bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The nature and prevalence of memory disorder late after stroke
Authors: Stewart F. M. , Sunderland A. , Sluman S. M.
Published: July 2011

This study aimed to investigate the incidence and nature of memory impairment late after stroke. Out of 193 patients between 12 to 36 months post‐cerebrovascular accident contacted in a postal survey, 113 replied that they had experienced memory impairment following the stroke. Seventy of these patients were assessed on an adapted version of the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test, Warrington's Recognition Memory Test for words and faces, and an everyday memory questionnaire. The Token Test and the Benton Facial Recognition Test were also administered as measures of language and visuoperceptual processing. Thirty‐five of the patients were impaired on one or more of the memory measures. Of these, 16 showed no evidence of dysphasia or visuoperceptual impairment. The 16 cases of selective memory impairment typically had mild to moderate deficits, and only three were impaired across all three tests. The results suggest that memory impairment following stroke does not necessarily involve general memory impairment. The evidence for material‐specific memory deficits was much weaker.
How restrained eaters perceive the amount they eat
Authors: Jansen Anita
Published: July 2011

The cognitive model of binge eating states that it is the awareness of a broken diet that disinhibits the restrained eater. It is, according to that model, the perception of having overeaten that triggers disinhibited eating. However, although the perception of the amount eaten plays a central role in cognitive restraint theory, it has never directly been tested how restrained subjects perceive the amount of food they eat. In the present studies, participants were given ad libitum access to large amounts of palatable food and both their perception of the amount eaten and their estimated caloric intake were compared with the amount they actually ate. The restrained participants in these studies ate more than the unrestrained participants. In the first and second studies, the restrained participants consumed 571 and 372 ‘forbidden’ calories respectively, without having the feeling that they had eaten very much, let alone too much. Moreover in both studies, the restrained eaters underestimated their caloric intake, whereas unrestrained eaters estimated their caloric intake quite well. The potential implications of the present findings for the cognitive restraint model are discussed.
Psychological adjustment and family functioning in a group of British children with sickle cell disease: Preliminary empirical findings and a meta‐analysis
Authors: Midence Kenny , McManus Chris , Fuggle Peter , Davies Sally
Published: July 2011

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a family of inherited blood disorders of variable severity which have in common haemolytic anaemia, recurrent painful crises, end‐organ failure and the risk of reduced life expectancy. In Britain, the condition predominantly occurs among families of African or Afro‐Caribbean origin. This study examines the effects of the condition on the psychological adjustment and family functioning of 39 children with SCD and 24 control children. Participants were assessed on measures of behaviour, depression, self‐esteem, IQ and reading skills, family relationships and maternal mental health. Assessment on the Family Environment Scale showed that SCD children came from families who reported more cohesion and less conflict than did the families of controls. Maternal mental health showed no significant differences between the SCD group and controls. Children with SCD showed an IQ deficit of five points, a difference that was not statistically significant. However, a meta‐analysis of six studies in the literature, including this one, did show a highly significantly decreased intellectual ability. SCD children did not show significant differences from controls on measures of depression and self‐esteem. However, differences in behavioural problems were found between the three groups, with the SC group showing more behavioural problems. Results of regression analyses suggest that maternal mental health is associated with children's behavioural problems.
Differences between doctor and patient estimates of outcome in male sub‐fertility clinic attenders
Authors: Glover L. , Gannon K. , Sherr L. , Abel P. D.
Published: July 2011

Treatment for male factor sub‐fertility is limited, with low increases in pregnancy rate. Couples attending a male sub‐fertility clinic are provided with prognostic information and advised about treatment options. This study aimed to examine the influence of clinic attendance on male sub‐fertility patients' expectations of their partners becoming pregnant. Data were collected on 103 male sub‐fertility clinic attenders before and after clinic consultation. Patients' mood and expectations of their partners achieving a pregnancy were recorded and compared with the consultant's expectations. Before consultation, patients expected that following the clinic visit their chance of pregnancy would be increased. Post‐consultation, their perceptions of their chances of pregnancy were often inaccurate and were more influenced by their own expectations than by the consultant's view. There was no overall correlation between anxiety or depression and estimation of achieving a pregnancy. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
A confirmatory study of the relation between self‐reported complex partial epileptic signs, peak experiences and paranormal beliefs
Authors: Morneau David M. , MacDonald Douglas A. , Holland Cornelius J. , Holland Daniel C.
Published: July 2011

Data obtained from a sample of 102 university students were used to calculate Pearson product moment correlations between measures of complex partial epileptic signs, peak experiences and paranormal beliefs. Significant correlations ranging from .35 to .42 (p < .001) were found between all three measures. Moreover, notable relations were obtained between complex partial epileptic signs and a number of subscales of the paranormal measure including precognition (r = .43), psi beliefs (r = .40), spiritualism (r = .40), extraordinary life forms (r = .26) and superstition (r = .22). The results are consistent with previous research linking temporal lobe signs to paranormal and peak experiences.
Do agoraphobics interpret the environment in large shops and supermarkets differently?
Authors: Jones R. Barrie , Humphris Gerry , Lewis Toni
Published: July 2011

Agoraphobics typically have difficulties in visiting supermarkets. This brief report presents results of a survey investigating the properties of supermarkets which provoke or ease anxiety‐related responses in shoppers (N = 500) and two further groups: agoraphobics (N = 40) and participants responding to a local press advert (N = 54). Results showed that layout features, stairways and diminished access were rated as more anxiety provoking in the agoraphobic‐type groups compared to general shoppers. The safety‐signal model of agoraphobic behaviour was supported although some evidence of dysfunction of spatial orientation was found.
Treatment of personality disorders
Authors: Clarkin John F.
Published: July 2011

There are very few studies of specific treatments delivered to specific personality disordered groups to date. Therefore, I have expanded the reference list to include studies suggesting that treatment (both pharmacological and psychosocial) of Axis I disorders are influenced by the presence of Axis II disorders. In addition, there are a number of non‐randomized studies examining the influence of hospital treatment on personality disordered groups.
Attitudes towards emotional expression and post‐traumatic stress in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster
Authors: Joseph Stephen , Dalgleish Tim , Williams Ruth , Yule William , Thrasher Sian , Hodgkinson Peter
Published: July 2011

The relationship between self‐reported attitudes towards emotional expression, assessed at three years after the accident, and post‐traumatic symptoms, assessed at five years after the accident, was investigated in 37 survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. It was found that lower scores on the attitudes towards emotional expression scale, indicating more negative attitudes (e.g. ‘I think getting emotional is a sign of weakness’) were associated with higher symptom scores. This association remained even when retrospectively assessed perceptions of helplessness during the disaster and symptoms assessed at three years were partialled out. Implications for therapeutic intervention are discussed.
Acting on command hallucinations: A cognitive approach
Authors: Beck‐Sander Alison , Birchwood Max , Chadwick Paul
Published: July 2011

This study explores factors influencing compliance with command hallucinations. The most widely acknowledged factor is the content of the command. Three categories of command content were found to be discrete in terms of compliance: ‘innocuous’ commands, ‘severe’ commands and commands to self‐harm. This study takes a cognitive approach and highlights the importance of the beliefs individuals hold about their voices. Beliefs appear to be important in determining whether or not individuals comply with commands and the affect generated.

A belief that the voice is benevolent was associated with compliance with both innocuous and severe commands. In addition, participants who believed they retained subjective control over their voices were less likely to comply with all types of command. Furthermore, qualitative evidence suggested that several other beliefs may influence compliance with command hallucinations such as beliefs about the effects of transgression, beliefs about the power and authority of the commander, beliefs about the social acceptability of the action (which may be closely correlated or synonymous with severity) and its effectiveness in achieving a valued goal. Further research is necessary to investigate the importance of these beliefs and their interrelationships more fully.
Cognitive impairment, depression and the specificity of autobiographical memory in the elderly
Authors: Phillips Sara , Williams J. Mark G.
Published: July 2011

Previous research has shown that both depressed (Williams & Scott, 1988) and elderly (Winthorpe & Rabbitt, 1988) people have difficulties in being specific in autobiographical memory. However, no study has examined the joint impact of cognitive impairment and affective disturbance. In this preliminary study, 22 elderly people with memory complaints were tested with the Autobiographical Memory Test, the Brief Assessment Schedule Depression Cards, Geriatric Depression Scale and the Mini‐Mental State Examination. Results showed that autobiographical specificity decreased with increasing levels of cognitive impairment. Participants were more likely to produce overgeneral memories (omissions or generic memories) than extended or specific memories. There was little relation between severity of depression and specificity in autobiographical memory, consistent with previous suggestions that overgenerality in depression is a long‐term cognitive style unaffected by state depression (Brittlebank, Scott, Williams & Ferrier, 1993).
Social problem solving and autobiographical memory in non‐clinical depression
Authors: Goddard Lorna , Dritschel Barbara , Burton Andrew
Published: July 2011

Objectives. We examine the proposal that specific autobiographical memories may play a major role in successful social problem solving (SPS).

Design and Methods. Depressed and control students report on the types of memories they retrieve while performing an SPS task and a cueing task.

Results. The retrieval of specific memories on the cueing task and during SPS was found to be positively related to SPS skill.

Conclusions. Specific memories are important for successful SPS. However, the relationship between a specific memory deficit and poor SPS is mediated by severity of depression.
Interpersonal responses to threats to status and interpersonal relatedness: Effects of dependency and self‐criticism
Authors: Santor Darcy A. , Zuroff David C.
Published: July 2011

Objectives. Previous research investigating the interpersonal environments of dependent and self‐critical individuals has focused primarily on attachment issues, such as relationship satisfaction.

Design. In the present study, we examined how dependent and self‐critical individuals respond to experimentally manipulated events that threaten or bolster selfworth and status.

Method. Forty pairs of female college students were allowed to believe, first, that they outperformed a close friend or were outperformed by a close friend on 14 trials of a behaviour detection task and, second, that friends generally agreed or disagreed with them on a second 14 trials, in which participants informed friends who had the better response.

Results. Dependent women were more concerned with maintaining interpersonal relatedness, whereas self‐critical women were more concerned with preserving selfworth and status. Dependent women adopted the responses of friends they outperformed, praised friends even when friends disagreed, and minimized disagreement with disagreeing friends. In contrast, self‐critical individuals contested threats to status and self‐worth, withheld praise from friends who challenged them, and did not minimize disagreement with disagreeing friends.

Conclusions. Results support the utility of an interactional framework in which depressive personality styles, such as dependency and self‐criticism, and situational events interact to regulate interpersonal behaviour.
Social reasoning in individuals with persecutory delusions: The effects of additional information on attributions for the observed behaviour of others
Authors: Young Heather F. , Bentall Richard P.
Published: July 2011

The extent to which individuals suffering from persecutory delusions, as compared to matched controls, were prepared to change their attributional judgments following additional information, was investigated. Participants were required to decide whether the actor or target individual had caused an action before and after information, which was either high or low in terms of distinctiveness, consistency and consensus. There were no differences between the three participant groups which all made decisions, and changed their decisions, in the directions predicted by attribution theory.
The effect of self‐referent material on the reasoning of people with delusions
Authors: Dudley R. E. J. , John C. H. , Young A.W. , Over D. E.
Published: July 2011

People with delusions have been shown to have both generalized (Huq, Garety & Hemsley, 1988) and content‐specific biases in reasoning (Bentall, 1994). Our concern here was whether the hastiness that has been found when people with delusions reason on relatively abstract tasks would be present on a more realistic task. A second concern was whether reasoning with salient or emotional material would increase the hastiness bias in people with delusions.

Two versions of a probabilistic reasoning task were used to study the data gathering of people with delusions. The first version employed realistic but emotionally neutral material. People with delusions requested less evidence before making a decision than psychiatric and normal comparison groups. Therefore, the hastiness found previously with abstract materials was seen to generalize to a more realistic task. In the second version participants were required to reason with material that had an emotional content and may have been regarded as being personally meaningful. In this condition all groups reduced the amount of evidence requested before making a decision.
Assessing the reliability and abnormality of subtest differences on the Test of Everyday Attention
Authors: Crawford J. R. , Sommerville J. , Robertson Ian H.
Published: July 2011

Objectives. To assist clinicians with the analysis of an individual's profile of subtest strength and weaknesses on the Test of Everyday Attention (TEA).

Design. The study applied psychometric methods for the quantitive analysis of subtest profiles (Silverstein, 1982, 1984a, b).

Methods. Formulae to compute the standard error of the difference and standard deviation of the difference between a subtest and a client's mean subtest scores were applied to determine critical values for reliable and abnormal differences. The data used were derived from the TEA standardization sample (N = 154).

Results. Tables for examining whether an individual's TEA subtest profile contains reliable and abnormal subtest discrepancies are presented.

Conclusions. Elegant methods of analysing a subtest profile were extended for use with the Test of Everyday Attention. In keeping with the rationale underlying the measurement of neuropsychological deficit (Lezak, 1995), these methods complement the existing TEA normative comparison standards by providing individual comparison standards for a client's performance. Guidance on the use of the tables is offered; the distinction between reliable and abnormal differences is highlighted.
Processing of facial expressions of emotion and alexithymia
Authors: Pandey Rakesh , Mandal Manas K.
Published: July 2011

Objective. The primary objective was to examine emotional responsiveness in alexithymia.

Design. A quasi‐experimental design was followed with the alexithymia variable being manipulated by subject stratification based on Toronto Alexithymia Scale‐ 20‐H.

Method. Alexithymics (N=12) and non‐alexithymics (N=12) were asked to match, label and verbally describe photographs displaying facial emotions along with TAT card II.

Results. Alexithymics did not differ from non‐alexithymics in emotional matching and labelling tasks but had significant difficulty in verbally describing emotional expressions as evident by less duration of utterance, greater response latency and increased linguistic‐type speech disruptions. Speech disruptions did not produce a group difference for TAT card II.

Conclusion. Such difficulty in alexithymics may be associated with their inability to use emotional words in the appropriate context.
Does victimization account for sex differences in depressive symptoms?
Authors: Whiffen Valerie E. , Clark Sharon E.
Published: July 2011

Women are more depressed than men, and more frequently victimized. We explored the possibility that childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and adult victimization account for the higher levels of depression in women. Depressive symptoms and victimization histories were compared in a sample of 91 men and 76 women seeking out‐patient psychotherapy. The women were more depressed, and more likely to have a history of CSA than the men. CSA accounted for a significant proportion of the sex difference in depression levels. The women also were more likely to have been victimized as adults than were the men. However, adult victimization was not associated with higher depression levels, and, therefore, did not account further for the sex difference.
Lifetime episodes of dysphoria: Gender, early childhood loss and personality
Authors: Roberts John E. , Gotlib Ian H.
Published: July 2011

The roles of gender, early childhood loss and personality as risk factors for lifetime episodes of dysphoria were examined in a large sample of college students (N = 557). Dysphoria classifications were based on the Inventory to Diagnose Depression (IDD) and the IDD‐Lifetime Version. Brief dysphoria was defined as meeting DSM‐III‐R symptom criteria for major depression without meeting the two‐week duration criteria, whereas protracted dysphoria required that the duration criteria were also met. Although females reported higher levels of depressive symptoms and neuroticism than did males, and were more likely to have a lifetime history of episodes of dysphoria, males were more susceptible to the adverse effects of early childhood loss. Males with loss were more likely to have a history of protracted dysphoria and to report higher levels of neuroticism than were males who did not experience an early parental loss. Neuroticism, in turn, acted as a trait vulnerability characteristic to episodes of dysphoria in both males and females. Interestingly, the effects of gender on lifetime experience of dysphoria were mediated by neuroticism: females' increased vulnerability to episodes of dysphoria was due to their elevated levels of neuroticism.
The effect of one‐session treatment for spider phobia on attentional bias and beliefs
Authors: Thorpe Susan J. , Salkovskis Paul M.
Published: July 2011

Spider phobics were tested before and after one‐session treatment for spider phobia, or a comparable waiting period, using a spider‐word Stroop test and questionnaires in which they rated spider‐relevant threat beliefs. Compared with untreated spider phobic controls, the treated phobics changed significantly in their negative beliefs about spiders after treatment. Controls and treated phobics showed the same change in their reaction time latencies to spider stimuli in the Stroop test. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the modification of threat beliefs is crucial in changing the response to phobic stimuli. It is concluded that the threatspecific Stroop test is an ambiguous measure of fear‐related cognitive processes.
Normal and abnormal reasoning in people with delusions
Authors: Dudley R. E. J. , John C. H. , Young A. W. , Over D. E.
Published: July 2011

People who experience delusions have been found to request less information prior to making a decision than control participants on tasks that are unrelated to the theme of the delusion (Huq, Garety & Hemsley, 1988). Two studies investigated whether people with delusions have an absolute deficit in reasoning or a more specific data‐gathering bias. In Expt 1, 12 people with delusions, 12 people with depression and 12 normal controls were shown the results of spinning a supposedly biased coin. The evidence provided varied in the number of heads to tails. In normal controls a high ratio of head to tails produces a high estimate that the coin is biased. In this experiment, where the evidence gathered was predetermined by the experimenter, all groups of participants were shown to reason in a similar way. Experiment 2 tested whether a difference would exist between the groups in conditions where participants were free to determine the amount of evidence seen, in contrast to when all of them viewed the same evidence. Two jars of beads in opposite but equal ratios (e.g. 85:15, 15:85) were shown to 15 people with delusions, 15 with depression and 15 normal controls. On the basis of beads being drawn one at a time, it was the participants' task to determine which jar they came from. When free to decide when they wished, people with delusions decided on the basis of less evidence than the other groups. However, as in Expt 1, the group with delusions did not differ when made to view the same amount of beads as other participants. Therefore, people with delusions have a data‐gathering bias rather than a difficulty in employing the data in reasoning. This ‘jump to conclusions' bias generalized to a less discriminable ratio of beads (60:40), and was not a consequence of impulsiveness or memory deficit.
The treatment of six men with a learning disability convicted of sex offences with children
Authors: Lindsay William R. , Neilson Clare Q. , Morrison Frederick , Smith Anne H. W.
Published: July 2011

This paper describes a cognitive therapy for men with a learning disability convicted of sex offences against children. Methods are described which focus the session, emphasize confidentiality, ensure that the patient accepts responsibility for the offence, and deal with issues of intent, harm done to the victim and sequences of offending behaviour. Methods for producing cognitive change are described. Patients were assessed regularly and data are presented in detail. While all six men showed improvement, there were several variables which interfered with the course of treatment. The study attempts to address two major problems in work with sex offenders: the difficulty of employing a controlled treatment design and the importance of a long follow‐up period.
Oxford—Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences: Reliability in an experimental population
Authors: Burch Giles St J. , Steel Craig , Hemsley David R.
Published: July 2011

Further to the recent development of the Oxford‐Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O‐LIFE), a short multidimensional schizotypy questionnaire, the present study set out to identify the reliability of all scales of this questionnaire within the same population. Participants were required to complete the O‐LIFE on two separate occasions, whilst taking part in latent inhibition and negative priming experiments. All scales correlated highly, thus lending further support to the reliability of this time efficient questionnaire.
Changes following community living skills training: A controlled study
Authors: Michie A. M. , Lindsay W. R. , Smith A. H. W. , Todman J.
Published: July 2011

Fifty‐seven adults with mild to moderate learning disability served as participants in a community living skills training programme. Twenty‐nine were trained using in vivo techniques, 13 were taught using classroom techniques and 15 acted as a no treatment control group. Assessments of community living skills and adaptive behaviour found those receiving in vivo training performed significantly better than the other groups. Eventual placement in the community reflected this superiority.
The effects of imagery and sensory detection distractors on different measures of pain: How does distraction work?
Authors: Johnson Malcolm H. , Breakwell Guy , Douglas Wanda , Humphries Steven
Published: July 2011

Objectives. Two experiments compared the effects of different distraction tasks on pain. Based on multiple‐resource theory, Expt 1 predicted that the more a distractor shares processing resources with pain perception the greater the interference between the two. Experiment 2 tested whether the emotional content of the distractor would differentially effect measures that are supposedly reflective of the affective component of pain.

Design. Both experiments used repeated measures designs, with counterbalanced distraction conditions.

Methods. In Expt 1 20 participants indicated their pain threshold. No instructions, or one of three distraction conditions were presented across four blocks of potassium iontophoresis. The distractors were: thermal and light detection, and neutral imagining. In Expt 2 30 participants had three blocks of pain threshold, pain tolerance, and pain rating trials. For threshold, tolerance, and rating trials, one block was without distraction, a second block was completed during light detection, and a third block while imagining an enjoyable holiday.

Results. In Expt 1 all the distractors increased pain threshold. The two detection tasks were similarly effective, and more so than the imagination task. Performance on the two detection tasks was impaired by painful stimulation similarly for both tasks. In Expt 2 the visual detection distractor increased pain threshold and tolerance and reduced pain ratings while pleasant imagery only increased pain threshold.

Conclusions. These results indicate that a task that requires attention to external cues has more impact on pain than either a positive or neutral imagination task. However, it is not clear that the specific resources used by the distraction tasks moderated pain differentially as predicted by multiple‐resource theory.
Cognitive assessment of voices: Further developments in understanding the emotional impact of voices
Authors: Close Helen , Garety Philippa
Published: July 2011

Objectives. This study examines cognitive behavioural assessments of auditory hallucinations (‘voices’) in people with psychoses. It aims to compare findings with previous work and validate the Assessment of Voices Schedule (Chadwick & Birchwood, 1994). Data were collected on appraisals of voices in relation to the self. It was hypothesized that self‐appraisals may be a further factor in understanding the emotional impact of voices.

Design. A replication study where data were collected from a new sample of participants and compared with a previous independent sample.

Method. Voices of 30 patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia were assessed using a semi‐structured interview and questionnaires. Thought‐chaining was used to assess appraisals of the voice in relation to the self.

Results. Compared to the previous study, current participants were significantly less likely to believe in the omnipotence of their voices, to view their voices as omniscient and to have a positive affective response to benevolent voices. Similar numbers in this study construed their voices as malevolent, but fewer participants in this sample had benevolent voices. There were no significant differences between samples in behavioural responses to voices or in the affective responses to malevolent voices. The Assessment of Voices Schedule was found to have generally good test—retest and inter‐rater reliability. Extremely negative self‐appraisals were common, as were negative affective responses to the voice experience and low selfesteem.

Conclusion. The implications of these findings for both cognitive behavioural models and therapy are discussed.
An examination of the effects of gentle teaching on people with complex learning disabilities and challenging behaviour
Authors: Cullen Chris , Mappin Rachel
Published: July 2011

Objectives. This study was conducted to investigate the efficacy of gentle teaching when compared with individual educational programming (IEP) for a group of people with complex learning disabilities and challenging behaviour.

Design. An A—B design was used, in which gentle teaching was introduced as an addition to the IEP procedures already in place. Other designs, such as reversal, multiple baseline or group comparisons would have been impractical in this clinical setting.

Methods. Thirteen students and seven staff were observed, using a hand‐held computer for direct observations, and video‐recordings for measures of interaction. Staff attitudes to gentle teaching and to the IEP system were also assessed. The intervention was systematic workshop‐based training in gentle teaching for all staff. Measures were taken pre‐intervention for 13 weeks and post‐intervention for 23 weeks. Approximately 45 hours of direct observational data and over 50 hours of video‐recording were analysed.

Results. We found very few effects of gentle teaching. Wherever there were differences between gentle teaching and IEP these were in favour of gentle teaching, although they were generally relatively minor in terms of clinical (rather than statistical) significance. Inter‐rater reliabilities were generally poor, although the figures for those categories where there was a difference between gentle teaching and IEP were amongst the most respectable.

Conclusions. Gentle teaching did not have a major impact on staff behaviour, and no discernible effect on student behaviour, but it did not lead to poorer interactions and may be a useful adjunct to more structured approaches such as individual educational programming.
Loss, humiliation and entrapment as appraisals of schizophrenic illness: A prospective study of depressed and non‐depressed patients
Authors: Rooke Oliver , Birchwood Max
Published: July 2011

Objectives. Life‐events that precede the onset of unipolar depression usually involve an appraisal of loss; recent research has shown that where these events are also appraised as humiliating or involving entrapment and defeat (the absence of a way forward or failure to reaffirm an identity) they are especially potent in triggering depression. Depression in schizophrenia has not been studied from the cognitive or psychosocial perspectives, probably because of its confused nosological status. In a previous study we showed that patients' perceived loss of control and entrapment by psychotic illness (e.g. by recurring relapse) was strongly linked to depression.

Design. In this study we follow up the original sample of 49 patients 2.5 years later to examine the hypotheses using more powerful prospective methodology. Two of the sample had died of natural causes and the remaining 47 agreed to be reinterviewed.

Method. We used the same measures of patients' appraisal of their illness and symptoms in terms of the extent to which they perceive it as embodying loss, humiliation and entrapment.

Results. It was found using multivariate analysis that perceived loss of autonomy and social role, particularly employment, were correlated with depression. The appraisal of entrapment in psychotic illness was found to have high cross‐sectional and prospective predictive value independent of illness, symptom and treatment variables and was shown to be influenced by certain aspects of psychiatric treatment, particularly compulsory detention.

Conclusion. We propose that episodes of depression in schizophrenia are triggered by psychosis‐related events (relapse, compulsory admission, residual voices, loss of job, etc.) that signify the inability to overcome the loss of a cherished personal goal or social role and thereby to affirm an identity. Implications for psychological therapy are discussed.
Reasoning biases in delusion‐prone individuals
Authors: Linney Yvonne M. , Peters Emmanuelle R. , Ayton Peter
Published: July 2011

Objectives. The objective was to test whether individuals high in delusional ideation exhibit a reasoning bias on tasks involving hypothesis testing and probability judgments. On the basis of previous findings (e.g. Garety, Hemsley & Wessely, 1991), it was predicted that individuals high in delusional ideation would exhibit a ‘jump‐to‐conclusions’ style of reasoning and would be less sensitive to the effects of random variation, in comparison to individuals low in delusional ideation.

Design. A non‐randomized matched groups design was employed enabling the performance of the delusion prone individuals to be compared to that of a control group.

Method. Forty individuals, selected from the normal population, were divided into groups high and low in delusional ideation, according to their scores on the Peters et al. Delusions Inventory (Peters, Day & Garety, 1996), and were compared on two tasks involving probability judgment and two tasks involving hypothesis testing.

Results. Although no significant differences were found on tasks involving hypothesis testing and the aggregation of probabilistic information, it was found that individuals high in delusional ideation had a ‘jump‐to‐conclusions’ style of data gathering and were less sensitive to the effects of random variation, in comparison to individuals low in delusional ideation.

Conclusions. In conclusion, although individuals high in delusional ideation were not found to have a general reasoning bias, some evidence of a more specific bias was found. It is thought that these aberrations may play some role in delusion formation in schizophrenia and paranoia.
A new performance‐curve method for the detection of simulated cognitive impairment
Authors: Wogar Mary A. , van den Broek M. D. , Bradshaw C. M. , Szabadi E.
Published: July 2011

Objectives. To evaluate a new performance‐curve method for detecting simulated cognitive impairment.

Design. The method was based on quantitative analysis of choice reaction times in a series of eight matching‐to‐sample tasks of graded complexity, in which participants were required to identify which of two comparison stimuli was identical to a simultaneously presented sample stimulus. The stimuli consisted of arrays of letters, the number of letters ranging from 1 to 10 in the eight tasks.

Methods. Mean reaction times of a standardization group of 20 healthy young adults were used to construct regression equations to describe the behaviour of three test groups: 20 healthy individuals instructed to perform to the best of their ability (non‐simulators), 20 healthy individuals instructed to simulate cognitive impairment incurred as a result of a head injury (simulators), and 25 patients with a history of closed head injury (patients).

Results. There was a linear relationship between individual participants' latencies and the mean latencies of the standardization sample; the patient group showed steeper slopes, and the simulators higher intercepts, than the non‐simulator group. A univariate measure of performance, based on the proportionate increase in latency corresponding to a standard increase in the standardization group's latency was able to identify 14/20 simulators while misclassifying 2/20 non‐simulators and 2/25 patients. Other measures, including the number of errors made in the choice reaction time task and in recognition memory tasks, and a performance‐curve measure based on Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, were less successful in identifying simulators.

Conclusions. This new performance‐curve method may prove to be a useful addition to tests currently used to diagnose simulated cognitive impairment in clinical and medicolegal settings.
Cognitive dissonance 2: A theoretical grounding of motivational interviewing
Authors: Draycott Simon , Dabbs Alan
Published: July 2011

Purpose. The aim of this article is to demonstrate the utility of the concept of cognitive dissonance in clinical psychology by showing how it may underlie an existing intervention. The technique of motivational interviewing (MI) is taken as an example of an area where the literature on cognitive dissonance can find such an application. The further aim of this exercise is to utilize insights from cognitive dissonance to suggest possible modifications to the intervention as it currently stands.

Method. A mapping is undertaken of principles of cognitive dissonance as found in Draycott & Dabbs (1998) onto the description of nature, principles and techniques of MI as set out by Miller & Rollnick (1991). Following this, areas where insights from cognitive dissonance are ignored or underutilized are drawn out and used to suggest modifications to MI.

Results. The nature, principles and techniques of MI are, without exception, found to relate to one or more of the principles of cognitive dissonance. Criticisms and amendments to the technique of MI can be offered with the aim of making this mapping of cognitive dissonance more exact. Several practical suggestions can be made and a more structured approach offered.

Conclusions. The concept of cognitive dissonance can clearly be seen to be of use in understanding the mechanism of action of MI. It can further be of use in guiding modifications to this existing intervention. This concept, and others available through the experimental psychological literature, can be of use in all branches of clinical psychology.
Learning disability care staffs emotional reactions to aggressive challenging behaviours: Development of a measurement tool
Authors: Mitchell Georgia , Hastings Richard P.
Published: July 2011

Objectives. To describe the development of a rating scale measure of caregivers' emotional reactions to aggressive challenging behaviour, and to report preliminary psychometric data for the scale.

Design. Using previous research on staff working with people with learning disabilities, a range of likely emotional reactions to challenging behaviours were selected for possible inclusion in a rating scale measure.

Methods. A total of 83 care staff from 23 community residences for people with learning disabilities rated their recent emotional reactions to aggressive challenging behaviour using 18 emotion items. A further sample of 18 care staff participated in a test–retest study after the initial stages of scale development.

Results. A rating scale was developed on the basis of a factor analysis and further item analysis. The measure has two subscales: feelings of depression/anger (10 items), and feelings of fear/anxiety (5 items). The subscales have a high internal consistency, good test–retest reliability and are relatively unaffected by social desirability biases.

Conclusions. The emotional reactions to aggressive challenging behaviour scale has excellent face and construct validity, and other preliminary psychometric data are promising. The scale has a number of potential research and clinical applications.
Organizational identification and the communication of identity: Effects of message characteristics on cognitive and affective identification
Authors: Tanis Martin , Beukeboom Camiel J.
Published: July 2011

This paper reports an experimental study (N= 321) that tests how the cognitive and affective component of organizational identification (OI) can be affected by peripheral characteristics of organizational communication. Results show that adding cues in emails that signal organizational identity, such as the company logo, font, and colour of text, positively affect the cognitive component of OI, but not the affective component. In contrast, a personal focus in the message had a positive effect on the affective, but not on the cognitive component of OI. This study supports the idea that OI is a multi‐faceted construct comprising a cognitive and affective component, and that these different components can be affected by different characteristics of organizational email messages.
CRITICAL REVIEW OF ‘PSYCHOLOGY AND MODERN PROBLEMS’
Authors: R. J.
Published: July 2011

Psychology and Modern Problems. A Series of Lectures organized by the Institute of Medical Psychology. Prof. Ginsberg writes on ‘National Character and National Sentiment’, Prof. Seligman on ‘Psychology and Racial Differences’, Prof. Ramsay Muir on ‘Liberty, Authority, Democracy”, Dr Crichton‐Miller on ‘Educational Ideals and the Destinies of Peoples’, Prof. Flugel on ‘Psychological Aspects of Marriage and the Family’, Dr Emanuel Miller on ‘The Artist in Modern Civilization’, and The Very Rev. The Dean of St Paul's on ‘Psychology and the Future of Religion’. Dr Hadfield edits the book and writes the Introduction. London: University of London Press. 1935. Cr. 8vo. Pp. vi + 241. 5s.
DYNAMICS OF TRAINING IN GROUPS FOR PSYCHOTHERAPY
Authors: BALINT ENID , BALINT MICHAEL
Published: July 2011

Although the training scheme has been conceived and carried out jointly, the main role of one of us (M.B.) was that of group leader, and so the first section describing that part of the work has been written by him. In the same way the chief task of the other of us (E.B.) was that of supervisor, and the second section, which deals with that part of the work, was written by her. The third section, comparing our scheme with other training schemes for psychotherapy, has been written jointly.
Silence in psychiatric interviews
Authors: JARRETT F. J.
Published: July 2011

The literature on silence in psychotherapy is somewhat diverse, and is confined almost entirely to its theoretical aspects. The following study presents a review of the subject, and considers some problems of management of silence in interview situations, with some suggestions for further investigations.

For the purpose of this paper, silence has been defined in the following terms: ‘A period of time during a formal consultation between a therapist and a patient (or patients) when verbal communication ceases.’

Implicit in this definition is the fact that both parties participate in the silence. It is convenient to consider their roles separately.
Creation and destruction: notes on Dylan Thomas
Authors: MURPHY B. W.
Published: July 2011

I hold a beast, an angel, and a madman in me, and my enquiry is as to their working, and my problem is their subjugation and victory, downthrow and upheaval and my effort is their self‐expression
Book Reviews
Authors: KLAUBER JOHN
Published: July 2011

Book reviewed in this article:

Psychanalyse d'Aristophane. By N. N. Dracoulides.

Psychological Medicine: an Introduction to Psychiatry. By D. Curran and M. Partridge.

The Psycho Analytical Process. By Donald Meltzer.
Exploring the uniqueness of common complaints*
Authors: WRIGHT K. J. T.
Published: July 2011

The greatest failing of the psychologist at the present time is his inability to prove what he knows to be true. (Allport, 1960, p. 10).
Adjustment and war bereavement–Some considerations
Authors: Purisman Ruth , Maoz Benjamin
Published: July 2011

Forty‐seven parents from 25 families who had lost a son in the War of Attrition of 1969–1970 were interviewed in the course of this study. The interviews teok place 2–3 years after the bereavement.

The purpose of the study was an assessment of personal adjustment of bereaved parents, and an examination of background and behavioural characteristics which might differentiate between parents making a better and less good adjustment to the loss of a son.

To this end data were collected via semistructured interviews. Non‐objective variables: religiosity, social interpersonal relationships and adjustment were rated by independent judges. Reliability of interjudge agreement ranged from 0·67 to 1·00.

Hypotheses were tested using correlation matrices. The hypothesis stating a positive relationship of high religiosity and good adjustment was not confirmed.

The results suggest a very significant relationship between good adjustment and level of education (r = 0·668, α > 0·01). Level of education was responsible for most of the variance and thus made impossible an answer regarding the relationship between religiosity and recovery after bereavement.

To elucidate religiosity's function in adjustment, control of education level would be necessary. While this was not done in the present study, a further research plan was suggested.

The hypothesis stating a positive correlational relationship between adjustment and interpersonal skills as reflected in social contacts and marital relations was confirmed (r = 0·735, r = 0·573, α > 0·01).

The findings of this study suggest that individuals who have suffered a severe stress, may gain strength, encouragement and compensation when their life style includes higher educational level and satisfying interactions with other people.
The multiple techniques approach to behavioural psychotherapy: A retrospective evaluation of effectiveness and an examination of prognostic indicators
Authors: Shepherd Geoff , Durham Robert
Published: July 2011

A retrospective evaluation of the multiple techniques approach to behaviour therapy is described. The effectiveness of the approach seems to compare favourably with a single‐technique approach as far as can be ascertained. The observed improvement can be attributed to some aspect of the treatment package and not to ‘spontaneous remission’ factors. A prospective trial would now seem valuable, providing the problems of replication can be solved. An examination of prognostic indicators reveals a range of variables associated with outcome. Amongst the diagnostic groups, the ‘social phobics’ and ‘anxiety states’ did poorly. A number of general adjustment variables also seemed important, particularly marriage, and social and vocational adjustment. The implications of these findings for the nature and deployment of services are briefly discussed.
A contribution from the field of psychodynamics to the controversy over reactive and endogenous depression
Authors: Cochrane Nils
Published: July 2011

Comparisons of depressed with non‐depressed subjects, and of endogenous depressives with reactive depressives, in respect of the quality and handling of aggression, suggest that endogenous depression is a distinct entity. Reactive depression is seen as essentially indistinguishable from other non‐depressed psychiatric states.
A study of social problems in a group of young women treated with brief psychotherapy
Authors: Shaw Phyllis
Published: July 2011

This paper reports on a series of young women with social problems treated with brief psychotherapy in a NHS setting and fulfilling definite selection criteria. It is suggested that we have paid more attention to the role of the mother in infancy and have tended to neglect the influence of the father. While we have studied emotional change in the growing child we have not perhaps made sufficient allowance for changes in parents. This study examines the role of the father in his daughter's adolescence. Awareness of this factor in the clinical setting might help to shorten the course of psychotherapy in appropriate cases. Sociologically it is relevant to our views on parenthood.