Back Squat Exercise Treatment for Low Back Pain: Clinical Trial
Condition: Low Back Pain; Muscle Strength; Visceral Obesity; Spine Disease; Spine Degeneration; Postural Low Back Pain; Spine Deformity
MeSH terms: Spinal Diseases; Obesity, Abdominal; Back Pain; Low Back Pain
Study type: Interventional

Summary: 
      Summary: Low back pain is the leading cause of deficiency and loss of productivity worldwide.
      No evidence of any particular exercise was more effective than another for treating
      nonspecific low back pain. Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of two resistance training
      protocols, with different techniques for performing lower limbs exercises, in improving
      vertebral posture and reducing symptoms of low back pain. Methods: Randomized parallel
      clinical trial with two arms: Restricted Group (GR) performed all squat and Stiff exercises
      with neutral vertebral posture and the Complete Group (CG) performed the same exercises
      prioritizing the complete range of motion. Both groups had a 12-week intervention with 36
      resistance training sessions. This study was conducted between November 2020 and April 2021
      in Goiás (Brazil). Thirty-two participants aged 18 to 69 years with nonspecific low back pain
      were recruited in the extension project of the Faculty of Physical Education and Dance of the
      Federal University of Goiás (UFG), at the Hospital das Clínicas - UFG and at the Campos
      Samambaia Health Center. To ensure blindness, participants did not know why the technique of
      movement between them was different. The movement technique was monitored by one teacher per
      participant throughout the training and cannot be altered by participants at risk of
      compromising the results. Spinal posture was evaluated by three-dimensional reconstruction
      and posture quantification using dynamic posture software and pain symptoms were evaluated by
      the Brief Pain Inventory and Rolland Morris Questionnaire. Statistical analysis was performed
      in the Software SPSS and MATLAB. The Shapiro-Wilk and Bartlett tests were used to confirm the
      normal distribution and similar variances in the distribution of the data. The other
      quantitative and qualitative variables were analyzed by nonparametric statistical methods.
      Quantitative data with normal distribution were reported by means of means and standard
      deviation, minimum and maximum values, and the other data by median, interquartile range,
      minimum and maximum values. The pre-intervention conditions of the groups were compared by
      independent t-test. Two-way ANOVAs (groups X time) were used for group intervention effect
      comparisons for quantitative data variables with normal distribution. Significance level of
      5%. The size of the effect of the results will be calculated using cohen's test.
    

Detailed description: 
      Back Squat Exercise for Low Back Pain: Avoiding Butt Wink vs Full Range Clinical Trial.

      Background The deterioration of muscle strength of the back was the most important factor to
      decrease the range of motion of the spine and were related to the worsening of quality of
      life. Back pain is the leading cause of deficiency and loss of productivity worldwide.
      Resistance training has become increasingly a great ally in the benefit of health and
      especially in the functional capacity of the human being, and reduction of injuries.

      Squat is one of the most popular exercises in resistance training, widely used to achieve
      health, rehabilitation, performance and aesthetic goals.

      Vertebral posture has been much questioned in the scientific literature whether or not it may
      undergo changes in its curvature associated with high overloads during the execution of the
      squat, believing that this may cause or increase back pain. Further studies are needed before
      abandoning the current standards of the squat technique that defend a neutral position of the
      lumbar spine during a deep squat.

      OWEN et al. (2020), concluded that no evidence of any particular form of exercise was more
      effective than others for treating back pain. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to
      evaluate the efficacy of two resistance training protocols, with different techniques for
      performing squat exercise, in improving vertebral posture and reducing low back pain.

      Methodology

      Participants, Randomization and Blindness

      This study is a randomized clinical trial involving 32 participants aged 18 to 69 years, all
      with symptoms of low back pain, controlled by participant, in the effectiveness of the
      movement technique with a teacher for each exercise.

      The participants were recruited in the Faculty of Physical Education and Dance, Federal
      University of Goiás (UFG), at the Clinical Hospital and Samambaia Campus Health Center.

      Research participants must watched 85% of the classes during the 12 weeks of
      exercise/intervention treatment.

      For randomization, they were distributed in a ratio of 1:1, in order of the registration
      number and parallel intervention. The intervention groups were: 1) Restricted Group (RG) and
      2) Complete Group (CG). All perform the same exercises, the only difference between the
      groups was the technique of movement of the Squats and Stiff.

      To ensure blindness, participants not knew why the technique of movement between them was
      different. The movement technique was monitored with one teacher per participant throughout
      the training and cannot be altered by participants at risk of compromising the results.

      For the participants of the research, a first meeting was scheduled to present and clarify
      the research and schedule the evaluations.

      Ethical procedures All participants signed the Free and Informed Consent Form in two ways
      according to the Ethics Committee on Human and Animal Research of UFG, opinion number
      2,458,324.

      Evaluation of vertebral posture with videogrammetry

      Retroreflective stickers (flat, rectangular [12x8 mm]) were positioned on the back of the
      participants to identify anatomical accidents (Figure 3). Markers were positioned at the
      point of intersection between the medial edge and the spine of the scapula (Scapula Trigone),
      on the left and right side; in the lower angle of the left and right scapula (SI) ; in the
      posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS); in the spinous processes of the second sacral vertebra
      (S2), fourth lumbar vertebra (L4), twelfth, sixth and first thoracic vertebrae (T12, T6 and
      T1). In addition to these, pairs of markers, which were used as reference points during the
      analysis, were positioned bilaterally and at the time of the spinous processes of L4, T12, T6
      and T1, following the alignment of the PSIS. After identifying these points, the line defined
      by the spinous processes of the vertebrae was filled with markers regularly positioned
      approximately every 2.5 cm.

      To record the back of these volunteers, three OptiTrack Flex 13 cameras with 100Hz
      acquisition frequency were used and were regulated before postural recording. The measurement
      of the geometric curvature of the spine was performed with the method described in Campos et
      al., 2015). The method consists of automatic tracking and three-dimensional reconstruction of
      retroreflective markers with video cameras. The movement of markers on the back of volunteers
      is tracked and analyzed.

      The processing of images to measure the spatial position of the markers was performed in the
      Dynamic Posture software (CAMPOS, 2010) developed in Matlab® (The MathWorks, Natick,
      Massachusetts,USA). In each frame of each video collected, for all cameras, the
      bidimensionais coordinates of the centroid of the markers were calculated from their
      respective barycenter (GRUEN, 1997). The calibration of the system was performed through the
      point s register with a known location, which allowed the three-dimensional reconstruction
      using the method of linear transformation direct (ABDEL-AZIZ; KARARA, 1971). The system
      global reference of the laboratory was defined as: vertical axis Z (para up), horizontal
      back-row axis X(forward) and Y horizontal lateral axis (to left).

      During locomotion the trunk presents a regular oscillatory behavior along the vertical axis,
      with one cycle per step, reaching a maximum peak during each simple support phase and a
      minimum peak during the double support phases of the lower limbs. Thus, the beginning and end
      of each step were defined at the moments when the minimum vertical oscillation peaks of the
      column markers occurred (we calculated the average of the Z coordinate of all column
      markers). Thus, every two minimum peaks we had a complete stride. Through a function based on
      finite differences, all minimum peaks of vertical trunk oscillation were identified and
      consequently passed. We emphasize that we did not claim to identify the events and phases of
      each pass with this procedure. It was only identified the stride as a whole.

      After three-dimensional reconstruction, for locomotion, the data were smoothed with a spline
      filter adjusted so that the residues were below 1 mm. Each stride cycle was normalized at 101
      points in time, representing positions from 0 to 100% of the complete movement cycle. In the
      analysis of the locomotion of each participant, an average cycle of 10 stride cycles was
      used, called in this standard cycle work of the stride. For static posture analysis, each
      marker had its position represented by the average three-dimensional position in a stretch of
      one second (100 frames).

      At each moment in which the posture was recorded, the 3D s of all spinal markers between S2
      and T1 were described in a local reference system in the trunk (CAMPOS et al., 2015) with or
      from T12. The vector with origin in L4 and end in T6 defined the orientation of the
      longitudinal axis z (upward). An auxiliary vector y' was defined with origin at the midpoint
      of the reference points to the right of L4 and T6 and with an end at the midpoint of the
      reference points to the left of L4 and T6. The vector product between y' and z defined the
      local sagittal axis of trunk x (forward) and the vector product between z and x defined the
      local transverse axis of trunk y (left).

      The method proposed in Brenzikofer et al. (2000), is adopted to measure the geometric shape
      of the column. By means of the minimum squares method, a polynomial adjustment was made on
      the position of the markers projected in the sagittal and frontal plane. The lower and upper
      extremities of the polynomial curve were discarded in the analyses because they could present
      in very robust adjustments. Eighth-degree polynomials defined by the X²red,
      chi-square-reduced test (VUOLO, 1992) were used. The geometric curvature of the column
      vertebral, K(z), was calculated (Figure 4 - left; Figure 3) with the first and second
      derivatives, P'(z)and P"(z),by means of equation (1): K(z)= P"(z) / [1 + P'(z)2 ]3/2.

      Geometric curvature can be interpreted as being the inverse of the radius of the
      circumference that adjusts and touches the curve at each height of the longitudinal axis of
      the column. The unit of measurement of geometric curvature is "m-1". In the sagittal plane, v
      positive curvature allocated previous (kyphosis) and posterior negative (lordosis)
      concavities. In the frontal plane, positive values indicated left bending and negative for
      the right.

      For the analysis of locomotion, both in the sagittal and frontal plane, the mean posture of
      the standard cycle of the stride was calculated, called the neutral curve (CAMPOS et al.,
      2015). We also analyzed the Oscillatory Component, defined by the difference between the
      postures presented at each instant of the standard stride cycle and the Neutral Curve.

      In the analysis of static posture and neutral gait curve, para the sagittal plane, the peak
      of absolute curvature in the lumbar region (z < 0 cm) was identified as a representative
      variable of lumbar lordosis and the peak of absolute curvature in the thoracic region (z > 0
      cm), as a representative variable of thoracic kyphosis. Also in the sagittal plane, the
      sagittal geometric curvature at the level of L4, T12 and T6 was analyzed. Frontal geometric
      curvature was analyzed at the level of L4, T12 and T6 as well as the absolute peak of lateral
      flexion (higher absolute value of curvature) in the lumbar and thoracic regions.

      In the analysis of the Oscillatory Component, in the sagittal and frontal plane, for the
      lumbar and thoracic regions, the place where the greatest range of motion presented in the
      standard cycle was identified. The range of motion was analyzed.

      The trunk inclination was calculated similarly to CAMPOS et al. (2015). The local
      longitudinal axis of the z trunk was projected in the sagittal plane of the laboratory
      (normal to Y) in such a way that 0º indicated that the trunk was completely vertical, and 90º
      indicated that the trunk was inclined to previously, completely horizontal. The local
      longitudinal axis z of the trunk was also projected in the frontal plane of the laboratory
      (normal to X) in such a way that 0º indicated that the trunk was completely vertical and 90º
      indicated that the trunk was tilted to the left, completely horizontal. The cross-sectional
      and local axis of the trunk was projected in the transverse plane of the laboratory (normal
      to Z) in such a way that 0º indicated that the trunk was completely aligned with the Y axis
      and positive values indicated that the trunk was rotated to the left and negative to the
      right.

      Six angular variables were calculated for the two regions of the spine studied (lumbar and
      thoracic). For the calculation of lumbar angles (Figure 3), a local system was constructed in
      this region. The vector with origin in S2 and end in T12 defined the orientation of the
      lumbar longitudinal axis (upward). A lumbar auxiliary vector was defined with origin in the
      right superior superior iliac spine and extremity in the left upper superior iliac spine. The
      vector product between the auxiliary vector and the longitudinal lumbar axis defined the
      lumbar sagittal axis. The vector product between the longitudinal lumbar axis and the
      sagittal lumbar axis defined the transverse lumbar axis. The lower lumbar segment was defined
      as the straight segment starting at S2 and end in L4. The upper lumbar segment was defined as
      the straight segment with beginning at L4 and end in T12. The upper transverse lumbar segment
      was defined as the straight segment starting at the bilateral point on the right side of T12
      and the lower transverse lumbar segment was defined as the straight segment with beginning in
      the right upper inferior iliac spine and extremity in the upper superior iliac spine. The
      lower and upper lumbar segments were projected in the sagittal and frontal planes, defining
      respectively the sagittal lumbar angle(α)and frontal lumbar angle(β)(Figure 3a and 3b). The
      transverse lumbar angle (θ) was defined by the projection ofthe transverse lumbar segments
      (Figure 3c).

      For the thoracic region, the same procedures used for the lumbar region angles were adopted,
      replacing in the formulas S2, L4, T12 and the respective bilateral scans with markers of T12,
      T6, T1 and the respective bilateral ones. Thus, theSagittal Thoracic Angle, TheFrontal
      Thoracic Angle andTransverse Thoracic Angle were calculated.

      Interventions

      The participants were frequently trained three times a week, being 2x for lower limbs (Smith
      Machine Squat, Free Squat, Unilateral Squat and Deadlift with Rigid Legs, on the 3rd and 6th
      and 1x for upper limbs, (Lat Pulldown, Low Rowing Machine, Inverted Crucifix with Dumbbells,
      Complete and Inverse Abdominal, Supine with Bar and Supine with Bar).

      The selected exercises were the same for the two protocols, but what differentiated one group
      from the other was the technique of movement of squat and ground lifting exercises with rigid
      legs. The evaluations were made in two moments, at baseline and at the end of the
      intervention, after 12 weeks.

      In exercise, the ground survey with rigid legs was also controlled by neutral vertebral
      posture for the participants, and the CG prioritize or range of motion. Foot positioning was
      also controlled in the Stiff Legged Deadlift exercise in the two protocols respectively in
      the positions explained for the squat. For the CG the orientation was to go down as much as
      possible seeking the best posture I could without.

      During the execution of both protocols, the knees exceed ed the foot line so that the
      positioning of the trunk was as straight as possible and did not provide the greatest range
      of motion of the knees.

      The intensity of the exercises see you adjusting load according to the volitive tolerance for
      10 to 12 maximum repetitions. The loads and repetitions achieved in each series of each
      exercise per training session of each participant were noted to control the evolution of the
      training load. The rest interval was only one minute timed between all series. The cadence of
      repetitions was 2 seconds in concentric contraction and 4 seconds in eccentric contraction.
      All 36 training sessions were followed from 14:30 to 16:30 with guidance and supervision of a
      teacher graduated in Physical Education and Physiotherapy, who perform so this research and
      one more teacher and three trainees.

      Adhesive markers were fixed on the ground, which were measured with goniometer and measuring
      tape at the squat site, to control the positioning of the feet in the two protocols in all
      training sessions.
    

Intervention name(s): Experimental: Complete Group; Active Comparator: Restricted Group
Intervention type(s): Behavioral; Behavioral
Intervention description(s): The participants performed the squat and Stiff exercises with the maximum range of motion. In the squats, the knees were completely flirted, even if the participant could not perform the movement with neutral vertebral posture. The heels were also not supported to the ground in some participants due to lack of flexibility. It was instructed that the participants tried to perform the Squats and Stiff keeping the lumbar lordosis neutral, with the best posture they could in all training sessions, but all should perform the exercise with as much range of motion as possible.
The positioning of the feet was also carefully controlled, there was no hip rotation and the distance between the lateral edges of the heels was defined as the distance between the upper iliac spines (EIAS). The direction of the knees was oriented pointing in the direction of the tip of the feet parallel throughout the cycle of the movement.; The conventional movement technique of the squat exercise was used, in which the participants performed with the range of motion restricted to the neutral vertebral posture, approximately 90º of movement of the knee joint. may increase the range of motion if the lumbar posture did not rectify.
The positioning of the feet in this group was carefully controlled, the participants performed the exercise with the joints of the hips abducted and rotated laterally. Having markings on the ground as a reference, the feet went rotated at 21º and the lateral edge of the heels were moved away from each other, approximately with the biacromial distance. The direction of the knees was oriented pointing in the direction of the tip of the feet throughout the cycle of the movement, aligned to the lateral rotation of the hip. In the first training session, with the aid of a goniometer and metric tape, adhesive marks were placed on the floor to ensure this positioning of the support base.
Allocation: Randomized
Intervention model: Parallel Assignment
Intervention model description: Physical Exercises Treatment - The participants performed the squat exercise with the maximum range of motion, even if the participant was unable to perform the movement with a neutral vertebral posture, especially in the lumbar region, which, in most cases, rounding occurs when the range of motion is imposed. The positioning of the feet in this group was also carefully controlled, for this group, there was no hip rotation and the distance between the lateral edges of the heels was defined as the distance between the antero-superior iliac spines (ISIS). The direction of the knees was oriented pointing in the direction of the toes parallel during the whole cycle of the movement.
Masking: Single (Participant)
Primary purpose: Treatment
Keywords: low back pain; squat exercise; vertebral posture; deep squat; resistence training; range of motion; backache; spine; visceral obesity; physical exercise; flexibility