bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Submariner Situation Assessment: A Cognitive Process Analysis and Modeling Approach
Authors: Ehret Brian D. , Gray Wayne D. , Kirschenbaum Susan S.
Published: July 2017

A cognitive process analysis and modeling approach to task analysis is described in the context of Project Nemo, a research effort aimed at explicating situation assessment behavior in commanders of nuclear powered attack submarines. The approach is structured around the rationality and problem space principles outlined in Card, Moran and Newell (1983). The process analysis phases involve characterizing the task domain as well as the subject's goals, operators, and knowledge. The modeling phases involves instantiating the elements from the process analysis phases into a runnable computational cognitive model. The behavior of this model is then judged against a standard, such as expert judgment or the commander's behavior, in order to evaluate the sufficiency of the cognitive process analysis. Unlike conventional task analysis methods, this approach enables the analyst not only to describe task behavior at a detailed cognitive process level, but to evaluate the precision of that description.
The Effects of Decision Time and Decision-Aid Accuracy on Workload and Performance
Authors: Entin Eileen B. , Entin Elliot E.
Published: July 2017

Assessing the impact of providing a decision aid on decision time, workload, and performance is critical for optimizing overall human-system performance. This paper first examines the effects of providing a decision aid on decision time and workload and then looks at the effects of decision time and decision-aid accuracy on performance. Results show that the availability of a decision aid exacts a penalty in decision time but provides a significant decrease in cognitive workload. The availability of a decision aid significantly increases operators' performance, but does not raise it to the performance level that a high accuracy decision aid would achieve. Contrary to expectation, a longer decision time has a negative effect on performance, especially with a low accuracy decision aid. The results indicate the importance of providing operators with training in use of a decision aid so they develop an accurate mental model of how it works and how to optimize the integration of its judgments with their own.
Level of Automation: Integrating Humans and Automated Systems
Authors: Endsley Mica R.
Published: July 2017

Automation is being implemented in a variety of systems in an effort to improve performance and overcome high operator workload. Current automation approaches may underlie these problems by reducing operator situation awareness. Evidence suggests that in many ways current automation approaches fail to achieve the desired reduction in workload, yet the prevailing approach to system design is still to automate to reduce workload. An alternate design approach is presented that focuses on utilizing intermediate levels of automation (LOA) that integrate the human and the automated system in substantially different ways. Three studies are examined that explore the effects of LOA on performance, situation awareness and workload under normal and failure conditions. Intermediate LOAs were found to significantly enhance SA and performance as compared to full automation or purely manual performance. Factors that determine when automation may be advantageous and when it may be detrimental are revealed through this systsematic exploration of design options for combining humans and automated systems.
The Combined Effect of Level of Automation and Adaptive Automation on Human Performance with Complex, Dynamic Control Systems
Authors: Kaber David B. , Endsley Mica R.
Published: July 2017

Human out-of-the-loop (OOTL) performance problems in overseeing automated systems have motivated an interest in the use of intermediate levels of automation and adaptive automation (AA) as methods for improving the efficiency of operators when working with systems. In this paper, we discuss the current state of research into level of automation (LOA) and AA in complex, dynamic control systems. Different levels of automation and taxonomies of LOA, as well as strategies to AA, are identified. Empirical studies independently demonstrating the effectiveness of LOA and AA for combating negative consequences of OOTL performance and improving human functioning are reviewed. On the basis of these studies, the need to assess the combined effectiveness of LOA and AA in a dynamic control task is established. An experiment is presented which addresses this need. Thirty university students performed the control task and a secondary monitoring task with various levels of automation (varying degrees of computer assistance) and AA (varying durations of assistance) being applied to the former. Testing involved five levels of automation allocated over three different cycle times. Results suggest that LOA and AA are not additive in their effect on automated system functioning, however, each affects performance in very different ways. Level of automation was found to have a significant effect on functioning with the dynamic control task, while AA was found to significantly affect performance on the secondary monitoring task indicating an impact of operator workload. The results of this study are directly applicable to automated system design decisions regarding which system functions should be performed by a human operator or computer controller and for how long performance should occur.
A History of Cognitive Engineering Research at Risø (1962–1979)
Authors: Vicente Kim J.
Published: July 2017

Following the theme for this year's conference, this paper contributes to ongoing discussions defining the future of cognitive engineering research by examining a part of its past. The history of one particular line of research, that of the Electronics Department at Risø National Laboratory, is reviewed. A number of important studies, conducted between 1962 and 1979, are briefly described. Among these are operational experience acquired from the introduction of a prototype digital console in a nuclear research reactor, two field studies of professional operators conducting representative tasks in representative settings (electronic trouble-shooting and conventional power plant control), and analyses of over 645 human error reports in the nuclear and aviation industries. Some of the themes characterizing the Risø research program in cognitive engineering are briefly summarized. These themes help define what cognitive engineering is, and what it might be concerned with in the future.
Operator Mental Models in Contemporary Manufacturing: A Study of Electrodischarge Machining Control
Authors: Batra Sanjay , Bishu Ram R.
Published: July 2017

This research investigates the operator mental models during the control electrodischarge machining (EDM) and compares the results to tradition lathe control. The study required nine experienced tool makers to verbalize or “think aloud” as they created a mold cavity using an EDM. The results of this research showed that operators did transfer mental models from traditional manufacturing experience, but needed to develop significant knowledge specific to EDM. They also experienced difficulty visualizing and establishing cause-and-effect relationships between EDM process parameters. Operators exhibited aspects of discrete and continuous control behavior.
New and Envisioned Communication Technologies: How Well can They Support Future Air Traffic Management Operations?
Authors: Sarter Nadine B. , Woods David D.
Published: July 2017

In the future air traffic management (ATM) system, flight crews will most likely have the option to dynamically adjust their flight path without prior approval from the ground. As a result, knowledge of intent may no longer be shared by pilots and controllers, and the potential for unforeseen conflicts as well as the need for immediate yet coordinated interventions can be expected to increase. To support such a short-term reactive approach to traffic management and separation, highly effective means of communication will be required that allow for a rapid creation and update of shared frames of reference. It is not clear that recently developed and envisioned communication media and technologies are designed with these goals in mind. A recent line of research explored the ability of two communication systems - DataLink and the Voice Control and Switching System (VSCS)—to handle communication not only in the current air traffic control system but to also support the highly flexible operations and new coordination and knowledge demands that are likely going to be part of the future ATM system. System reviews, conceptual simulations, and a pilot survey served to gather information on current and potential future experiences with these systems. The results of our research suggest that neither system is tailored to future ATM operations, and that they create new challenges even in the context of the current system.
Dispositional Self-Confidence in Judgment and Framing Bias Susceptibility in a Dynamic Decision Making Environment
Authors: Nygren Thomas E. , Ransom-Flint Terry
Published: July 2017

Decision-makers demonstrate framing bias when their decision making behavior is a function of the contextual presentation or framing (positive or negative) of the decision problem. Framing effects in simple, static situations (e.g., gambling) have been well documented, but past research on framing has typically ignored both dynamic environments and the effects of predispositional variables like risk-taking tendency and confidence in judgment. We examined the impact of these influences by exposing participants who measured either very high or low in decision making self-confidence to a high workload environment with either an “opportunity for gain” or a “threat of loss” decision frame condition. Participants performed a multi-task, computer-generated flight simulation program (the MAT) for 30 minutes. Results indicated that participants' actual performance on the MAT subtasks could be affected by the framing manipulation, and also that their decision strategies to optimize task performance were influenced by both by the framing manipulation and their self-confidence level.
The Effect of Experience Background on Remote Diagnosis
Authors: Xiao Yan , Mackenzie Colin F. , Spencer Richard L.
Published: July 2017

Telecommunication systems have enabled experts to offer consultation to spatially distanced locations. To understand this mode of distributed decision making, a series of experiments were conducted to contrast how experts with different experience background (nurses, surgeons, and anesthesiologists) extract information from audio-video sources. These experiments were designed to simulate remote diagnosis tasks in which experts provide consultation through video linkage. Although all were experienced with the domain and given the same stimulus materials, these three groups of experts differed in their abilities to detect critical cues and offer diagnostic suggestions. It appears that experts were bound by their own regular roles in a resuscitation team. The findings suggest that to provide consultation of dynamic, multidisciplinary team oriented activities, an assembly of teleconsultants and/or special training is needed to provide effective consultation.
Using Temporal Information in Time-Constrained Tasks
Authors: Prabhu Prasad , Drury Colin , Sharit Joseph
Published: July 2017

Studies on time constraints have not bridged the gap between the experience of time and task performance. This paper presents the hypothesis that, under temporal constraints, time becomes a limited resource, and the utilization of this resource becomes one of the main goals of task performance. Thus, time experience in terms of the use of temporal information is predicted to play a critical role in defining task performance. A framework is presented to explain how time information is used under temporal constraints. Further, the cognitive processes underlying time use are described as a process model. The framework and the process model together describe the phenomenon of the use of time information under time constraints. The method used to validate this framework is briefly described and a set of issues that arise out of the proposed framework is also presented.
Visualizing and Exploring Highly Processed Information Spaces in Tactical Decision Making
Authors: Coury Bruce G. , Donnald Creighton R. , Dykton Michael D. , Piatko Christine D.
Published: July 2017

Tactical decision makers rely on highly processed information to make decisions and solve problems. Such highly processed information spaces place unique demands on visualization and information management technologies. The purpose of this paper is to describe our use of a visualization tool, called the Reasoning Systems and Information Space (RSIS) Navigator, which is being used to represent the information associated with a tactical scene for Navy command decision makers. The paper begins with a discussion of the rationale for our approach, shows how a cognitive metaphor is being used to construct visualizations, and concludes with a discussion of relevant research and development issues, and future work.
Dynamic Hypertext Benefits Novices in Question Answering
Authors: Tam Jim C. , Bodner Richard C. , Chignell Mark H.
Published: July 2017

This paper reports on an experimental comparison of static and dynamic hypertext. The static hypertext consisted of an online Bible with links defined by Thompson's Bible Chain References. The dynamic hypertext used the same content, but links were created dynamically by a search algorithm. In terms of task time and accuracy, overall performance was better in the dynamic hypertext condition. In addition, novices seemed to benefit more from the dynamic hypertext than did Bible experts. These results demonstrate that dynamic hypertext, using a querying approach, may sometimes be superior to static hypertext for some tasks. Thus dynamic hypertext, which requires no authoring effort, is an attractive alternative to the labor-intensive static hypertext that has been prevalent in the past.
Designing Touch Screen Numeric Keypads: Effects of Finger Size, Key Size, and Key Spacing
Authors: Scott Brenda , Conzola Vincent
Published: July 2017

Designing numeric keypads for point-of-sale devices to optimize keying speed and accuracy while efficiently utilizing touch screen real estate is a challenge. Existing design guidelines for touch screens are applicable to only specific classes of devices and fail to consider user variables such as finger size. The present study investigated keying speed and error rates for various keypad configurations in a simulated retail keying task. Finger sizes were taken into account. Results support the use of compressed (2 mm or less) interkey spacing in keypad designs. No significant effects of key size were found. Gender differences in keying speed and accuracy were explained by finger size differences between males and females. Implications for the design of touch screen user interfaces in point-of-sale applications are discussed.
An Investigation of Dwell Time in Cursor Positioning Movements
Authors: Bohan Michael , Stokes Alan F. , Humphrey Darryl G.
Published: July 2017

Recently, researchers have emphasized the need to examine the separate phases of movements using electromechanical pointing devices in human-computer interaction. It has been shown that up to 50% of total time to select a target is spent in the dwell phase (interval of time between the termination of overt movement and target designation via button press, etc.). The present study tested the visual feedback processing hypothesis as an explanation for the functional significance of dwell time in cursor-positioning movements. Results indicate that the duration of dwell time could not be fully accounted for by changes in visual processing demands. Instead, it appears that a critical determinant of dwell time duration is the implementation of different cognitive strategies regarding the stage in the movement at which certain parameters (e.g. target width and distance) are accounted for.
A Context-Based Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of a Computer-Supported Product Development System
Authors: D'Souza Melroy E. , Greenstein Joel S.
Published: July 2017

This paper deals with the design and development of a computer-supported collaborative work (CSCW) system to support product development, and its evaluation using a quasi-experimental approach in an industrial environment. The evaluation compared the performance of eight different subgroups using the CSCW system with their performance using the existing product development system. Task completion time, non-value added (NVA) time, and certain subjective measures were recorded for each of the two systems tested. Despite their minimal experience with the CSCW system, the subgroups took less time to perform five of the eight tasks with the CSCW system than with the existing system. These time savings were primarily a consequence of a substantial reduction in NVA activities. The mean percentage of total task time devoted to NVA activities dropped from 44% with the existing system to 6% with the CSCW system. Users also rated the CSCW system more favorably than the existing system in terms of the subjective measures.
Usability Evaluation of a Commercial Voice Activated Dialing System Using a Driving Simulator
Authors: Laurie Nancy E. , Kulatilaka Ishani , Arent Doug , Andres Robert O. , Fisher Donald L.
Published: July 2017

Commercially available voice-activated dialing systems (VADS) are promoted as providing users with a safer car phone method, hands-free dialing. Despite the safety benefits, errors (such as call flow and user interface design issues) can cause users to reject the technology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the call flow structures of a commercially available voice activated dialing system under simulated driving conditions and provide recommendations for its improvement. Results demonstrated that users were most frustrated with voice recognition errors. Additionally, we found that menu navigation was intuitive for the most part but that more practice in the tutorial could be used as a stopgap measure to help solidify the voice directory concept. The HELP call flow presented the majority of problems to users due to its cumbersome design. Finally, the user interface design could be improved by following the principles of conversational speech especially with the call by NAME option and avoiding repetitive prompts which contribute no additional information to the user.
High Involvement Ergonomics and Total Quality Management: A Comparison and Evaluation
Authors: Brown Ogden
Published: July 2017

Two different approaches to work systems and organizational design are presented: high involvement ergonomics and total quality management. Both espouse worker involvement and organizational change. Similarities and differences between these programs are discussed, an evaluation is made of both approaches, and the conclusion is reached that both may lead to improved organizational performance when work systems and organizations are designed which integrate appropriate features from both approaches.
Span of Command and Control in US Army Organizations
Authors: Christ Richard E.
Published: July 2017

An important aspect of designing any organization is the concept of span of command and control (SOCC). No where is this situation clearer than in military organizations. This paper describes research designed to examine the relationship between factors that have been identified as affecting the effectiveness of SOCC and the difficulty of command and control in Army organizations. The project team interviewed 11 Army General officers regarding issues involving SOCC during operations that occurred in unconventional environments and 44 officers from Captain to Lieutenant General regarding war fighting operations. The interviews were structured around seven factors: Task Characteristics, Organizational Structure, Complexity of the Environment, History or Unit Contiguity, Technological Innovation, Individual Differences, and External Organizations. The data collected consisted of the comments made during the interviews, the results of a content analysis of those comments, and, for war fighting operations only, ratings on the impact of each factor on the difficulty of command and control. Both sets of data were examined as a function of the respondent's position in the organizational hierarchy and the type of unit to which the respondent was assigned. The results show an interacting effect of SOCC factor, echelon, and type of unit on the difficulty of command and control. A report, in preparation, will summaries these results and present conclusions and recommendations for organizing Army units based on the results.
Psychologically Based Productivity Improvement Programs: What Works and What Doesn't?
Authors: VonBorkenhagen Hope , Lengnick-Hall Mark L.
Published: July 2017

A meta-analysis of the effects of II types of psychologically based organizational interventions on worker productivity showed that such programs, on average, raised worker productivity by nearly one-half standard deviation. This study reviewed research reported between 1982 and 1996 and extends a previous study by Guzzo, Jette and Katzell (1985) which reviewed research reported between 1971 and 1981. While the same overall effect size for productivity improvement programs was discovered, differences were found between the two studies on the effectiveness of specific interventions.
Participation Patterns and Impression Formation in Three Communications Media
Authors: Price Jana M. , Holzworth R. James
Published: July 2017

As the use of computer-mediated communications (CMC) in organizations continues to grow, questions arise about how communication behaviors are affected by media type. Several studies have noted that participation is more balanced in CMC than in face-to-face settings. This equalization phenomenon is said to occur due to a reduction in social status cues (e.g. style of dress) in the CMC environment. In the present study, 130 mock employment interviews in three communications media (CMC, telephone, and face-to-face) were compared. Participation levels of speakers were observed, as well as the impressions formed by interviewers of applicants. A significant communications medium effect for the percentage of words used by the interviewer provided support for the equalization phenomenon. No significant results were detected for impression formation in the three media.
An Examination of Employee Participation during New Technology Implementation
Authors: Karsh Ben-Tzion
Published: July 2017

The purpose of this study was to examine how end user perceptions of (1) their inputs into the implementation of a new technology, (2) their inputs into the design of a new technology, and (3) the information received about a new technology affected their perceptions of the technology. Fifteen end users involved with or affected by the introduction of a new document imaging system served as subjects. A survey questionnaire was used to collect all necessary data. Participation in the implementation of the system was related to positive perceptions of system characteristics and new technology effects on end user jobs. Participation in the implementation was also related to satisfaction with the new technology. Implications for organizations planning on implementing new technologies are discussed.
Relationship between Sociotechnical Joint Optimization and Perceived Department Performance in Manufacturing Organizations
Authors: Grenville Delia , Kleiner Brian M.
Published: July 2017

Over the last decade, organizational change has promoted flatter management structures. Organizations typically have less middle management through the integration of those tasks into upper management or lower management responsibilities. A sociotechnical systems framework was used to examine the impact of recent organizational design changes on managerial time allotment. Ninety-one transformation and downstream first-level managers participated in a research study examining time allotment to STS subsystems, level of joint optimization, value of time use, and performance in their departments. The study showed a significant relationship between the perceived level of joint optimization and perceived department performance.
The Effects of Observational Learning and Practice Schedule on the Acquisition of a Complex Skill
Authors: Goettl Barry P. , Connolly-Gomez Cathy
Published: July 2017

The goal of the present study was to explore the question of whether observational learning provides additional benefits over and above those gained by spacing. Using a desktop flight simulator task, we compared five groups. Massed-perform-observe (MPO) participants performed a block of massed trials while massed-observe-perform (MOP) participants watched. After one hour these two groups switched roles. Spaced-observe (SO) participants were paired amongst themselves and alternated between the role of observer and performer every two trials. These three groups were compared to massed- and spaced-control conditions. Results indicated that participants receiving massed observation, but not spaced observation, showed better performance compared to the control conditions. The results also indicated that participants in the MPO condition showed better performance than those in the massed-control condition. These findings have implications for the design of training protocols, and suggest that observational learning may benefit both the observer and the performer.
Effects of Mission Preparation on Crew Combat Mission Training Performance
Authors: Spiker V. Alan , Nullmeyer Robert T. , Tourville Steven J. , Silverman Denise R.
Published: July 2017

Although military doctrine assumes that thorough mission preparation is a prerequisite for mission success, empirical data are lacking. The present study investigated the relationship between mission preparation and mission performance during combat mission training of 11 MC-130P (Combat Shadow) aircrews from USAF Special Operations Forces squadrons. Two observers independently rated crew coordination processes and mission performance based on extensive observations taken both during a planning period and while the crews executed a simulated mission. Statistically, a reliable, strong relationship between preparation and performance was noted, with correlations ranging from .60 to .78. Exceptional preparation behaviors include utilizing personnel effectively, establishing a firm timeline, aggressively questioning a plan's assumptions, and testing a plan's logic against possible contingencies. The paper concludes with a discussion of the characteristics of effective mission preparation and implications of the research for combat mission training.
Emphasis Change and Verbal Elaboration in Skill Acquisition: A Tale of Two Components
Authors: Goettl Barry P. , Snooks Shirley F. , Day Eric , Shebilske Wayne L.
Published: July 2017

The goal of this study was to examine the relationship between multiple emphasis on components (MEC) and verbal elaboration in the acquisition of a complex skill. Participants were trained using either MEC or emphasis on total score (TOT), with or without verbal elaboration between training modules. Results indicated low-aptitude learners performed better when trained with the MEC protocol than with the TOT protocol, but high-aptitude learners benefited from verbal elaborations. Analysis of the component scores indicated that the combined effects of verbal elaboration and MEC disrupted components representing implicit processing, and enhanced components representing explicit processes. These findings are consistent with other research on verbal elaboration and suggest that care must be taken when combining verbal elaboration with emphasis change instructions. More importantly, these results suggest ways to effectively combine the two protocols.
Challenges to Assessing Distributed Interactive Simulation for Training
Authors: Mirabella Angelo , Moses Franklin L.
Published: July 2017

The advent of Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) brings with it new issues and resulting challenges for evaluating the training experience from the user's perspective, particularly during formative development. At least some of the traditional principles and rules which have held for individual and collective training may not apply. This paper will explore some of the conditions which pose special challenges to evaluation of DIS training. Underlying these conditions is the mushrooming of complexity as training moves from single site to multi-site, multi-service DIS. One issue is discrepant perceptions of training value across sites and Services. Another is the need to tailor measurement instruments to accommodate site-specific characteristics. The paper will propose some ways to address these issues, based on results of an assessment of user reactions to the Multi-Service Distributed Training Testbed (MDT2) program of research.
Assessing Knowledge Structures: Don't Always Call an Expert
Authors: Rowe Anna L. , Meyer Thomas N. , Miller Todd M. , Steuck Kurt
Published: July 2017

Measures of knowledge structures can be used to access and evaluate conceptual understanding for assessment and training purposes. Typically, the quality of an individual's knowledge structure is determined by comparing it to a standard knowledge structure that is an aggregate of the structures of several experts. Recent research suggests that this approach may not be appropriate for all domains. This study investigated different approaches for forming a standard knowledge structure for two knowledge structure measures: relatedness ratings and a diagramming task. Three approaches to developing knowledge standards were compared: a standard derived from expert data, a standard based on high-performing students, and a rational standard developed through an analysis of instructional materials. The knowledge standards were compared in their ability to predict performance on a multiple-choice test. The results showed that comparison of students' structures with a standard constructed by aggregating high-performing student structures produced scores that were independently predictive of performance for both measures, whereas the expert standard resulted in independently predictive knowledge scores for only the diagramming task. For both measures, the high-performer standard and the aggregate expert standard were superior to the rational standard. These results offer support for using standards other than the expert-consensus standard typically used when assessing the quality of knowledge structures.
Influence of Head Motion on the Judged Distance of Monocularly Presented Virtual Objects
Authors: Ellis Stephen R. , Menges Brian M. , Jacoby Richard H. , Adelstein Bernard D. , McCandless Jeffrey W.
Published: July 2017

Human subjects localized a monocularly viewed, space-stabilized virtual object presented on a head-mounted, see-through display. They either kept their head stationary or rocked it laterally to produce motion parallax. Their distance estimates had less variability in a head moving condition than in a head stationary condition, but in general were much less precise and much less accurate than comparable stereo-based localizations.
Field of View Effects on a Direct Manipulation Task in a Virtual Environment
Authors: Eggleston Robert G. , Janson William P. , Aldrich Kenneth A.
Published: July 2017

It is important for designers of virtual reality (VR) systems to understand how properties of the system interact with human processes to impact overall system performance. The following experiments investigated the field-of-view (FOV) characteristics of a VR system and how they affected aimed movement behavior across a natural and virtual environment. Utilizing three levels of FOV, and two levels of task difficulty, subjects performed a reciprocal tapping task. FOV was found to differentially affect movement time performance between the two environments for the moderate level of task difficulty, but not for the more highly difficult level. This significant effect for longer movement times in the virtual environment was traced to the smallest FOV, involving those targets appearing outside the instantaneous FOV. Movement times in the virtual environment were also uncharacteristically nonlinear across target configurations within the same level of difficulty. These findings, as well as other movement time differences between environments, are discussed in terms of image resolution, stereopsis and helmet weight considerations.
Fitts and VR: Evaluating Display and Input Devices with Fitts' Law
Authors: McGee Mike , Amento Brian , Brooks Patrick , Harley Hope
Published: July 2017

This paper describes an experiment using Fitts' Law to evaluate performance in target acquisition tasks comparing a typical virtual reality (VR) display and input device with a typical computer workstation display and input device. The objective was to determine the effects of using VR hardware on target acquisition performance and validate Fitts' Law in a VR setting. Participants performed 2D target acquisition tasks varying width of target, distance of target, and angle of target from starting point. Factors that showed significantly different acquisition times included input device, distance from target, width of target, and angle of target from starting point. Display type did not show significance. In addition, acquisition times significantly increased throughout the experiment, indicating fatigue. Extending the use of Fitts' Law as an evaluation tool for VR systems is discussed.
Measuring Attentional Demand in a Virtual Environments Driving Simulator
Authors: Mourant Ronald R. , Ge Zhuoyun
Published: July 2017

The measurement of drivers' attentional demand is of importance to highway designers as well as to human factors engineers concerned with in-vehicle navigational displays and their user interface. When attentional demand is great, older drivers in particular are subjected to information overload which may adversely affect their driving performance. In 1967, Senders, et. al. measured drivers' attentional demand using a visual occlusion device. They found that attentional demand increased with vehicle velocity, but their study was limited to off-road driving due to safety considerations. The present study focused on the establishment of baseline quantitative measures of attentional demand as a function of vehicle velocity, road curvature, and amount of oncoming traffic. Eight experienced drivers drove a virtual environments driving simulator while controlling the visibility of the forward scene via a foot switch. They were instructed to stay in their lane and obey all traffic regulations, while trying to keep the forward scene visible as little as possible. Attentional demand was calculated as the percent of time drivers viewed the forward scene during a run. While driving at 100 kph the average attentional demand (86%) was significantly higher (p < .01) then when driving at 33 kph (77%). The finding that an increase in vehicle velocity of 67 kph resulted in only a 9% increase in attentional demand was somewhat surprising. As expected, the attentional demand of drivers on curves (85%) was significantly higher (p < .05) then when driving on a straight road (81%). The effect of traffic versus no traffic on curves was also statistically significant. The attentional demand on curves with moderate on-coming traffic was 88% versus 80% when there was no traffic. This study demonstrated the feasibility of using a virtual environments simulator to measure drivers' attentional demand. Future research will study attentional demand using novice and older drivers.
The Effects of Caffeine on Performance and Stress in an Abbreviated Vigilance Task
Authors: Temple Jon G. , Dember William N. , Warm Joel S. , Jones Keith S. , LaGrange Constance M.
Published: July 2017

Recently, Temple, Warm, Dember, LaGrange, & Matthews (1996) described a 12-min computerized vigilance task which duplicates the vigilance decrement and the workload (NASA-TLX) and stress characteristics (Dundee Stress State Questionnaire) of vigils lasting 30 min or more. The abbreviated task may be useful in situations wherein long-duration tasks are precluded, e.g., performance assessment batteries, neuropsychological testing, and brain imaging. The present experiment extended this line of investigation by demonstrating that performance on the abbreviated task is enhanced (signal detections were increased and the decrement attenuated) by caffeine — a drug which benefits long-duration vigilance tasks. The enhancement effect associated with caffeine was limited to performance, however, suggesting that the drug influences factors which control signal detection but not those which control task-induced stress.
Effects of Cueing and Knowledge of Results on Workload and Boredom in Sustained Attention
Authors: Hitchcock Edward M. , Dember William N. , Warm Joel S. , Moroney Brian W. , See Judi E.
Published: July 2017

Two accounts of the recently reported high workload associated with vigilance tasks (Warm, Dember, & Hancock, 1996) are the direct-cost and indirect-cost views. The former attributes this effect to the need for continuous observing in discriminating signals from noise; the latter attributes the effect to combating the boredom associated with vigilance tasks. These opposing views were tested by providing monitors with reliable cueing which rendered observing necessary only when low probability critical signals were imminent. On the basis of the direct-cost model, it was anticipated that cueing would lead to low workload but high boredom, since observers would have little to do during most of the vigil; the indirect-cost model would lead to a prediction of both high workload and high boredom. The results clearly supported the direct cost view that the workload of vigilance is task induced. Also as predicted from the direct cost account, cueing led to lower workload than did knowledge of results.
Designing for Multi-Tasking Environments: Multiple Monitors vs. Multiple Windows
Authors: St. John Mark , Harris Wayne C. , Osga Glenn
Published: July 2017

Complex semi-automated processes, from aircraft flight management to command and control, typically require a large number of displays. Multiple, overlapping windows provide one method of coping with multiple displays. Multiple monitors provide another method. With the advent of good flat panel displays for real monitors and with the advent of Head Mounted Display (HMD) technology for creating virtual monitors, multiple monitors become a promising possibility even in cramped environments like cockpits and shipboard control rooms. To determine the true value of multiple monitors (real or virtual) we must understand their capabilities and integration with human cognitive and perceptual abilities, then design for their ultimate use. In the first experiment, we found that accessing information distributed across an array of monitors was at least as effective as locating and managing windows on a single monitor. In the second experiment, we found that a task that requires only infrequent monitoring can be moved to a secondary, peripheral monitor without disrupting performance on that or any other concurrent task. In future experiments, we plan to compare these results to results from HMD-based systems.
Evaluation of CRT Flicker under Office Viewing Conditions
Authors: Sidebottom Shane D. , Beaton Robert J.
Published: July 2017

Flicker detection thresholds were assessed for 10 participants with CRT screens of varying luminance, size, viewing angle eccentricity, and ambient illumination. The test conditions were selected to span the range of typical office applications. Under the test conditions, CRT refresh rate was manipulated using a psychophysical method of limits procedure to estimate the 50% Critical Flicker Frequency (CFF) threshold. Results indicate that CFF increases with increasing display luminance, ambient illumination, and display size. CFF also increases with increasing eccentricity up to about 30 degrees of visual angle. These findings confirm and extend previous research and provide a coherent database for development of quantitative image quality models for use by display designers and for display ergonomics technical standards.
Multi-Channel Auditory Search: Toward Understanding Control Processes in Polychotic Auditory Listening
Authors: Lee Mark D.
Published: July 2017

Two experiments are presented which develop a framework for exploring auditory information processing. The framework is referred to as polychotic listening or auditory search, and it requires a listener to aurally scan multiple simultaneous auditory streams for the appearance of a target. The first experiment examined the participant's ability to aurally scan between two and six simultaneous auditory streams of letter and digit names for the name of a target letter. The main independent variable was auditory load, or the number of active audio streams. The primary dependent variable was accuracy. Accuracy and sensitivity measures showed that as load increased, performance decreased. The second study required participants to practice the same task for ten sessions (1,800 trials). Results indicated that even with extensive practice, performance was still affected by auditory load. The relation between the present results and similar results in the visual search literature are discussed.
Bias in Proportion Judgments with Pie Charts: The Cyclical Power Model
Authors: Hollands J. G. , Dyre Brian P.
Published: July 2017

Subjects were shown pie charts with tickmarks at two, three, four, or eight evenly-spaced locations. The tickmarks were located around the edge of the pie, on a line where the subject responded, or both. A cyclical power model based on Stevens' law was used to account for the observed bias patterns. The model proposes that subjects use reference points to constrain the range of values used in the judgment. When more than two reference points are used, the model predicts multiple cycles of bias. The results showed that increasing the number of reference points on the response line from two to four changed the number of bias cycles, while the estimated Stevens exponent remained approximately constant at 0.8. The model can be used as a tool to assess how graphs, dials, and meters are read.
Usability Testing for Telemedicine Systems: A Methodology and Case Study
Authors: Birkmire-Peters Deborah P. , Whitaker Leslie A. , Peters Leslie J.
Published: July 2017

This paper presents the conceptual framework and methodology that has been developed to perform usability evaluations of commercially available equipment for use in telemedicine applications. Specifically, the three components of the evaluation methodology, namely, technical acceptability, operational effectiveness, and clinical appropriateness, are described. This methodology was used to evaluate commercially available video-otoscope systems for use in a store-and-forward teleconsultation project.
Change in Driving Skills as a Function of Age
Authors: Fiorentino Dary
Published: July 2017

Epidemiological and laboratory data show that the capacity to meet the demands of driving vary as a function of age. The exact degree to which capacity diminishes because of changes in sensory, cognitive, or motor skills, however, is not known and can be expected to vary from person-to-person. This study attempted to develop a predictive model of driving skills as a function of age. Postulating that driving can be functionally divided into several different subtasks, it determined whether a general slowing factor for age can be applied to all subtasks or whether different subtasks are differentially affected by aging. Based on the results, it also attempted to quantify the slowing factor(s), define the relationship between these slowing factors in the predictive model, and compare the predictive ability of the various models with actual crash statistics.
The Role of Pictorials in Environmental Safety Signs
Authors: Young Stephen L.
Published: July 2017

The present study examined the role of pictorials in environmental safety signs. Thirty subjects created thirty signs on the computer with the aid of a technician. Subjects had different sign components available to them (e.g., signal words, verbal statements and pictorials). There were three different pictorial conditions in this study: none, generic (e.g., triangle with exclamation point), and specific (i.e., the pictorial's content was related to the hazard being described). Examination of the constructed signs suggests that the primary purpose of pictorials is to convey information and not simply to attract attention—specific pictorials were used most of the time that they were available, while generic pictorials were used very infrequently. Specific pictorials were generally used in a redundant manner—that is, they tended to be added to existing signs rather than being used to replace other, non-pictorial information. Finally, the use of specific pictorials affected the size of other, non-pictorial components. This study suggests that pictorials are an important component in environmental safety signs, but only to the extent that they serve some functional purpose related to the sign being constructed.
Comprehension of Aviation Safety Pictograms: Gender and Prior Safety Card Reading Influences
Authors: Silver N. Clayton , Perlotto Carla N.
Published: July 2017

The present study assessed the comprehensibility of aviation safety pictorials that compose specific pictograms. A total of 120 individuals were asked to provide detailed responses to each pictorial that comprised a pictogram. The seven categories of pictograms were: (a) take-off, landing, and surface movement; (b) oxygen; (c) in flight; (d) land evacuation; (e) emergency/brace position and floor lighting; (f) water evacuation; and (g) water evacuation — on overwater aircraft. Results indicated that 21 of the 40 pictorials presented were within the acceptable range of the ISO 67% comprehension criterion, whereas only 11 of the 40 pictorials were within the ANSI 85% comprehension criterion. Comprehension of the pictorials comprising the oxygen pictogram was the highest among the seven categories of pictograms tested. However, the pictorials that connoted “move away from the aircraft”, which were found in the land evacuation pictograms, were the least comprehended. Implications for aviation safety card design are discussed.
The Effects of a Raised Label Border on Warning Effectiveness Measures
Authors: Kalsher Michael J. , Cote Michael B. , Champagne Matthew V. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: July 2017

Research has examined various factors that influence warning effectiveness. Virtually no research, however, has explored the possibility of improving warnings by incorporating hepatic (touch) cues. The present study assessed the impact of adding a raised border surrounding the warning message on a common consumer product (glue). The raised border warning was compared to the same warning without a raised border and a no-warning control in the context of actual product use (constructing a model airplane). Results indicated that the raised border significantly increased the noticeability, comprehension, and recall of the warning label compared to a no-warning control. There was a trend for compliance to be highest for the raised border condition, but it was not statistically significant. Implications for improving warning design are discussed.