bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CREATIVITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CUES IN NURSERY SCHOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Ward William C.
Published: August 2014

Three creativity tests, each requiring the child to name as many ideas as he could that met a simple problem requirement, were administered to 53 nursery school children. Two of these tests were given in a typically barren experimental setting, and served as the basis for dividing the sample into creative and uncreative Ss. The third was given to some Ss under the same cue‐poor conditions, but to others in a cue‐rich testing environment – a room containing objects and pictures which provided cues to possible responses.

Creativity and environmental richness interacted significantly in their effect on ideational production. Creative children gave more responses in a rich than in a poor environment, while uncreative Ss showed no overall effect for environmental cues. It is argued that scanning the environment for task‐relevant information is one of the strategies employed by the creative child in his search for problem solutions. This interaction also shows that, despite low test intercorrelations, the creativity dimension has some stability across tests and over a period of several months in nursery school children.
ANXIETY AND LEARNING TO FORMULATE HYPOTHESES1,2
Authors: Klein Stephen P. , Frederiksen Norman , Evans Franklin R.
Published: August 2014

The study investigated some effects of a training procedure on production of original responses and the relationship of such behavior to personality and ability measures. The results indicate that (1) the training procedure increased the quantity but not the quality of the ideas produced; (2) this increase did not transfer to a similar task involving divergent production; (3) test anxiety had consistent curvilinear relationships with performance, poor performance being associated with an intermediate level of test anxiety; and (4) there was a significant interaction of anxiety and verbal ability. Some implications of these results for testing, teaching, and prediction are discussed.
MULTIPARAMETER BAYESIAN INDIFFERENCE PROCEDURES*
Authors: Novick Melvin R.
Published: August 2014

The method of minimum necessary samples formulated by Novick and Hall from a suggestion by Lindley is refined and extended to cover multiparameter models. A number of such models are studied and Bayesian indifference specifications are obtained for each within extended natural conjugate families. In all cases the one‐parameter conditional specifications derived from the multiparameter specifications are consistent with specifications derivable from corresponding one‐parameter models. Models studied include the multinomial models, one‐ and two‐parameter uniform models, an exponential model with a range parameter, and the two‐parameter normal model. For these models the specifications seem entirely straightforward.

Indifference specifications are also obtained for the simple regression model and the bivariate normal model. It is noted that these specifications do not agree but the relationship between these two specifications is described and in part justified. It is pointed out that these differences could, in fact, mirror important differences in the structural assumptions of these models. A random effects model of value in mental test theory is studied briefly. This model provides a framework for a discussion of the multiple comparisons problem. Finally some summary comments on the methods of this paper are offered.
THE LEARNING AND TRANSFER OF DOUBLE‐CLASSIFICATION SKILLS BY FIRST‐GRADERS1
Authors: Jacobs Paul I. , Vandeventer Mary
Published: August 2014

The double‐classification problem forms the basis of many intelligence test items and is of major interest in Piagetian theory. The solution of such a problem requires the child to take into account simultaneously two different dimensions of stimulus variation (e.g., size and shape) while inferring a logical relation. The present study utilized highly structured yet individualized training techniques in an attempt to teach the skill of solving double‐classification problems to first‐grade children.

Following a pretest of double‐classification skill with stimuli varying in color and shape, 42 first‐grade Ss matched for pretest score were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Experimental Ss were individually instructed by E in the skill of solving double‐classification problems with stimuli that varied in color and shape. Instruction was terminated when S reached a predetermined level of proficiency, or when a half hour elapsed. Control Ss were given individual attention for an equivalent amount of time while engaged in an irrelevant task. Several hours following the treatment, each S was retested by a second E who had no knowledge of what group S was in. Both a posttest (a randomly parallel alternate form of the pretest involving the dimensions of color and shape) and a transfer test, involving the dimensions of shading and size, were administered.

Experimental Ss scored significantly higher than control Ss on both learning and transfer tests. Ss were tested for retention four months later. Again experimental Ss scored significantly higher than control Ss on both learning and transfer tests. The results are discussed in terms of Piagetian theory, and implications for intelligence testing are considered.
STATISTICAL ADJUSTMENTS WHEN COMPARING PREEXISTING GROUPS
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

An illustration is given showing why the analysis of covariance usually does not provide the appropriate adjustment to compensate for preexisting differences between nonexperimental groups.
DEVELOPMENT OF DISTANCE CONSERVATION AND THE SPATIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM RECONSIDERED1
Authors: Vandeventer Mary
Published: August 2014

A further test of Piaget's hypothesis that distance conservation is prerequisite to the attainment of the coordinate concept was conducted with 10 Negro and 10 white first‐grade boys. Effects of stimulus material (drawings versus objects) and race differences were also investigated. Data failed to support the hypothesis of the developmental priority of distance conservation. Shantz and Smock's (1966) finding of order effects dependent upon stimulus type was not replicated, although a difference favoring objects was found for the coordinate but not for the distance tasks. A difference was found between races on distance but not on coordinate tasks. Differential language and abstraction ability was hypothesized to account for the difference.
ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATES AND ADMINISTRATIVE PERFORMANCE
Authors: Frederiksen Norman , Jensen Ollie , Beaton Albert E. , Bloxom Bruce
Published: August 2014

The aim of the study is to answer three kinds of questions: What are the effects of organizational climates (1) on the factorial structure of measures of administrative performance, (2) on the correlations between measures of administrative performance and various predictors of such performance, (3) and on the means of various measures of administrative performance? Data were collected at a two‐day “Research Institute” at which 260 executives employed by the State of California served as subjects. Each served as Chief of the Field Services Division of a fictitious department of the state, using an elaborate situational test that simulated an administrative position by requiring the examinee to respond to items in his in‐basket as though he were actually on the Job. All subjects were presented with the same problems and all served under the same superiors and had the same subordinates. Only the organizational climates were varied. Some subjects, for example, were led to believe that the organization encouraged imaginative solutions to problems, while others were given the impression that the organization required close adherence to rules and regulations. Subjects also took a variety of ability tests and inventories and provided biographical information. The in‐basket protocols provide scores on a large number of performance categories, such as “makes plans only,” “takes leading action,” and “requires further information,” These scores are the dependent variables.

The experimental variations in organizational climate were found to produce different factorial structures in the domain of the dependent variables, but the patterns of correlations between predictors and performance factors are in the main not significantly affected. The principal conclusion with respect to means is that productivity is influenced significantly by the interaction of the experimental climate conditions. A three‐mode factor analysis produced interpretable performance factors, item factors, and person factors. The person‐factor structure is markedly influenced by organizational climates, and correlations between person‐factor scores and measures of personal characteristics differ from one climate condition to another.
SOME APPLICATIONS OF PROCEDURES FOR ALLOCATING TESTING TIME1
Authors: Novick Melvin R. , Thayer Dorothy T.
Published: August 2014

Detailed computations and data analysis using the algorithm developed by Woodbury and Novick (1968) and the procedure developed by Jackson and Novick (1969) for allocating testing time, when using regression and unit weights respectively, are presented, using data especially selected to illustrate how these techniques overcome the major difficulties, both computational and methodological, that may arise in such analyses. Several further sets of data are analyzed to compare the composite scale correlations obtained with a criterion using combinations of original or optimal time allocations and unit or optimal weights for homogeneous subscales. The primary purpose of this paper is methodological rather than substantive, that is, to show how time allocation methodology can be used to investigate certain important substantive questions. Some evidence is found to suggest that for certain applications the gain from using optimal lengths and optimal weights instead of original lengths and unit weights for subtests, as is now general practice in many testing programs, may be worthwhile. It is found that the use of the optimal time procedure with unit weights sometimes leads to results that are nearly as satisfactory as optimal times with regression weights. Finally, some evidence is found to suggest that quite different time allocations may be required for different subgroups.
LEVEL OF RISK SELECTED BY INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS WHEN DECIDING FOR SELF AND FOR OTHERS1
Authors: Zaleska Maryla , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

The present study extends the tradition of research on individual vs. group risk taking to the case in which the decisions have consequences for persons not implicated in the act of decision‐making. The decision task consisted of gambles with real monetary payoffs. Ss–157 French female university students–were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (1) a control group in which decisions were made for oneself on two occasions; (2) decisions made individually, first for oneself and then for another person; (3) individual decisions made for oneself followed by group discussion to consensus, with decisional consequences impinging only upon the decision‐making group; (4) individual decisions made for another person followed by group discussion to a consensus affecting another group. Condition 2 yielded conservative shifts; Condition 3 produced risky shifts. Condition 4 shifts were in the risky direction, but of lesser strength than those obtained in Condition 3. Interpretation of the results considered the possible applicability of social responsibility and reciprocity norms to the phenomena under investigation.
A DISTANCE MEASURE OF RACIAL ATTITUDES IN PRIMARY GRADE CHILDREN: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY1
Authors: Koslin Sandra Cohen , Amarel Marianne , Ames Nancy
Published: August 2014

This study explored the use of a nonverbal distance measure to assess interpersonal racial attitudes among primary grade children in segregated and nonsegregated schools. Subjects pasted decals representing themselves on a series of pages, each of which contained a fixed figure. Figures included Negro and white teachers and peers, and a school. Subjects pasted the decals in whatever position and at whatever distance they chose from the target figure. White subjects placed the figures of themselves further from Negro than from white target figures, whereas Negro subjects placed them equally close to white and Negro target figures. Compared with segregated subjects, integrated subjects placed the figure representing themselves closer to target figures of the opposite race and closer to school.
THE EFFECT OF RACE ON PEER EVALUATION AND PREFERENCE IN PRIMARY GRADE CHILDREN: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY1
Authors: Koslin Sandra Cohen , Amarel Marianne , Ames Nancy
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to explore the attitudes of students in the primary grades with regard to the learning ability, school behavior, and social desirability as classmates of white and Negro children.

Subjects were 120 first and second graders at an all white, an all Negro, and an integrated school. In individual interviews, subjects were shown pairs of sketches of classroom events taking place in predominantly white and predominantly Negro classes and were asked to make judgments about the academic achievement, niceness, school behavior, friendliness, and general desirability of the children in the pictured classes.

White subjects showed a striking preference for predominantly white classes, whereas Negro subjects were less consistent. Of these, some preferred the white classrooms, some the Negro classrooms, and others showed no preference at all.

Test‐retest reliability over a four‐week interval was .63 for the entire sample.
EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT PRIOR TO AND DURING HIGH SCHOOL1
Authors: Patton Michael J.
Published: August 2014

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed on the STEP, SCAT and socioeconomic (SES) scores of 2,952 “Growth Study” subjects at grades 7, 9 and 11. The Ss were grouped using grade 11 information according to 5 curricula, 2 sexes and 18 high schools so that the MANOVA of grade 7, 9 and 11 data was accomplished using these factors as design parameters.

The findings indicate that at each grade the school, curriculum and sex factors were each associated with significant multivariate F ratios. As early as grade 7, meaningful differences in the performance and background of these Ss were apparent. For example, at grade 7 the performance of students who later enrolled in an academic curriculum was seen to be considerably higher than that of all nonacademic groups and was characterized primarily by a general achievement discriminant function. Among the nonacademic groups, the vocational curriculum students were distinguished from their other nonacademic peers in terms of performance on STEP Science and low SES, a trend that continued through grade 11. In general, it was found that the academic curricular group exhibited evenly distributed achievement across the areas covered by the STEP and SCAT tests from grades 7 to 11. The on‐going achievement of the nonacademic groups appeared less uniform with higher achievement noted on STEP Science and Social Studies.

The school factor was observed to distinguish significantly among the school groups at grade 7 in seven different ways. The first function was, however, a general achievement–SES dimension. The first discriminant function at grade 9 was interpreted as a STEP Listening–SES–STEP Science dimension where schools with high SES scores were ranked at the high positive end of the first discriminant score distribution. A more specific performance dimension characterized the first discriminant function at grade 9 and was given tentative interpretation as STEP Listening–SES–STEP Science. At grade 11 a positive SES, negative STEP Science dimension was the first discriminant function.

The attributes which appeared to best describe the sample of students at each grade were, until grade 11, those on which higher SES groups did better. However, some lower SES groups made greater achievement gains over time than did higher SES groups. The differences that were found to remain among school groups at grade 11 are of practical educational importance, especially in the achievement areas covered by STEP Listening, Social Studies, Science and Math.
RISK TAKING IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERGROUP NEGOTIATION1
Authors: Lamm Helmut , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

Pairs of three‐person male groups, working separately, came to unanimous decisions on preferred risk levels for one‐half of the items in the choice‐dilemmas procedure. All Ss had ***previously filled out the full 12‐item questionnaire. Each group elected a representative to defend the group's interests (high commitment). An alternate (medium commitment) was also selected. The remaining S constituted the nonrepresentative (low commitment). Each S in one of the groups was then matched with his status equivalent in the other group. These dyads negotiated agreements for the six items where there was a previous reference‐group position (“fixed”) and for the six items where there were only prior individual positions (“open”). For both fixed and open items, nonrepresentatives and alternates manifested risky shifts in their joint decisions, whereas representatives reached decisions through averaging. These results implied that high levels of commitment in the context of intergroup negotiation can disrupt the valuational processes underlying the risky shift in the standard intragroup situation.
A GENERAL METHOD FOR ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE STRUCTURES WITH APPLICATIONS PART II: APPLICATIONS*
Authors: Jöreskog K. G.
Published: August 2014

A general formal model and an associated method of analysis was described in Part I of this paper. In Part II of the paper several examples are given of areas and problems, especially in the behavioral sciences, where this method may be useful. Applications include (i) analysis of congeneric measurements, (ii) factor analysis, (iii) analysis of multitrait‐multimethod data, (iv) analysis of some mixed ANOVA models, (v) analysis of sets of ordered responses, and (vi) path analysis and linear structural relationships.
A GENERAL COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR OPTIMALLY ALLOCATING TESTING TIME
Authors: Thayer Dorothy T. , Novick Melvin R.
Published: August 2014

This program employs the procedures developed by Woodbury and Novick (1968) and Jackson and Novick (1969) for assigning lengths to the tests of a battery so as to maximize either the multiple or composite correlation with a specified criterion when the total length is fixed. The algorithms developed by Jackson and Novick (1969) to determine the least total battery length required to attain specified multiple or composite correlations are also incorporated in the program.
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF RESTING CARDIAC RATE AND VARIABILITY FROM THE LAST TRIMESTER OF PRENATAL LIFE THROUGH THE FIRST YEAR OF POSTNATAL LIFE1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Dodd Cornelia , Ban Peggy
Published: August 2014

Resting cardiac rate and variability were obtained on a group of subjects seen first in the last trimester of prenatal life and over the first year of postnatal life. Maternal cardiac rate and variability were also obtained. The data indicate no relationship between maternal and fetal or infant data. Moreover, there are clear developmental patterns of resting cardiac response over the first year of life with rate and variability showing linear decreases.
A BAYESIAN ANALYSIS OF RASCH'S MULTIPLICATIVE POISSON MODEL FOR MISREADINGS
Authors: Oven Roger J.
Published: August 2014

A Bayesian analysis of a model for misreadings is undertaken. The model is essentially the Poisson model with multiplicative parameter structure first proposed and experimentally justified by Rasch. Conditional and unconditional posterior densities, predictive densities and reliabilities are presented. Some results for point and interval estimation and examination design are derived from the basic results.
A BAYESIAN ESTIMATE OF TRUE SCORE THAT INCORPORATES PRIOR INFORMATION
Authors: Lindley D. V.
Published: August 2014

A Bayesian estimate of true score is derived for the case of unequal numbers of replications. The estimate is a posterior mode based on a conjugate prior distribution. Some numerical difficulties encountered with previous estimates are avoided with the new procedure. Some work on the estimation of true‐score variance, error‐score variance and reliability is also included.
A COMPARISON OF PREDICTOR SELECTION TECHNIQUES USING MONTE CARLO METHODS
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Linn Robert L. , Evans Franklin R. , Patrick Cathleen
Published: August 2014

Four methods of selecting a subset of predictors from a larger set were compared for 60 correlation matrices generated by Monte Carlo techniques. Two of the procedures were criterion‐independent and two were criterion‐dependent. The criterion‐dependent procedures were found to be superior to the criterion‐independent methods. The two criterion‐dependent procedures (forward and backward selection) worked about equally well except for the smallest sample size where the forward selection procedure was better.
ORGANIZED STUDENT PROTEST AND INSTITUTIONAL FUNCTIONING
Authors: Peterson Richard E. , Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

In a sample of 50 colleges, relations between 11 institutional functioning dimensions and seven student protest scales were studied by means of zero order and multiple correlations. Student militancy arising from off‐campus circumstances (e.g., the Vietnam war) proved to be more predictable than protest over campus conditions (e.g., dormitory rules). A general explanatory hypothesis for the findings is offered.
FITTING ONE MATRIX TO ANOTHER UNDER CHOICE OF A CENTRAL DILATION AND A RIGID MOTION
Authors: Scho̎nemann Peter H. , Carroll Robert M.
Published: August 2014

A least squares method is presented for fitting a given matrix A to another given matrix B under choice of an unknown rotation, an unknown translation, and an unknown central dilation. The procedure may be useful to investigators who wish to compare results obtained with nonmetric scaling techniques across samples or who wish to compare such results with those obtained by conventional factor analytic techniques on the same sample.
A STIMULUS SIMILARITY SCALE FOR TEMPORAL MEASURES OF ATTENTION IN INFANTS AND CHILDREN1
Authors: Freedle Roy
Published: August 2014

An earlier paper developed a choice theory of attention which predicted viewing times for stimuli in a subset of alternatives chosen from a larger set. This paper extends these ideas by constructing a stimulus similarity scale which allows one to disclose the psychological space (the dimensionality and relative distances for a given set of stimuli) implied by the matrix of similarity values. One can formulate fruitful hypotheses regarding changes in perceived dimensionality over different age groups and hence can study developmental trends using the similarity scale. This scale is shown to have a close connection with Sokolov's theory of an Orienting Response. Empirical data are presented illustrating the theory.
A BAYESIAN APPROACH TO TAILORED TESTING
Authors: Owen Roger J.
Published: August 2014

The sequential design and analysis of a test consisting of dichotomously scored items is approached from a Bayesian viewpoint.

For a given examinee and for given items with known parameters, the scores on the items are taken to be independently distributed. Each item characteristic curve is taken to be a weighted average of 1 and a normal ogive function (to include the case where guessing is effective). Taking a normal prior distribution on the examinee ability, explicit expressions are derived for the posterior distribution and its mean and variance.

In the Decision Theoretic framework of Wald, a quadratic loss function is taken and a simple, practical and approximately locally (or stepwise) optimum procedure is derived for sequentially choosing the (difficulties, discriminating powers and guessing constants of) items and analyzing the results.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF SELF‐ESTEEM: COMMENTS ON ZILLER'S FORMULATION
Authors: Carlson Rae
Published: August 2014

Conceptual issues in Ziller's research on social self‐esteem (Ziller, Hagey, Smith, & Long, 1969) were reviewed in the light of recent theoretical and empirical work. Three limitations of the social self‐esteem (SSE) measure and its supporting rationale were noted: (a) failure to distinguish between level and source of self‐esteem, (b) implicit “masculine” bias, and (c) implicit cultural bias. These considerations would appear to explain the “negative” findings reported by Ziller et al. and suggest modifications of the SSE formulation which could extend its generality.
ACADEMIC GROWTH IN PREDOMINANTLY NEGRO AND PREDOMINANTLY WHITE COLLEGES
Authors: Centra John A. , Linn Robert L. , Parry Mary Ellen
Published: August 2014

Seven predominantly white colleges were matched (according to purposes, type of control, and ability level of students) with seven predominantly Negro colleges to compare student academic growth. The sample consisted of 406 students from the former and 327 from the latter. All had taken the Area tests of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) Institutional Testing Program as college seniors and the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) as entering freshmen.

No significant differences were found between the two racial groups in GRE Social Science or Natural Science scores when SAT scores were used as covariates. Inspection of regression lines within each of the fourteen colleges also supported the conclusion that neither group of colleges was any more or less effective in student academic growth as measured by the GRE Area Tests.
APPLICATION OF MARKOV PROCESSES TO THE CONCEPT OF STATE1
Authors: Freedle Roy , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this paper is to outline some applications of a mathematical concept known as a Markov Process to the study of such developmental concepts as state and state changes. Vocalization states were defined which reflected the joint occurrence of an infant's behavior (or condition) along with some associative event(s) in the infant's immediate environment. (The infants were three months old.) These concepts were then applied to data sequences collected in a naturalistic setting (the infant's home) for the purpose of studying the types of mother‐infant interactions that occur in vocalization behavior.
IDENTIFICATION AND ESTIMATION IN PATH ANALYSIS WITH UNMEASURED VARIABLES*
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Jőreskog Karl G. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

A variety of path models involving unmeasured variables are formulated in terms of Jőreskog's (1970a) general model for the analysis of covariance structures.
COLLEGE OR EMPLOYMENT AND THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Authors: Warren Jonathan R.
Published: August 2014

A questionnaire survey of the college and employment activities of about 5,500 high school graduates one year out of high school and of about 3,000 graduates three years out of high school showed the high school curriculum the students followed to be only moderately related to what they did after high school. Academic aptitude and the parents' socioeconomic status were associated with the high school curriculum followed and with amount of post‐high‐school education independently of curriculum. Aptitude, socioeconomic status, and curriculum combined, however, still left a high degree of uncertainty in the educational level that would be reached.

Particularly among the men, large proportions of graduates of non‐academic high school curricula entered college, and smaller but still sizeable proportions of college preparatory graduates entered employment. The three‐year pattern of post‐high‐school activities showed that as many graduates had completed three years of college as had had no college at all. But almost as many had been in and out of college, starting late or dropping out, and working in the periods between enrollments.

The uncertainty in predicting entry into college and the variety of educational experiences that follow college entry, including wide variation in the amount of college completed, raise questions about the usefulness of differentiating high school curricula on the basis of expectations about college attendance or employment after high school. Alternative ways of differentiating high school curricula, based on current student characteristics rather than plans or expectations, are suggested.
EFFECTS OF EMPIRICAL OPTION WEIGHTING ON RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE GRE1
Authors: Reilly Richard R. , Jackson Rex
Published: August 2014

Item options of shortened forms of the GRE Verbal and Quantitative tests were empirically weighted by two variants of a method originally attributed to Guttman. The first method assigned to each option of an item the mean standard score on the remaining items of all subjects choosing that option. The second procedure assigned the mean score on a parallel form of all persons choosing the option.

When compared with formula scores, it was found that scores generated with the empirical weights were more reliable but less valid when correlated with undergraduate grade‐point average (GPA). Test homogeneity was increased through empirical option weighting, and a factor analysis revealed large increases in variance accounted for by the first factor.

Examination of the actual weights assigned to each option revealed that the weight for omit in most cases differed considerably from the weight which would be assigned under the usual formula score assumptions. It was suggested that the weighting procedures used tended to capitalize on omitting behavior which, although a highly reliable tendency, may actually be negatively related to the GPA criterion used.
THE ACCEPTABILITY OF REGRESSION SOLUTIONS: ANOTHER LOOK AT COMPUTATIONAL ACCURACY
Authors: Beaton Albert E. , Rubin Donald B. , Barone John L.
Published: August 2014

Longley proposed a set of data for use in testing regression programs. This paper shows that the numerically accurate solution is likely to be an unreasonable estimate of the regression coefficients for this problem. This is true because the accuracy of the data and appropriateness of the model may affect the solution more than the computational method. An easily computed index is derived that can be used to indicate such computational instability. The basic conclusion is that a concern about highly accurate computational methods must be tempered with a concern for whether the data are accurate enough to make the results of such computation meaningful.
BIRTH ORDER, FAMILY CONFIGURATION AND VERBAL ACHIEVEMENT1
Authors: Breland Hunter M.
Published: August 2014

Two samples of National Merit Scholarship participants tested in 1962 and the entire population of almost 800,000 participants tested in 1965 were examined. Consistent effects in all three groups were observed with respect to both birth order and family size (firstborn and those of smaller families scoring higher). Control of both socioeconomic variables and mother's age (by analysis of variance as well as by analysis of covariance) failed to alter the relationships. Step‐down analyses suggested that the effects were due to a verbal component and that no differences were attributable to nonverbal factors. Detailed sibship configurations based on birth order, family size, sibling spacing, and sibling sex were developed for both sexes. The resulting 82 different sibship configurations were ranked by test score means. A rank‐order correlation between sexes yielded a very high value of .96, and a high correlation was shown to persist within family size.
AGE‐OF‐ACQUISITION NORMS FOR 220 PICTURABLE NOUNS1
Authors: Carroll John B. , White Margaret N.
Published: August 2014

To obtain data for the further evaluation of age‐of‐acquisition as a word attribute in studies of verbal behavior, learning, and memory, estimates were secured from 62 undergraduates (35 males, 27 females) of the age at which they believed they had learned each of 220 picturable nouns (divided into two lists assigned randomly to halves of the sample), according to a 9‐point scale. Reliabilities of these ratings were about .98. For comparative purposes, word frequency values for the words were secured from three large word‐count studies or, where necessary, from subjective estimates made by 20 adults. Use of these and other variables as predictors of previously obtained picture‐naming latencies (Carroll & White, in press) yielded results supporting the previous finding that age‐of‐acquisition is a more relevant predictor than word frequency. Some word frequency indices tend to reflect age‐of‐acquisition, but when this influence is minimized word frequency makes little contribution to the prediction.
MOTHERS AND FATHERS, GIRLS AND BOYS: ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF LIFE1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Weinraub Marsha , Ban Peggy
Published: August 2014

Twenty children, 10 boys and 10 girls, were seen at one and two years of age in a free play situation. At each age each infant first played with one parent and then a week later with the other. Attachment behavior (proximal and distal modes) was observed and found to be affected by the sex of infant and sex of parent. Moreover, Bayley Mental Maturity Index obtained at two years was found to be correlated with certain patterns of attachment behavior over the first two years of life. These findings are discussed in terms of attachment theory and the etiology of sex differences in interpersonal relations.
PRESCHOOL TEACHER‐CHILD DYAD: SEX DIFFERENCES IN VERBAL INTERACTION1
Authors: Cherry Louise J.
Published: August 2014

This study describes differences in the quantity and style of female preschool teachers' dyadic verbal interaction with the girls and boys in their classes. Sixteen hours of spontaneous speech of four female preschool teachers and 38 girls and boys was tape recorded in two classroom situations, then transcribed and analyzed. The results showed that teachers verbally interacted more (p < .05), verbally initiated more (p ≤ .01), used more attentional‐marked utterances (p. ≤ .01) in speech with boys than with girls. Teachers used more verbal acknowledgments (p < .01) in speech with girls as compared to boys. There were no sex difference's in the fluency (length and reciprocity) of teacher‐child verbal interaction nor in the rate of teacher initiation of interaction.
MULTIVARIATE MATCHING METHODS THAT ARE EQUAL PERCENT BIAS REDUCING, II: MAXIMUMS ON BIAS REDUCTION FOR FIXED SAMPLE SIZES
Authors: Rubin Donald B.
Published: August 2014

Matched sampling is a method of data collection designed to reduce bias and variability due to specific matching variables. Although often used to control for bias in studies in which randomization is practically impossible, there is virtually no statistical literature devoted to investigating the ability of matched sampling to control bias in the common case of many matching variables. An obvious problem in studying the multivariate matching situation is the variety of sampling plans, underlying distributions, and intuitively reasonable matching methods. This article considers one class of multivariate matching methods which yield the same percent reduction in expected bias for each of the matching variables. The primary result is the derivation of the expression for the maximum attainable percent reduction in bias given fixed distributions and fixed sample sizes. An examination of trends in this maximum leads to a procedure for estimating minimum ratios of sample sizes needed to obtain well‐matched samples.
SEX‐RELATED PERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES ON CONSTRUCTED‐RESPONSE AND MULTIPLE‐CHOICE SECTIONS OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT EXAMINATIONS
Authors: Mazzeo John , Schmitt Alicia P. , Bleistein Carole A.
Published: August 2014

A number of studies in which scores on multiple‐choice and constructed‐response tests have been analyzed in terms of the sex of the test takers have indicated that the test performance of females relative to that of males was better on constructed‐response tests than on multiple‐choice tests. This report describes three exploratory studies of the performance of males and females on the multiple‐choice and constructed‐response sections of four Advanced Placement (AP) Examinations: United States History, Biology, Chemistry, and English Language and Composition. The studies were intended to evaluate some possible reasons for the apparent relationship between test format and the magnitude of sex‐related differences in performance.

For the first study, analyses were carried out to evaluate the extent to which such differences could be attributed to differences in the score reliabilities associated with these two modes of assessment. For the second study, analyses of the multiple‐choice sections and follow‐up descriptive analyses were conducted to assess the extent to which sex‐related differences in multiple‐choice scores could be attributed to the presence of differentially functioning items favoring males. For the third study, a set of exploratory analyses was undertaken to determine whether patterns of sex‐related differences could be observed for different types of constructed‐response questions.

The results of the first study provided little support for the “different‐reliabilities” hypothesis. Across all exams and all ethnic groups, there were substantial differences between the scores of males and females even after taking into account differences in the reliabilities of the two sections. The results of the second study indicated that fairly small numbers of items exhibited substantial amounts of sex‐related differential item functioning (DIF), and removing these items resulted in almost no reduction in the magnitude of sex‐related differences on the multiple‐choice sections. The results of the third study identified some consistent patterns across ethnic and racial groups regarding which questions females will perform best on, relative to males. However, taken as a whole, the results of the third study suggest that topic variability may have a greater effect than the variability associated with particular question types or broadly defined content areas.
TOPIC AND TOPIC TYPE COMPARABILITY ON THE TEST OF WRITTEN ENGLISH
Authors: Golub‐Smith Marna , Reese Clyde , Steinhaus Karin
Published: August 2014

The Test of Written English (TWE), administered with certain designated TOEFL® examinations, consists of a single essay prompt to which examinees have 30 minutes to respond. It was introduced in 1986 to provide TOEFL score users with a direct measure of examinees' writing ability. Preliminary studies had indicated that the two different kinds of prompts: prose compare, contrast, and take a position, and describe or interpret a chart or graph, elicited comparable writing performance. However, questions were subsequently raised with respect to continued comparability of different TWE® prompts administered under operational conditions.

The present study was designed to elicit essays for prompts that differed in both subject matter (Topic) and in the level of explicitness with which the essay task was presented (Topic Type). Eight different prompts were spiraled worldwide at the October 1989 TOEFL administration, with each prompt eliciting approximately 10,000 essays.

The results of the analyses indicated that there were small differences among the prompts. The most notable differences were obtained among the scores for topics using the explicit comparison. Across all the prompts, the chart‐graph with the explicit comparison statement produced the highest mean scores.

Because it was the first study of its kind to focus on the comparability of prompts in a major testing program, the authors had difficulty making definitive statements regarding the meaningfulness of the obtained differences. While many of the differences in means observed in this study were so small as to be of no practical significance, differences observed across prompts in the numbers of examinees at each score level were not. Such differences may warrant further consideration by the TOEFL program.
A SIMULATION STUDY OF METHODS FOR ASSESSING DIFFERENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING IN COMPUTER‐ADAPTIVE TESTS
Authors: Zwick Rebecca , Thayer Dorothy T. , Wingersky Marilyn
Published: August 2014

Simulated data were used to investigate the performance of modified versions of the Mantel‐Haenszel and standardization methods of differential item functioning (DIF) analysis in computer‐adaptive tests (CATs). Each “examinee” received 25 items out of a 75‐item pool. A three‐parameter logistic item response model was assumed, and examinees were matched on expected true scores based on their CAT responses and on estimated item parameters. Both DIF methods performed well. The CAT‐based DIF statistics were highly correlated with DIF statistics based on nonadaptive administration of all 75 pool items and with the true magnitudes of DIF in the simulation. DIF methods were also investigated for “pretest items,” for which item parameter estimates were assumed to be unavailable. The pretest DIF statistics were generally well‐behaved and also had high correlations with the true DIF. The pretest DIF measures, however, tended to be slightly smaller in magnitude than their CAT‐based counterparts. Also, in the case of the Mantel‐Haenszel approach, the pretest DIF statistics tended to have somewhat larger standard errors than the CAT DIF statistics.
A COMPLEXITY ANALYSIS OF ITEMS FROM A SURVEY OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN THE LIFE SCIENCES.
Authors: Enright Mary K. , Allen Nancy , Kim Myung‐In
Published: August 2014

The difficulty of 44 items from the life sciences subscale of the NAEP 1985–86 science assessment was analyzed in terms of item attributes and science educators' judgments of difficulty. The attributes included ratings of various characteristics of the items' text and option set, the items' cognitive demand, and the level of knowledge required by items. Science educators' mean judgment of item difficulty, which accounted for 52% of the variance, was the best single predictor of item difficulty. Combining item attribute information with educators' judgments of item difficulty improved the prediction of item difficulty on the order of 7% to 15% of the variance. When item difficulty was modeled in terms of discrete item attributes (global judgments of item difficulty not included in the model), the level of knowledge required was an important determinant of difficulty, while cognitive demand was not. The implications of these results for construct validation and for test design are discussed.
TOWARD A COGNITIVE BASIS FOR QUANTITATIVE ABILITY MEASURES
Authors: Sebrechts Marc M. , Enright Mary , Bennett Randy Elliot , Martin Kathleen
Published: August 2014

The construct validity of algebra word problems for measuring quantitative reasoning was examined from two perspectives, one focusing on an analysis of problem attributes and the other on the analysis of constructed‐response solutions. Twenty problems that had appeared on the Graduate Record Examinations General Test were investigated. Constructed‐response solutions to these problems were collected from 51 undergraduates. Regression analyses of problem attributes indicated that models including factors such as the need to apply algebraic concepts, problem complexity, and problem content could account for 37% to 62% of the variance in problem difficulty. With respect to constructed‐response solutions, four classes of strategies were identified: equation formulation, ratio setup, simulation, and other (unsystematic) approaches. Higher achieving students used equation strategies more and unsystematic approaches less than lower achieving examinees. Examinees' errors were classified into eight principal categories. Problem conception errors were the best predictor of performance on the constructed‐response problems and on SAT‐M. In contrast, procedural errors contributed to the prediction of performance on the constructed‐response problems but not to standing on SAT‐M. Overall, these results provide support for the construct validity of GRE algebra word problems and of SAT‐M as measures of quantitative reasoning. A preliminary theoretical framework for describing performance on algebra word problems is proposed and its usefulness for more systematic design of tests is discussed.
LOGICAL CONSISTENCY OF THE ANGOFF METHOD OF STANDARD SETTING
Authors: DeMauro Gerald E. , Powers Donald E.
Published: August 2014

Standard setting on licensure and certification tests is difficult both to execute and to defend. There may, however, be certain minimum standards for standard setting on which most everyone may be able to agree. One such standard is logical consistency.

Kane (1984, 1986) has suggested an approach to evaluating the logical consistency of one widely used method to set passing scores–the Angoff procedure (Angoff, 1971). This approach is applied here to the standard setting data obtained in a study of the NTE Specialty Area Test for School Psychology.
The Effect of Serum Origin on Tissue Engineered Skeletal Muscle Function
Authors: Khodabukus Alastair , Baar Keith
Published: August 2014

Skeletal muscle phenotype is regulated by a complex interaction between genetic, hormonal, and electrical inputs. However, because of the interrelatedness of these factors in vivo it is difficult to determine the importance of one over the other. Over the last 5 years, we have engineered skeletal muscles in the European Union (EU) and the United States (US) using the same clone of C2C12 cells. Strikingly, the dynamics of contraction of the muscles was dramatically different. Therefore, in this study we sought to determine whether the hormonal milieu (source of fetal bovine serum (FBS)) could alter engineered muscle phenotype. In muscles engineered in serum of US origin time‐to‐peak tension (2.2‐fold), half relaxation (2.6‐fold), and fatigue resistance (improved 25%) all showed indications of a shift towards a slower phenotype. Even though there was a dramatic shift in the rate of contraction, myosin heavy chain expression was the same. The contraction speed was instead related to a shift in calcium release/sensitivity proteins (DHPR = 3.1‐fold lower, slow CSQ = 3.4‐fold higher, and slow TnT = 2.4‐fold higher) and calcium uptake proteins (slow SERCA = 1.7‐fold higher and parvalbumin = 41‐fold lower). These shifts in calcium dynamics were accompanied by a partial shift in metabolic enzymes, but could not be explained by purported regulators of muscle phenotype. These data suggest that hormonal differences in serum of USDA and EU origin cause a shift in calcium handling resulting in a dramatic change in engineered muscle function. J. Cell. Biochem. 115: 2198–2207, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.