UNASSIGNED: This concise review summarises tissue and serum markers useful for differential diagnosis of @entity5 ( @entity5 ), with focus on the most common @entity5 ( @entity5 ). @entity5 are characterised by phenotypic heterogeneity due to largely retained @entity2085 and aberrant somatic differentiation. @entity5 that occur in young @entity1 are divided into two main types, @entity4797 and nonseminoma, both derived from a pre-invasive germ cell @entity5 in situ (GCNIS), which originates from transformed foetal gonocytes. In severely dysgenetic gonads, a GCNIS-resembling lesion is called @entity5712 . @entity5 occur rarely in young @entity1 (infantile @entity5 ) in whom the pathogenesis is different (no GCNIS/ @entity5712 stage) but the histopathological features are similar to the adult @entity5 . The rare spermatocytic @entity5 of older @entity1 is derived from post-pubertal spermatogonia that clonally expand due to gain-of function mutations in survival-promoting genes (e.g. @entity2557 , @entity8498 ), thus this @entity5 has a different expression profile than GCNIS-derived @entity5 . Clinically most informative immunohistochemical markers for @entity5 , except @entity44 , are genes expressed in primordial germ cells/gonocytes and @entity2085 -related factors, such as @entity10797 ( @entity10797 ), @entity4729 ( @entity4729 ), @entity2440 , AP-2y ( @entity37176 ) and @entity26534 , which are not expressed in normal adult germ cells. Some of these markers can also be used for immunocytochemistry to detect GCNIS or incipient @entity5 in semen samples. Gene expression in @entity5 is regulated in part by DNA and histone modifications, and the epigenetic profile of these @entity5 is characterised by genome-wide demethylation, except nonseminomas. In addition, a recently discovered mechanism of post-genomic gene expression regulation involves small non-coding RNAs, predominantly micro-RNA (miR). @entity5 display micro-RNA profiles similar to embryonic stem cells. Targeted miRNA-based blood tests for @entity59109 and @entity67953 clusters are currently under development and hold a great promise for the future. In some @entity1 miR-based tests may be even more sensitive than the classical serum @entity5 markers, b -chorio-gonadotrophin (b-hCG), a-fetoprotein (AFP) and @entity880 dehydrogenase (LDH), which are currently used in the clinic. In summary, research advances have provided clinicians with a panel of molecular markers, which allow specific diagnosis of various subtypes of @entity5 and are very useful for early detection at the precursor stage and for monitoring of @entity1 during the follow-up.

Diagnostic markers for germ cell neoplasms: from XXXX to micro-RNAs.

@entity1 :: ('9606', 'Species') :: ['men', 'children', 'patients'] @entity59109 :: ('100500855', 'Gene') :: ['miR-371-3'] @entity2085 :: ('MESH:D020964', 'Disease') :: ['embryonic pluripotency'] @entity37176 :: ('7022', 'Gene') :: ['TFAP2C'] @entity4729 :: ('5460', 'Gene') :: ['POU5F1', 'OCT4'] @entity2440 :: ('79923', 'Gene') :: ['NANOG'] @entity26534 :: ('79727', 'Gene') :: ['LIN28'] @entity5 :: ('MESH:D009369', 'Disease') :: ['TGCT', 'tumour', 'GCT', 'tumours', 'Testicular GCT', 'germ cell tumours', 'testicular GCT', 'neoplasia'] @entity2557 :: ('2261', 'Gene') :: ['FGFR3'] @entity67953 :: ('442912', 'Gene') :: ['miR-367'] @entity880 :: ('MESH:D019344', 'Chemical') :: ['lactate'] @entity4797 :: ('MESH:D018239', 'Disease') :: ['seminoma'] @entity5712 :: ('MESH:D018238', 'Disease') :: ['gonadoblastoma'] @entity10797 :: ('251', 'Gene') :: ['placental-like alkaline phosphatase', 'PLAP'] @entity8498 :: ('3265', 'Gene') :: ['HRAS'] @entity44 :: ('MESH:D013724', 'Disease') :: ['teratoma']
@entity10797 :: (251,Gene) :: ['placental-like alkaline phosphatase']
