BackgroundMalaria control is heavily dependent on the use of insecticides that target adult mosquito vectors via insecticide treated nets (ITNs) or indoor residual spraying (IRS). Four classes of insecticide are approved for IRS but only @entity312 are available for ITNs. The rapid rise in insecticide resistance in African @entity311 vectors has raised alarms about the sustainability of existing @entity311 control activities. This problem might be particularly acute in C  te d  Ivoire where resistance to all four insecticide classes has recently been recorded. Here we investigate temporal trends in insecticide resistance across the ecological zones of C  te d  Ivoire to determine whether apparent pan-African patterns of increasing resistance are detectable and consistent across insecticides and areas.MethodsWe combined data on insecticide resistance from a literature review, and bioassays conducted on field-caught @entity313 mosquitoes for the four WHO-approved insecticide classes for ITN/IRS. The data were then mapped using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and the IR mapper tool to provide spatial and temporal distribution data on insecticide resistance in An. gambiae sensu lato from C  te d  Ivoire between 1993 and 2014.ResultsBioassay mortality decreased over time for all insecticide classes, though with significant spatiotemporal variation, such that stronger declines were observed in the southern ecological zone for @entity318 and @entity312 than in the central zone, but with an apparently opposite effect for the @entity2961 and organophosphate. Variation in relative abundance of the molecular forms, coupled with dramatic increase in kdr 1014F frequency in M forms (An. coluzzii) seems likely to be a contributory factor to these patterns. Although records of resistance across insecticide classes have become more common, the number of classes tested in studies has also increased, precluding a conclusion that multiple resistance has also increased.ConclusionOur analyses attempted synthesis of 22  years of bioassay data from C  te d  Ivoire, and despite a number of caveats and potentially confounding variables, suggest significant but spatially-variable temporal trends in insecticide resistance. In the light of such spatio-temporal dynamics, regular, systematic and spatially-expanded monitoring is warranted to provide accurate information on insecticide resistance for control programme management.

Long-term trends in XXXX insecticide resistance in C  te d  Ivoire.

@entity318 :: ('MESH:D003634', 'Chemical') :: ['DDT'] @entity311 :: ('MESH:D008288', 'Disease') :: ['malaria'] @entity2961 :: ('CHEBI:28616', 'Chemical') :: ['carbamate'] @entity312 :: ('MESH:D011722', 'Chemical') :: ['pyrethroids'] @entity313 :: ('7165', 'Species') :: ['Anopheles gambiae']
@entity313 :: (7165,Species) :: ['Anopheles gambiae']
