bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Brine Disposal Options for Small Systems in California's Central Valley
Authors: Jensen Vivian B. , Darby Jeannie L.
Published: December 2015

Disposal of waste residuals from drinking water treatment processes can be costly, particularly for small inland communities. Brine waste management options for nitrate‐impacted small systems in the Central Valley of California were examined with regard to feasibility, sustainability, and affordability. Onsite evaporation, landfill evaporation, landfill solidification, and coastal wastewater treatment plant disposal were considered for a base‐case scenario—i.e., a small Visalia, Calif., system using anion exchange with a 1% waste rate. Estimated minimum disposal costs for the base case ranged from $0.60 to $4.44/1,000 gal of treated water across small system sizes, approaching the average total cost of tap water in the United States ($4.58/1,000 gal). Onsite evaporation and coastal disposal were identified as the least costly options currently available. Brine waste minimization can decrease disposal costs up to 95%. Given the high disposal costs for individual small systems in the region, development of sustainable and affordable regional solutions is warranted.
Cost Recovery and Affordability in Small Drinking Water Treatment Plants in Alberta, Canada
Authors: Janzen Aaron , Achari Gopal , Dore Mohammed H.I. , Langford Cooper H.
Published: December 2015

This paper investigates the cost of providing drinking water to municipalities with populations less than 1,000 in Alberta, Canada, and presents the current unit costs, cost recovery ratios, and affordability for a sample of 25 communities. Unit costs are found to vary considerably with the volume of treated water and the type of source water. Of the 25 communities investigated, only one community recovers the full cost of treating drinking water, while two of the communities recover their portion of the capital costs (i.e., accepting grants as a gift) as well as the marginal costs. Seven of the communities recover the marginal cost of treating drinking water. The authors conclude that water rates designed to cover the marginal cost are possible for small communities if 2% of the median household income is considered an affordable proportion of income to be dedicated to drinking water.
Chromium Removal From Strong Base Anion Exchange Waste Brines
Authors: Li Xue , Green Peter G. , Seidel Chad , Gorman Craig , Darby Jeannie L.
Published: December 2015

Regeneration of strong base anion (SBA) exchange resin produces concentrated and hazardous brine. In this research, one alternative regenerant and two brine treatment options were investigated to reduce the hazardous characteristics of the brine. These options included replacing sodium chloride with sodium bicarbonate as the regenerant, using ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) to reduce/coagulate hexavalent chromium (CrVI) in the brine, and applying weak base anion (WBA) exchange resin and chemical reductive media (CRM) to adsorb/reduce CrVI. It was found that bicarbonate was as effective as chloride in regenerating chromium‐saturated resins, and the affinity of the bicarbonate‐form resin for chromium was similar to that of the chloride‐form resin. It was observed that FeSO4 applied at doses close to the stoichiometric ratio achieved almost complete removal of total chromium from the SBA brine. In column tests, two CRM exhibited more than 20 times greater removal capacity for total chromium than did the WBA exchange resins.
Enhancement of UV/H2O2 Efficacy Using Strong Base Anion Exchange Resins
Authors: Bazri Mohammad Mahdi , Sarathy Siva , Mohseni Madjid
Published: December 2015

Four surface drinking water sources were selected to investigate the impact of strong base anion (SBA) exchange resins—as a pretreatment to ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2)—on dissolved organic carbon (DOC), nitrate, UV transmittance, and hydroxyl radical (·OH) scavenging of the water samples. Results demonstrated good efficiency of SBA exchange resins at increasing UV transmittance (up to 75%) and reducing DOC (up to 80%), nitrate (up to 75%), and sulfate (up to 75%) within the ion exchange (IX) conditions applied. Additionally, data confirmed the positive effect of IX treatment at reducing the ·OH scavenging characteristics of the water, especially for high‐DOC/low‐transmittance water sources. Electrical energy per order for removing a probe compound (4‐chlorobenzoic acid) was reduced 20 to 40%, indicating improvement in the efficacy of UV/H2O2 treatment. Study findings demonstrated the potential of using the IX process to improve the quality of water undergoing UV/H2O2 treatment and its subsequent benefits on UV/H2O2 efficacy and electrical energy consumption.
Practical Problems: Using Literature to Teach Statistics
Authors: Hourigan Mairéad , Leavy Aisling
Published: December 2015

A meaningful driving question motivates kindergartners to engage in all five stages of the PPDAC data cycle.
Seeing the Implications of Zero Again
Authors: Ponce Gregorio A.
Published: December 2015

Conversations with teacher candidates help them remember the importance of unitizing when teaching children about place value.
Om Fortuna - metafysikk i pedagogikken?
Authors: Æsøy Knut Ove
Published: December 2015

This essay is an attempt to participate in a discussion about metaphysics today. I claim that metaphysic now seems silenced or taken for granted. Machiavelli’s idea of fortuna or fate (Norwegian: lagnad) represents question and perception that cannot be recognized empirically. My aim is to place Machiavelli into an ongoing discussion about the distinction between nature and culture and perception of reality (Norwegian: røyndom) as organic or harmonic. As part of this, I will discuss fortuna’s place in modern research based teacher education, which places our fate in the hand of science, the institutionalization of learning and the lack of virtue (Norwegian: dygd). In conclusion, I wish to express some critical remarks on this development, not taking into account the metaphysical speculation.
Positioning Theory som pædagogisk teori – Til et forsvar for en svag pædagogik
Authors: Korsgaard Morten Timmermann , Mortensen Stig Skov
Published: December 2015

The article addresses the emerging framework of ‘positioning theory’, which has become inﬂuential in educational theory. We will present the central concepts and ideas of ‘positioning theory’ and subsequently how they are being used to contribute to educational theory. We will focus on an article by Svend Brinkmann where he uses ‘positioning theory’ as the foundation for moral education. Seemingly, Brinkmann uses ‘positioning theory’ rather uncritically in an attempt to ‘strengthen’ the educational process by introducing ﬁxed categorisations and concepts to it. Contrary to this approach, we will use the educational theories of Knud Grue-Sørensen and Gert Biesta to emphasise how we instead should recognise what is here deﬁ ned as the ‘weakness’ of educational theory, and how we have to consider both the adaptive element of education as well as the emancipatory element of it.
Æstetiske forudsætninger for Oplysningen hos Kant
Authors: Jansen Kasper Hertz
Published: December 2015

Immanuel Kant's ‘Critique of Judgment’ is often read either in terms of art appreciation or teleology. In this paper however, the object is to examine the ‘Critique of Judgment’, especially the concepts of the Beautiful and the Sublime, in relation to the Kantian version of the Enlightenment. The main theses in the paper are as following: That Beauty can provide us with the sensuous experience of the possibility of the moral law and that the Sublime can provide us with the sensuous experience of the possibility that we as rational beings can effectuate the actual existence of the moral law.
Accompagner des personnes âgées en couple : un angle mort du travail social
Authors: Dallera Corinne , Palazzo-Crettol Clothilde , Anchisi Annick
Published: December 2015

Actuellement, le nombre de personnes âgées vivant en couple et susceptibles de s’adresser à un service social augmente. Basé sur l’analyse qualitative de 13 entretiens avec des assistants et assistantes sociales accompagnant des personnes âgées et travaillant dans la partie francophone du Valais (un canton de la Suisse), cet article vise à explorer les questions suivantes : d’une part, comment la conjugalité est-elle prise en compte dans le cadre de l’accompagnement social de personnes âgées ? D’autre part, comment les inégalités de genre et les situations de couples conflictuelles sont-elles gérées ? Enfin, comment les prises de décision et les pratiques professionnelles face à ces situations sont-elles justifiées ?
Constitutionalizing the Senate: A Modest Democratic Proposal
Authors: Colón-Ríos Joel I. , Hutchinson Allan C.
Published: December 2015

The Senate Reference did not provide an ideal situation for clarifying the nature and limits of the power of constitutional reform in Canada. The facts gave the Court no choice but to recognize the fundamental role that the Senate plays in the Canadian constitutional order, and therefore to place some of its main features outside the scope of section 44 of the Constitution Act, 1982, even if they ran contrary to basic democratic values. For example, in order to explain that the implementation of consultative elections would alter the constitution’s basic structure, the Court was forced to construe in a negative light the prospect of a democratically legitimate Senate. In this paper, rather than attack or defend bicameralism, we will argue in favour of attributing a democratically reconstituted Senate with the primary responsibility of reviewing the constitutionality of legislation (as opposed to acting as a chamber of “sober second thought” with respect to the policy decisions of the House of Commons). Such an approach, we suggest, would augment the overall democratic legitimacy of the constitutional order.
Reducing mortality in HIV‐infected infants and achieving the 90–90–90 target through innovative diagnosis approaches
Authors: Essajee Shaffiq , Vojnov Lara , Penazzato Martina , Jani Ilesh , Siberry George K , Fiscus Susan A , Markby Jessica
Published: December 2015

Introduction

Despite significant gains in access to early infant diagnosis (EID) over the past decade, most HIV‐exposed infants still do not get tested for HIV in the first two months of life. For those who are tested, the long turnaround time between when the sample is drawn and when the results are returned leads to a high rate of loss to follow‐up, which in turn means that few infected infants start antiretroviral treatment. Consequently, there continues to be high mortality from perinatally acquired HIV, and the ambitious goals of 90% of infected children identified, 90% of identified children treated and 90% of treated children with sustained virologic suppression by 2020 seem far beyond our reach. The objective of this commentary is to review recent advances in the field of HIV diagnosis in infants and describe how these advances may overcome long‐standing barriers to access to testing and treatment.

Discussion

Several innovative approaches to EID have recently been described. These include point‐of‐care testing, use of SMS printers to connect the central laboratory and the health facility through a mobile phone network, expanding paediatric testing to other entry points where children access the health system and testing HIV‐exposed infants at birth as a rapid way to identify in utero infection. Each of these interventions is discussed here, together with the opportunities and challenges associated with scale‐up. Point‐of‐care testing has the potential to provide immediate results but is less cost‐effective in settings where test volumes are low. Virological testing at birth has been piloted in some countries to identify those infants who need urgent treatment, but a negative test at birth does not obviate the need for additional testing at six weeks. Routine testing of infants in child health settings is a useful strategy to identify exposed and infected children whose mothers were not enrolled in programmes for the prevention of mother‐to‐child transmission. Facility‐based SMS printers speed up the return of laboratory results and may be of value for other testing services apart from HIV infant diagnosis.

Conclusions

New tools and strategies for HIV infant diagnosis could have a significant positive impact on the identification and retention of HIV‐infected infants. In order to be most effective, national programmes should carefully consider which ideas to implement and how best to integrate novel strategies into existing systems. There is no single solution that will work everywhere. Rather, a number of approaches need to be considered and should be linked in order to achieve the greatest impact on the continuum of care from testing to treatment.
Desenvolvimento Regional no Vale do Taquari-RS: uma discussão de prioridades estratégicas
Authors: Agostini Cíntia
Published: December 2015

O presente artigo discute as prioridades estratégicas do Vale do Taquari-RS e sua relação com o movimento de globalização. Parte do princípio de que há uma relação contraditória entre a construção das regiões e a ação hegemônica, mas avalia que é nos territórios que todos os atores atuam, sejam eles pertencentes à lógica global ou aqueles considerados contra hegemônicos. Nestas condições, conceber o desenvolvimento é considerar o regional e o global em interação dialética, levando em conta o passado e construindo as perspectivas de cada região. Metodologicamente, o artigo resulta de uma pesquisa descritiva qualitativa, com levantamento de dados bibliográficos e documentais. Através da análise de conteúdo avaliam-se diversas prioridades apontadas pelos atores regionais e se infere sobre sua relação com a lógica mundial. O artigo encerra destacando que a região, sob a perspectiva proposta, não demonstra ser a mais atrelada à lógica global; mas, o olhar das particularidades regionais ainda se resume aos aspectos de qualidade de vida da população e não avança para outros, que são fundamentais na regionalização de um território.

Código JEL | O18; R11; R58.
Beer and Brewing
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: December 2015

Beer has been a companion of humankind since the development of settled agriculture some 8000 or more years ago; it is a mildly alcoholic beverage made by the fermentation of an aqueous extract of cereals (grains).

Beer‐making might have evolved from an effort by ancient householders to recover grain that was wetted in storage and had started to germinate, eg, by heating it to dryness: a process called malting. The ancients could then have macerated such grain with warm water and found that they could extract a sweetish and nutritious drink called wort and the process is called mashing. If left undrunk, such extract would have soon fermented from wild yeasts and bacteria, making a mildly alcoholic and refreshing drink, that is, beer.

This article is about the modern technology that has grown up around the materials and these three key processes of beer‐making: malting, mashing, and fermentation.
Anthropogenic aerosols and the distribution of past large‐scale precipitation change
Authors: Wang Chien
Published: December 2015

The climate response of precipitation to the effects of anthropogenic aerosols is a critical while not yet fully understood aspect in climate science. Results of selected models that participated the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 and the data from the Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project suggest that, throughout the tropics and also in the extratropical Northern Hemisphere, aerosols have largely dominated the distribution of precipitation changes in reference to the preindustrial era in the second half of the last century. Aerosol‐induced cooling has offset some of the warming caused by the greenhouse gases from the tropics to the Arctic and thus formed the gradients of surface temperature anomaly that enable the revealed precipitation change patterns to occur. Improved representation of aerosol‐cloud interaction has been demonstrated as the key factor for models to reproduce consistent distributions of past precipitation change with the reanalysis data.
Theory for the curvature dependence of delta front progradation
Authors: Ke Wun‐Tao , Capart Hervé
Published: December 2015

When Gilbert‐type deltas respond to uneven sediment supply or advance over irregular basin bathymetry, they develop curved, creased fronts prograding at speeds that vary with location along the shoreline. Relations governing the progradation rate, however, have so far been proposed only for simple special cases. In this paper, we exploit the special properties of solutions to the eikonal equation to derive a general progradation relation, applicable to delta fronts of finite angle of repose and arbitrary shoreline planform. In these circumstances, the theory explicitly relates the progradation rate to the local shoreline curvature. We illustrate the resulting morphodynamics with numerical and analytical solutions for a sinuous delta front. The proposed relation can be used to model deltaic evolution or deduce spanwise distributions of sediment supply rates from observations of foreset evolution.
Nonlinear local parallel acceleration of electrons through Landau trapping by oblique whistler mode waves in the outer radiation belt
Authors: Agapitov O. V. , Artemyev A. V. , Mourenas D. , Mozer F. S. , Krasnoselskikh V.
Published: December 2015

Simultaneous observations of electron velocity distributions and chorus waves by the Van Allen Probe B are analyzed to identify long‐lasting (more than 6 h) signatures of electron Landau resonant interactions with oblique chorus waves in the outer radiation belt. Such Landau resonant interactions result in the trapping of ∼1–10 keV electrons and their acceleration up to 100–300 keV. This kind of process becomes important for oblique whistler mode waves having a significant electric field component along the background magnetic field. In the inhomogeneous geomagnetic field, such resonant interactions then lead to the formation of a plateau in the parallel (with respect to the geomagnetic field) velocity distribution due to trapping of electrons into the wave effective potential. We demonstrate that the electron energy corresponding to the observed plateau remains in very good agreement with the energy required for Landau resonant interaction with the simultaneously measured oblique chorus waves over 6 h and a wide range of L shells (from 4 to 6) in the outer belt. The efficient parallel acceleration modifies electron pitch angle distributions at energies ∼50–200 keV, allowing us to distinguish the energized population. The observed energy range and the density of accelerated electrons are in reasonable agreement with test particle numerical simulations.
Compressibility of Mercury's dayside magnetosphere
Authors: Zhong J. , Wan W. X. , Wei Y. , Slavin J. A. , Raines J. M. , Rong Z. J. , Chai L. H. , Han X. H.
Published: December 2015

The Mercury is experiencing significant variations of solar wind forcing along its large eccentric orbit. With 12 Mercury years of data from Mercury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging, we demonstrate that Mercury's distance from the Sun has a great effect on the size of the dayside magnetosphere that is much larger than the temporal variations. The mean solar wind standoff distance was found to be about 0.27 Mercury radii (RM) closer to the Mercury at perihelion than at aphelion. At perihelion the subsolar magnetopause can be compressed below 1.2 RM of ~2.5% of the time. The relationship between the average magnetopause standoff distance and heliocentric distance suggests that on average the effects of the erosion process appears to counter balance those of induction in Mercury's interior at perihelion. However, at aphelion, where solar wind pressure is lower and Alfvénic Mach number is higher, the effects of induction appear dominant.
All‐sky imaging of transglobal thermospheric gravity waves generated by the March 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
Authors: Smith Steven M. , Martinis Carlos R. , Baumgardner Jeffrey , Mendillo Michael
Published: December 2015

We report on imaging measurements of thermospheric gravity wave signatures in 630 nm and 557.7 nm nightglow that suggest an association with the M = 9 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake on 11 March 2011. The propagating waves were recorded in all‐sky images at the El Leoncito Observatory, Argentina (31.8°S, 69.3°W), which is located 17,080 km from the earthquake epicenter, almost at the global antipodal point.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Authors: Manusov Valerie
Published: December 2015

The Facial Feedback hypothesis predicts, in a counterintuitive way, that our facial movements can affect our feelings. So, if our brows are furrowed, we may come to see something as negative (or at least more negative) as a direct result of changing our faces. This entry reviews some research testing this hypothesis as well as that of the Interpersonal Facial Feedback Hypothesis.
Group Conflict
Authors: Peterson Randall
Published: December 2015

The study of conflict in groups is well established. The classic perspective differentiates between task and relationship conflict. More recent work has identified a variety of other types of conflict, including process and status conflict. Emerging perspectives in group conflict include an emphasis on conflict asymmetry (i.e., differing perceptions of conflict in the same group) and conflict expression.
Compliance Gaining/Resisting Strategies and Principles
Authors: Wilson Steve R.
Published: December 2015

Compliance gaining refers to interactions in which an individual attempts to induce a second person to perform a behavior that the second person otherwise might not have performed. Such interactions occur frequently within a variety of personal and professional relationships including those involving spouses or romantic partners, parents/children, friends, work associates, teachers/students, and healthcare providers/patients. Early research focused on describing and predicting the strategies that individuals use when attempting to seek or resist another person's compliance. Contemporary research explores how individuals pursue specific influence goals while also managing relational and identity concerns made relevant by those goals.
Mediation
Authors: Burrell Nancy , Maier Melissa
Published: December 2015

This entry examines the process of mediation by defining it as a conflict management process, describing the utility of mediation, and discussing various mediation models used by practitioners. The assumptions about conflict held by third‐party interventionists influence how the process is enacted. The usefulness of mediation across contexts is explored. Research in mediation, theoretical perspectives, and international mediation illustrate a theory‐into‐practice framework. Because there are disputes that are never quite resolved, finding a sustainable approach to conflict is addressed.
Social Exchange Theories
Authors: Roloff Michael E.
Published: December 2015

Human survival is based on the ability to acquire resources and exchange is one way to do so. Social exchange theories provide insight into antecedents, processes, and outcomes of exchange. Communication is a tool by which individuals can negotiate an exchange as well as provide resources. Appropriately, communication scholars have used social exchange theories to guide their research. The entry will examine the key constructs associated with the social exchange theories, explicate the assumptions of the core social exchange theories and those social exchange frameworks used to study interpersonal relationships, organizational processes, and social networks. The entry ends with an assessment of their usefulness for studying interaction.
Attachment Theory
Authors: Jones Susanne M.
Published: December 2015

Attachment theory is a conceptual framework for developmental psychology and has been advanced to the study of adult attachments in interpersonal relationships, relational communication, and individual‐level psychological processes. The theory was created by Bowlby and made testable by Ainsworth. It states that children are born with a psycho‐biological system, the so‐called attachment behavioral system that motivates them to seek or maintain proximity to an attachment figure, usually a primary caregiver. Attachment theory is a life‐span theory, which assumes that initially formed attachment orientations are sustained over time and extended to a host of interpersonal relationships. Attachment insecurities, identified as consisting of attachment avoidance and anxiety, shape such social‐cognitive mechanisms as interpersonal goal formation and planning. These mechanisms subsequently shape interpersonal communication.
Multilevel Modeling
Authors: Theiss Jennifer A.
Published: December 2015

Multilevel modeling (MLM) is a statistical method designed to accommodate nested data. The method parses variance in the dependent variable of a model to estimate the unique effects of micro‐ and macro‐level independent variables. Interpersonal communication researchers frequently utilize this method to analyze data from romantic dyads, families, or other types of small groups, because it simultaneously considers the influence of individual‐level variables and dyadic or group‐level variables on individual outcomes of communication. MLM is also implemented in longitudinal research designs to document within‐person changes over time, as well as between‐person differences in communication. Thus, MLM is a method that enables a nuanced and complex view of the cross‐level factors that influence interpersonal communication.
Parasocial Relationships
Authors: Rubin Alan M.
Published: December 2015

Parasocial interaction is the degree to which a media consumer perceives he or she has developed a social relationship with a media character. It is an affective relationship of friendship and involvement. Researchers have examined parasocial interaction across traditional and newer media formats. Based on attributes such as social presence, media differ in their potential of attracting viewers. Media producers and personalities also use various techniques to attract viewers and encourage parasocial relationships. Parasocial interaction mirrors interpersonal interaction, and is grounded in notions of attraction, similarity, empathy, and friendship. The camaraderie felt with certain media personalities affects message reception and processing.
Issue Framing
Authors: Putnam Linda L.
Published: December 2015

When negotiators begin their deliberations, they typically have different definitions of the issues or agenda items that they plan to discuss. Issue framing focuses on the shaping and reshaping of issues through examining bargainers’ cognitive schemas and biases, their labeling and classifying of issues, and the sequential development of interactions that reshape issues during ongoing negotiations.
Political Discussion
Authors: Cho Jaeho
Published: December 2015

Political discussion is a type of interpersonal conversation held between ordinary citizens. Research suggests that political discussion is a way that individuals respond to the information to which they have been exposed. In this line of research, political discussion is viewed as a behavioral outcome of complex interactions between the individual and the incoming messages. The information–discussion link is then conceived of as a communicative mechanism producing a range of political effects including learning, persuasion, decision‐making, and psychological and behavioral engagements. On the other hand, political discussion is not simply an individual phenomenon. Rather, the likelihood and nature of political discussion are deeply sensitive to social and political environments.
Family Communication about Genetics
Authors: Galvin Kathleen M.
Published: December 2015

Advances in genetic research provide family members with increasing amounts of genetic information and generate ongoing conversations about members’ genetic health and susceptibility to certain diseases. Disclosure of genetic information within families is impacted by multiple factors such as gender, family structure, relational ties, and geographic distance. Family members’ ongoing talk about genetics involves narratives, discussion, and following communication rules. This entry focuses on disclosure practices when a member is affected by a genetic disorder, as well as ongoing family discussion about genetics over time. It concludes with future genetic research that will impact family interaction.
Social Information Processing Theory (
CMC
)
Authors: Walther Joseph B.
Published: December 2015

Social information processing theory explains how individuals use computer‐mediated communication to develop interpersonal impressions and to advance relational communication over time online. The theory focuses on how communicators adapt to the absence of nonverbal cues when using a medium that is generally restricted to textual symbols. The theory stipulates that the information processing of such code systems requires more time than face‐to‐face communication in order to achieve similar levels of interpersonal development. This entry reviews its basic tenets, empirical support, theoretical revisions, challenges from alternative theoretical perspectives, and implications of newer forms of computer‐mediated communication for the theory's status.
Communication among In‐Laws
Authors: Mikucki‐Enyart Sylvia L.
Published: December 2015

In‐law relationships are complex, yet socially significant family relationships. Several theoretical frameworks have been applied to the study of communication among in‐laws, including the triangular theory of in‐law relationships, communication privacy management theory, theories of uncertainty, and a multiple goals perspective. The resultant research suggests that in‐laws grapple with managing communicative openness and closedness as well as uncertainty. Additionally, the relational implications associated with these experiences are not limited to the in‐law dyad, but echo throughout the in‐law triad and affect the well‐being of the marital duo and the relationship between the adult child and their parent.
Upward Family Communication about Health
Authors: Weiner Lauren H. , Pusateri Kimberly B.
Published: December 2015

“Upward family health communication” describes younger family members’ attempts to influence the health‐related values and behaviors of older family members. In the parent–child relationship, the direction of health influence tends to shift developmentally from parent‐to‐child (with young children) to child‐to‐parent (with adult children and elderly parents). Relational and communicative dynamics inherent to this developmental shift have vast implications for the health and wellness of both parents and children throughout their lives. This entry explains how upward health communication manifests from childhood to adulthood, including the communication and relationship dynamics that foster or undermine successful upward health influence attempts.
MUMEffect, The
Authors: Dibble Jayson L.
Published: December 2015

The MUM effect describes a messenger's hesitation to share bad news, relative to good news, with a recipient for whom the news is bad. Some MUM effects are dysfunctional to bad news disclosure situations, while others may be functional. Common explanations for MUM effects include messenger's self‐concerns, messenger's concerns about the recipient, and concerns about norms regarding bad news sharing. More research is needed to explain MUM effects, as well as to determine the conditions under which MUM effects are harmful and/or helpful. Such research benefits those who routinely deliver bad news, e.g., healthcare practitioners, supervisors, clergy, and police.
Regretted Messages
Authors: Meyer Janet R.
Published: December 2015

People sometimes say things they later regret. The early research on regretted messages sought to identify types of regrettable messages, speakers’ reactions to and efforts to repair such failures, reasons for saying the messages, emotional states prior to speaking the messages, and reasons for regretting the messages. More recent work has focused on the cognitive and emotional processing speakers engage in after saying regretted messages. The latter work has been increasingly motivated by an interest in identifying factors that influence when and how speakers might learn from saying such messages.
Relational Framing Theory
Authors: M. McLaren Rachel
Published: December 2015

Relational framing theory identifies two dimensions of relational communication that aid people in interpreting messages in interactions: the dominance–submissiveness frame, which refers to the extent to which people control or influence one another, and the affiliation–disaffiliation frame, which refers to the extent to which people have positive regard or liking for one another. These dimensions act as cognitive frames, aiding people in making sense of interactions and filling in missing information when messages are unclear. The two frames are in competition with one another: when one is used, the other frame is inhibited. A final dimension of relational communication, called involvement, acts to intensify the salient frame and differentiate between degrees of strength for the substance of the interaction.
Memorable Messages
Authors: Smith Sandi W. , Grayson‐Sneed Katelyn A. , Cornacchione Jennifer
Published: December 2015

Interpersonal relationships involve the exchange of messages, some of which can become quite memorable throughout a lifetime. Memorable messages are defined as verbal messages that may be remembered for extremely long periods of time, and which people perceive as a major influence on the course of their lives. An overview of the concept of memorable messages, control theory, and contexts in which interpersonal memorable messages have been recalled, as well as their impact, are presented here.
Relational Communication Ideals and Standards
Authors: Caughlin John P. , McAninch Kelly G.
Published: December 2015

Relational standards or ideals are judgments about what people believe their relationships should be like. Different people view different standards as most important, but regardless of which standards they hold, if they believe their standards are unmet, they tend to be dissatisfied with their relationships. Individuals do vary, however, in how (and how well) they cope with unmet standards. Although gender stereotypes would suggest that men and women have very different standards, empirical findings suggest more similarities than differences in what men and women think counts as good relational communication. There is also evidence that people's standards are related to socially important behaviors, such as children reporting to their parents that they are victims of bullying.
Argumentative Skills Deficiency Theory
Authors: Aloia Lindsey Susan
Published: December 2015

Argumentative skills deficiency theory is focused on the causes of verbally aggressive communication behavior. The theory posits that conflict interactions can be defused through the use of appropriate, constructive communication. Argumentative skills deficiency theory further proposes that individuals utilize verbal aggression during conflict interactions when they lack productive conflict management skills to manage escalating situations. In its initial conception, argumentative skills deficiency theory focused on verbally aggressive exchanges and violent disputes in marriages. Subsequently, the scope of the theory was broadened to include a variety of interpersonal relationships such as parent–child dyads, same‐sex and opposite‐sex friendships, and workplace associations. In addition, application of the theory considered a variety of individual aptitudes relevant to the management of conflict. Argumentative skills deficiency theory provides useful insight into conflict episodes within interpersonal relationships and promises many directions for expanding the theory.
Modality Switching
Authors: Ramirez Artemio , Sumner Erin M.
Published: December 2015

Modality switching often involves shifting between communication channels that vary in their ability to transmit nonverbal and social information. The modality switching perspective developed as a result of contradictory findings about the effects of switching from one communication channel to another on how partners perceived each other, their communication, and their relationship. The perspective offers a resolution to these findings by identifying the length of time partners are allowed for interaction as an important moderator that accounts for both the positive and negative findings reported in published studies. This entry describes the emergence of the perspective, theoretical approaches used in its study, and empirical findings resulting from its investigation.
Family Secrets
Authors: Romo Lynsey K.
Published: December 2015

From alcoholism to unemployment, all families have secrets, i.e. information they intentionally withhold from people within or outside their family. The disclosure and nondisclosure of family secrets is fundamentally interpersonal in nature. Family members are socialized about secret‐keeping through the privacy norms and rules that their families develop. The (non)disclosure of secrets can affect well‐being and relationships. Thus, people are motivated to consider carefully whether to reveal or conceal a secret. While popular culture generally views keeping secrets as negative, beneficial effects can result from revealing as well as concealing secrets. This entry describes scholarship conceptualizing the type, function, and disclosure of secrets within the context of family relationships.
Communication and Telework
Authors: Fonner Kathryn L.
Published: December 2015

Telework is a work arrangement in which employees perform part or all of their work outside of their organization's physical boundaries, using technology. Research has focused on teleworkers’ reliance upon technology and the associated outcomes. Due to a lack of face‐to‐face communication, extensive telework tends to harm coworker relationships. Telework has a positive effect on supervisory relationships, resulting in more structured communication between supervisors and employees. Finally, telework is assumed to create professional and social isolation, but research suggests a more complex picture, including potential benefits related to working remotely. This entry highlights several primary theoretical perspectives used to examine telework and communication, and addresses research on teleworkers’ use of technology, coworker and supervisory communication, and the potential for teleworker isolation.
Communication in Families with a Transgender Member
Authors: M. Norwood Kristen
Published: December 2015

Historically, scholarly research on transgender (and transsexual) identities focused on the psychology of gender dysphoria, but more recently scholars have begun to explore the relational experiences of transgender persons and their friends, family, and significant others. Particularly, there is growing interest in family communication surrounding transgender identity. Families often experience significant stress related to transgender identity disclosures and transitions, and family acceptance and support is profoundly important for transgender persons. This article gives a brief overview of key issues related to communication in families with a transgender member.
Incivility in the Workplace
Authors: Gill Matthew J.
Published: December 2015

Uncivil interpersonal communication exchanges demonstrate disregard and disrespect for others while violating social interaction norms and expectations. Incivility is characterized by low‐intensity, subtle behaviors with an ambiguous intent to harm. Because of its harmful effects on interpersonal relationships, incivility is extremely problematic in the workplace. Incivility in the workplace is a growing phenomenon and has a number of negative consequences for both individuals and organizations. At the individual level, workplace incivility can increase feelings of anxiety and depression, decrease self‐esteem, and cause withdrawal. Workplace incivility also damages organizations by reducing employees’ abilities to work together and achieve organizational goals. Due to the relational damage incivility creates, workers become far less productive and less willing to collaborate with others.
Communication and Employee Retention
Authors: Erickson Robin Adair
Published: December 2015

Retaining high‐performing employees is no longer simply the concern of human resources (
HR
) directors; rather, attracting and retaining employees are consistently listed as one of the top concerns of global chief executive officers (
CEOs
), alongside growing the business and becoming more profitable. Retention of employees encompasses a wide spectrum of topics, and the literatures of the following six areas of study are briefly reviewed: organizational commitment, turnover intentions and voluntary turnover, psychological contracts and their violations, trust, perceived organizational support, and perceived supervisor support. Four communication applications that increase employee retention are considered: (1) meeting regularly with employees, (2) providing regular performance management feedback, (3) committing to ongoing learning and professional development, and (4) conducting periodic stay interviews.
Listening
Authors: Bodie Graham D.
Published: December 2015

Listening is a topic of interest that spans the academic landscape. Within Communication Studies, the history of listening research in many ways parallels the history of the discipline, with attention shifting from issues related to how audiences listen to speeches, to how best to teach listening as part of a larger set of fundamental communication skills, to more recent efforts aimed at understanding the underlying mechanisms that make listening possible in a variety of contexts. This entry provides a brief history of listening research conducted within Communication Studies in order to provide readers with an understanding of the myriad perspectives available for investigating this important life skill. The entry closes by providing readers with future research considerations based on the directions pointed to by contemporary scholarship.
Performance Feedback
Authors: Drury‐Grogan Meghann L.
Published: December 2015

Performance feedback is the information shared with a person about the effectiveness of his or her work behavior. Research in this area spans a variety of disciplines and focuses on three main areas: reactions to feedback resulting in individuals’ performance improvement and affect felt; feedback‐seeking behaviors, including goal achievement, and protecting and enhancing one's image; and delivering feedback effectively. This entry describes each of these three areas in more detail. It also examines existing gaps in the research on performance feedback and recommendations for future research.
Mindfulness
Authors: Jones Susanne M.
Published: December 2015

Mindfulness has emerged as a powerful personal and social resource that allows people to recuperate faster and better from adverse life events and prepares them to deal more effectively with future adversities. Neurological research suggests that the regular practice of mindfulness changes the brain, which is referred to as neuroplasticity. Research in social and clinical psychologies has also found that mindfulness increases prosocial emotional experiences and social connectedness. However, it is not yet known whether and how mindfulness influences interpersonal communication. Because mindfulness is considered a metacognitive factor, which means it precedes any kind of cognition, it is assumed that the relationship between mindfulness and interpersonal communication is indirect and likely mediated by a third cognitive/affective mechanism. The entry defines mindfulness, discusses practice approaches, and reviews experimental research that is underway to examine this assumption in the context of supportive communication.
Symbolic Interactionism
Authors: Fink Edward L.
Published: December 2015

Symbolic interactionism is a perspective employed, explicitly and implicitly, by communication scholars and others within the social sciences and humanities. The central concepts of the approach derive from the work of George Herbert Mead and his student, Herbert Blumer. In addition, its creation owes much to the philosophers and sociologists at the University of Chicago. This entry presents the development of symbolic interactionism, the role of the two key figures in its development (George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer), its major premises concerning the role of interaction in creating meaning and the understanding of self and of society, and its implication for theory and methods. Its status as a theory is also discussed.
Accounts
Authors: Cody Michael J.
Published: December 2015

Individuals seek to groom and maintain a desirable public image of the self, but sometimes fail to do so successfully. Failing to achieve a desirable public image has implications for one's public personae, as well as in developing and maintaining relationships. Accounts are communicated to order to “explain” why communicators behaved as they did, and certain forms of accounts can enhance images and relational maintenance, or detract from desirable public images and complicate relationships.
Family Stress
Authors: Turner Lynn H. , West Richard
Published: December 2015

Families are growing, evolving entities and, as such, continually experience change. Whenever change occurs, there is the real potential for families to experience stress, because stress commonly results after any disturbance in the status quo. Researchers from various disciplines have addressed how families experience stress, as well as how they cope with it. This entry describes the evolution of theorizing about family stress, and delineates five central concepts that are featured in all these theories.
Perceived Organizational Support
Authors: Brown Lori A. , Roloff Michael E.
Published: December 2015

Employees who perceive themselves and their work contributions as valued, supported, and cared about by the organizations they work for are empowered with perceived organizational support. Scholars have recognized that employees vary with levels of perceived organizational support, with higher levels linked to more job satisfaction, commitment, performance quality, and well‐being, and lower levels with burnout and intentions to quit. Because this global belief of perceived organizational support arises from interacting with others, organizational communication and perceived organizational support are inherently linked. Functioning as both a social exchange with employees and a resource to replenish those diminished by or related to work, perceived organizational support also improves leader–member exchange and cultivates improved perceptions of organizational justice.