bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Syria and Iraq, Baathists
Authors: Isaac Steven
Published: September 2017

Three main currents of socialist thought flowed through the Arab world during and after World War II: the Baath Party's version, shared by Nasser, and the options promulgated by the region's various communist parties. None could be considered independent from the others. The history of Arab communists is often a story of rivalry and occasional cohabitation with other movements. The Baathists were active beyond just Syria and Iraq, which saw their most signal successes, and concomitant disappointments.
Taiping Rebellion, 1851–1864
Authors: Bhattacharyya Amit
Published: September 2017

One of the greatest Chinese peasant rebellions, the Taiping (Great Peace) Rebellion was directed primarily against the feudal rule of the Manchu dynasty and secondarily against foreign capitalism, which had been making steady inroads into the economy, society, and politics of China ever since the country's defeat in the first Opium War and the signing of the Treaty of Nanking.
Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

The Taiping Rebellion, perhaps the most bloody and genocidal religious insurrection in world history, traces its origins to disturbances from 1851 to 1864. The causes of the rebellion date to the late 1840s and were not fully quelled until the late 1860s. The rebellion centered in Kwangtung (Guangdong) province. Some books state that the name of the rebellion derives from the Taiping people who lived in Kwangtung, but most others claim that it gets its name from their Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace – Taiping meaning “Heavenly Kingdom.” Coming so soon after the defeat of China in the First Opium War, with a resulting decline in the prestige of the Ching (Manchu) dynasty, the Taiping revolt began as a small dispute with local causes, and went on to cover much of central China; 600 cities and towns changed hands during the conflict, which involved up to 10 million soldiers. It also resulted in the deaths of millions of people; some scholars put the death toll at between 20 and 50 million. This makes the Taiping Rebellion the second bloodiest war in history, behind only World War II.
Tamil Nationalist Struggle for
E
elam
Authors: Rainford Charan
Published: September 2017

The struggle for Eelam (homeland) revolves around the notion of the Tamil nation and its traditional homeland, historically and geographically equivalent to the Northern and Eastern Provinces of Sri Lanka, and the inalienable right to self‐determination. Following independence in 1948, the post‐colonial Sri Lankan polity passed legislation on citizenship, language, and education favoring the majority Sinhalese at the expense of the minorities, particularly the Tamils comprising approximately 15 percent of the population. This led invariably to an escalation of Tamil demands, from federalism to armed struggle for a separate homeland. In the former avatar the Tamil political leadership coalesced around S. J. V. Chelvanayakam and the Federal Party (FP), which equated the rights of the Tamils to that of a separate nation. It demanded a federal state with language rights through non‐violent struggle. In 1976, after the failure of successive Sri Lankan governments to adhere to promises made concerning decentralization, the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) was formed on a united political platform for Eelam.
T
anzania, Protest and Independence
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa
Published: September 2017

The Maji‐Maji revolt stands out as one of the major phenomenal occurrences in the political development of colonial and postcolonial Tanzania. It started on July 31, 1905 and lasted until 1907, when the last remnants of the revolt were crushed. It was indeed a classic example of a peasants' revolt against their colonial masters' unfavorable economic policies, constructed and carried out, however, within the boundaries of the prevalent belief system. Its suppression nevertheless brought dire consequences for both the natives and the German colonial regime. One lasting consequence of the revolt was the decimation of a hitherto thickly populated environment, which has since served as a games reserve.
Thelwall, John (1764–1834)
Authors: Poole Steve
Published: September 2017

John Thelwall rose to prominence in England during the politically volatile 1790s as a highly influential orator for the proto‐democratic London Corresponding Society (LCS). He had already produced literary work critical of empire and the slave trade, as well as an excursion into history, travel, and philosophy in
The Peripatetic
(1793). By 1794, Thelwall was drafting universal suffragist policy resolutions and public addresses for the LCS, and in April appeared as principal speaker at an outdoor meeting of 2,000 plebeian reformers at Chalk Farm.
Thistlewood, Arthur (1774–1820) and the Cato Street Conspiracy
Authors: Frank Christopher
Published: September 2017

Arthur Thistlewood was a British radical best known for leading the Cato Street Conspiracy, a botched plot to assassinate members of the Cabinet in 1820. Thistlewood was born in 1774 near Tupholme, in Lincolnshire, England. His father was a prosperous farmer who paid to have Thistlewood educated as a land surveyor. This work was not to his liking, so he joined the army and served in the West Indies. He later traveled to the United States and France, where he was greatly influenced by revolutionary ideas and became committed to the overthrow of the British government and the creation of a more just and equitable society. In 1808 Thistlewood married Susan Wilkinson, a woman who shared his revolutionary ideas. Three years later they moved to London, and it was not long after that Thistlewood joined the Society of Spencean Philanthropists, a group of radical men who met regularly to discuss politics and revolution.
T
ibet Uprising and Resistance
Authors: Steinberg James
Published: September 2017

In 1959 a major rebellion erupted in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, as thousands of Tibetans gathered to protect their threatened religious leader, the fourteenth Dalai Lama. The uprising culminated after ten years of intrusive Chinese military and political coercion that turned more violent by early 1952. The new Chinese communist regime began in 1949, led by Mao Zedong (1893–1976), who began a subtle and intentional strategy to spread the communist revolution to Tibet and lay claim to the region as an integral part of China. As the Chinese began to move into the region in the 1950s, tensions increased between the Chinese communists and the Tibetans (who are by and large devout Yellow Hat Buddhists, a local sect founded in the fifteenth century).
Tito, Josip Broz (1892–1980)
Authors: Boris Kanzleiter
Published: September 2017

Josip Broz Tito was leader of the communist antifascist movement in Yugoslavia during World War II that, like Albanian and Greek partisans, liberated the Balkans from Nazi occupation without assistance from foreign powers. Subsequently, Tito developed a form of socialism independent of Moscow through the establishment of “Workers' Self‐management.” As founder of the Non‐Alignment Movement, Tito achieved widespread international respect as a statesman in the global South in the 1950s and 1960s.
Tlatelolco 1968 and the Mexican Student Movement
Authors: Sergi Vittorio
Published: September 2017

The movement of 1968 in Mexico was part of a worldwide social movement that year. It was characterized by the definition of a common enemy concentrated in the authoritarian state party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the government, and the president of the republic, Gustavo Díaz Ordaz (1964–70). It was led by university students, who occupied the universities and organized militant mass demonstrations. The escalation of radical protests and open repression led to high levels of institutional violence. On October 2, 1968, ten days before the beginning of the Olympic Games in Mexico City, army and security forces opened fire on the student crowd on Tlatelolco Square.
Togliatti, Palmiro (1893–1964)
Authors: Stampacchia Mauro
Published: September 2017

Palmiro Togliatti was both a prominent leader of the Communist International and the secretary of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) between 1927 and his death in 1964. After the fall of Fascism he returned to Italy and contributed to shape the PCI as a new mass party, with a large electoral support and roots in the Italian working classes and society.
Toivo Ya Toivo, Andimba (b. 1924)
Authors: Dedering Tilman
Published: September 2017

Hermann Andimba Toivo Ya Toivo was born on August 22, 1924 at Omangundu in Oshana Region of Namibia, near the Angolan border. After obtaining primary and secondary education in northern Namibia, Ya Toivo fought for the British in World War II from 1942 to 1943. After the war he initially worked as a teacher in Namibia and then moved to Cape Town employed as a railway police officer from 1952 to 1953. While in Cape Town, Ya Toivo joined with a network of other black Namibian expatriates and with black and anti‐apartheid activists from all races and political persuasions. In 1957 he joined the South African National Congress (ANC) and Ya Toivo helped found the Ovamboland People's Congress (OPC), the precursor of the Ovamboland People's Organization (OPO), and forerunner to the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO).
Tone, Theobald Wolfe (1763–1798)
Authors: Sonnelitter Karen
Published: September 2017

Theobald Wolfe Tone was an Irish nationalist and political writer. He was born in Dublin on June 20, 1763 into a wealthy middle‐class family, but its fortunes declined with a downturn in his father's coach‐building business in the late 1770s. Theobald entered Trinity College in 1781, was suspended briefly for dueling, and graduated in 1786 before going on to train as a barrister. In 1785 he married Matilda Witherington, eloping with her to the disapproval of her family. His career as a barrister commenced in 1789, and in 1790 he began writing pro‐Whig political pamphlets.
Torrijos, General Omar (1929–1981)
Authors: Töller Inga
Published: September 2017

General Omar Torrijos Herrera was a military dictator of the Panamanian Republic between 1968 and 1981. He took power by a coup d'état in 1968. His politics were formed by progressive and nationalist policies with a focus on the rural areas, social security, health, and education. He also wanted to regain the Panama Canal and the Canal Zone from the United States and thus recover national sovereignty.
Triangle Shirtwaist fire protests
Authors: Mattina Anne F.
Published: September 2017

On Saturday, March 25, 1911, fire broke out on the eighth floor of the Asch building, home to the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York's Washington Square neighborhood. Workers, the majority young immigrant women, found themselves trapped in what was claimed to be a “fireproof” structure. Some managed to make their way down smoke‐filled staircases; others rushed to the fire escape doors only to find them locked, a common practice of the era. The first alarm brought firefighters to a horrific scene of panic and hysteria, as many trapped workers sought their escape by jumping from the windows of the eighth and ninth floors of the building. In total, 146 workers died as result of the fire, an event that gave rise to waves of protest over the next several weeks.
Trinidad, Anti‐Colonial Movement
Authors: Toussaint Michael F.
Published: September 2017

Trinidad and Tobago's anti‐colonial struggle began with the late eighteenth– and early nineteenth‐century agitation of the rising black and colored middle classes, their reform movements of the 1880s and 1890s, and the emergence of labor‐based organizations from that period onwards. From the twentieth century to the present, such influences worked in tandem with international currents of anti‐imperialism and race consciousness to impact attitudes and approaches to the nationalist question.
Trinidad, Labor Protests
Authors: Teelucksingh Jerome
Published: September 2017

In Trinidad's era of indentured servitude (1845–1920) subtle protests emerged in the form of absenteeism and faked illness among Indian laborers on the sugar estates. This was due to strict labor regulations, police harassment, and judicial partiality. There was also a series of disturbances among the Indian working class which culminated in a phenomenal 12 strikes in 1884.
Trotsky, Leon (1879–1940)
Authors: Le Blanc Paul
Published: September 2017

Leon Trotsky was one of the most impressive revolutionaries of the twentieth century, and his example and ideas have profoundly affected successive generations of labor and socialist activists. Born in the Ukraine, then part of the Russian empire, the scope of his thought and activism became quintessentially global. Born Lev Davidovich Bronstein, he adopted the underground name “Trotsky” (the pen) and became known not only for his eloquence as a writer, but also as an orator. These talents were inseparable, however, from his role as a political activist.
Truth, Sojourner (ca. 1797–1883)
Authors: Rolls Albert
Published: September 2017

Born around 1797 in Hurly, New York, and given the name Isabella, Sojourner Truth, who later in life earned fame as an evangelist, abolitionist, and women's rights advocate, remained a slave until 1827 when, on July 4, African Americans born before July 4, 1799 were freed in accordance with New York's 1817 emancipation statute. Her owners during her first 30 years included Johannes Hardenbergh and his son Charles Hardenbergh, who sold her to John Neely in 1806. Martinus Schryver bought her in 1808, and two years later she was sold to John Dumont.
Tubman, Harriet (ca. 1819–1913)
Authors: Rolls Albert
Published: September 2017

Primarily remembered for her work as a conductor on the Underground Railroad (UR), Harriet Tubman came to be known as “the Moses of her people” during her lifetime, yet her helping slaves escape to freedom represents only a portion of her accomplishments.
Turati, Filippo (1857–1932)
Authors: Cherubini Donatella
Published: September 2017

Filippo Turati is the most influential figure in Italian anti‐revolutionary socialism from the 1890s to the rise of fascism, having a prominent role throughout Europe. Like many early Italian socialist leaders, he received a degree in law, and later became actively involved in the literary and intellectual milieus of Milan. Influenced by positivist culture, in the 1880s Turati was immersed in politics. His ties with the Russian revolutionary Anna Kuliscioff and close contact with the Milanese labor environment led him from democratic ideals toward socialism.
Turkey, Working‐Class Protest, 1960–1980
Authors: Tür Özlem
Published: September 2017

The Turkish military launched a coup d'état on May 27, 1960. The leaders of the Democratic Party (DP), Adnan Menderes, Hasan Polatkan, and Fatin Rüstü Zorlu, were executed after trial. Although this coup had many causes, including repression of the regime, allegations of corruption against the rulers, dependency on foreign powers, and attacks on Kemalist principles in general and secularism in particular were important factors. May 1960 was the first time the military intervened in Turkish civilian politics. Since Ottoman times the army has played a major role in the political life of the country. The DP's policy of de‐bureaucratizing meant official elites lost not only their representation in parliament and their close links with political elites, but also much of their economic power, prestige, and influence. There is agreement among many researchers that the 1960 coup demonstrated the quest of the military‐bureaucratic elite to return to the center, to revive its diminishing role in the nation's politics.
U
ganda, Protests against
B
ritish Colonialism and Occupation
Authors: von Weichs Raphaela
Published: September 2017

From the beginning, British colonial rule in East Africa encountered severe protests and manifold resistance. When the Uganda protectorate was established in 1894, almost everywhere local populations struggled against foreign domination, albeit with differing degrees of success. Resistance was most pronounced in the Kingdom of Bunyoro‐Kitara in the western Nile region. This centralized state dominated the Great Lakes area until the early eighteenth century when its eastern neighbor, the Kingdom of Buganda, began to expand. In the late nineteenth century, the rival kingdom collaborated effectively with British imperialism and became the center of power in the protectorate. Local resistance was therefore directed not only against European hegemony, but also against African sub‐imperialism. Though uprisings and rebellions spilled over almost everywhere in the protectorate, Bunyoro‐Kitara excelled in military resistance under King (Omukama) Kabalega from 1893 to 1895.
Ukraine Orange Revolution, 2004–2005
Authors: Polese Abel
Published: September 2017

Ukrainians responded to corruption and electoral fraud in the second round of the 2004 presidential elections with massive protests. Thousands of hardcore activists occupied the center of Kiev, where they set up residence in tents and organized sit‐ins, strikes, and various forms of non‐violent protest to demand a revote in the run‐off between opposition candidate Viktor Yushchenko and the ordained successor of outgoing President Kuchma, Viktor Yanukovych. International reports of fraud and widespread public perception of intimidation and abuse by the authorities in favor of the government's candidate resulted in an enormous outpouring of support for Yushchenko and democratic change. Hundreds of thousands of citizens filled the capital, with the number of demonstrators reaching as many as 1 million on November 27, 2004. Mass strikes and rallies took place around the country. As a result of the protests the election results were voided and a revote was ordered by the Ukraine Supreme Court at the end of December. Yushchenko won 52 percent of the vote in the new election to become the third president of the Ukraine.
UNAM Strike, 2000, and Mexican Student Movement
Authors: Espejel Leticia Pacheco
Published: September 2017

The student movement of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) from 1999 and 2000 was sparked when university rector Francisco Barnés de Castro announced various reforms that included increasing tuition fees from US$25 to about US$150 and the elimination of the
pase automatico
, which had allowed aspirants to enter the university automatically after completing preparatory exams for the College of Science and Humanities (Colegios de Ciencias y Humanidades) (CCH) without additional entrance examinations.
União dos Lavradores e Trabalhadores Agrícolas do Brasil (ULTAB‐Brazil)
Authors: de Cássia Rodrigues Fabiana
Published: September 2017

The União dos Lavradores e Trabalhadores Agrícolas do Brasil (ULTAB‐Brazil) was founded at the Peasants' Conference in September 1954, in the city of São Paulo. This organization resulted from the efforts of the Brazilian Communist Party (Partido Comunista Brasileiro, PCB) to unite protests around the country. ULTAB was created in order to encourage wage‐earners to fight for their rights, but it also supported other categories of workers, including leaseholders.
Unión Patriótica
Authors: Andrés Otálvaro H. , Ruiz Hermann
Published: September 2017

The Unión Patriótica (Patriotic Union, UP) was a Colombian political movement that emerged in the middle of the 1980s as a civil alternative to the political forces when peace negotiations under the government of Belisario Betancur took place. Since then PU leaders and militants have been targeted and over 5,000 have been murdered by army men, paramilitaries, and drug smugglers who were deeply involved with the right‐wing political elite of the country.
Union for Women's Equality
Authors: Larocca Giuseppina
Published: September 2017

After the Russian Revolution in 1905, many liberal women – especially those who had attended universities – began asking for civil and political rights. From this moment began the second period of the development of Russian feminism. (The first had started with the philanthropic “triumvirate” of Maria Trubnikova, Anna Filosofova, and Nadezhda Stasova). The women's movement became more diverse, but the main aim of each association and society was women's civil and political equality.
Urabi Movement
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

The Urabi Arabi movement, also known as the Arabi Revolt, was led by Colonel Ahmed Arabi (1841–1911) (Urabi or Orabi) in Egypt in 1881. A protest movement against foreign intervention in Egypt, its slogan was “Egypt for the Egyptians.” It ended with the death or exile of many of its leaders in 1882.
Urracá, Cacique of Veraguas (d. 1516)
Authors: Uriona Viviana
Published: September 2017

The name Urracá comes from the extended Taíno term for “Hurricane” that was introduced by the Spaniards. The name of Urracá – in the language of his group, the Bugle – was “Molenan” (Puma). He led efforts to resist Spanish forays into his territory in search of gold.
US
Labor Rebellions and the Rise of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (
CIO
)
Authors: Harris Freeman
Published: September 2017

The year 1934 was a turning point in the US class struggle. That year, militant strikes by truckers in Minneapolis, auto parts workers in Toledo, and longshoremen in San Francisco spurred broad labor solidarity in these cities, transforming the strikes into massive working‐class social upheavals. These three strikes, all led by revolutionaryminded workers, proved to be strategic victories for industrial unionism and paved the way for the organization of basic industry in the United States by the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).
Venezuela, Guerilla Movements, 1960s–1980s
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

Venezuela was the second country in Latin America (after Cuba) to have a significant guerilla movement during the second half of the twentieth century. After the Venezuelan Communist Party (PCV) and other leftists had played a central role in overthrowing the dictatorship of Marcos Pérez Jímenez in 1958, the bourgeois parties excluded them from decision‐making.
Venezuela, Negro Miguel Rebellion, 1552
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

In 1553, the first recorded revolt by Africans enslaved by the Spanish colonial authority disrupted a gold rush in Venezuela's Burla mining region. The uprising was led by Negro Miguel, an African slave who established a maroon colony and who is now recognized as a leader in the historical struggle for racial justice in Venezuela.
Vesey's Rebellion
Authors: Egerton Douglas R.
Published: September 2017

Denmark Vesey, a free black carpenter, organized perhaps the largest slave conspiracy in North American history, in Charleston, South Carolina in 1822. Although brought into the city in 1783 as a slave of Captain Joseph Vesey, Telemaque, as he was then known, purchased his freedom in December 1799 with lottery winnings. For the next 22 years Vesey earned his living as a craftsman, respected by both the white and black communities. His last (and probably third) wife, Susan Vesey, was born a slave but became free prior to his death.
Vía Campesina and Peasant Struggles
Authors: Edelman Marc
Published: September 2017

Vía Campesina (“Peasant Road”) is a transnational social movement, founded in 1993, that links over 100 organizations of “peasants, small– and medium‐sized agricultural producers, landless, rural women, indigenous people, rural youth and agricultural workers” (
www.viacampesina.org
), in almost 60 countries in the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Africa. The membership is diverse and includes landless peasants in Brazil, small dairy farmers in Europe, well‐off farmers in South India, wheat producers in Canada, and land‐poor peasants in Mexico. The main issues of concern to Vía Campesina (always referred to by its Spanish name) include global trade rules, intellectual property and genetically modified organisms, the survival of family farms, sustainable alternatives to corporate‐controlled industrial agriculture, agrarian reform, the human rights of peasant activists, and “food sovereignty,” which it defines as the right to protect national production and to shield domestic markets from the dumping of low‐priced agricultural imports. Vía Campesina and its component subnational, national, and regional organizations have participated in numerous militant and theatrical protest actions against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Bank, and International Monetary Fund (IMF), G8 summit meetings, and large agribusiness corporations such as Monsanto, Cargill, and Syngenta. The movement has also been a prominent participant in global civil society gatherings, such as the World Social Forums.
Vietnam, Protest against Colonialism, 1858–1896
Authors: Hémery Daniel
Published: September 2017

At the time of the Second Opium War (1858) initiated by Britain, France, and Spain against China, Napoleon III began to colonize Vietnam. After a failed attempt to take the Imperial Courtin Hue, Saigon was conquered on February 17, 1859. However, the city and its Chinese annex of Cholon were effectively besieged by more than 12,000 soldiers and Vietnamese militiamen gathered by the imperial authorities in the south. It was only in February 1861 that resistance fell to a French task force, inaugurating the French conquest of the interior provinces.
Villa, Pancho (Ca. 1878–1923) and the Division of the North
Authors: McClellan Janet E.
Published: September 2017

The early life and times of Francisco “Pancho” Villa are shrouded in mystery and little is known of his past except that he was born Doreoteo Arango in San Juan del Rio in the state of Durango around 1878. His father was Agustín Arango, and his family was extremely poor. It was said that at the age of 17 he killed his sister's rapist, the landowner's son on the ranch where he and his family worked. He went into hiding, became a bandit, and assumed the name the world would come to know him by. In 1912, during the Mexican Revolution, Villa joined the federal troops under General Victoriano Huerta and enjoyed the rank of honorary brigadier‐general. But Huerta feared him and his successes in battle and had him falsely charged with an infraction and sentenced to death. President Madero commuted his sentence to imprisonment, which he served until his escape in 1913. Villa lived in Texas until the assassination of revolutionary President Madero.
Vo Nguyen Giap (b. 1911)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Vo Nguyen Giap is considered among the greatest generals of the twentieth century for his involvement in the Vietnamese communist planning of the war against the French, the defeat of the United States, and the invasion of Cambodia that overthrew the Khmer Rouge regime of Pol Pot.
Weather Underground
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

The Weather Underground, or Weathermen as they were initially known, was an organization of extremist members of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) who became the most violent, vocal, and instrumental groups of 1960s youth culture. Taking their name from Bob Dylan's lyric “You don't need a Weatherman to know which way the wind blows,” from the song “Subterranean Homesick Blues,” the group argued that Weathermen, as a group, were a necessity in order to show people which way the wind actually blew. This would begin a plural movement of Weathermen that grew out of a weakening solidarity within SDS and later splintered from the organization to form their own faction in pursuit of an extreme‐left position aimed at bringing the war in Vietnam to an end.
Weber, Max (1864–1920)
Authors: Rubinson Paul
Published: September 2017

With Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx, Max Weber is considered to have fundamentally defined the methods, subjects, and scope of the field of sociology. Weber was born in 1864 in Erfurt, Germany, and moved to Berlin to study law during the 1880s. In 1889 he completed a PhD thesis that focused on medieval trading companies. After some time as a law lecturer, Weber moved to Heidelberg. At some point, Weber underwent an acrimonious split from his father; when the elder Weber died in 1898, Weber suffered a nervous breakdown. But despite this setback, Weber was able to remain academically productive, publishing on a wide variety of subjects including law, religion, political economy, and political authority. During World War I Weber served as a hospital administrator and later a tariff official; after the war he unsuccessfully attempted a run for political office. His
magnum opus
, titled
Economy and Society
, remained unfinished before he died of pneumonia in 1920, just 56 years old.
Wells, Ida B. (1862–1931) and the Anti‐Lynching Campaign
Authors: Leibensperger Summer D.
Published: September 2017

Best known as the pioneer of the international anti‐lynching campaign, Ida B. Wells‐Barnett was a civil rights activist who fought for women's suffrage and against racial discrimination and segregation. A skilled protest writer and speaker, Wells used graphic descriptions of rape and lynching to show that the underlying cause of this form of racial brutality was reinforcement of white hegemony.
White Rose (Weiße Rose)
Authors: Rosenbaum Peter
Published: September 2017

The White Rose (Weiße Rose) was an anti‐Nazi resistance group founded in June 1942 by Hans Scholl and Alexander Schmorell, who were subsequently joined by Scholl's sister Sophie, Christoph Probst, and Willi Graf, all of whom were students at the University of Munich. The core group also included and was advised by philosophy professor Kurt Huber and later expanded into a network of supporters in Berlin, Freiburg, Hamburg, and Vienna. Compared to other youth opposition groups such as the Edelweiß Pirates (Edelweisspiraten) and the Swing Kids, (Swingjugend), White Rose resistance was both distinctly political and guided by religious and humanistic principles.
Wijeweera, Rohana (1943–1989)
Authors: Skanthakumar Balasingham
Published: September 2017

Patabandi Don Nandarisi Don Rohana Wijeweera was a revolutionary leader and socialist born in Kottegoda in the deep south of Sri Lanka. Later, he adopted the name Rohana derived from
Ruhuna
, the ancient name for that region. His father Don Andris Wijeweera was a stalwart of the Communist Party (CP) of Ceylon. Physical assault by right‐wing United National Party (UNP) thugs on his father during the election campaign (1947) and the resulting paralysis left a lasting impression on him. While studying medicine at Patrice Lumumba University in Moscow Wijeweera got embroiled in the Khruschev‐Mao ideological disputes and became a partisan of Maoism. Consequently, in 1964 he was refused re‐entry to the Soviet Union and was forced to abandon his studies.
Winnipeg General Strike of 1919
Authors: Naylor James
Published: September 2017

In the wave of working‐class rebellion that swept much of the world in the aftermath of World War I, the Winnipeg general strike stands as one of the key confrontations on the North American continent. Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba and the largest city on the Canadian prairies at the time, was a transportation, industrial, and service hub whose boosters liked to consider the “Chicago of the North.” For six weeks, from May 15 until late June, about 35,000 Winnipeg workers effectively shut down the city. The immediate cause of the strike was the refusal of the city's employers to bargain with the newly established building trades' and metal trades' federations. Consequently, the Winnipeg Trades and Labor Council organized a poll of its affiliated members, who voted 11,000 to 500 in favor of organizing a general strike.
Wirat Angkhathawon (1921–1997)
Authors: Rousset Pierre
Published: September 2017

The Kingdom of Thailand entered into a period of turmoil in 1973 when the military dictatorship was overthrown. Wirat Angkhathawon, at the age of 42, became a principal leader of the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) and a distinctive representative of the militant post‐World War II generation.
Woman's Christian
T
emperance
U
nion
Authors: Gifford Carolyn DeSwarte
Published: September 2017

The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was the largest women's organization in the United States at the turn of the nineteenth century. Its leaders mobilized several hundred thousand women in a fight against what the WCTU perceived as the danger to American society of excessive alcohol use, especially to its most vulnerable members – women and children.
Women in the 1848Revolution,Poland
Authors: Materka Edyta V.
Published: September 2017

TheEntuzjastki(Enthusiasts) were a small, organized faction of Polish female writers, educators, and conspirators whose activism, centered in Russian‐occupied Warsaw, generated the first, second, and third waves of what became known as the women's movement in partitioned Poland from the 1840s to the 1880s. Their name was coined by Enthusiast leader Narcyza Żmichowska (pseudonym Gabryella) in the 1870s. Since many scholarly works written about the Enthusiasts did not survive World War II, there are very limited resources available, and the scope of interpretation concerning the Enthusiasts' political and social influence has been disputed among scholars.
Women and National Liberation in
A
frica
Authors: Decker Alicia C.
Published: September 2017

African liberation from colonial rule was the product of years of intense negotiation, compromise, and armed struggle. In 1957, Ghana became the first Sub‐Saharan African country to receive independence. As president and “father of the nation,” Kwame Nkrumah symbolized liberation and potential to Africans across the continent. The following year, in 1958, Guinea's independence brought to power another important nationalist figure – Sékou Touré. Like Nkrumah, Touré personified the hopes and possibilities of the new nation. Shortly thereafter, others who also represented African independence and autonomy joined them: Patrice Lumumba (Zaire), Julius Nyerere (Tanzania), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), and Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia). But “big men” were not the only ones responsible for their countries' liberation; many women also struggled alongside men for independence. In most cases, however, they agreed to put gender demands aside until the struggle was over. Few women assumed that their significant contributions would be forgotten; yet this is exactly what happened in country after country. For this reason, it is fair to say that African liberation was partial at best.
Women in the
R
ussian
R
evolution
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

A long‐drawn‐out event, the roots of the Russian Revolution go back to the reforms of Tsar Alexander II, notably the emancipation of the serfs. Unhappy with the limited reforms (for example, emancipation came with a price tag as serfs had to pay huge compensation), many young radicals, influenced by a number of Russian and western political thinkers and activists, became revolutionaries. Belonging to the Russian upper and middle classes and notably the intelligentsia (men and women), they came to accept socialism as the goal, but hoped to avoid the West European path, through banking on peasant collectivism and moving directly to socialism, bypassing capitalism. Because of their call to go to the people they were called Populists or Narodniks (people). Early efforts at raising people's consciousness to overturn the exploitative state and social order failed, as did the efforts to form revolutionary terrorist organizations. One such organization named Narodnaya Volya (Peoples' Will or Freedom) succeeded in killing Tsar Alexander II, but perished in the subsequent state repression. Among those hanged was Sophia Perovskaya. Vera Figner spent many years in prison for her role in the revolutionary movement. Vera Zasulich began her career as a militant by shooting a notorious general, but became the supporter of a minority current, led by G. V. Plekhanov, which formed the first Marxist group in Russia, the Emancipation of Labor Group.
Women Strike for Peace
Authors: Moravec Michelle
Published: September 2017

Women Strike for Peace (WSP) emerged on November 1, 1961 in an unexpected protest against atmospheric nuclear testing by an estimated 50,000 women in more than sixty locations across the United States. With the slogan “Ban the arms race, not the human race,” WSP mobilized women to lobby Congress on behalf of nuclear test ban treaties. WSP has been credited with aiding ratification of the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Underwater.
Women's Movement,Canada
Authors: Fogel Curtis , Quinlan Andrea
Published: September 2017

The women's movement in Canada is best understood as a historical collection of voices, political struggles, writings, work, rallies, demonstrations, music, film, women's centers, classroom teachings, and festivals. A few key events in Canadian history have shaped the women's movement, including the suffrage movement from 1878 to 1940, the Persons Case of 1929, the entering of women into the workforce during World Wars I and II, the release of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women (RCSW) in 1970, the development of the National Action Committee on the Status of Women (NAC) in 1971, and the second wave of feminism of the 1960s through the 1980s.
Women's Movement,Germany
Authors: Miller Jennifer A.
Published: September 2017

In 1847–8, as revolutions broke out across Europe, international movements for women's suffrage, economic independence, and property rights emerged as feminists began to reach out to one another for inspiration and help. German feminists Louise Dittmar (1807–84) and Louise Aston (1814–71) took radical positions on property and other rights, while middle‐class feminist Louise Otto (1819–95) emphasized the distinctive contributions of “German womanliness” in her politically radical work and in her long‐running publicationFrauenzeitung(Women's Newspaper). Following unification in 1871 and the establishment of national male suffrage, Hedwig Dohm (1831–1919), inspired by the British suffrage campaigns, made a case for German female suffrage in 1873.
Women's Movement, Greece, Formation of
Authors: Anastasopoulou Maria
Published: September 2017

After a six‐year war of independence from Ottoman Occupation, Greek independence was secured in 1827. A small section of the southern peninsula of the Balkans was allotted to the neo‐Hellenic nation and the 18‐year‐old Bavarian King Otto was installed. The newly established nation was set on a course of reconstruction and identity‐building, and women played an important role in this effort.
Women's Movement,
H
aiti
Authors: Sanders Grace L. B.
Published: September 2017

Haitian women have used protests and activism to negotiate their compromised positions in the national citizenry. Their protests reflect the nuanced and multiple social locations of women in Haiti and have varied from infanticide and
marron‐age
in the eighteenth century, to guerrilla warfare, public demonstrations, and political organization in the nineteenth century, to a “literature of revolution,” and the development of individual, national, and transnational feminist discourses by the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries.
Women's Movement,
I
ndia
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

Once India achieved independence, the Constituent Assembly of India passed a number of laws supporting basic rights for women. On paper, modernity was achieved, but the immediate concerns were not constitutional proposals but hard realities. Partition and communal violence reached ferocious levels, resulting in the world's largest migration. Women and children often bore the brunt of hardship, including abduction of 80,000 to 150,000 women. By 1957 the two states, as stand‐in patriarchs, had “recovered” over 30,000 women. For many, it was indeed a case of getting out of a traumatic experience. But others had adjusted to the situation, and the recovery in turn created a trauma.
Women's Movement,
N
igeria
Authors: Onyido Onyinye
Published: September 2017

More often than not, women's movements seek to secure and sustain equal rights and opportunities for women in their economic activities, personal and social lives, and politics, and also discourage undue male dominance and exploitation as much as practicable. It could be in the form of campaigns, protests, or organizational activities. The goals of the movements vary from country to country. In Nigeria there have been several protests by women's movements arising from the distortion in sociopolitical/ economic arrangements between men and women in the colonial period.
Women's War of 1929
Authors: Zukas Lorna Lueker
Published: September 2017

The Aba Women's Riot of 1929, as it was named in British colonial records, is more aptly considered a strategically executed anti‐colonial revolt organized by women to redress social, political, and economic grievances. The protest encompassed women from six ethnic groups (Ibibio, Andoni, Ogoni, Bonny, Opobo, and Igbo) of southeastern Nigeria and was named by locals
Ogu Umunwanyi
(in Igbo) or
Ekong Iban
(in Ibibio), the “women's war.” The confluence of global events in southeastern Nigeria in the late 1920s gave rise to women's dissatisfaction and ultimate action. A worldwide economic depression caused a reduction in the price of palm oil (a chief export of the Nigerian economy), rising unemployment, and increased school fees and prices for goods. The unceasing British demand for forced labor, increased taxation on the local population, corruption by local administrators, trade restrictions, and newly assessed levies and other fees on women, without corresponding benefits, gave rise to frustration and hostility among women's groups. Having no place within the colonial structure to air their grievances, they took to the roads, utilizing precolonial practices and political structures to demand a hearing before a colonial administration that ignored them.
YiHoTuan (Boxer) Rebellion
Authors: Steinberg James
Published: September 2017

During the 1890s, China suffered a series of humiliations through unfair treaties with western powers. The pent‐up frustrations eventually ignited thousands of Chinese to join secret societies and engage in murder and mayhem for revenge. For many decades the Chinese had endured the privations of increasing taxation, along with severe droughts and floods, which resulted in extreme suffering. A series of treaties in which western powers not only established trading concessions in various regions but were also permitted the unimpaired movement of Christian missionaries on what was considered Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist soil only exacerbated the situation. Gradually, grassroots Chinese groups started fomenting vehement opposition to the “foreigners” and even to the imposing Qing (Manchu) court.
Young Turks
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

The Young Turks was one of the secret societies that arose in the last decades of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1923) to oppose the absolutist rule of Sultan Abdulhamit II (1842–1918). While ultimately able to depose Sultan Abdulhamit, their program to return the Ottoman Empire to its glory days failed.
Y
ugoslavia, Student Protests, 1966–1974
Authors: Kanzleiter Boris
Published: September 2017

The Yugoslav student protests in June 1968 embraced the struggle for freedom, justice, and self‐determination, defined as the underlying moral and political principles of the global youth movements of the era. Yugoslav protests were also marked by a protest between eastern and western influences integrating anti‐capitalist and anti‐bureaucratic elements. The protest also affirmed the fundamental values and ideologies of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SRFY). In essence, the Yugoslav students protested in the name of communist principles against a hypocritical and frustrating reality.
Zapatistas,EZLN, and the Chiapas Uprising
Authors: Sergi Vittorio
Published: September 2017

The Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) is a Mexican political‐military organization founded on November 17, 1983 in Chiapas, southeast Mexico. In 1994 the EZLN started an armed rebellion against the Mexican government that soon had wide resonance and support in Mexico and among a wide network of anti‐capitalist movements worldwide. The EZLN is the military wing of a civil movement that is organized around 40 autonomous councils in the State of Chiapas. The EZLN's discourses and practices have resonance in a wide national and international network of anti‐capitalist political organizations.
Zetkin, Clara (1857–1933)
Authors: Zukas Alex
Published: September 2017

Clara Zetkin, née Eißner, was the most prominent German socialist of her generation to take the concerns and issues of women's oppression seriously in her theoretical
and
practical work. Born in Wiederau, a small weavers’ village in the industrialized kingdom of Saxony where her father Gottfried taught school, she saw first hand the oppressive working conditions of industrial capitalism for men and women. In 1872 the Eißner family moved to Leipzig, a seedbed of the German feminist and socialist movements. Through her mother Josephine, Clara met leaders of the German feminist movement. Graduating with honors in 1878, she had already become attracted to Marxist revolutionary socialism, in part due to the influence of the Russian revolutionary Ossip Zetkin (1848–89), who lived in Leipzig and with whom she fell in love. Ossip Zetkin was expelled from Germany under the Anti‐Socialist Laws in 1880 and Clara Eißner joined him in Paris in 1882 where they worked tirelessly in the international socialist movement. They had two sons and she assumed his surname while choosing to remain unmarried to retain her German citizenship.
Z
imbabwe, Labor Movement and Politics, 1980–2007
Authors: Scarnecchia Timothy
Published: September 2017

As political scientist Eldred Masunungure concludes, Zimbabwe's ruling ZANU‐PF party emerged in the 1980s in the confident expectation that the state‐sponsored Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU) would continue its “dependence on the state for political patronage” (Masunungure 2004: 169), thus ensuring the trade union movement's loyalty to the state and ruling party. The nationalist party's dominance over trade unions was institutionalized after independence through the formation of the ZCTU on February 28, 1981, when 52 unions agreed to unify under the leadership of Alfred Mugabe, a relative of Zimbabwe's president, Robert Mugabe. workers' rights improved during the formative period of independence, especially with the passage of the Labor Relations Act of 1985 repealing repressive elements of labor law, including the right to form or join labor unions. The 1985 Act, however, maintained the state's vertical union structure, permitting only one union in each industry (Madhuku, in Raftopoulos & Sachikonye 2001: 109).
Zumbi (ca. 1655–1695)
Authors: Smulewicz‐Zucker Gregory R.
Published: September 2017

Zumbi was the final and most famous leader of Palmares, a
quilombo
known in English as a maroon society (a community or society of escaped slaves) that existed nearly throughout the seventeenth century in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco. Under Zumbi's leadership, the citizens of Palmares (Palmarinos) defended the
quilombo
against the final Portuguese offensive, which ultimately led to Palmares’ destruction. Like much of the history of Palmares, few verifiable facts are known about Zumbi and much about his life has become mythic. Zumbi's name is also often spelled “Zambi.” It is unclear whether “Zumbi” is a proper name, a title, or a term expressing reverence. Much that is known about Zumbi's life comes from Portuguese reports and is the subject of debate among scholars.