This review summarizes the current data on the effects of smoking and @entity286 on the immune system and its potential impact on periodontal health. Smokers are 2.5-6 times more likely to develop @entity2520 than non-smokers, and there is evidence for a direct correlation between the number of cigarettes smoked and the risk of developing disease. @entity286 users also tend to exhibit increased severity of @entity2520 . Direct correlations between @entity286 use and increased attachment loss and pocket depth and reduced bone crest height have been reported. Although the correlation between @entity286 use and @entity2520 is quite strong, the role of @entity286 in the pathogenesis of @entity2520 is uncertain. Recent studies indicate that one potential mechanism is that @entity286 use exacerbates @entity2520 because it alters the immune response to periodontal pathogens. Indeed, smokers exhibit increased numbers of peripheral blood mononuclear phagocytes which appear to be functionally compromised. Inadequate phagocyte activity could reduce the clearance of pathogens from the oral cavity and thereby facilitate the development of @entity2520 . @entity286 -exposed B- and T-lymphocytes exhibit reduced proliferative capacities which could limit the production of protective immunoglobulins against oral pathogens. The risk factors for @entity2520 can be broadly classified as genetic, environmental, host-response factors, and host-related factors such as age. @entity286 , an environmental factor, undermines the host response and may facilitate the development and progression of @entity2520 . This review highlights the inter-relatedness of two of the risk factors associated with @entity2520 .

XXXX and smoking: environmental factors that modify the host response (immune system) and have an impact on periodontal health.

@entity286 :: ('4097', 'Species') :: ['tobacco', 'Tobacco'] @entity2520 :: ('MESH:D010510', 'Disease') :: ['periodontal disease']
@entity286 :: (4097,Species) :: ['Tobacco']
