@entity1030 , @entity1030 is a highly prevalent disorder of increasing medical and socio-economical importance. It is characterized by irreversible airflow obstruction. Besides airflow obstruction also other features are present. One of these is respiratory @entity425 . Inspiratory @entity425 is caused by hyperinflation and by generalized @entity425 causing both respiratory and peripheral @entity121 . The expiratory muscles partake in this generalized @entity425 . Hyperinflation shortens the inspiratory muscles although in chronic hyperinflation sarcomere adaptation occurs. Generalized @entity425 is caused by deconditioning, @entity3147 , electrolyte disturbances, @entity712 , systemic @entity32 and treatment with @entity288 causing @entity134 -induced @entity121 . The latter disease was studied intensively both in @entity1 and in animal models of disease. The major findings were that microscopically a myopathic pattern was present associated with generalized fiber @entity194 . This is in contrast to classical belief that the @entity194 would be confined to type IIx fibers. We noted severe down-regulation of the @entity442 mRNA expression, without important changes in the expression of the binding proteins. This may be responsible for the observed @entity2057 and the @entity121 . The latter is likely to be caused by a simultaneous upregulation of the ubiquitin protease pathway attacking structural proteins. Presently, we study the relationship between local and systemic cytokine expression and respiratory and peripheral @entity121 in @entity1030 @entity1 . Respiratory and peripheral @entity121 have significant consequences for @entity1030 @entity1 . Both respiratory and peripheral @entity121 are associated with reduced exercise tolerance and reduced quality of life. Both are independent determinants of survival, in addition to the degree of airflow obstruction as measured by FEV1. Finally, also the utilization of health care resources appeared to be related to respiratory and peripheral @entity425 . Treatment of respiratory and peripheral @entity425 in @entity1030 @entity1 is possible. Respiratory and peripheral muscle training have been shown to produce beneficial effects. Nutritional intervention and anabolic @entity230 are only useful in combination with muscle training. Systemic administration of @entity2124 and @entity442 only produces small effects. In animal models, local administration of @entity442 and transfer of the @entity442 gene transfer appear more promising for the future. Lung volume reduction surgery, LVRS, improves the force-generating capacity of the inspiratory muscles, presumably because of the geometrical alterations it causes in these muscles. It does not appear to improve intrinsic inspiratory muscle function.

Respiratory muscles in XXXX : regulation of trophical status.

@entity1 :: ('9606', 'Species') :: ['patients'] @entity32 :: ('MESH:D007249', 'Disease') :: ['inflammation'] @entity712 :: ('MESH:D006333', 'Disease') :: ['cardiac failure'] @entity442 :: ('3479', 'Gene') :: ['IGF-I'] @entity425 :: ('MESH:D018908', 'Disease') :: ['muscle weakness'] @entity2124 :: ('2688', 'Gene') :: ['growth hormone'] @entity134 :: ('CHEBI:35341', 'Chemical') :: ['steroid'] @entity194 :: ('MESH:D001284', 'Disease') :: ['atrophy'] @entity3147 :: ('MESH:D044342', 'Disease') :: ['malnutrition'] @entity1030 :: ('MESH:D029424', 'Disease') :: ['Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease', 'COPD'] @entity230 :: ('MESH:D013256', 'Chemical') :: ['steroids'] @entity2057 :: ('MESH:D009133', 'Disease') :: ['muscle atrophy'] @entity121 :: ('MESH:D009135', 'Disease') :: ['myopathy', 'muscle dysfunction'] @entity288 :: ('MESH:D000305', 'Chemical') :: ['corticosteroids']
@entity1030 :: (MESH:D029424,Disease) :: ['COPD']
