Ben S Bernanke: Mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures
Speech by Mr Ben S Bernanke, Chairman of the Board of Governors of the US Federal
Reserve System, at the Columbia Business School's 32nd Annual Dinner, New York,
5 May 2008.
The original speech, which contains various links to the documents mentioned, can be found on the US Federal Reserve
System's website.
* * *
President Bollinger, Dean Hubbard, Co-Chairman Kravis, and distinguished guests, I am
very pleased to be here and especially honored to receive the Columbia Business School's
Distinguished Leadership in Government Award. This evening I would like to offer a few
thoughts on mortgage markets and the recent increase in the pace of delinquencies and
foreclosures. My particular focus will be on geographic variation in mortgage performance
and how that variation can help us better understand and prevent foreclosures. I will also
discuss some initiatives taken by the Federal Reserve to address the foreclosure crisis as
well as other policies that might be used to strengthen mortgage and housing markets.
Geographic variation in loan mortgage performance
As my listeners know, conditions in mortgage markets remain quite difficult, and mortgage
delinquencies have climbed steeply. The sharpest increases have been among subprime
mortgages, particularly those with adjustable interest rates: About one quarter of subprime
adjustable-rate mortgages are currently 90 days or more delinquent or in foreclosure.1
Delinquency rates also have increased in the prime and near-prime segments of the
mortgage market, although not nearly so much as in the subprime sector. As a consequence
of rising delinquencies, foreclosure proceedings were initiated on some 1.5 million U.S.
homes during 2007, up 53 percent from 2006, and the rate of foreclosure starts looks likely to
be yet higher in 2008. Not all foreclosure starts result in the borrower's loss of the home;
sometimes the borrower is able to make up the missed payments or other arrangements are
made with the lender. But, given the number of borrowers in distress and the weakness of
the general housing market, the share of foreclosure initiations that ultimately result in the
loss of the home seems likely to be higher in the current episode than customarily has been
the case.
Many foreclosures are not preventable. Investors, for example, are unlikely to want to hold
onto a property whose value has depreciated significantly, and some borrowers - perhaps
because they were put into an inappropriate loan or because personal circumstances have
changed - cannot realistically sustain homeownership. However, if a foreclosure is
preventable, and the borrower wants to stay in the home, the economic case for trying to
avoid foreclosure is strong. Because foreclosures impose high costs, including legal and
administrative costs as well as the costs of leaving the property vacant for a possibly
extended period, both the borrower and the lender often are better off avoiding foreclosure.
Moreover, it is important to recognize that the costs of foreclosure may extend well beyond
those borne directly by the borrower and the lender. Clusters of foreclosures can destabilize
communities, reduce the property values of nearby homes, and lower municipal tax
revenues. At both the local and national levels, foreclosures add to the stock of homes for
sale, increasing downward pressure on home prices in general. In the current environment,
more-rapid declines in house prices may have an adverse impact on the broader economy
and, through their effects on the valuation of mortgage-related assets, on the stability of the
financial system. Thus, finding ways to avoid preventable foreclosures is a legitimate and
important concern of public policy.
To determine the appropriate public- and private-sector responses to the rise in mortgage
delinquencies and foreclosures, we need to better understand the sources of this
phenomenon. In good times and bad, a mortgage default can be triggered by a life event,
such as the loss of a job, serious illness or injury, or divorce. However, another factor is now
playing an increasing role in many markets: declines in home values, which reduce
homeowners' equity and may consequently affect their ability or incentive to make the
financial sacrifices necessary to stay in their homes.
On the principle that a picture is worth a thousand words, Federal Reserve staff, using
detailed, county-by-county information on mortgage performance, have developed a series of
"heat maps," which summarize the incidence of serious mortgage delinquencies across the
nation as well as some of the key drivers of loan performance. As the examples will make
clear, the figures use warmer colors - orange and red - to show counties for which the factor
being considered has a higher value or change. Lower values or changes are indicated by
cooler colors - shades of green - and yellows indicate areas where the factor under
consideration has a moderate value or change.
Nationally, as of the fourth quarter of 2007, the rate of serious delinquency, as measured by
credit records, stood at 2 percent of all mortgage borrowers, up nearly 50 percent from the
end of 2004.2 The fourth quarter of 2004 is a useful benchmark, because general economic
conditions were fairly normal and the lax underwriting that emerged later was not yet evident.
Figure 1 shows the national patterns of serious mortgage delinquency in 2004, which, again,
I am taking as representative of a relatively normal period, with orange and red indicating the
highest rates of delinquency and greens indicating the lowest. In 2004, the areas of the
country with the highest rates of serious delinquency included significant portions of the
Southeast; parts of the Midwest, most notably Ohio and Indiana; portions of the Rocky
Mountain region; and Texas, Oklahoma, and areas in the Mississippi valley. In contrast,
many parts of the country experienced exceptionally good loan performance at that time,
including most of the West Coast, New England, and much of southern Florida.
However, conditions in some areas changed greatly in a relatively short period of time.
Figure 2 shows the pattern of delinquency rates as of the last quarter of 2007. Many of the
areas that exhibited elevated delinquency rates in 2004 continued to show relatively high
rates of delinquency in 2007. But some areas that had low rates in 2004 experienced high
rates three years later. Figure 3 makes this point more sharply by showing the pattern of
increases in delinquency rates between 2004 and 2007, with the largest increases shown in
red. The strong regional pattern is evident in the figure. Although many parts of the country
have seen significant increases in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures, a number of
areas - such as California, parts of Nevada, Arizona, Colorado, Florida, portions of the upper
Midwest, and New England - have been particularly hard hit.
The regional pattern of the recent rise in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures requires
explanation. Again, we can use heat maps to examine the underlying relationships across
geographic regions between changes in mortgage delinquency rates and factors identified as
driving loan performance. For example, the change in the unemployment rate in a county can
be used as a proxy for disruptions in family incomes and subsequent financial stress. Figure
4 shows changes in average annual unemployment rates across counties between 2004 and
2007, with counties indicated in red experiencing the largest increases in joblessness.3 The
data suggest that increases in unemployment rates account for at least some of the recent
increases in mortgage delinquencies. Parts of New England, states in the Great Lakes region
- including Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin - and a number of other states, such as
Nevada, show both increased mortgage delinquencies and notable increases in
unemployment rates.
However, the behavior of unemployment does not seem sufficient to explain the increased
delinquency rates in other areas, including California, Florida, and portions of Colorado,
where mortgage delinquencies increased during a period in which unemployment generally
decreased. Another important determinant of loan performance, identified by research at the
Federal Reserve and elsewhere, is changes in house prices.4 Figure 5 shows the regional
pattern of changes in house prices between 2006 and 2007, with the sharpest price declines
indicated in reds and oranges.5 The figure shows that Florida, California, Nevada, Michigan,
and parts of New Mexico and Colorado experienced decreases in house prices between the
fourth quarter of 2006 and the fourth quarter of 2007 (a pattern which has continued and
intensified in 2008).6 As I noted, sharp declines in house prices, and thus in homeowners'
equity, reduce both the ability and incentive of homeowners, particularly those under financial
stress for other reasons, to retain their homes.
Other factors affect foreclosure rates, and once again the heat maps can give us a visual
impression. Figure 6 shows the share of home purchases by non-owner occupiers -
investors or purchasers of vacation homes, for example - during 2005 and 2006.7 Again,
there is some correlation with the increase in delinquencies and foreclosures, as purchases
by non-owner occupiers were relatively high in the West, Southwest, and in Florida. Figure 7
shows the incidence of junior liens (or piggyback loans), often an indicator of little borrower
equity at the time of purchase. The greater use of these mortgages in the West and East
Coasts presumably reflects higher house prices in those regions; again, the geographical
pattern suggests that the use of piggyback loans may also have contributed to the recent rise
in delinquencies and foreclosures.8
What are the implications of these relationships, particularly the linkage of mortgage payment
problems and falling house prices? Loan servicers are used to dealing with mortgage
delinquencies related to life events such as unemployment or illness, with the most common
approaches being a temporary repayment plan or the folding of missed payments into the
principal balance. A widespread decline in home prices, by contrast, is a relatively novel
phenomenon, and lenders and servicers will have to develop new and flexible strategies to
deal with this issue. In some cases, when the source of the problem is a decline of the value
of the home well below the mortgage's principal balance, the best solution may be a
writedown of principal or other permanent modification of the loan by the servicer, perhaps
combined with a refinancing by the Federal Housing Administration or another lender. To be
3
Unemployment rate data are from the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
4
For example, see Gerardi, Shapiro, and Willen (2007).
5
Displayed is the annual percentage change in the Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight price index
for each county from the end of 2006 to the end of 2007.
6
Several different series measure home price changes. The index compiled by the Office of Federal Housing
Enterprise Oversight uses the values of homes whose mortgages were purchased by Fannie Mae or Freddie
Mac.
7
Information on non-owner occupiers comes from Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA) data. HMDA is
implemented by Regulation C (12 CFR 203) of the Federal Reserve Board. For more information about
HMDA, see Avery, Brevoort, and Canner (2007).
8
For details about the technique used to identify piggyback loans and for more information about their use, see
Avery, Brevoort, and Canner (2007).
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effective, such programs must be tightly targeted to borrowers at the highest risk of
foreclosure, as measured, for example, by debt-to-income ratio or by the extent to which the
mortgage is "underwater." Finding the right balance - particularly the need to avoid programs
that give borrowers who can make their payments an incentive to default - is difficult. But
realistic public- and private-sector policies must take into account the fact that traditional
foreclosure avoidance strategies may not always work well in the current environment.
The Federal Reserve's homeownership and mortgage initiatives
I would like to say a few words about the Federal Reserve's efforts to strengthen
homeownership and reduce preventable foreclosures. The Federal Reserve's decisions
regarding monetary policy and our efforts to increase financial stability affect housing and
mortgage markets, of course. But, as an organization with a national presence in the form of
regional Federal Reserve Banks and their Branches, we are also working to address these
issues more directly. We are collaborating with other regulators, community groups, policy
organizations, lenders, and public officials to identify ways to prevent unnecessary
foreclosures and their negative effects on local economies.
Our efforts have taken a variety of forms. First, we have employed economic research and
analysis, a particular strength of the Federal Reserve, to increase the sum of knowledge
about mortgage and housing issues. For example, we are providing community leaders with
detailed analyses identifying neighborhoods at high risk of foreclosures, analogous to the
heat maps I showed you this evening.9 These analyses have helped community
organizations better focus their scarce resources, such as deciding where to target
counseling services or other intervention efforts. A Federal Reserve System work group has
prepared overviews of the current state of knowledge about housing and mortgage markets,
and further research is currently under way to fill in the most important analytical gaps.
Second, we are collaborating with interested parties across the country, taking advantage of
our national presence and our existing relationships with local lenders, community groups,
government officials, and other stakeholders, to take practical steps to address the causes
and consequences of foreclosures. For example, I mentioned earlier the destabilizing effects
foreclosures have on neighborhoods, resulting from factors such as decreased home values
and deterioration of vacant properties from neglect. To help address this problem, the
Federal Reserve is joining in a partnership with the nonprofit NeighborWorks America to
develop materials, tools, and training programs to help communities and others acquire and
manage vacant properties. The goal is to support the provision of affordable rental housing
and new homeownership opportunities in low- and moderate-income neighborhoods. Federal
Reserve Banks and Branches have also hosted numerous meetings and workshops to bring
together local officials, lenders, community groups, and others to try to find ways to reduce
the incidence of foreclosures and mitigate their economic and social effects.
Third, we are engaged with mortgage servicers to understand impediments they may face
when modifying loans or offering other alternatives to foreclosure. Servicers still report
difficulty connecting with troubled borrowers, and we have supported efforts to encourage
borrowers to contact their lenders or housing counselors. Working with the Hope Now
alliance and independently, we have encouraged the industry to increase their efforts to work
with troubled borrowers, to develop guidelines and templates for reasonable standardized
approaches to various loss-mitigation techniques, and to adopt uniform reporting standards,
such as those sponsored by Hope Now. Clear disclosures of loan modifications will not only
make it easier for regulators, the mortgage industry, and homeowners to assess the
effectiveness of foreclosure-prevention efforts, but they will also foster greater transparency,
and hence greater confidence, in the securitization market.
Prospectively, we are committed to promoting an environment that supports the
homeownership goals of creditworthy borrowers. To this end, the Federal Reserve Board has
proposed new regulations to better protect consumers from a range of unfair or deceptive
mortgage lending and advertising practices. To help ensure that the rules are broadly
enforced, we are engaging in a program with other federal and state agencies to conduct
consumer compliance reviews of nondepository lenders and mortgage brokers. These
reviews are targeting underwriting standards, risk-management strategies, and compliance
with consumer protection laws and regulations.
The Federal Reserve also is continuing its long-standing practice of providing educational
and information resources to help consumers make informed personal financial decisions,
including choosing the right mortgage. Through their community affairs offices, Federal
Reserve Banks are working to establish foreclosure-mitigation resource centers on their
websites to be used by small municipalities, housing counselors, and community groups. For
consumers who have questions about banking procedures and rules or who believe they
may have been treated unfairly by their lender, the Federal Reserve Consumer Help Center
directs queries to the various regulatory agencies so that a consumer has only one call to
make to ask questions or file complaints.10
Additional mortgage initiatives
Additional government policies can help address problems in the mortgage markets. The
Congress can take an important step by moving quickly to reconcile and enact legislation
permitting the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) to increase its scale and improve its
management of risks. Such legislation could help the FHA reach a wider range of borrowers
and develop appropriate underwriting and pricing methodologies to deal with any increase in
credit risk. Giving the FHA greater latitude to set underwriting standards and risk-based
premiums for mortgage refinancing, as well as more flexibility in product development, would
allow it to help still more troubled borrowers.
Separately, the government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) - Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac -
could do more. Recently, the Congress expanded Fannie Mae's and Freddie Mac's role in
the mortgage market by temporarily increasing the limits on the sizes of the mortgages they
can accept for securitization. In addition, because the GSEs have resolved some of their
accounting and operational problems, their federal regulator, the Office of Federal Housing
Enterprise Oversight, has lifted some of the constraints that it had imposed on them. Thus,
now is an especially appropriate time for the GSEs to move quickly to raise significant new
capital, which they will need to take advantage of these new securitization and investment
opportunities, to provide assistance to the housing markets in times of stress, and to do so in
a safe and sound manner.
As the GSEs expand their role in housing markets, the Congress should move forward on
GSE reform legislation, which includes strengthening the regulatory oversight of these
companies. As the Federal Reserve has testified on many occasions, it is very important for
the health and stability of our housing finance system that the Congress provide the GSE
regulator with broad authority to set capital standards, establish a clear and credible
receivership process, and define and monitor a transparent public purpose - one that
transcends just shareholder interests - for the accumulation of assets held in their portfolios.
Conclusion
The realtor's mantra is "location, location, location," and, as I have discussed this evening,
local variation in housing and mortgage markets is considerable. This variation is useful for
understanding the sources of the increase in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures, and
it should be taken into account as servicers and policymakers consider how best to avoid
preventable foreclosures.
Most Americans are paying their mortgages on time and are not at risk of foreclosure. But
high rates of delinquency and foreclosure can have substantial spillover effects on the
housing market, the financial markets, and the broader economy. Therefore, doing what we
can to avoid preventable foreclosures is not just in the interest of lenders and borrowers. It's
in everybody's interest.
References
Avery, Robert B., Kenneth P. Brevoort, and Glenn B. Canner (2007). "The 2006 HMDA
Data," Federal Reserve Bulletin, vol. 93 (December), pp. A73-A109.
Gerardi, Kristopher, Adam Hale Shapiro, and Paul S. Willen (2007). "Subprime Outcomes,
Risky Mortgages, Homeownership Experiences, and Foreclosures," Working Paper No.
0715. Boston: Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, December 3.
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