Lars Nyberg: The infrastructure of emergency liquidity assistance
- what is required in today's financial system?
Speech by Mr Lars Nyberg, Deputy Governor of the Sveriges Riksbank, at the CGFS regional meeting
in Tokyo, Bank of Japan, on 22 May 2000.
* * *
Sweden experienced a severe banking crisis in the beginning of the 1990s. To manage the crisis, the
authorities had to implement measures that averted a complete breakdown of the financial system
while attempting to limit the costs to taxpayers. In addition, it was imperative for the authorities to
consider whether or not their actions would contribute to future moral hazard problems. During the
crisis, an effective division of labour developed between the authorities involved, namely the Ministry
of Finance, the Riksbank, the central bank, Finansinspektionen, the financial supervisory authority and
the Bank Support Authority. As the crisis progressed, the Riksbank provided emergency liquidity
assistance (ELA) twice, acting in its role as "lender of last resort". The remarks in this note are largely
drawn from the Riksbank's experiences in this crisis, and how these experiences can be used to
assessing the role of ELA in a general crisis management infrastructure.
When discussing the infrastructure that is in place to handle financial crises, two aspects are of
primary importance. First, ELA must be put in the context of the overall methods of crisis
management that the authorities would employ should a financial crisis occur. ELA is not a measure
that can or should be used in every financial crisis. The way other crisis management procedures are
set up also affects the scope for ELA. This is covered in the first part of this note.
Second, the way ELA issues are organised within the central bank is also very important for whether it
is an effective measure and, in particular, whether it will reduce or increase moral hazard in the
financial sector. This is discussed in the second part of the note.
Before discussing these two aspects, the importance of speed in granting ELA must be emphasized, as
the speedy implementation of ELA is essential to its being effective in a crisis situation. ELA is the
only measure in the crisis management framework that normally can be used quickly. It should be
seen as an acute measure that is used for avoiding a sudden disruption of the large-value payment
system, in particular when threats to the system emerge suddenly.
Incidents like the failure of Barings bank, LTCM and the Swedish currency and banking crisis show
that threats to the financial system may indeed emerge suddenly, and that authorities must react very
quickly - if not within minutes, at least within hours. The growth and increasing globalisation of
financial markets, the high volatility in these markets and the increasing complexity of financial
institutions, are all examples of factors that increase the risk for sudden crises and increase the
probability that such crises will spread from one market to another.
1. ELA as part of general crisis management and resolution
Should a financial crisis occur, there are a number of measures that may be used by authorities to limit
the consequences of the crisis. In addition to ELA, examples of these measures are financial support to
protect the solvency of institutions, brokering of private sector support to or acquisitions of troubled
institutions, management of deposit insurance schemes and insolvency procedures for financial
institutions. In general, these measures may be undertaken by different authorities. A consequence of
this is that cooperation between authorities is an important element of crisis management. The
authorities must have a common strategy for how the crisis should be managed in order to avoid
excessive support to the financial sector. Excessive support may lead to undue costs to taxpayers and
to unsound incentives for the financial sector. In this context, it is important to emphasise that these
effects can arise from all kinds of official support. Thus, the authorities must limit the support that is
offered. Support may be warranted only when there is a considerable risk for a systemic crisis that
may lead to a severe decline of real economic activity. Typically, real economic activity is affected by
a breakdown of payments systems or restrictive granting of credit, a credit crunch.
Traditionally, ELA provided by central banks has been seen as a measure to deal with pure liquidity
problems in banks that essentially are solvent. In practice, situations where pure liquidity problems
arise seem to be rare. In most cases where banks face liquidity problems, there is some uncertainty
about the solvency of the institutions involved. Typically, it takes time to make an assessment of the
solvency of an institution. In the Swedish banking crisis, it took many months to fully assess the
financial situation of the troubled institutions. Not even the institutions themselves had a good picture
of how large their problems were. Recent developments in the financial system, such as consolidation,
the emergence of geographically dispersed financial conglomerates with activity in many product lines
and a greater complexity of financial products, make this task even harder. It is unlikely that central
banks or supervisory authorities will be able to make a valid assessment of the solvency of troubled
institutions quickly enough. As mentioned above, requests for liquidity support may arise very rapidly.
The conclusion of this is that it will in practice be very difficult to draw the dividing line between the
central bank's responsibilities and those of other authorities by distinguishing between institutions
with solvency problems and those with pure liquidity problems, at least during a sudden crisis.
Another conclusion is that it is crucial to establish rules for information sharing between authorities,
especially between the financial supervisory authority and the central bank in advance so that the
central bank can quickly make an assessment. It is also important that the central bank, even if it does
not have direct supervisory responsibilities, closely monitors general financial market developments,
including in the major institutions, to detect potential crisis situations that may call for ELA.
The traditional view that ELA should never be given to insolvent banks can also be discussed from
another perspective. A prerequisite for all kinds of support, including ELA, should be that there is
considerable risk for a systemic crisis. Given that, it can be discussed whether it is worse to provide
ELA to an insolvent institution, or to refrain from an action that could avoid a systemic crisis. If there
is a risk of systemic crisis, it is normally determined that public support even to insolvent institutions
may be warranted, but this is normally given by the government through the fiscal budget, not by the
central bank. The moral hazard aspects, which are common arguments for not providing ELA to
insolvent institutions, will be no different if the central bank provides support or if the government
does.
The central bank may have a better capability than other authorities to provide financial support if the
need arises very quickly. The main reason for this is that the central bank has the instruments for
lending available and it has resources in its balance sheet or the credibility to get resources if they are
needed (for example in foreign currency). It also has an established capacity to judge whether a
systemic crisis may occur as a result of an institution's financial problems. The Riksbank is able to
make this judgement by virtue of its role as provider of the central payment system and the
responsibilities attached to this, its presence in financial markets and its general knowledge of the state
of the economic and financial system. Other authorities typically have greater obstacles to reacting
fast, as they do not in most cases have instruments or resources readily available for these sorts of
operations. There may also be difficult political considerations that have to be taken. For example, a
minority government may need to seek support from other parties to use budgetary resources, a
support that may be hard to get or at least take some time. However, this is not to be taken as an
argument for governments to use the central bank as a provider of support because it does not want to
use budgetary resources. The central bank should be independent and control its own resources.
The conclusion of this is that ELA operations should have the role in the general crisis management
infrastructure of dealing with quickly emerging problems. Where problems arise gradually, other
measures available to supervisory authorities and governments are more likely to be used. ELA should
be seen as a means for handling acute problems, so that the authorities gain time to decide whether
other crisis management measures are needed, such as restructuring of troubled institutions. If private
sector support can be organised, such as in the case of LTCM, that is of course to be preferred.
If the view is accepted that ELA should function as a "bridge" measure to prevent acute crises from
occurring, it is very important that the support is given in a way that minimises the credit risk for the
central bank, in order to avoid moral hazard effects. The central bank must have a well-considered exit
strategy for its lending operations. The most obvious way to do this is to lend against collateral. In
most cases where a need for support occurs, collateral that is normally accepted by the central bank
will probably not be available. The central bank may in these cases be required to accept lower quality
collateral. It should in these cases apply a larger haircut on the collateral than is used for normal
collateral. Another part of a proper exit strategy is that financial support should not be given to
shareholders or other holders of risk capital.
2. Internal procedures for ELA
In the previous section, two main points were suggested: (1) that ELA is a measure that predominantly
should be used for problems that arise without warning; and (2) that ELA should only be provided if
there is a risk that a systemic problem would occur if the central bank did not act. These two features
bring about requirements for the way central banks should organise the ELA function internally. The
possible need for speedy assistance necessitates that a central bank must have internal procedures for
managing requests for liquidity support and doing so very rapidly. To accomplish this, central banks
need to have a detailed crisis plan that can be put in place within very short notice. The crisis plan
should include the following types of information:
Organisational structure
• A division of responsibilities for analysis, information, decision-making, etc.
• Staffing requirements for different tasks, with substitutes.
Analysis plan
• A description of the information necessary to make a decision about whether or not a
systemic crisis may occur.
• Necessary information about systemically important individual banks.
Information strategy
• A plan for informing and coordinating information and decisions with the other domestic
agencies involved in the crisis.
• A plan for informing authorities in other countries about the situation.
• A plan for communicating with the financial markets.
• A plan for spreading information to the public and media (ex ante and ex post transparency).
Plan for implementing ELA
• A clear description of the routines which must be followed and the legal requirements which
must be met for ELA.
Legal procedures, for example contracts, for lending against other collateral than what is normally
eligible
• An inventory of the instruments available for implementing ELA.
• Guidelines for acceptable collateral and appropriate haircuts.
Internal preparedness is important in order to be able to consider requests for ELA, as the timeframe
for reaction normally is very limited. It is important to note that preparation is crucial also if a central
bank is to deny a request for ELA. If the central bank has no organisation for analysing systemic
consequences and the availability of measures, it is very likely that it will not dare to lend.
not
No central bank wants to give financial institutions and markets the slightest reason to depend on
central bank support rather than their own efforts to avoid financial meltdown. Clearly, ELA is a last
resort measure that central banks use only when the stability of the financial system is at stake. A
well-planned and clear LOLR function need not encourage moral hazard. On the contrary, a central
bank with clear guidelines and a solid analysis capability is in the best position to pinpoint those
situations in which ELA is necessary. In all other situations, clear guidelines help the central bank to
stand firm against the institutions' demands for help and to force markets to solve financial problems
by themselves.