Abstract During hovering flight, animals can increase the wing velocity and therefore the net aerodynamic force per @entity64 by increasing wingbeat frequency, @entity64 , or both. The magnitude and orientation of aerodynamic forces are also influenced by the geometric angle of attack, timing of wing rotation, wing contact, and pattern of deviation from the primary @entity64 plane. Most of the kinematic data available for flying animals are average values for @entity64 and wingbeat frequency because these features are relatively easy to measure, but it is frequently suggested that the more subtle and difficult-to-measure features of wing kinematics can explain variation in force production for different @entity146 . Here, we test this hypothesis with multicamera high-speed recording and digitization of wing kinematics of @entity5157 ( @entity5157 ) hovering and ascending in air and hovering in a hypodense gas (heliox: 21% O2, 79% He). @entity5157 employed @entity64 (86.7      7.9  ) and high wingbeat frequencies (226.8    12.8 Hz) when hovering in air. When ascending in air or hovering in heliox, @entity5157 increased @entity64 amplitude by 30%-45%, which yielded a much higher wing tip velocity relative to that during simple hovering in air. Across the three flight conditions, there were no statistical differences in the amplitude of wing @entity64 deviation, minimum and @entity64 -averaged geometric angle of attack, maximum wing rotation velocity, or even wingbeat frequency. We employed a quasi-steady aerodynamic model to estimate the effects of wing tip velocity and geometric angle of attack on lift and drag. Lift forces were sensitive to variation in wing tip velocity, whereas drag was sensitive to both variation in wing tip velocity and angle of attack. @entity5157 utilized kinematic patterns that did not maximize lift production but rather maintained lift-to-drag ratio. Thus, our data indicate that, at least for @entity5157 , the overall time course of wing angles is generally preserved and modulation of wing tip velocity is sufficient to perform a diverse set of vertical @entity146 .

Hovering Flight in the XXXX @entity5157 : Kinematic Mechanisms for Varying Aerodynamic Forces.

@entity64 :: ('MESH:D020521', 'Disease') :: ['wing stroke amplitude', 'low stroke amplitudes', 'stroke'] @entity5157 :: ('7460', 'Species') :: ['bees', 'Apis mellifera', 'honeybees', 'Bees'] @entity146 :: ('MESH:D001523', 'Disease') :: ['flight behaviors']
@entity5157 :: (7460,Species) :: ['Honeybee']
