bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ALONENESS AND TOGETHERNESS AS DRIVE CONDITIONS IN CHILDREN1
Authors: Rosenhan David
Published: August 2014

In order to examine the effects of aloneness (social deprivation) and togetherness (social satiation) on the subsequent responsiveness of children to reinforcers, younger and older Ss were socially deprived or satiated and then exposed to either positive or negative, social or nonsocial reinforcement The findings indicate that socially deprived children are indifferent to the valence of the subsequent reinforcement, so long as it is social. Socially satiated children are subsequently most responsive to nonsocial reinforcement (or pure information). The findings are more consistent with a drive than an anxiety interpretation of social deprivation. Additional findings indicate that younger children respond more to negative reinforcement, while older children show a strong preference for positive reinforcement. The results are examined for their implications for theories of social drives, and for the limitations they set on the development of problem‐solving behavior.
DIMENSIONS FOR EVALUATING ART PRODUCTS1,2
Authors: Klein Stephen P. , Skager Rodney W. , Schultz Charles. B.
Published: August 2014

Faculty at a school of design assigned a drawing problem to 191 student artists. Seven expert judges evaluated the drawings on three dimensions: (1) general preference, (2) technical facility, and (3) “involvement.” The correlations between the average ratings on each dimension were .91, .95, and .97. The reliability of the preference ratings was .92. It was concluded that an assessment of a drawing's quality was not improved by considering separately dimensions other than simple preference.
A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE MATHEMATICAL SECTIONS OF THE SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST1
Authors: Pruzek Robert M. , Coffman William E.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of the research reported here was to explore ways of generating a factor pattern from interrelationships among items. The basic data consisted of tetrachoric correlations among the 60 items in the mathematical sections of one form of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Two methods of factoring and four methods of analytical rotation were compared.

The factoring methods were: (1) a factoring of the tetrachoric correlation matrix with squared multiple correlations as communality estimates, the R ‐ S2 matrix, and (2) a principal axis factoring of the tetrachoric covariance matrix using communality estimates obtained by an iterative procedure. The rotations were the varimax, the equamax, the promax, and an oblique rotation recently described by Harris and Kaiser.

All methods produced compatible results; however, the clearest simple structure resulted when the first 11 factors extracted from the R ‐ S2 matrix were rotated to oblique simple structure by the oblique rotation described by Harris and Kaiser. Six factors were interpreted: geometric interpretation, computation, speed, arithmetic reasoning, data sufficiency, and rules.
PLEASANT AND UNPLEASANT VIOLATIONS OF EXPECTANCIES1
Authors: Lamb Patricia F. , Singer Jerome E.
Published: August 2014

Two experiments are reported which test the hypothesis that the disconfirmation of an expectancy is unpleasant. In Experiment I, Ss in two groups–Expectancy Confirmed and Expectancy Disconfirmed–tasted quinine and sugar solutions. Contrary to predictions, quinine was judged more pleasant when tasted unexpectedly. In Experiment II, the 2 × 2 × 2 design varied Importance, Confirmation, and Solution. For one solution, a significant Importance x Confirmation interaction was demonstrated; Ss in the Importance condition found disconfirmation unpleasant while those in the Unimportance condition found it pleasant. Results are interpreted in relation to dissonance theory and need for variety.
“SPONTANEITY VS. DELIBERATENESS” AS A DIMENSION OF ESTHETIC JUDGMENT1
Authors: Klein Stephen P. , Skager Rodney W.
Published: August 2014

The authors' previous research indicated that there were two major viewpoints among experts as to what constituted quality in a drawing. It was hypothesized that these viewpoints were related to the distinction between “spontaneous” and “deliberate” drawing styles. To investigate this hypothesis, drawings rated high and low by the experts holding each viewpoint were sorted by laymen into a “spontaneous” or a “deliberate” pile. A partitioning of the total chi‐square indicated that one of the viewpoints was highly related to this distinction and that even though laymen and experts do not agree on what constitutes quality, laymen could easily adopt an orientation that permitted such agreement.
EFFECTIVENESS OF PSAT AND SAT BOOKLETS III. A DESCRIPTION OF THE COLLEGE BOARD SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST
Authors: Halpern Gerald , Sasajima Masu
Published: August 2014

A questionnaire was developed and distributed to over 500 students in 19 different schools. The purpose of the questionnaire was to evaluate the effectiveness of A Description of the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test. Additional information was obtained on school practices in handling this booklet.

It was concluded that the booklet has been found to be both understandable and attractive to most of the students who participated in this study. These 17 questions which were scored were, on the average, answered correctly by about 70% of the students. Booklet comprehension was associated with scholastic aptitude. Several of the facts and concepts presented (e.g., when to guess, order of difficulty of the items) were misunderstood by the students and should be revised in later editions of the booklet.
AN INVESTIGATION OF ITEM BIAS1
Authors: Cleary T. Anne , Hilton Thomas L.
Published: August 2014

For this research, bias was defined as an item x group interaction. Grade 12 students in integrated high schools who had taken two forms of the PSAT were divided into two races and three socioeconomic levels within the races. Four analyses of variance were performed: one for the Verbal section and one for the Mathematical section of each of the two forms of the PSAT. Because of the large sample sizes used, the tested effects were expected to be and were significant. However, only a minimal percentage of the total variance was contributed by the item x group interactions. On this basis, it was concluded that, if PSAT scores are discriminatory, the discrimination is not largely attributable to particular items, but to the test as a whole.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ACQUIESCENCE: AN INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH EVIDENCE1
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

This paper reviews evidence pertaining to the operation of acquiescent response style in psychological tests and to the possible interpretation of acquiescence as a personality variable. Acquiescence was initially conceptualized in terms of consistent individual differences in the probability of agreeing with items that subjects are at a loss to answer, either because they lack knowledge or because they are uncertain about the meaning of the item or because they cannot evaluate the desirability of the response. In addition to this agreement tendency, an acceptance tendency was empirically differentiated and conceptualized in terms of consistent individual differences in the tendency to accept many heterogeneous characteristics as descriptive of the self.
MEASURING ARTISTIC CREATIVITY AND FLEXIBILITY1
Authors: Klein Stephen , Skager Rodney , Erlebacher Walter
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between flexibility and artistic ability. To achieve this end, students (N = 92) at a school of design were asked to draw the same thing twice, once using one mode of organization and again using an opposite mode. The rated dissimilarity between each S's drawings provided a behavioral measure of flexibility. The Ss also took three tests that supposedly measured various facets of flexibility. Indices of artistic ability included grades in fine arts courses and the rated quality of the Ss' drawings in both modes and on a drawing problem assigned earlier in the semester. The results indicated that only the behavioral measure of flexibility was positively related to indices of artistic ability. The implications of these findings are discussed.
A NOTE ON LOWER BOUNDS FOR THE NUMBER OF COMMON FACTORS*
Authors: Browne Michael W.
Published: August 2014

It is shown that the lower bounds for the number of common factors, established by Guttman [2] and modified by Kaiser [3], cannot decrease as the number of observed variates is increased.
FITTING THE FACTOR ANALYSIS MODEL
Authors: Browne Michael W.
Published: August 2014

When the covariance matrix Σ(p × p) does not satisfy the formal factor analysis model for m factors, there will be no factor matrix Δ(p × m) such that is diagonal. The factor analysis model may then be replaced by a tautology where is regarded as the co‐variance matrix of a set of “residual variates.” These residual variates are linear combinations of “discarded” common factors and unique factors and are correlated. Maximum likelihood, alpha and iterated principal factor analysis are compared in terms of the manner in which is defined, a “maximum determinant” derivation for alpha factor analysis being given. Weighted least squares solutions using residual variances and common variances as weights are derived for comparison with the maximum likelihood and alpha solutions. It is shown that the covariance matrix defined by maximum likelihood factor analysis is Gramian provided that all diagonal elements are nonnegative. Other methods can define a which is non‐Gramian even when all diagonal elements are nonnegative.
COINS IN THE KETTLE: MODELS AND DONATION BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Bryan James H.
Published: August 2014

Two experiments assessing the effects of altruistic models upon subsequent helping behaviors were conducted. The sites of the experiments were the parking lots of two large department stores located in either Princeton or Trenton, New Jersey. Shoppers served as the Ss. Ss in the model condition were exposed to a collaborator of E who, at certain fixed intervals, contributed money to the Salvation Army by throwing a nickel into the Army's kettle. Following the contribution, the subsequent number of donors who then contributed within the next 20‐second (Experiment 1) or 30‐second interval (Experiment 2) were tallied. Ss in the no‐model condition were not exposed to E's donating collaborator, although they may have been exposed to other donors. The number of donors within the appropriate time intervals were tallied. One model and one no‐model observational period occurred every minute.

Results of both experiments strongly support the hypothesis that altruistic models will affect the subsequent aiding behaviors of the observers.
STATISTICAL THEORY FOR LOGISTIC MENTAL TEST MODELS WITH A PRIOR DISTRIBUTION OF ABILITY
Authors: Birnbaum Allan
Published: August 2014

The logistic model of a mental test was introduced by the present writer in Chapters 17 through 20 of Lord and Novick, Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores, where statistical inference methods were developed without assumption of a prior distribution of ability. Such a distribution is assumed in this paper, and corresponding statistical inference methods and distribution theory are developed. Results include detailed investigation of posterior distributions, given observed response patterns; point‐estimation of ability, and its mean‐squared error; and distributions of test scores and their moments. Some computational methods and detailed examples are given.
RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE AS A FACTOR IN ATTITUDINAL AND BACKGROUND DIFFERENCES AMONG COLLEGE FRESHMEN
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T. , Peterson Richard E.
Published: August 2014

Differences among four religious preference groups–Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and those with no formal religion (NFR)–in a cross section of 1500 college freshmen were explored by means of the College Student Questionnaires, Part 1. Of the seven CSQ‐1 scales (Family Independence, Peer Independence, Liberalism, Social Conscience, Cultural Sophistication, Motivation for Grades, and Family Status), variation on five was significantly associated with religious preference even after controlling for socioeconomic status and sex. Protestant‐Catholic differences were small compared to the differences between the combined Catholic and Protestant Ss vs. non‐Christians (Jews and NFR's). Differences among Protestant denominations were also slight.
PREACHING AND PRACTICING: THE EFFECTS OF CONSISTENCIES AND DISCREPANCIES IN TUITION AND EXAMPLE ON NORM INTERNALIZATION AND VIOLATION1
Authors: Rosenhan David , Frederick Frank , Burrowes Anne
Published: August 2014

Four simulates of child socialization were obtained by varying the extent to which a model verbally instructed and personally exhibited high or low standards of self‐reward. Greatest adherence to a stringent norm occurred among children who were taught and who observed the model practice such a norm. Children who were exposed to a self‐indulgent model tended most to violate both stringent and lenient norms and to evidence ambivalent behaviors, while those who were exposed to a child‐indulgent model violated the lenient norms least. While percept and precept were both powerfully influential for norm internalization, the latter was clearly the stronger determinant. There appeared to be implicit evidence that affective connotations are embedded in what is preached and practiced and that these may be influential for norm violation. The tendency to violate norms may also be some function of the absolute amount of reward a child obtains and the discrepancy he observes between his own rewards and those obtained by others.
SOME CONSIDERATIONS IN PROBABILITY LEARNING1
Authors: Wainer Howard
Published: August 2014

A binary choice learning experiment with noncontingent reinforcement was run. It was found that if the subjects clearly understood that there was no pattern in their schedule of reinforcement, e.g., that it was completely random, they would very quickly choose the maximal gain strategy decreed by game theory. If, on the other hand, they believe that there is a pattern, and that if they “figure it out” they could be right on each trial, they would probability match in the early stages of the experiment as predicted by Estes' probability matching hypothesis. After about one thousand trials, however, the subjects' response levels come close to the extreme asymptotic generalization predicted by Edwards. An amendment to the Estes model is proposed which allows it to predict the observed behavior.
A FOUNDATION OF INTERVAL SCALE MEASUREMENT
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

An axiomatization of interval scale measurement based on quaternary and dependent binary relations is presented for certain continuous sets of objects commonly encountered in psychophysics. The proposed initial assumptions appear highly suggestive and admit empirical checks. A sequence of propositions leads to the representation and uniqueness theorems in a direct and strict but rather undemanding way, as it is believed. Complete proofs are given for every step. They do not rely on concepts and results borrowed from alien branches of mathematics.
COLLEGE ACHIEVEMENT IN SOCIAL SCIENCE, HUMANITIES AND NATURAL SCIENCE: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Authors: Centra John A. , Parry Mary Ellen
Published: August 2014

This study explored the use of the regression technique to compare the mean achievement of senior classes at a number of colleges. Using freshman mean Scholastic Aptitude Test scores as predictors and senior mean Graduate Record Examination Area Test scores (Social Science, Humanities, and Natural Science) as criteria, “higher” and “lower performing” colleges were defined as those above or below the regression line by at least one standard error of estimate. The characteristics of these colleges and suggestions for further refinement of this method were discussed.
COMPUTER‐BASED VERBAL SCORE REPORTS: I. PSAT1
Authors: Harasymiw Stefan J. , Helm Carl E.
Published: August 2014

A system for analyzing PSAT score profiles and producing “conversational” interpretations in the form of letters to be sent to candidates is developed. The system utilizes a problem‐oriented computer language for the description of the analysis. This description or script is then used by the computer to produce letters in a form suitable for mailing to candidates.
FACTORIAL ROTATION TO SIMPLE STRUCTURE AND MAXIMUM SIMILARITY†
Authors: Bloxom Bruce
Published: August 2014

When the assumptions of Lawley's theorem cannot be met, existing solutions to the problem of factorial invariance do not apply. The present paper derives a method for comparing factor solutions when this is the case. The method is applied to data from three subpopulations.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND MEASUREMENT THEORY OF CERTAIN SETS ADMITTING A CONCATENATION OPERATION
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

This paper contributes to the theory underlying unidimensional scaling on the “basis of a concatenation operation defined on pairs of objects of certain continuous and ordered sets M. After stating the axiomatic base, main emphasis is placed on inferences about structural properties of M, such as reflexivity and commutativity of the concatenation operation through an entirely nonmetric and general treatment. It is shown that reflexivity holds either throughout or just for a single element and that commutativity of two different elements holds either generally or in no instance. These statements are independent. The study employs ad hoc defined concatenation operations which formally and necessarily satisfy first the reflexivity requirement and then, in addition, commutativity. Using this means, the existence and essential uniqueness of scales of M with linear expressions for the various concatenation operations are established. The rules by which the parameters entering into these expressions change under admissible scale transformations are derived.
GROUP RISK TAKING AND FIELD DEPENDENCE‐INDEPENDENCE OF GROUP MEMBERS*
Authors: Wallach Michael A. , Kogan Nathan , Burt Roger B.
Published: August 2014

If groups of male adults are systematically composed in terms of the field dependence‐independence of their members, they exhibit a number of differences in risk‐taking phenomena. Although field‐dependent and independent groups both shift on the average toward greater risk taking after discussion, longer discussion among field dependents enhances the risky shift, while longer discussion among field independents reducesor even reverses the risky shift. Further, among field dependents but not among field independents, the larger the individual's own risky shift, the stronger his tendency to attribute a risky shift to the group of which he is a member. These together with other findings support the view that responsibility diffusion causes enhanced risk taking by field‐dependent groups.
THE TESTING SITUATION AS A POSITIVE SOURCE OF INFLUENCE1
Authors: Mulry Ray C. , Roberts Michael
Published: August 2014

The present study was concerned with the control of reflective effort during testing and with the effects of different testing situations in the determination of an increase in this behavior. Greatest reflective effort was predicted on difficult items in situations which emphasize to respondents that their test responses are of significance and do lead to personally relevant consequences. As predicted, reflective effort, as measured by the time taken to answer individual items, increased on difficult items as consequences of testing increased. Moreover, longest latencies were obtained on difficult items in the testing situation of greatest consequence and shortest latencies were obtained on easy items in the testing situation of least consequence. It is our contention that the unobtrusive measure of reflective effort is a useful incidental test‐taking behavior which can provide important information about the nature of the test‐taking process.
HOSTILITY IN DIPLOMATIC COMMUNICATIONS: A STUDY OF THE 1914 CRISIS
Authors: Zinnes Dina A. , Zinnes Joseph L. , McClure Robert D.
Published: August 2014

A Markovian model is proposed to account for the hostility in the diplomatic communications exchanged between the six key countries 38 days prior to the outbreak of World War I.

The central assumptions of this model are that (1) the intensity of a decision maker's perception of hostility (P) depends only on the immediately preceding perception and the intensity of the hostile messages most recently received (R), and (2) that the intensity of his expression of hostility (E) depends only on his immediately preceding expression of hostility and his current perception of hostility. Preliminary tests of this model involve showing that under certain conditions the (1) P and E transition matrices are a first‐rather than zero‐order Markov chain, when R and P are held constant, respectively, and (2) R and P affect the P and E transition matrices, respectively.
A DESCRIPTION OF POINTS OF VIEW IN ESTHETIC JUDGMENTS IN TERMS OF SIMILARITY DIMENSIONS
Authors: Klein Stephen P.
Published: August 2014

Previous research indicated that there were three dimensions underlying the way expert judges evaluated two sets of drawings as being similar or different. Related research also disclosed that there were three viewpoints about the overall artistic quality of these drawings. In the present analyses, the drawings' factor loadings on the three similarity dimensions were correlated with their factor scores on the three viewpoints. The results of this investigation were consistent with previous descriptions of the drawings' characteristics that distinguished the different viewpoints.
“TEST‐WISENESS” ON PERSONALITY SCALES1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J.
Published: August 2014

Test‐wiseness on self‐report personality scales was explored, using measures of accuracy in estimating the frequency of endorsement of personality items, estimating their social desirability, and identifying and “keying” items that measured the same factor, as well as indices of ability to change scores on standard personality scales when they were administered with “fake‐good” and “fake‐bad” instructions. These variables generally did not correlate with each other, and they had only moderate and scattered correlations with personality scales administered with standard instructions. The test‐wiseness measures were generally uncorrected with ability and cognitive style tests and defensiveness scales, but they did correlate consistently with social desirability response style scales.
DESIRABILITY JUDGMENTS AND SELF‐REPORTS AS PREDICTORS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Messick Samuel , Jackson Douglas N.
Published: August 2014

This study investigated the usefulness of desirability judgments of personality items as an indirect measure of the judge's personality. Self‐reports and judgments were compared on separate forms of five personality scales. With a few striking exceptions, the two kinds of measures were generally unrelated, and they had markedly different patterns of correlations with behavioral measures of conformity. In general, self‐reports only correlated with conformity for subjects who were unsuspicious about the conformity procedures, but judgments correlated with conformity for unsuspicious and suspicious subjects. Both self‐reports and judgments correlated with response styles and intelligence, but the self‐reports were more extensively involved with the response styles. The differential functioning of the two kinds of measures could not be attributed to the operation of response styles or intelligence, nor did these latter variables moderate the relationship between self‐reports and judgments.
EFFECTS OF ANGER–AROUSING INSTRUCTIONS ON PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE PERFORMANCE1
Authors: Bloxom Bruce
Published: August 2014

Previous research indicates greater negative self–report is obtained under anger–arousing conditions than under neutral conditions. In the present study, a personality questionnaire was administered under anger–arousing and neutral conditions. Differences between item means under the two conditions corroborate previous findings. Item factor analysis results are found to differ systematically between the two conditions.
TASK AND MOTIVATIONAL INFLUENCES ON THE ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVE AND INTELLECTIVE ABILITY IN CHILDREN1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Morgan Frank T.
Published: August 2014

The present study was designed to test two major hypotheses: (1) that game‐like contexts will induce higher creativity levels than will test‐like contexts, and (2) that in game‐like contexts creative and intellective performance will be unrelated to each other, whereas in test‐like contexts, these two kinds of performance will be positively related. A total of 104 fifth‐grade children (52 males and 52 females) in four separate classrooms participated in the study. Two of the classrooms were assigned to the game‐like condition and the other two to the test‐like condition. Two creativity tasks of an associative type and a vocabulary test were administered. Kuhlman‐Anderson IQ scores were available for almost all subjects. No clearcut superiority for test‐ or game‐like contexts in reference to creativity level was observed. Rather, effects varied dependent upon the task, the criterion of creativity, anxiety and defensiveness levels of subjects, and the sex of the subject. With regard to the second hypothesis, overall correlational differences were not found. However, when test anxiety was employed as a moderator variable, results consistent with the hypothesis were obtained. Implications for future creativity research with children are spelled out in the paper.
THE NATURE AND CORRELATES OF LAW SCHOOL ESSAY GRADES1
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Klein Stephen P. , Hart Frederick M.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between a number, of characteristics of a set of essays to the grades assigned to them. The essays were written by 79 law students from 16 law schools who answered a common question as part of their regular final exam in Contracts. High grades on the essay were found to be related to identifying and writing on major rather than minor issues, arguing both sides of an issue while pushing strongly for a particular conclusion, and using legal jargon. Poor handwriting and composition errors were related to low scores.
A SURVEY OF CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY GOVERNING BOARDS DURING 1968–1969
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T.
Published: August 2014

A survey of the presidents of 536 institutions participating in a 1968 study of college and university trustees was conducted to determine what changes, if any, had occurred in the composition of their governing boards in the direction of greater representation of groups not previously found in such positions. The data suggest that very few institutions–only 3% of the national sample–added students or faculty members to their boards during the 18 months since the time of the original trustee study. Increases in trustees from other groups not previously well represented on governing boards, however–e.g., Negroes, women, persons under the age of 40–were substantial. Differences between types of institutions are noted.
A COMPARISON OF SCORES EARNED ON THE TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE BY NATIVE AMERICAN COLLEGE STUDENTS AND FOREIGN APPLICANTS TO U. S. COLLEGES
Authors: Angoff William H. , Sharon Amiel T.
Published: August 2014

The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) was administered to a group of 71 native speakers of English enrolled as freshmen at a western state university. Although as a group they scored low on ACT English–their mean fell at the 29th percentile relative to the ACT norms group of college‐bound high school seniors–their scores on all five parts of TOEFL, as well as on the total, were considerably above the mean of 34,774 foreign applicants to U. S. colleges. Moreover, their distributions were extremely narrow and highly skewed negatively, indicating that the test was much too easy for them and confirming the hypothesis that while TOEFL discriminates adequately among foreign students, it is, consistent with its design, inadequate for differentiating among native Americans. Further support to this conclusion was found in the low correlation (.64) between TOEFL and ACT English, a test which is expressly designed to differentiate among native English speakers. Finally, plots of item difficulties for the American and foreign groups revealed a clear item x group interaction. This was interpreted to signify that the items had different “meaning” for the two groups. The plots also showed that all but 17 out of the 270 items in the five parts of TOEFL were easier for the American group than for the foreign group; and within this group of 17 items, 15 represented a type of item content which afforded a ready explanation of their unusual behavior. These data all appear to point in the same direction and, in sum, support the hypothesis that TOEFL avoids the kinds of discriminations that are not intended for it. Consequently, these data are taken as clear evidence of the construct validity of the test.
SALES TECHNIQUE AND PERSONALITY AS CORRELATES OF INSURANCE SALES SUCCESS
Authors: Gordon George G. , Barrows Thomas S.
Published: August 2014

In the insurance industry it has long been accepted that agents who pursue sales leads with whom they have an entre produce outstanding sales performance. A series of interviews with agents suggested, however, that only a relatively small proportion concentrated on such leads. In order to explore this apparent paradox, the present study examined relationships between agents' actual sales and their supervisors' ratings of both their sales approach (“personal” or “impersonal”) and a personality characteristic (“ego strength”). The results suggest that the personality variable is generally related to performance while sales approach is not. Possible reasoning which could have led to the apparently incorrect belief is discussed and some suggestions regarding the findings' import for the industry are noted.
AN INNER PRODUCT MODEL FOR THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING OF SYMMETRIC LAYOUTS
Authors: Bechtel Gordon G.
Published: August 2014

A multidimensional scaling analysis is presented for replicated symmetric layouts of pairwise compositions. The replicates may represent individuals, situations, or blocks which contain all pairwise responses generated from a distinct set of objects or treatments. The class of replicates and the class of objects are scaled in a joint space by means of an inner product model which weights each of the dimensions of the space. Least squares estimates of the replicates' and objects' coordinates, and of unscalability parameters, are obtained through a manipulation of the error sum of squares for the model. The solution involves the decomposition of a three‐way least squares problem into three subproblems; two of these are trivial, and the third is solvable by classical least squares matrix factorization.
LIMITING THEOREMS FOR SOME GENERALIZED BUSH‐MOSTELLER MODELS1
Authors: Wolff Hans
Published: August 2014

The learning model with experimenter‐controlled events defined by Bush and Mosteller is generalized to a model with time‐dependent learning parameters and with time‐dependent probabilities for the underlying events. The main result is a limiting theorem which in part belongs to the laws of large numbers and to the theory of stochastic approximation.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN EGO FUNCTIONING: EXPLORATORY STUDIES OF AGENCY AND COMMUNION1
Authors: Carlson Rae
Published: August 2014

Theoretical formulations of Gutmann and of Bakan were tested in three studies of sex differences in personality. In Study 1, males were significantly more individualistic, objective, and distant in representations of self, others, space, and future. Study 2 found males predominantly “agentic” and females “communal” in reports of significant emotional experiences. In Study 3, seven general predictions from the agency‐communion formulation were tested against 200 abstracts of published research on sex differences. The formulation was judged “relevant” to over 80% of the studies; significant differences were “confirming” of the formulation in 97% of “relevant” studies. Results indicate the importance of qualitative aspects of sex differences in personality and support the agency‐communion formulation as a framework for future inquiry.
ON THE THEORY OF A SET OF TESTS WHICH DIFFER ONLY IN LENGTH1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

This paper presents a contribution to the sampling theory of a set of homogeneous tests which differ only in length, test length being regarded as an essential test parameter. Observed variance‐covariance matrices of such measurements are taken to follow a Wishart distribution. The familiar true score‐and‐error concept of classical test theory is employed. Upon formulation of the basic model it is shown that in a combination of such tests forming a “total” test, the signal‐to‐noise ratio of the components is additive and that the inverse of the population variance‐covariance matrix of the component measures has all of its off‐diagonal elements equal, regardless of distributional assumptions. This fact facilitates the subsequent derivation of a statistical sampling theory, there being at most m + 1 free parameters when m is the number of component tests. In developing the theory, the cases of known and unknown test lengths are treated separately. For both cases maximum‐likelihood estimators of the relevant parameters are derived. It is argued that the resulting formulas will remain reasonable even if the distributional assumptions are too narrow. Under these assumptions, however, maximum‐likelihood ratio tests of the validity of the model and of hypotheses concerning reliability and standard error of measurement of the total test are given. It is shown in each case that the maximum‐likelihood equations possess precisely one acceptable solution under rather natural conditions. Application of the methods can be effected without the use of a computer. Two numerical examples are appended by way of illustration.
ARE BAYESIAN DECISIONS ARTIFICIALLY INTELLIGENT? THE EFFECT OF TASK AND PERSONALITY ON CONSERVATISM IN PROBABILISTIC INFERENCE1
Authors: Alker Henry A. , Hermann Margaret G.
Published: August 2014

A 2 × 3 design was used to explore the effects of complexity and importance of decision on conservatism in probabilistic inference. 120 undergraduate males considered either two or three alternatives for one of three problems differing in perceived importance. Upon receiving certain information, subjects indicated which of the several alternative explanations for their problem was more or most probable. These probability statements were compared with “optimal” probabilities arrived at using Bayes' theorem. The more important and complex the decisions were perceived to be, the more conservative the subjects were when compared to “optimal” Bayesian values (p < .01). The differences were more pronounced as the number of alternatives to be considered increased (p < .01). Seven individual difference variables measuring adequacy in processing information were unrelated to conservatism. A process analysis suggested that strongly held initial opinions can limit the judged relevance of subsequent information and, in turn, affect the “optimal” Bayesian decision.
ADDITIVE REPRESENTATIONS FOR TWO‐DIMENSIONAL TABLES
Authors: Pennell Roger
Published: August 2014

Given that we collect observations AiPj from two perfectly crossed factors we may be interested in fitting a model such as f(AiPj) = αi + βj. An iterative method for computing the scale values αi and βj and the function f is developed. The procedure is relevant to problems of finding monotonic transformations eliminating interaction effects preceding analysis of variance and to the classical conjoint measurement model.
THE COUNTBACK METHOD FOR ANALYZING SENSITIVITY DATA
Authors: Lewis Charles
Published: August 2014

Sensitivity data are defined as involving two response categories, with responses observed at different levels of some variable of interest. The responses are taken to indicate sensitivity to the variable, and, in this regard, may be labeled “positive” and “negative.” Of particular interest in analyzing sensitivity data is the estimation of the 50% point, the level of the variable for which the two responses are equally likely.

The countback method provides confidence limits for the 50% point in the special (but important) case when only one response is observed at each level. A lower bound on the confidence coefficient for these limits can be given, assuming only independent responses and the existence of something like a 50% point. No specific model of response probabilities is required, and the variable of interest need not even be continuous.

To gain a greater understanding of the countback method, we use it to analyze sensitivity data obtained in an experiment on the perception of depth in pictures. Its performance is also studied in two artificial situations, where the response probabilities can be specified exactly. In the first of these, the probability of a positive response at different levels is given by the cumulative logistic model. The second situation is highly asymmetric, using the logistic model below the 50% point and an errorless model (the positive response probability set equal to 1) above it.

For purposes of comparison, two asymptotically efficient estimation methods, namely maximum likelihood and minimum χ2, are also applied to the cases described above. In the two artificial situations, where actual confidence coefficients can be determined, both of these methods fall short of their asymptotic performance levels.

The countback confidence limits, by contrast, perform at a substantially higher level than that given as a lower bound by the theory. Moreover, the ability of conservatively chosen countback limits to reject null hypotheses is quite adequate for the purposes of the experiment mentioned earlier. Finally, a simple extension of the countback method to data with more than one response per level is discussed.

On the basis of these results, the countback method is seen as taking a significant place among the previously existing methods for analyzing sensitivity data.

Appendices are provided for those interested in statistical, simulation, experimental, and historical details.
JUDGMENTAL DIMENSIONS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY1,2
Authors: Messick Samuel , Jackson Douglas N.
Published: August 2014

A multivariate analysis of judgments of desirability by 150 judges of 566 MMPI items uncovered 13 judgmental dimensions of psychopathology. The largest corresponded to the mean desirability rating, and the remaining 12 were considered judgmental points of view about the desirability of pathological content. Of these, 10 were identified as follows: Denial of lack of somatic control, Impulsivity vs. religious preoccupation, Femininity, Tolerance of deviance, Oversensitivity and fearfulness, Socially deviant attitudes, Impulse acceptance vs. grandiosity, Listless distractibility, Worry, and Timid cautiousness vs. masculine adventuresomeness. Judgment scales based upon these dimensions proved to be at least moderately reliable, as did the majority of response scales obtained by scoring self‐descriptive responses to these items in two independent samples. Correlations between judgment and response measures of the same dimensions varied over a wide range. Discussion highlighted the complexity of interpreting judgmental viewpoints as trait measures, the role of defensiveness and other response styles as mediators, and the importance of distinguishing trait from method variance.
MOTIVATION AND CAPACITY IN CHILDREN'S CREATIVITY1
Authors: Ward William C. , Kogan Nathan , Pankove Ethel
Published: August 2014

An attempt was made to distinguish between capacity and motivational interpretations of individual differences in children's creativity. Creativity tasks required the child to name as many ideas as he could that met a simple problem requirement. Tasks were given under “base line” conditions and with a reward of one cent for each idea given. If task motivation is the critical determinant of performance, reward should decrease the differences between high and low scorers by decreasing the range of motivation with which the task is approached. However, if these individual differences reflect capacity, reward should increase or leave unchanged the difference in number of ideas given by more and less fluent children.

Reward led to an increase in mean number of ideas which was consistent across levels of creativity. Thus, while motivating conditions may alter the level at which the group performs, the data suggest that individual differences in performance derive from differences in capacity rather than motivation for divergent ideational production.
ESTIMATION AND TESTING OF SIMPLEX MODELS
Authors: Jöreskog Karl G.
Published: August 2014

Various statistical models for simplex structures are formulated in terms of the well‐known Wiener and Markov stochastic processes. A distinction is made between a perfect simplex and a quasi simplex. For each model the problems of Identification and estimation of the parameters and that of testing the goodness of fit of the model are considered. All models may be estimated by a general method for covariance structures developed by Jöreskog (1970), but in some cases simpler methods may be used, in which case these are presented.
REGIONS OF SIGNIFICANT CRITERION DIFFERENCES IN APTITUDE‐TREATMENT‐INTERACTION RESEARCH1
Authors: Cahen Leonard S. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

Three techniques (Johnson‐Neyman, Potthoff, & Erlander & Gustavsson) for obtaining confidence regions for the difference between regression surfaces are compared. The techniques are potentially useful for analyzing data from aptitude‐treatment‐interaction research (ATI). The three techniques are found to yield substantially different sized confidence regions when applied to the same data, therefore possibly leading to different decisions in an aptitude‐treatment‐interaction study.
FACTOR ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS SCHOOL GRADES
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

Grade point averages are sometimes criticized as criteria for predictor studies on the grounds that they report an uncontrolled conglomeration of different underlying abilities. However, a factor analytic examination of the grades obtained at two graduate schools of business indicated that the grades were factorily simple, requiring the postulation of only one underlying ability.
ON APPROXIMATION OF DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY FUNCTIONS
Authors: Wolff Hans
Published: August 2014

Stochastic approximation algorithms for least square error approximation to density and distribution functions are considered. The main results are necessary and sufficient parameter conditions for the convergence of the approximation processes and a generalization to some time‐dependent density and distribution functions.
FACTORIAL INVARIANCE OF ABILITY MEASURES IN GROUPS DIFFERING IN INTELLIGENCE AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS1
Authors: McGaw Barry , Jöreskog Karl G.
Published: August 2014

Scores on 12 aptitude and achievement tests for 11, 743 subjects, subdivided into four groups according to intelligence and socioeconomic status, were used. A technique, developed by Jöreskog, for simultaneously factor analyzing data from several populations was used to determine whether there was factorial invariance over the four groups.

A model, in which the same factor pattern (matrix of factor loadings) was assumed to hold for the four groups, was fitted to the data. Goodness of fit indices suggested the model fitted satisfactorily. Differences in the factor dispersion matrices and mean factor scores for the subpopulations were then examined and discussed.
EFFECTIVENESS OF REMEDIATION IN JUNIOR COLLEGE1
Authors: Sharon Amiel T.
Published: August 2014

Randomly selected groups of students required to take remedial courses at two community colleges were placed in regular courses on an experimental basis. The experimentally placed students were compared with those who enrolled in a regular course after passing a remedial course and with those who did not require remediation. Comparisons were made on ability, interest, motivation, persistence, and performance. The English remedial course had no effect on student satisfaction but produced a small improvement in subsequent performance. The mathematics remedial course eliminated some of the dissatisfaction with the regular course and had a significant effect on subsequent course work. The placement procedures appeared to be more effective in assigning students to appropriate mathematics than to English courses.
COMPONENT SELECTION IN FOUR‐, EIGHT‐, AND TWELVE‐YEAR‐OLD CHILDREN1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Morgan Judith S.
Published: August 2014

A method was devised for examining developmental changes in children's component selection–i.e., the disposition to discriminate among stimuli on the basis of a selected component. In an experiment to develop an optimal measure, problems of three levels of difficulty were administered to children of ages 4, 8, 10, and 12. According to data from an initial phase of the task, the problem of intermediate difficulty level, involving five stimuli, proved to be the most appropriate for developmental assessment of component selection. Results for this problem indicated a general tendency for children to select the shape component of stimuli differing in color and shape, with little developmental change in this tendency. In a second experiment, using similar materials, component selection was found to decrease from ages 4 to 8 and to remain constant from ages 8 to 12. These results were interpreted to be inconsistent with the notion, implied by certain theories, that children's tendency to exercise component selection should increase with age. Further information regarding this process was provided by (a) a three‐dimensional measure in the first experiment and (b) two variations of the task in the second experiment that were designed to ensure attention to shape.
INTERRELATIONS IN CHILDREN'S LEARNING OF VERBAL AND PICTORIAL PAIRED ASSOCIATES1
Authors: Hale Gordon A.
Published: August 2014

Four short paired‐associate tasks were administered to 144 subjects at each of grades 3 and 6 and 112 subjects at grade 9. The four tasks, entitled Pictures, Concrete Words, Abstract Words, and Japanese Characters, contained response elements of the types indicated in their titles. Planned comparisons in mean level of performance involved the first three tasks. Performance on Pictures was found to be superior to Concrete Words, and Concrete Words was superior to Abstract Words, with the former effect reaching significance for grades 3 and 9 and the latter for grades 3 and 6. In a correlational analysis, involving all four tasks, the correlation between Pictures and Concrete Words was found to increase across grade levels to a greater degree than the correlation between any other pair of tasks. This last result was paralleled in data from an auxiliary experiment and was interpreted to suggest a developmental increase in children's use of verbal processes along with imagery to learn pictorially presented materials.
COMPARABILITY OF SCORES FROM DIFFERENT TESTS THOUGH ON THE SAME SCALE
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

Scores from tests in the same battery are put on scales which are the “same” in some sense, so that certain interpretations are made easier. This is often done when scores for different tests are obtained on different population segments, especially such as newer, more varied batteries of test offerings. It is felt that traditional erroneous expectations about the meaning of scaled scores may be carried over into the new situations and hence certain of these expectations are discussed. It is suggested that when special properties of scales are considered valuable for the users of a new battery, active technical steps beyond those of traditional scaling are required to assure that these values are implemented.