@entity263 is the most common type of @entity5 , excluding @entity1489 , and the second leading cause of @entity5 in adult @entity1 in the United States. The lifetime risk for developing symptomatic @entity263 is one in five for an American @entity1 . A pivotal step in carcinogenesis is a shift in the balance between proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis that favors cell proliferation. @entity2533 ( @entity2533 ) is a key negative growth regulator in the normal prostate. Although @entity2533 ) inhibits the proliferation of normal prostate cells and functions as a @entity5 suppressor in early tumorigenesis, it acts as a @entity5 promoter in later stages of @entity5 progression. Elevated expression of @entity2533 in @entity263 cells is associated with poor clinical outcome. Over-expression of @entity2533 aids tumorigenesis by not only stimulating angiogenesis and suppressing the immune system, but also by acting directly on the @entity263 cells. While @entity263 cells become resistant to @entity2533 -induced growth inhibition and apoptosis, they retain other @entity2533 -induced responses that enhance tumorgenicity. such as induction of extracellular matrix proteins, cell adhesion proteins and proteases. These direct @entity5 effects are mediated primarily through Smad signaling. This review addresses the mechanisms by which @entity263 cells may acquire @entity2533 resistance and promote tumorgenicity. Understanding the mechanisms underlying @entity2533 resistance is important for the identification and development of better diagnostic markers and more effective strategies for treating @entity263 .

TGF-betal/Smad signaling in XXXX .

@entity1 :: ('9606', 'Species') :: ['man', 'men'] @entity263 :: ('MESH:D011471', 'Disease') :: ['Adenocarcinoma of the prostate', 'prostate cancer', 'prostate tumor'] @entity5 :: ('MESH:D009369', 'Disease') :: ['tumor', 'cancer death', 'cancer'] @entity1489 :: ('MESH:D012878', 'Disease') :: ['skin cancer'] @entity2533 :: ('7040', 'Gene') :: ['TGF-beta', 'Transforming growth factor-beta']
@entity263 :: (MESH:D011471,Disease) :: ['prostate cancer']
