bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Equine feeding side preference – incidence and age effect
Authors: Bottom S H , Owen H , Lawson R E , Harris P A , Hall S
Published: June 2019

Two choice preference testing is used in animals to determine food preference or taste response (Nicol, 1997). This relies upon selection from a theoretical mean of 0.5, if no preference is shown. The aims of this study were two fold: to measure the incidence of side preference in the horse when given the choice of two identical feeds; and to assess the influence of age on side preference.

18 TB x horses were used in this study. Six horses were allocated to each of the age groups; young (2-4 years), middle (8-14 years) and old (over 16 years). All horses were housed in stables of identical design. 1.5kg DM of basal feed was offered in two containers, positioned left and right, for a ten–minute period over nine days. All spillages were collected and recorded. Intake was calculated as the (amount of feed offered – amount of feed remaining – 0.5x the Spillage).
A preliminary investigation into the effects of forage type on ammonia levels in stables for horses
Authors: Blaken C J , Lawson R E
Published: June 2019

Ammonia is generally present within all livestock buildings; it is a by-product of protein digestion. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is probably the most common cause of chronic coughing in horses in the UK. This has resulted in horse owners offering haylage, which is a low–dust alternative to hay (Moore–Colyer and Longland, 2000). However, Moore–Colyer and Longland (2000) reported that haylage usually contains more protein than hay (70 vs. 44 g CP/kg). When protein supplied in the diet exceeds the requirements of the horse, urea production will increase and consequently ammonia output will increase. Aerial ammonia concentrations can be regarded as a predisposing factor of COPD (Pratt, 2000). The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effects of offering horses different basal forages (hay vs. haylage) on the aerial ammonia concentrations within stables at different times during the day.
The conservation of animal genetic resources – a European perspective
Authors: Martyniuk E.
Published: June 2019

The paper provides an historical overview of conservation activities undertaken in Europe to maintain native livestock breeds, including the motivation and methods applied in conservation programmes and the contribution of various stakeholders. The current state of conservation activities is presented, based on reports provided by the National Coordinators on animal genetic resources (AnGR) during annual Workshops. These Workshops have been convened jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the European Association for Animal Production since 1995, and are conducted within the framework of the FAO Global Strategy for Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources. Analysis includes policy and legislation development, state and mode of financial support, conservation approaches and public awareness and education initiatives. The paper describes the establishment of the European Regional Focal Point for AnGR, its terms of reference, and ongoing and future activities. Questions regarding a vision of future needs and developments in AnGR are raised in this paper, both from a technical and policy context.
The UK Government policy on farm animal genetic resource conservation
Authors: Roper M.
Published: June 2019

Historically the UK has not had or needed a defined Government policy on the conservation and utilisation of farm animal genetic resources. However, this situation has changed recently, partly as a result of international efforts, stimulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity, and led by the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, to co-ordinate national strategies for conservation and utilisation of farm animal genetic resources. As part of this international effort, a National Consultative Committee was set up in the UK in 2001. This committee produced the UK Country Report on farm animal genetic resources, which was published in 2002 and submitted to FAO. This paper outlines the structure and recommendations of this report, and discusses government policy on farm animal genetic resources.
Conservation genetics of UK livestock: from molecules to management
Authors: Bruford M.W.
Published: June 2019

Analysis of molecular genetic diversity in livestock potentially allows for rational management of genetic resources experiencing the serious pressures now facing the livestock sector. The potentially damaging effects of genetic erosion are an ongoing threat, both through loss of breeding stock during the 2001 FMD crisis and potentially as a result of the ongoing National Scrapie Plan. These factors and an increasing focus through the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) on the conservation of animal genetic resources force us to consider seriously how to measure, monitor and conserve diversity throughout the genomes of livestock. Currently debated ways to optimally conserve livestock diversity, particularly the ‘Weitzman Approach’, may fail to take into account the significance of within-breed genetic diversity and its structuring, and apply relatively simplistic models to predict the probability of extinction for breeds over defined periods of time under certain management scenarios. In this paper I argue, using examples from our work and that of others, that within-breed diversity, in particular, should not be ignored when conserving livestock diversity, since breeds may be genetically structured at a variety of scales and there is little evidence for a convincing relationship between effective population size and genetic diversity within rare UK breeds. Furthermore, until we understand the population genetic forces that shape diversity in breeds in more detail, using raw indices of genetic variation or distances to rank or prioritise breeds in terms of some notional threat of extinction has questionable conservation value.
Role of new and current methods in semen technology for genetic resource conservation
Authors: Holt W.V. , Watson P.F.
Published: June 2019

The establishment of repositories of frozen semen, for the conservation of agricultural genetic resources, is not a simple matter of collecting and freezing semen in the hope that one day it will be suitable for use in an artificial insemination procedure. Important genetic issues need to be considered; for example, how many samples should be stored and from how many individuals? Aside from these, many biological and logistic issues must be considered. Cryopreservation technology does not work equally well in all species, often because of anatomical differences in the female reproductive tract leading to significant variability in the number of spermatozoa needed in order to achieve an acceptable conception rate. Moreover, spermatozoa from different species are not equally susceptible to cryoinjury. However, it is also emerging that semen samples from individuals within a species are also of different quality; several studies have revealed that these differences reflect the quality of DNA within the spermatozoon itself and also the efficacy of biochemical functions, including metabolic and signalling systems, within individual cells. As new possibilities to select spermatozoa for insemination arise, especially the use of flowsorting for gender selection, these issues may become more significant. In this article we interpret the way in which some of this new information may impact upon the practical implementation of genetic resource conservation.
Conserving animal genetic resources: making priority lists of British and Irish livestock breeds
Authors: Hall S.J.G.
Published: June 2019

Prioritisation of livestock breeds for conservation is agreed to depend upon the genetic distinctiveness of breeds, on census data and degree of endangerment, and on other factors relating to the present, future, or past function of the breeds in the livestock industry. How these factors can be combined to yield a prioritised list needs to be considered. An objective framework for prioritisation can be deduced if breeds are compared with each other by plotting genetic distinctiveness against distinctiveness of function. In this paper, the native British and Irish cattle breeds (n = 31 commercial, minority and rare breeds) have been prioritised in this way. Those with highest conservation priority are Chillingham, Gloucester, Guernsey, Jersey, Shetland and Irish Moiled. The 25 native British sheep breeds that are not on the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) Watchlist were also considered. The structure of the British sheep industry means that functional distinctiveness of breeds is not easily deduced. The only fully comparable characterisation data relate to wool fibre fineness class, so genetic distinctiveness was plotted against distinctiveness of this attribute. The non-rare breeds with highest conservation priority by this measure were Herdwick, Hampshire Down and Clun Forest.
Genetic diversity in European and Chinese pig breeds – the PigBioDiv project
Authors: Blott S. , SanCristobal M. , Chevalet C. , Haley C.S. , Russell G. , Plastow G. , Siggens K. , Groenen M.A.M. , Boscher M.-Y. , Amigues Y. , Hammond K. , Laval G. , Milan D. , Law A. , Fimland E. , Davoli R. , Russo V. , Gandini G. , Archibald A. , Delgado J.V. , Ramos M. , Désautés C. , Alderson L. , Glodek P. , Meyer J.-N. , Foulley J.-L. , Andersson L. , Cardellino R. , Li N. , Huang L. , Li K. , Ollivier L.
Published: June 2019

Characterisation of genetic diversity in a large number of European pig populations has been undertaken with EC support. The populations sampled included local (rare) breeds, national varieties of the major international breeds, commercial lines and the Chinese Meishan breed. A second phase of the project will sample a further 50 Chinese breeds. Neutral genetic markers (AFLP and microsatellites), with individual or bulk typing, were used and compared.

DNA from 59 European pig populations was extracted on samples of about 50 individuals per population. Individuals were typed for 50 microsatellites and for 148 AFLP bands. A subset of 25 populations was typed for 20 microsatellites on pools of DNA. Allele frequencies were estimated by direct allele counting for the co-dominant markers. Frequencies of AFLP negative alleles (absent bands) were obtained by taking the square root of absent band frequencies. Within-breed variability was summarised using standard statistics: expected and observed heterozygosity, mean observed and effective numbers of alleles, and F statistics. Between-breed diversity analysis was based on a bootstrapped Neighbor-Joining (NJ) tree derived from Reynolds distances (DR). The standard distance of Nei (DS) was also calculated.
Ovum recovery from ewes during the peak breeding season and transition to anoestrus
Authors: Mitchell L.M. , Mylne M.J.A. , Hunton J. , Matthews K. , McEvoy T.G. , Robinson J.J. , Dingwall W.S.
Published: June 2019

Sheep are seasonally-polyoestrous short-day breeders. Although the domesticated breeds have longer breeding seasons than the feral breeds, their maximum ovulation rates are only achieved over a relatively short period. The effect of these seasonal shifts in ovarian response on the success of ovum recovery for genetic improvement or breed conservation is unknown. The aim of the present study was to assess the efficiency of ovum recovery procedures for genetic conservation outwith the normal breeding season.
Equine hair analysis: a non-invasive technique for identifying exposure to drugs and toxins
Authors: Dunnett M. , Tracy S. , Lees P.
Published: June 2019

Hair analysis has been evaluated as a retrospective non-invasive diagnostic technique to identify and quantify drug administration and exposure to mycotoxins and plant toxins in horses. The purpose of this review is to describe and discuss in detail the development and application of this technique to equine hair, and to interpret data generated thus far. Particular attention is paid to both extrinsic and intrinsic factors, including pigmentation and hair growth-rates, that impinge on the conduct of hair analysis and which can be potential sources of error. In the absence of research specific to the horse, this review draws upon comparative data in humans and other species, on hair analysis and potential toxins of particular relevance to the horse.
Osteopathy and its application in the treatment of musculoskeletal dysfunction in horses
Authors: Brooks J , Pusey AG
Published: June 2019

Physical treatments have been found to be effective in treating musculoskeletal problems in the human field (UK BEAM trial, 2004). Osteopathy is one such beneficial treatment, (Williams, Wilkinson, Russell , Edwards, Linck, Hibbs, 2003) which has been applied to musculoskeletal dysfunction in horses. (Colles, Pusey, 2003).

Osteopathy as a medical philosophy was developed in the 1880s by Andrew Taylor Still, a doctor from the American mid–west. Dr Still was disillusioned with medical practice at that time when treatments such as bleeding, purgatives and emetics were common practice. Instead, his anatomical studies led him to envisage a system of the healing art, which placed chief emphasis on the structural integrity of the body as being most important in the well being of the organism. In other words, if the structure is normal, then the body can function at optimum levels (Still, 1902). This still forms the basis of the osteopathic philosophy, though the ground breaking new discoveries over the succeeding 125 years have brought a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underpinning this form of treatment (Kuchera, Kuchera, 1992).
Nutritional supplements in support of equine welfare
Authors: Harris P
Published: June 2019

In the wild, the horse would spend most of the day roaming and foraging in an externally variable environment as part of a herd. As non-ruminant herbivores they are well suited to a high fibre, low starch diet. They rarely fast voluntarily for more than 2 –4 hrs at a time and would naturally forage for 16-18hrs a day. Modern horse management often brings the horse into a small enclosed, isolated environment and limits the feeding occasions. What and when they are able to eat, is now predominantly determined by ourselves and we therefore have to take responsibility for the effects of our choice of management practices on their health and welfare. It is becoming increasingly apparent that some of these practices may not be optimal for the welfare of horses (Davidson and Harris 2003).

Animal welfare has been defined ecologically as the good fit of an animal to its environment (Kronfeld et al 1998).
A comparative study of equine compound feeds for leisure and performance horses
Authors: Gater J. , Counsell T.
Published: June 2019

A wide variety of equine compound feeds are now available, aimed at simplifying the feeding of horses, by removing the need for detailed nutritional calculations previously necessary with ‘straights’. It is assumed that the majority of feed sales are based on the name of the manufacturer and the branding of the individual product rather than the nutritional content. Research in equine nutrition has accelerated in the last decade and a greater academic understanding of equine nutrition has now been reached (Pagan 1998; Pagan 2001; Lawrence 2001). It appears that an ever-widening gap is being created between academic research and the end consumers, with regard to ration formulation and the nutritional requirements of horses. This gap is mainly being bridged by the compound feed manufacturers who are widely trusted to deliver correctly balanced compound feed. The objective of the present study is to investigate energy levels and sources of energy in compound feeds against peer-reviewed research standard levels (NRC 1989; Lawrence 2001) to ascertain whether feed manufacturers are delivering metabolically efficient and nutritionally balanced sources of energy in compound feeds for horses.
Quality and standards in health care
Authors: Irvine Donald , Donaldson Liam
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The chapter describes the professional and regulatory landmarks which have influenced the development of the quality movement in health care in the UK and the USA. They reflect the similarities and differences in the approach to quality which have evolved within the National Health Service in Britain when compared with a free market system of health care such as that in North America.

A conceptual framework is used to approach the definition and assessment of quality of health care, noting in particular Donabedian's seminal triad of structure, process and outcome as well as the outcomes movement and other theoretical approaches to defining quality.

The characteristics of criteria, standards, guidelines and protocols are described and the terminological problems in this field are discussed. The use of standards for improving quality includes their application in clinical audit, for accreditation and re-accreditation, in contracting for health services and in regulation and inspection.

There is a new and unfolding relationship between clinical standard setting and management. Concepts such as continuous quality improvement and total quality management are challenging traditional assumptions about the need for a separation between professional, consumer and managerial approaches to improving quality. The National Health Service, following implementation of an internal market for public health care provision in Britain, is well placed to absorb and synthesise the many differing philosophies in the health care quality movement to the benefit of both patients and the health professions alike.
The measurement of process and the role of information technology
Authors: Ryan M. P. , Dodd W.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Process of care is the most immediate, relevant and susceptible to improvement of Donabedian's three elements of quality assurance. To place the study of process in context, the history of quality assurance in English-speaking countries is reviewed, with particular emphasis on the U.S.A. A range of methods are examined in detail and examples are provided to illustrate their strengths and weaknesses. Particular attention is paid to the use of explicit and implicit criteria. The importance of information technology in monitoring the process of care cannot be over-stated. Limited audit is possible with manual records but all substantial projects require computer support. The value of capturing data from operational systems rather than from dedicated projects is emphasised. Attention is drawn to the key importance of structured records and minimum data sets; these allow information to be pooled and process studies to be generalised. Examples are given of quality assurance projects which have used information technology. Finally potential future developments are reviewed with particular reference to clinical guidelines and computer-based clinical decision support systems.
Quality assurance from the perspective of health economics
Authors: Williams Alan
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

There are two distinct views about the purpose of quality assurance by means of medical audit. The first is that it is a job requirement, to be backed by sanctions where necessary. The second is that it is a desirable attribute of professional practice, backed only by exhortation and opportunities for further training. This difference of view lies at the heart of much of the dispute as to how medical audit should be pursued in the UK at present. It explains why the medical profession insists that such audit should be conducted by peers, for peers, and accountable only to peers, whereas managers want some say in what is audited, how it is audited, and also want the reports of such audit made available to them, so that they can act upon the findings in their role as employers (e.g. in organising workloads, contracts, etc.). In this chapter the ‘job requirement’ view is supported, and its implications explored. It is argued that unless this route is chosen, it is unlikely that medical audit will deliver improvements in the health of the population that are commensurate with its costs.
The control and standardisation of biological medicines
Authors: Jeffcoate S. L. , Corbel M. J. , Minor P. D. , Gaines-Das R. , Schild G. C.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Assuring the quality, safety and efficacy of the complex medicinal drugs known as ‘biologicals’ has many facets of importance to public health. This survey covers the historical basis of this area of medical science through current issues and practices to the anticipation of future challenges. The key role of the World Health Organization in promoting international biological standardisation and of biostatistics in the design and analysis of biological assays is emphasised. Examples of the importance of quality control and standardisation are drawn especially from the fields of bacterial and viral vaccines. Assurance of the quality of these is essential for the successful implementation of childhood vaccination programmes aimed at the reduction and eradication of communicable diseases worldwide.
Quality assurance in medical publication
Authors: Lock Stephen
Published: June 2019

‘The object of science is publication’. Thus John Ziman (1968), a distinguished commentator on the history of science, echoing Michael Faraday's equally terse ‘Work, finish, publish’ over a century earlier. Few will disagree: research findings are incomplete until they have been disseminated widely and discussed by peers – to be rejected, modified, or accepted as a contribution to the particular discipline. Publication was one of the major considerations that in 1665 led two important scientific societies – the Academie Francaise and the Royal Society to create the first true scientific journals: theJournal de Sçavansand thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society(Zuckerman & Merton 1971). Nevertheless, right from the outset, neither journal was based on publishing everything that was submitted: instead, both relied on assessment of the articles by experts on the subject, chosen initially by the editor from within the council of the society and later from among scientists outside it.
North Sea oil and the environment: a national perspective
Authors: Monro Hector
Published: June 2019

The following is the text of a speech given by Sir Hector Monro to open the Conference held at the Royal Society of Edinburgh on Tuesday 21 September 1993.

This conference marks a dramatic and lasting achievement at Sullom Voe. I intend in these remarks to make clear the Government's appreciation of it. Yet all of us in this room must be aware, as we approach today's business, that as little as nine months ago Shetland, and Scotland, were in the midst of a major oil spill accident.
Measures to combat and control oil pollution in Sullom Voe
Authors: Dickson James T.
Published: June 2019

Senior staff of the Shetland Islands Council Marine Operations Department (see Appendix 1) and the terminal operator with responsibility for the prevention of oil pollution or its containment and recovery are in agreement that every effort made to prevent pollution is worth many times the effort subsequently applied to effecting a cure. Tankers and combination carriers engaged in the oil trade probably present the greatest statistical risk of oil pollution within port limits because of the quantities of oil transferred in their operations. For that reason the thrust of this paper is directed at the handling of such vessels. However, the measures outlined can be readily adapted or modified to reduce the likelihood of oil pollution originating from almost any floating craft within a harbour.
Effects of oil-industry operations on the macrobenthos of Sullom Voe
Authors: May S. J. , Pearson T. H.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The aims, methods and techniques of the macrobenthic monitoring programme in Sullom Voe and Orka Voe are described together with an analysis of the data obtained from surveys that began in 1978 and continue to the present. The distribution of the benthic macrofauna is discussed in relation to the sedimentological and hydrocarbon data obtained and compared with data from other Shetland waters. The macrofauna is considered to be typical of five of the six Facies used to describe the communities of the voes around Shetland. The possible effects of the terminal operations on the macrofauna are assessed and it is concluded that the disturbance noted to the macrofauna in Garths Voe, close to the diffuser at Calback Ness and in Orka Voe, essentially follows the same pattern seen in modifications to Shetland macrofauna that occurs where naturally occurring organic carbon enrichment exists.
Shellfish tainting – a means of monitoring petroleum-contaminated effluents
Authors: Whittle Kevin J. , Mackie Peter R. , Davis Harry K.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Water from the separation plant at Sullom Voe is discharged into the sea under agreed conditions from a diffuser situated to the north of Calback Ness, close to natural scallop (Pecten maximus) beds.

As part of the arrangements to monitor potential effects of the discharge, Torry Research Station was asked to assess, for petroleum taint, shellfish which would be sampled at intervals from Sullom Voe. To avoid depletion of the natural shellfish beds, queen scallops (Chlamys opercularis) or scallops, whichever were available from other areas, were set out in cages suspended (or on the bottom) 100–1250 m eastwards of the outfall for a period, and then recovered, frozen, and assessed subsequently at the laboratory by a trained taste panel, and compared with the same species unexposed.

The cages were laid on 10 occasions from March 1980 to February 1987. Initially, no petroleum taint was detected. In August 1980 and May 1981, a different flavour, but not recognisable as a petroleum taint, was detected at 800–1000 m from the outfall after three days exposure. In May 1982, 33% of the queen scallops in the cage on the bottom, 100 m south east of the diffuser, were dead after six days exposure, and taint was detected at the threshold level in shellfish in the cage at 300 m. In May 1983, taint and petroleum derived hydrocarbons were detected in the sample from the cage on the bottom, 100 m south east of the diffuser, after seven days exposure. In May 1984, taint was again detected at the bottom, 200 m south east of the outfall, after 10 days exposure.

Enquiries established that the diffuser was not operating with maximum efficiency. Subsequently, monitoring revealed an improvement. Taint assessment proved to be a sensitive detector of petroleum contamination.
Annual changes in selected aspects of soft-shore biology
Authors: Jones A. M.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Annual variations in a number of parameters over the period 1977–84 are described: they were generally site-specific in character. Linear shell dimensions of Cerastoderma edule populations (seven sites) remained stable but trends in both shell and soft-tissue dry weights changed over this period. Population structure and growth rates of C. edule are described using growth-ring analysis: they provide evidence of sporadic recruitment and persistent dominance by one or more yearclasses, although several populations are particularly individual in character. Populations of Macoma balthica (two sites) had a stable structure. Populations of both species at one site (inner Houb of Scatsta) declined markedly following the Esso Bernicia oil spill in 1982 and had not recovered before the study was terminated. Studies of transects at two sites are described: sedimentary changes were small while infaunal community characteristics showed both persistent environmental trends for some species and random fluctuations in others. The communities at each site showed high diversity, with generally stable structures upon which are superimposed annual and site-specific fluctuations in abundance of component species.
Response to the Esso Bernicia oil spill
Authors: Foxton Peter , Heubeck Martin
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

A brief description is given of the accident to the tanker Esso Bernicia that resulted in the release of 1174 tonnes of heavy fuel oil into the harbour at Sullom Voe. The measures taken to deal with the spill and the resulting oil pollution are described and their effectiveness assessed. Aspects of the environmental effects are considered with particular reference to birds, otters and sheep. Wide-ranging inquiries were made into the cause of the incident, the adequacy of the response, and the effects of the pollution. The actions that resulted are described. Finally the significance of the event is considered in relation to the subsequent development of oil spill contingency planning at Sullom Voe, and in the wider context of Shetland.
The Guinea–Congo lowland rain forest: an overview
Authors: Lawson G. W.
Published: June 2019

In a paper entitled ‘Africa – the odd man out’ Richards (1973) pointed out that of the three main regions of tropical rain forest he recognised, namely American, African and Indo–Malaysian, the African rain forest stands out as distinct from the others. He took this view largely on the comparative poverty of its flora, the wider distribution of African plants, and the poor representation of certain plant groups such as palms, orchids and trees of the family Lauraceae. In addition, Africa is relatively poorly endowed with some life forms such as lianes and epiphytes. He attributed the uniqueness of tropical Africa to a number of possible factors. In the first place, differences may be due to climate since the uniformly high rainfall, humidity, temperatures, and absence of a regular dry season that occur in parts of the other two tropical regions are evidently rare or lacking in Africa. A distinct dry season, often of over two months, is nearly always present, and even in the central Congo basin there is usually at least one month when rainfall is less than 100 mm. Secondly, the impact of human beings on vegetation has been longer and more sustained in Africa than elsewhere, so much so that the presence of any truly primeval or so-called virgin forest is very questionable. However, it is unlikely that present day climatic factors and human interference can wholly account for the unique position of African rain forest, and historical reasons must also be sought. Thus it seems probable that the vicissitudes of climate, recorded as arid and pluvial periods in African lake sediments, have been much greater than those in the other two regions in question.
Soils of the lowland forests of West and Central Africa
Authors: Juo A. S. R. , Wilding L. P.
Published: June 2019

The forest zone of West and Central Africa comprises the coastal and adjacent inland regions bounded the semi-deciduous forests in the west and the equatorial forests in central Africa and the Congo basin. Sedimentary plains, developed mostly on weathered sandy materials, lie along the coastal stretches and cover vast areas of the Congo basin. Behind the coast the plain rises gradually to hills and plateaus of much lower elevation than those of the highlands of East Africa. Two great rivers, the Niger and the Congo, which discharge huge volumes of fresh water to the Atlantic Ocean, are major contributors to the hydrological cycles of the rain forests ecosystems of the Guinea–Congo Region. The Niger originates from the forested highlands of Guinea and discharges its waters into the Bight of Benin by way of a large delta in southern Nigeria. The Congo basin occupies an immense area of 750 000 km2, surrounded by Pre-Cambrian uplands. The alluvial floor of the saucer-shaped basin is flat, and marshes and swamps comprise a large proportion of the total area. The highlands and plateaus along the rim are low to the west and north and higher to the south. To the east, they merge with the mountains of the Great Rift Valley of East Africa (Gann & Duignan 1972; Hance 1975; Grove 1978; Hamilton 1989).
A structural analysis of rain forest at Korup and Douala–Edea, Cameroon
Authors: Newbery D. McC. , Gartlan J. S.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Diameter frequency distributions (dfds) of 197 tree species in Korup National Park and 118 tree species in Douala–Edea Forest Reserve (based onc.41 000 and 25 000 trees ≥ 30 cm gbh in 135 and 104 plots along four transects at each site, respectively) were individually classified into four groups of species according to their maximum diameters (≥99% trees <50, <70 and <90cm dbh, and > 1% ≥90cm dbh), and separated into two abundance classes (n≥50 andn= 20–49 (or 15–49). A fifth group, from those species in 3 and 4, was defined by a relative lack of small stems and given detailed attention. Dfds were evaluated for all species together on a transect and site basis, and compared for individual species across transects, and between sites for those group 5 species in common.

Analysis focussed on three large ectomycorrhizal species in groups 3 and 4,Microberlinia bisulcata, Tetraberlinia bifoliolataandT. moreliana(Caesalpiniaceae), which were restricted to, and dominated, the forest on the nutrient-poor soils of transect P at Korup.M. bisulcata, the most abundant, was markedly group 5 in character, with very few small trees, whilst theTetraberliniaspecies had strong replacement potential. Although there were 27 species (42% of groups 3 & 4) at Korup and 19 (48%) at Douala–Edea in group 5,M. bisulcatawas unique in its combination of large size, dfd, mycorrhizal habit, spatial distribution and soil association. The potential replacement of this species was contrasted also with a non-ectomycorrhizal caesalp with similar dfd that occurred on nutrient-richer soils,Erythrophleum ivorense.

Knowledge of the Caesalpiniaceae-richla forêt biafriéeneof Letouzey (which includes Korup and Douala–Edea) is reviewed, and the distribution, ecology and regeneration of the caesalps discussed. Structure and inferred dynamics of the forest at Korup are discussed with special regard to the ectomycorrhizal species.
Forest indigenous peoples: concept, critique and cases
Authors: Richards Paul
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

This chapter has two linked objectives. The first is to sketch the process of human occupance of the lowland rain forest zone in West Africa, and illustrate (by means of a case study) the current circumstances of human settlement at the forest margins. The second is to bring the category ‘indigenous peoples’ under review, and to point out some of the pitfalls associated with the use of this term in the context of the West African forest frontier. All parts of the forest zone in West Africa have a long and complex history of occupation and use. In consequence, I shall argue that it is rarely, if ever, realistic to think of forest country as a residuum of empty land not yet passed into human ownership and use, but that it is equally distorting to treat the local groups currently found in possession of the forest edge as sole custodians. Forest resources have over time become part of the fabric of wider community life in West Africa, up to and beyond the national level, and narrow definitions of the category ‘indigenous peoples’ are to be avoided. Rather than search for putative forest indigenes, living in greater harmony with nature than incoming settlers (a usage reflecting Amazonian experience) it would be better, I suggest, to consider the term ‘indigenous peoples’ as covering all groups in West Africa with effective local knowledge of the forest. An eventual aim should be to understand how the experience of forest occupance has passed into the make-up of the institutions and values of civil society throughout the forest zone in West Africa today, regardless of whether or not these groups have a current direct connection to surviving areas of high forest. This is a much broader sociological agenda than conservationists have been prepared to tackle so far, but the threatened forests of West Africa are also complex human landscapes of considerable historical depth, and this human complexity is, in my judgement, no less worthy of understanding and conservation than the envelope of non-human biodiversity from which is has emerged. In fact, the two sets of issues are inextricably intertwined.
Endocrine management of breast cancer
Authors: Forrest A. P. M.
Published: June 2019

The first report that the ovaries influenced the development of the normal human female breast, is to be found in a case record from St Bartholomew's Hospital, London, dated 1775. The surgeon Percival (later Sir Percival) Pott had removed the normal ovaries of a twenty-three-year old girl during the repair of bilateral groin hernias, in which they had become entrapped. He reported that the patient had “enjoyed good health ever since” but that … “Her breasts, which were large, are gone, nor has she ever menstruated since the operation, which is now some years” (Pott 1775).
Clinical evidence for the involvement of oestrogen in the development and progression of breast cancer
Authors: Howell Anthony
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Oestrogens may be involved in breast cancer development by at least three mechanisms, all of which involve stimulation of growth. Firstly, they may stimulate proliferation of the normal gland and possibly expand the pool of cells susceptible to carcinogens; secondly, they may expand the population of cells initiated by carcinogens by a promoting action to produce clinically detectable tumours; and thirdly, they may stimulate the growth and progression of infiltrating tumours. All of these effects are probably produced by interactions with the oestrogen receptor. There is suggestive evidence from immunocytochemical studies that promotion to the phase of carcinoma in situ in volves expansion of a receptor-positive clone of cells. After progression, there is a gradual loss of endocrine responsiveness either because of loss of the receptor protein or of receptor function. The high proportion of receptor-positive cells in early malignant lesions holds great hope for preventive strategies using anti-oestrogens for suppression of ovarian oestrogen production.
A new approach to the prevention of breast cancer
Authors: Bradlow H. Leon , Michnovicz Jon J.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

While the role of oestrogens in breast cancer has been recognised for over a century, until recently our understanding of the mechanism by which they act has been limited, despite zealous efforts on the part of many investigators to seek for differences in oestrogen levels or metabolism in cancer patients. Since the initiation of breast cancer occurs many years before the detection of overt disease, it seems reasonable to suggest that these earlier studies may have been carried out at the wrong stage of the disease. Using a time invariant radiometric procedure, we have established that of the three principal sites of oestrogen metabolism at C-2, C-16α, and C-17, only C-16α hydroxylation is elevated in women with breast cancer. Further studies in women at high risk for breast cancer for familial reasons showed that they have an elevated rate of 16α-hydroxylation. Parallel studies in mice with high and low rates of spontaneous mammary tumour formation show a close parallelism between the extent of 16α-hydroxylation and tumour incidence. Studies of 16α-hydroxyoestrone, the product of 16α-hydroxylation, have demonstrated that it is a unique oestrogen, capable of binding irreversibly to the oestrogen receptor and permanently activating it. Studies on the effects of diet and drugs on the extent of C-2 and C-16α hydroxylation have shown that while the former reaction is easily increased or decreased, the latter is refractory to treatment and behaves like a constitutive enzyme. Thus, treatment with cimetidine, obesity, or high fat diets decrease the extent of C-2 hydroxylation, while high protein diets, hyperthyroidism, smoking, or dioxins increase C-2 hydroxylation. In contrast, 16α-hydroxylation is essentially unchanged in any of these conditions.

A link between increased C-2 hydroxylation and decreased levels of breast and endometrial cancer is suggested by epidemiological studies in smokers. Conversely, decreases in this reaction as in obesity are associated with increased risk for these tumours. The aim of these studies is to develop a safe prophylactic regimen which will increase C-2 hydroxylation, resulting in a decrease in active oestrogen and a lower tumour incidence.
Oestrogen-induced pro-cathepsin D in breast cancer: from biology to clinical applications
Authors: Rochefort Henri , Augereau Patrick , Briozzo Pierre , Capony François , Cavailles Vincent , Freiss Gilles , Garcia Marcel , Maudelonde Thierry , Morisset Muriel , Touitou Isabelle , Vignon Françoise
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

In addition to secreted growth factors, acting as autocrine or paracrine mitogens, breast cancer cells secrete other proteins whose function and significance in mammary carcinogenesis may be important. Among them, proteases are particularly interesting since it has been suggested that they play a role in metastatic process, and since at least two of them, the tissue type plasminogen activator and pro-cathepsin D, the precursor of a lysosomal protease, are induced by oestrogens and secreted in excess in some mammary cancer cells.

In oestrogen-receptor-positive human breast cancer cell lines (MCF7, ZR75–1), oestrogens stimulate cell proliferation and specifically increase the secretion into the culture medium of a 52,000-dalton (52-kDa) glycoprotein identified as the secreted precursor of a cathepsin D bearing mannose-6-phosphate signals, which is routed to lysosomesviamannose-6-phosphate-IGF-II receptors. We have determined the structure of this procathepsin D by sequencing its complete cDNA sequence, its chromosomal localisation and its transcriptional regulation by oestrogens and other mitogens. In breast cancer cells, pro-cathepsin D production and secretion is much higher and its processing is altered compared to normal mammary epithelial cells in culture.In vitro, pro-cathepsin D acts as an autocrine mitogen on breast cancer cells and can be activated at acidic pH to degrade extracellular matrix, suggesting a role in mediating the effect of oestrogens on tumour growth and invasion. Retrospective clinical studies indicate a significant correlation between high 52-kDa cathepsin D concentrations in the cytosol of primary breast cancer and poor prognosis (Danish Breast Cancer Group, S. Thorpe, Copenhagen). We propose that among the proteases secreted by cancer cells, 52-kDa cathepsin D is important both as a tissue marker in breast cancer and as a potential factor involved in carcinogenesis.
Oestrogen-receptors: an overview of recent advances in their structure and function
Authors: King R. J. B.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Recent advances in our understanding of the receptor components involved in the initial events of oestradiol action are reviewed with an emphasis on aspects of clinical relevance. Two main features of the models have evolved: (1) the domain structure of the ligand-binding unit, with distinct parts of the molecule being concerned with oestrogen-binding and interaction with DNA, and other parts of the molecule having important regulatory functions; (2) the regulatory regions (oestrogen-response elements) of oestrogen-sensitive genes which specifically interact with the receptor protein.

The homologies between different proteins capable of binding ligands as diverse as oestradiol, retinoic acid and thyroid hormone point to possible interactions between such ligands. Oestrogen-response elements can recognise oestradiol receptor proteins complexed with either agonists or antagonists. Interactions with DNA may play an important rôle in determining gene expression additional to those seen at the receptor level.
The relevance of local oestrogen metabolism within the breast
Authors: Miller W. R. , O'Neill J. S.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Ovarian oestrogens appear to have a central role in the development of the breast. However, peripheral tissues including the breast and its tumours have the potential to synthesise and metabolise oestrogens. When ovarian secretion of hormones is low, for example, after the menopause, such extra-gonadal steroidogenesis may assume biological significance.

While no individual steroid conversion in the breast has been shown to correlate with levels of endogenous oestrogens, certain positive associations have been observed between enzyme activities and the presence, stage and hormone dependence of breast cancer.

Thus biosynthesis of oestrogen (aromatisation) in breast fat is significantly higher in patients with breast cancer as compared to that from women with benign breast disease. Within the breasts of women with cancer, oestrogen biosynthesis is enhanced in quadrants bearing tumour. In contrast, levels of 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase are not associated with the presence of malignancy, but in women with breast cancer, activity is significantly higher in breast fat of patients with large tumours and those with nodal metastasis. There is also evidence that oestrogen sulphurylation in breast cancer is associated with hormone dependence and among postmenopausal patients with oestrogen-receptor-positive tumours, response to the aromatase inhibitor, aminoglutethimide, is restricted to cancers possessing aromatase activity.
Optimisation of antioestrogen therapy: laboratory and clinical concepts
Authors: Jordan V. Craig
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Tamoxifen, a non-steroidal antioestrogen, is the first line endocrine therapy for breast cancer. Laboratory studies during the past decade have provided valuable clues to understand the mode of action of tamoxifen so that the drug can be used to its best advantage in the clinic. Animal models (carcinogen-induced rat mammary carcinoma models, spontaneous mouse mammary tumours, and athymic mice inoculated with hormone-dependent human breast cancer cell lines) all demonstrate that tamoxifen is a tumouristatic agent and long-term or indefinite therapy is required to prevent the appearance of tumours. However, when treatment is stopped, tumours appear spontaneously or can be encouraged to re-appear with oestrogen therapy. These data clearly support the view that adjuvant clinical trials with tamoxifen should employ an indefinite treatment policy or at least until the time of treatment failure. Several clinical trials organisations in Great Britain (CRC and Scottish trial) have recruited a significant number of premenopausal patients. However, unlike postmenopausal patients, long-term tamoxifen therapy of premenopausal women often causes an increase in circulating oestrogen. Since tamoxifen has been shown to be a competitive inhibitor of oestrogen action, strategies to reduce ovarian steroidogenesis (oophorectomy or Zodalex®) may provide an optimal environment to sustain the long-term effectiveness of adjuvant tamoxifen therapy.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Forrest A. P. M.
Published: June 2019

In some ways, this splendid conference marks the end of a road and I doubt if another will be held under the same title. Not that there is not much fundamental work still to be done on the mechanism of oestrogen action and its effects on normal and diseased breast tissues, but its general role in relation to breast cancer would appear now to be clear. Oestrogens are necessary for the development of the normal human breast, for the initiation and promotion of breast cancer, and may even act as a mitogen in established disease. But their role can be regarded as largely permissive. It is not clear that excess oestrogens are in any way causative of breast cancer in humans.