional thought: how to understand clashes of fundamental rights, such as the conflict between free speech and privacy. The main argument of this book is that much can be learned about the nature of fundamental legal rights by examining them through the lens of conflicts among such rights, and criticizing the views of scholars and jurists who have discussed both fundamental legal rights and the nature of conflicts among them. Theories of rights are necessarily abstract, aiming at providing the best possible answers to pressing social problems. Yet such theories must also respond to the real and changing dilemmas of the day. Taking up the problem of conflicting rights, Zucca seeks a theory of rights that can guide us to a richer, more responsive approach to rights discourse. The idea of constitutional rights is one of the most powerful tools to advance justice in the Western tradition. But as this book demonstrates, even the most ambitious theory of rights cannot satisfactorily address questions of conflicting rights. How, for instance, can we fully secure privacy when it clashes with free speech? To what extent can our societies assist people in dying without compromising the protection of life? Exploring the limitations of the rights discourse in these areas, Zucca questions the role of law in settling ethical dilemmas helping to clarify thinking about the limitations of rights discourse.
Law, Morality, and Conflicts of Fundamental Legal Rights
Authors: Zucca Lorenzo
Published: January 2009

This chapter deals with the central problem concerning conflicts of rights: both parties have an exclusive claim to something of value protected by a fundamental right and we are left with no guidance on how to solve the clash. There is not only disagreement, but also a deadlock as both claims are rationally defensible. In other words, the adjudicator faces a dilemma, which cannot be solved in a way that avoids the loss of something of value. To cope with this issue, some suggest that fundamental rights are principles and not rules and as such they can be weighed when in conflict. It is argued instead that fundamental rights are broad permissive rules. As a consequence of such a conception of fundamental rights, the role played by morality in shaping the answer to dilemmas is narrowed down. Ultimately, to deny that genuine conflicts of rights exist is incompatible with a strong understanding of fundamental rights and with value pluralism.
A Framework to Deal with Conflicts of Fundamental Legal Rights
Authors: Zucca Lorenzo
Published: January 2009

This chapter tries to bridge the theory of conflicts (part 1) with the practice of conflicts (part 2). In order to do so, it offers a definition of constitutions as frameworks, within which takes place the contest of values generally arbitrated by constitutional courts. In this context, it deals with some orthodox legal responses to the problem of conflicts of rights. It discusses the process of interpretation and the doctrines of balancing and deference, and criticizes them as tools for the resolution of genuine conflicts. In addition, it introduces a comparative analysis of France, the UK, and the USA which provides the framework for the analysis of conflicts in context.
Constituent Power Subverted: From English Constitutional Argument to British Constitutional Practice
Authors: Loughlin Martin
Published: January 2009

Setting mid-17th century English constitutional conflicts in the context of disputes over the ideas of the body politic, the crown and divine right, this chapter argues that in the revolutionary discourse of the 1640s, we see not only the expression of popular sovereignty but also the drawing of a distinction between the constituting power of the people and the constituted power of government. It proposes that these more radical claims were suppressed, initially to stabilize the republican revolution but later to bolster the principle of (revived) monarchical and aristocratic rule. It is through the consequent absence of a concept of constituent power that we are best able to appreciate the peculiar character of the modern British constitution.
Constituent Power and Constitutional Change in American Constitutionalism
Authors: Griffin Stephen M.
Published: January 2009

The claims of the 17th century English radicals were bequeathed to their American compatriots during the following century, and this chapter shows that it enabled the American revolutionaries to utilize the device of a constitutional convention as the authoritative voice of the people and to establish the world's first modern constitution. It considers what became of ‘the people’ once the American constitution had been established, and suggests that their influence has been felt not only through the process of formal amendment and judicial interpretation, but also informally through politics, sometimes crystallized as ‘constitutional moments’ but often on-going and incremental. The chapter concludes that while many would view constituent power as dangerous to the integrity of constitutional forms, few would deny its continuing influence in shaping American constitutionalism.
Constituent Power in France: The Revolution and its Consequences
Authors: Jaume Lucien
Published: January 2009

This chapter shows how the impact of the French Revolution has reverberated across two centuries of French constitutional history: from formal constitutional revision, referenda, and appeals to the idea of the Nation, to tumult, coups d'état, and revolutionary insurrection. In particular, it argues that influenced by the work of Sieyès, the French developed a powerful sense that the nation is represented in the National Assembly, and that it is through the claims and counter-claims associated with that idea that we can make sense of the trajectory of major constitutional change.
The Politics of the Question of Constituent Power
Authors: Dyzenhaus David
Published: January 2009

This chapter mounts a defence of a liberal constitutionalism in which constitutional architecture is treated as eclipsing constituent power, not on the basis of the empirical inevitability of the legal taming of the political, but on account of the impossibility of developing normative accounts of how we might live together except on the basis of such a working assumption. Against Schmitt's claim that constitutional authority cannot escape its origins in constituent power, the chapter defends a liberal account of the rule of law.
‘We the Peoples of the United Nations’ Constituent Power and Constitutional Form in International Law
Authors: Fassbender Bardo
Published: January 2009

This chapter examines the general question of the relationship between constituent power and constitutional form in the general context of the international community. It first considers the emergence of ‘international constitutional law’ — the idea of an emerging constitutional law of the international community — and then specifically examines the case for the UN Charter being treated as such a constitution. Working on the assumption that the UN Charter can be treated as the constitution of the international community, the chapter gives sympathetic consideration to the idea that there is an equivalent to ‘the people’ as an authorizing agent in the international arena.
The Constitution of Agency
Authors: Korsgaard Christine M.
Published: January 2009

This book is a collection of ten papers on practical reason and moral psychology. Part 1 defends the view that the principles of practical reason are constitutive principles of action. By governing our actions in accordance with Kant's categorical imperative and the principle of instrumental reason we take control of our own movements and so render ourselves active, self-determining beings. Part II takes up the question of the role of our passive or receptive faculties — our emotions and responses — in constituting our agency. It offers a reading of the Nicomachean Ethics based on the idea that our emotions are perceptions of good and evil, and argues that Aristotle and Kant share a distinctive view about the locus of moral value and the nature of human choice. Part III takes up the question how we come to view one another as moral agents in Hume's philosophy, and examines the possible clash between the agency of the state and that of the individual that led to Kant's paradoxical views about revolution. And finally, the book discusses methodology in an account of what it means to be a constructivist moral philosopher.
Evaluation of Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity in Kampo Medicine
Authors: Nishimura Ko , Osawa Toshihiko , Watanabe Kenji
Published: January 2009

Antioxidant capacity of food has come to be shown in terms of oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) mainly on vegetables or fruit. However, the evaluation of Kampo in terms of ORAC has not yet been accomplished. It is important that such an investigation is also conducted for Kampo medicine. We measured the ORAC value of almost all the available Kampo formulas used in the Japanese National health insurance system and examined the ORAC value both for the daily prescription, and also the crude herb ingredients. The ORAC value of Kampo medicine ranged 4.65–5913 units/day. The ORAC value was high in Kampo formulas including Rhei Rhizoma, and was relatively high in Kampo formulas including anti‐inflammatory herbs other than Rhei Rhizoma. The ORAC value was also high in Kampo formulas including crude herbs that have relaxation effects. The ORAC value of a crude herb would seem to not be fixed but be dependent on combination with other crude herbs from the comparison of different herbs added to the basic Kampo medicine. These results suggest variability and complexity of the antioxidant capacity of Kampo medicine within the similar range of food. On the other hand, investigation of the compound changes of various crude herbs with ORAC may lead to the elucidation of the action mechanism of Kampo medicine.
Treatment Spillover Effects across Survey Experiments
Authors: Transue John E. , Lee Daniel J. , Aldrich John H.
Published: January 2009

Embedding experiments within surveys has reinvigorated survey research. Several survey experiments are generally embedded within a survey, and analysts treat each of these experiments as self-contained. We investigate whether experiments are self-contained or if earlier treatments affect later experiments, which we call “experimental spillover.” We consider two types of bias that might be introduced by spillover: mean and inference biases. Using a simple procedure, we test for experimental spillover in two data sets: the 1991 Race and Politics Survey and a survey containing several experiments pertaining to foreign policy attitudes. We find some evidence of spillover and suggest solutions to avoid bias.
Marine hybrid hotspot at Indo-Pacific biogeographic border
Authors: Hobbs Jean-Paul A , Frisch Ashley J , Allen Gerald R , Van Herwerden Lynne
Published: January 2009

Studying hybridization is crucial to understanding speciation and almost all our knowledge comes from terrestrial and freshwater environments. Marine hybrids are considered rare, particularly on species-rich coral reefs. Here, we report a significant marine hybrid zone at Christmas and Cocos Islands (eastern Indian Ocean) with 11 hybrid coral reef fishes (across six families); the most recorded hybrids of any marine location. In most cases, at least one of the parent species is rare (less than three individuals per 3000 m2), suggesting that hybridization has occurred because individuals of the rare species have mated with another species owing to a scarcity of conspecific partners. These islands also represent a marine suture zone where many of the hybrids have arisen through interbreeding between Indian and Pacific Ocean species. For these species, it appears that past climate changes allowed species to diverge in allopatry, while recent conditions have facilitated contact and subsequent hybridization at this Indo-Pacific biogeographic border. The discovery of the Christmas–Cocos hybrid zone refutes the notion that hybridization is lacking on coral reefs and provides a natural laboratory for testing the generality of terrestrially derived hybridization theory in the marine environment.
Parental effects on offspring life histories: when are they important?
Authors: Donelson Jennifer M , Munday Philip L , McCormick Mark I
Published: January 2009

Both the parental legacy and current environmental conditions can affect offspring life histories; however, their relative importance and the potential relationship between these two influences have rarely been investigated. We tested for the interacting effects of parental and juvenile environments on the early life history of the marine fish
Acanthochromis polyacanthus
. Juveniles from parents in good condition were longer and heavier at hatching than juveniles from parents in poor condition. Parental effects on juvenile size were evident up to 29 days post-hatching, but disappeared by 50 days. Offspring from good condition parents had higher early survival than offspring from poor-condition parents when reared in a low-food environment. By contrast, parental condition did not affect juvenile survival in the high-food environment. These results suggest that parental effects on offspring performance are most important when poor environmental conditions are encountered by juveniles. Furthermore, parental effects observed at hatching may often be moderated by compensatory mechanisms when environmental conditions are good.
Calculated reciprocity after all: computation behind token transfers in orang-utans
Authors: Dufour V , Pelé M , Neumann M , Thierry B , Call J
Published: January 2009

Transfers and services are frequent in the animal kingdom. However, there is no clear evidence in animals that such transactions are based on weighing costs and benefits when giving or returning favours and keeping track of them over time (i.e. calculated reciprocity). We tested two orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) in a token-exchange paradigm, in which each individual could exchange a token for food with the experimenter but only after first obtaining the token from the other orang-utan. Each orang-utan possessed tokens valuable to their partner but useless to themselves. Both orang-utans actively transferred numerous tokens (mostly partner-valuable) to their partner. One of the orang-utans routinely used gestures to request tokens while the other complied with such requests. Although initially the transfers were biased in one direction, they became more balanced towards the end of the study. Indeed, data on the last three series produced evidence of reciprocity both between and within trials. We observed an increase in the number and complexity of exchanges and alternations. This study is the first experimental demonstration of the occurrence of direct transfers of goods based on calculated reciprocity in non-human-primates.
Wittgenstein's combustion chamber
Authors: Cater John , Lemco Ian
Published: January 2009

Ludwig Wittgenstein, destined to be one of the most influential philosophers of the western world, entered Manchester University in 1908 as an aeronautical engineering research student. At Manchester he devised and patented a novel aero-engine that employed propeller-blade tip-jets. As a first practical step to the realization of this device, Wittgenstein constructed a variable-volume combustion chamber, but on departing for Cambridge he abandoned all further work on the project. The plans of this chamber survived and are presented in this paper. This article includes a detailed description of the drawings and an analysis of the probable function of the system.
A multivariate distribution for sub-images
Authors: Maybank S.J
Published: January 2009

A new method for obtaining multivariate distributions for sub-images of natural images is described. The information in each sub-image is summarized by a measurement vector in a measurement space. The dimension of the measurement space is reduced by applying a random projection to the truncated output of the discrete cosine transforms of the sub-images. The measurement space is then reparametrized, such that a Gaussian distribution is a good model for the measurement vectors in the reparametrized space. An Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process, associated with the Gaussian distribution, is used to model the differences between measurement vectors obtained from matching sub-images. The probability of a false alarm and the probability of accepting a correct match are calculated. The accuracy of the resulting statistical model for matching sub-images is tested using images from theMiddleburystereo database with promising results. In particular, if the probability of accepting a correct match is relatively large, then there is good agreement between the calculated and the experimental probabilities of obtaining a unique match that is also a correct match.
Predicting crystal growth by spiral motion
Authors: Snyder Ryan C , Doherty Michael F
Published: January 2009

We present a systematic modelling methodology using the spiral growth mechanism of Burton, Cabrera and Frank to predict the steady-state shape of organic molecular crystals grown from solution. This methodology has been developed to eliminate the need for special modifications for each new crystal system studied. Therefore, the mechanisms and choices for spiral shapes, edges and evolution are mathematically determined as governed by the underlying solid-state chemistry and physics. The power of the approach is demonstrated for several crystal systems: naphthalene grown from both ethanol and cyclohexane; anthracene grown from 2-propanol; and glycine grown from water. The predicted crystal shapes are in good agreement with experiment.
Lateral excitation of bridges by balancing pedestrians
Authors: Macdonald John H.G
Published: January 2009

On its opening day, the London Millennium Bridge (LMB) experienced unexpected large amplitude lateral vibrations due to crowd loading. This form of pedestrian–structure interaction has since been identified on several other bridges of various structural forms. The mechanism has generally been attributed to ‘pedestrian synchronous lateral excitation’ or ‘pedestrian lock-in’. However, some of the more recent site measurements have shown a lack of evidence of pedestrian synchronization, at least at the onset of the behaviour. This paper considers a simple model of human balance from the biomechanics field—the inverted pendulum model—for which the most effective means of lateral stabilization is by the control of the position, rather than the timing, of foot placement. The same balance strategy as for normal walking on a stationary surface is applied to walking on a laterally oscillating bridge. As a result, without altering their pacing frequency, averaged over a large number of cycles, the pedestrian effectively acts as a negative (or positive) damper to the bridge motion, which may be at a different frequency. This is in agreement with the empirical model developed by Arup from the measurements on the LMB, leading to divergent amplitude vibrations above a critical number of pedestrians.
Deterministic–stochastic approach to compartment fire modelling
Authors: Bertola V , Cafaro E
Published: January 2009

A generalized Semenov model is proposed to describe the dynamics of compartment fires. It is shown that the transitions to flashover or to extinction can be described in the context of the catastrophe theory (or the theory of dynamical systems) by introducing a suitable potential function of the smoke layer temperature. The effect on the fire dynamics of random perturbations is then studied by introducing a random noise term accounting for internal and external perturbations with an arbitrary degree of correlation. While purely Gaussian perturbations (white noise) do not change the behaviour of the fire with respect to the deterministic model, perturbations depending on the model variable (‘coloured’ noise) may drive the system to different states. This suggests that the compartment fires can be controlled or driven to extinction by introducing appropriate external perturbations.
Informed traders
Authors: Brody Dorje C , Davis Mark H.A , Friedman Robyn L , Hughston Lane P
Published: January 2009

An asymmetric information model is introduced for the situation in which there is a small agent who is more susceptible to the flow of information in the market than the general market participant, and who tries to implement strategies based on the additional information. In this model market participants have access to a stream of noisy information concerning the future return of an asset, whereas the informed trader has access to a further information source which is obscured by an additional noise that may be correlated with the market noise. The informed trader uses the extraneous information source to seek statistical arbitrage opportunities, while at the same time accommodating the additional risk. The amount of information available to the general market participant concerning the asset return is measured by the mutual information of the asset price and the associated cash flow. The worth of the additional information source is then measured in terms of the difference of mutual information between the general market participant and the informed trader. This difference is shown to be non-negative when the signal-to-noise ratio of the information flow is known in advance. Explicit trading strategies leading to statistical arbitrage opportunities, taking advantage of the additional information, are constructed, illustrating how excess information can be translated into profit.
In the light of time
Authors: Tuisku Petri , Pernu Tuomas K , Annila Arto
Published: January 2009

The concept of time is examined using the second law of thermodynamics that was recently formulated as an equation of motion. According to the statistical notion of increasing entropy, flows of energy diminish differences between energy densities that form space. The flow of energy is identified with the flow of time. The non-Euclidean energy landscape, i.e. the curved space–time, is in evolution when energy is flowing down along gradients and levelling the density differences. The flows along the steepest descents, i.e. geodesics are obtained from the principle of least action for mechanics, electrodynamics and quantum mechanics. The arrow of time, associated with the expansion of the Universe, identifies with grand dispersal of energy when high-energy densities transform by various mechanisms to lower densities in energy and eventually to ever-diluting electromagnetic radiation. Likewise, time in a quantum system takes an increment forwards in the detection-associated dissipative transformation when the stationary-state system begins to evolve pictured as the wave function collapse. The energy dispersal is understood to underlie causality so that an energy gradient is a cause and the resulting energy flow is an effect. The account on causality by the concepts of physics does not imply determinism; on the contrary, evolution of space–time as a causal chain of events is non-deterministic.
Transthyretin‐driven oncolytic adenovirus suppresses tumor growth in orthotopic and ascites models of hepatocellular carcinoma
Authors: Hsieh Jeng‐Long , Lee Che‐Hsin , Teo Min‐Li , Lin Yih‐Jyh , Huang Yen‐Sung , Wu Chao‐Liang , Shiau Ai‐Li
Published: January 2009

Strategies to increase antitumor efficacy of oncolytic adenoviruses are actively investigated. We have previously shown that E1B‐55 kDa‐deleted adenovirus, designated Ad5WS1, has therapeutic potential for treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). To achieve HCC‐restricted replication of oncolytic adenovirus, we generated Ad5WS2, an E1B‐55 kDa‐deleted adenovirus with its E1A gene driven by the liver‐specific transthyretin promoter. Our results showed that Ad5WS2 could replicate within tumor cells where the transthyretin gene was expressed. Mouse transthyretin promoter was active in murine and human HCC cells, but relatively quiescent in cells of non‐liver origin. Ad5WS2 caused severe cytolytic effect on HCC cells, but was much attenuated in non‐HCC cells. Peritoneal administration of Ad5WS2 into mice bearing liver tumors grown in ascites resulted in enhanced survival. In an orthotopic HCC model, Ad5WS2, when systemically administered, exerted higher antitumor effects than Ad5WS1. Lack of viral replication in normal organs and minimal hepatic toxicity was noted after Ad5WS2 treatment. Furthermore, the antitumor effect of Ad5WS2 could be enhanced when combined with chemotherapeutic agent cisplatin in the ascites tumor model. These results suggest that E1B‐55 kDa‐deleted adenovirus driven by the transthyretin promoter may be a safer and more efficacious oncolytic agent for the treatment of primary and metastatic HCC. (Cancer Sci 2009; 100: 537–545)