On the Importance of Independent Regulatory Institutions -
The Case of the Central Bank
By
Dr. Viral V Acharya, Deputy Governor, Reserve Bank of India1
Delivered as the A. D. Shroff Memorial Lecture in Mumbai on Friday, October 26, 2018
No analogy is perfect; yet, analogies help convey things better. At times, a straw man has to be
set up to make succinctly a practical or even an academic point. Occasionally, however, real life
examples come along beautifully to make a communicator's work easier. Let me start today
with an antecedent from 2010 as it is particularly apposite for the theme of my talk:
"My time at the central bank is up and that is why I have decided to leave my post definitively,
with the satisfaction of my duty fulfilled," Mr Martin Redrado, Argentina's central bank chief,
told a news conference late on Friday, January 29, 2010.
"We have arrived at this situation because of the national government's permanent trampling of
institutions," he said. "Basically, I am defending two main concepts: the independence of the
central bank in our decision-making process and that the reserves should be used for monetary
and financial stability."
The roots of this dramatic exit lay in an emergency decree passed by the Argentine government
led by Cristina Fernandéz on December 14, 2010, that would set up a Bicentennial Stability and
Reduced Indebtedness Fund to finance public debt maturing that year. This involved the transfer
of $6.6 billion of the central bank reserves to the national treasury. The claim was that the central
bank had $18 billion in "excess reserves." [In fact, Mr. Redrado had refused to transfer the
funds; so the government attempted to fire him, by another emergency decree on January 7, 2010
for misconduct and dereliction of duty; this attempt, however, failed, as it was unconstitutional.]
Besides sparking off one of the worst constitutional crises in Argentina since its economic
meltdown in 2001, the chain of events led to a grave reassessment of its sovereign risk.
Within a month of Mr. Redrado's resignation, Argentine sovereign bond yields and the annual
premium cost for buying insurance against loss from default on Argentine government bonds
(measured as the sovereign credit default swap spread) shot up by about 2.5% or 250 basis
points, by more than a fourth of their prior levels.
Alberto Ramos, Argentina analyst at Goldman Sachs, noted on February 7, 2010: "Using central
bank reserves to pay government obligations is not a positive development and the concept of
excess reserves is certainly open to debate. It weakens the balance sheet of the central bank and
provides the wrong incentive to the government, as it weakens the incentive to control the rapid
expansion of spending and to promote some consolidation of fiscal accounts in 2010."
Even more damagingly, a risk that Governor Redrado had warned about came to the fore. By
beginning of January, 2010, Thomas Griesa, a New York judge, had frozen the Argentine central
bank's account held at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, following claims of investors that
the central bank was no longer an autonomous agency but under the thumb of the country's
executive branch.
(The above summary is based in part on Argentina's central bank chief resigns, Jude Webber,
Financial Times, January 30, 2010; and Argentina: Bank independence at stake as Redrado exits,
Jason Mitchell, Euromoney, February 7, 2010)
This complex interplay of the sovereign's exercise of its powers, the central banker's exit, and
the market's revolt, will be at the center of my remarks today on why it is important for a
wellfunctioning economy to have an independent central bank, i.e., a central bank that is independent
from the executive branch of the government. I will also try to lay out why the risks of
undermining the central bank's independence are potentially catastrophic, a "self-goal" of sorts,
as it can trigger a crisis of confidence in capital markets that are tapped by governments (and
others in the economy) to run their finances.
Why Nations Succeed (or Fail)
Before I delve into this complex interplay, I wish to place the independence of the central bank
in a more general context.
Academic discourse by political economists recognises the key role played by the rule of law and
accountability of governments in enabling countries to flourish. Francis Fukuyama (The Origins
of Political Order, 2011) considers these two elements, along with adequate state- and
institution-building, as all being critical for "getting to Denmark," or in other words, creating
stable, peaceful, prosperous, inclusive and honest societies.
Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson (Why Nations Fail, 2012) summarize their body of work
on the primacy of the quality of institutions in explaining the political and economic success or
failure of states. Taking examples of "twin" country case studies (such as S. Korea and N.
Korea), the book elaborates the following important distinction:
- Inclusive economic and political institutions involve plurality in decision-making which
help guarantee the rule of law and foster talent and creativity; in the presence of such
institutions, economics and politics do not become hostage to a set of incumbents likely
to be hurt by change.
- In contrast, extractive institutions limit access to a country's economic and financial
resources to the ruling elites, hinder change and innovation, and over time, lead to
stagnation and atrophy of the country's potential.
In conversations with former colleagues at New York University's Stern School of Business
(NYU Stern), it was routine to categorise economies as encouraging and supporting either value
creation, whereby entrepreneurs believed their mantra of success lay in challenging orthodoxy,
or rent extraction, wherein businesses found value primarily from joining hands with regressive
state policies and crowding out others who had no such access.
Regardless of the preferred theory and terminology for the importance of institutions, it is well
accepted that they include, inter alia, property rights and their enforcement, the judiciary, and the
election office in a democracy, instituted not just de jure but allowed to operate independently
and function effectively de facto.
Somewhat less celebrated is the institution of an independent central bank, perhaps not just
because the central bank is a relatively new kid on the block (in most cases less than a century
old), but also because it interacts less directly with the public though its true influence is
farreaching.
Government and the Central Bank - A Tale of Two Horizons
A central bank performs several important functions for the economy: it controls the money
supply; sets the rate of interest on borrowing and lending money; manages the external sector
including the exchange rate; supervises and regulates the financial sector, notably banks; it often
regulates credit and foreign exchange markets; and, seeks to ensure financial stability, domestic
as well as on the external front.
The world over, the central bank is set up as an institution separate from the government; put
another way, it is not a department of the executive function of the government; its powers are
enshrined as being separate through relevant legislation. Its tasks being somewhat complex and
technical, central banks are ideally headed and manned by technocrats or field experts - typically
economists, academics, commercial bankers, and occasionally private sector representatives,
appointed by the government but not elected to the office. This architecture reflects the
acceptance of the thesis that central banks should be allowed to exercise their powers
independently.
Why is the central bank separate from the government? I will offer what I find to be a
particularly intuitive explanation:
(1) The first part of the explanation relates to the horizon of decision-making of a government
vis-à-vis that of the central bank.
A government's horizon of decision-making is rendered short, like the duration of a T20
match (to use a cricketing analogy), by several considerations. There are always upcoming
elections of some sort - national, state, mid-term, etc. As elections approach, delivering on
proclaimed manifestos of the past acquires urgency; where manifestos cannot be delivered
upon, populist alternatives need to be arranged with immediacy. Less important in the
present scenario, but only recently so, wars had to be waged, financed and won at all costs.
This myopia or short-termism of governments is best summarized in history by Louis XV
when he proclaimed "Apres moi, le deluge!" (After me, the flood!).2
In contrast, a central bank plays a Test match, trying to win each session but importantly also
survive it so as to have a chance to win the next session, and so on. In particular, the central
bank is not directly subject to political time pressures and the induced neglect of the future;
by virtue of being nominated rather than elected, central bankers have horizons of
decisionmaking that tend to be longer than that of governments, spanning election cycles or war
periods. While they clearly have to factor in the immediate consequences of their policy
decisions, central bankers can afford to take a pause, reflect, and ask the question as to what
would be the long-term consequences of their, as well as government's, policies. Indeed, by
their mandate central banks are committed to stabilise the economy over business and
financial cycles, and hence, have to peer into the medium to long term. Unsurprisingly,
central banks strive to build credibility through a series of difficult choices that reflect
sacrificing short-term gains for long-term outcomes such as price or financial stability.
(2) The second part of the explanation as to why the central bank is separate from the
government relates to the observation that much of what the central bank manages or
influences - money creation, credit creation, external sector management, and financial
stability - involves potential front-loaded benefits to the economy but with the possibility of
attendant "tail risk" in the form of back-loaded costs from financial excess or instability. For
example,
(i) Greater supply of money can facilitate ease of financial transactions, including the
financing of government deficits, but this can cause economy to over-heat in due
course and trigger (hyper-) inflationary pressures or even a full-blown crisis that
eventually require sharper monetary contractions;
(ii) Excessive lowering of interest rates and/or relaxation in bank capital and liquidity
requirements can lead to greater credit creation, asset-price inflation, and semblance
of strong economic growth in the short term, but excessive credit growth is usually
accompanied by lending down the quality curve which triggers mal-investment,
assetprice crashes, and financial crises in the long term;
(iii) Allowing foreign capital flows to flood into the economy can temporarily ease the
financing pressures for an expanding government balance-sheet and the crowded-out
private sector, but a "sudden stop" or exodus of these flows in future can trigger a
collapse of the exchange rate with adverse economy-wide spillovers; and,
(iv) Sweeping bank loan losses under the rug by compromising supervisory and
regulatory standards can create a façade of financial stability in the short run, but
inevitably cause the fragile deck of cards to fall in a heap at some point in future,
likely with a greater taxpayer bill and loss of potential output.
While not always the case, often the required interventions for stable growth are structural
reforms by the government with upfront fiscal outlay; however, these may compromise populist
expenditures or require displeasing incumbents. As a result, it might seem as an expedient
solution to the government to ask/task/mandate/direct the central bank to pursue strategies that
generate short-term gains but effectively create tail risks for the economy. To protect the
economy from such short-termism, the central bank is designed to be at a safe distance from the
executive branch of the government.
Undermining the Independence of the Central Bank
Now, although the central bank is formally organised to be separate from the government, its
effective horizon of decision-making can be reduced for short-term gains by the government, if it
so desires, through a variety of mechanisms, inter alia,
(i) Appointing government (or government-affiliated) officials rather than technocrats to
key central bank positions, such as Governor, and more generally, senior
management;
(ii) Pursuing steady attrition and erosion of statutory powers of the central bank through
piece-meal legislative amendments that directly or indirectly eat at separation of the
central bank from the government;
(iii) Blocking or opposing rule-based central banking policies, and favoring instead
discretionary or joint decision-making with direct government interventions; and,
(iv) Setting up parallel regulatory agencies with weaker statutory powers and/or
encouraging development of unregulated (or lightly regulated) entities that perform
financial intermediation functions outside the purview of the central bank.3,4
If such efforts are successful, they induce policy myopia in the economy that substitutes
macroeconomic stability with punctuated arrival of financial crises.
Therefore, there are several reasons why enshrining and maintaining central bank independence
ends up being an inclusive reform for the economy; and conversely, undermining such
independence a regressive, extractive one:
(i) When the government is seen often making efforts to dilute the central bank's
policies and effectively coercing the central bank into such dilutions, banks and
private sector spend more time lobbying for policies that suit them individually, at the
cost of collective good, rather than investing in value creation and growth.
(ii) When governance of the central bank is undermined, it is unlikely to attract or be able
to retain the brightest minds that thrive on the ability to debate freely, think
independently, and effect change; attrition of central bank powers results in attrition
of its human capital and deterioration of its efficiency and expertise over time.
(iii) When important parts of financial intermediation are kept outside the purview of the
central bank, systemic risks can build up in "shadow banking" with private gains in
good times to a small set of players but at substantive costs to future generations in
the form of unchecked financial fragility.
As such, the divergence in horizon of decision-making between government and the central bank
that I have highlighted need not lead to any operational incompatibility as long as it is
wellunderstood and well-accepted by both parties that it is precisely given this divergence that the
central bank is formally separated from the executive office and meant to conduct its functions in
an independent manner. The central bank can of course make mistakes, and is generally held
publicly accountable through parliamentary scrutiny and transparency norms. This way, the
institutional arrangement of independence, transparency and accountability to the public not only
balance but also strengthen the central bank's autonomy. However, direct intervention and
interference by the government in operational mandate of the central bank negate its functional
autonomy.
"Kiss of Death" - Incurring the Wrath of Markets
Far-sighted government leaders may be able to reap benefits of convincing voters about the
importance of investing in macro-economic stability; for instance, by claiming credit for the
long-term nature of financial sector outcomes attained by allowing the central bank autonomy in
decision-making and delivery of its core functions. When such a measured perspective of an
independent central bank as a key element of durable economic prosperity is missing and/or
government myopia so rife as to lead to regular inroads into central banking apparatus and
decisions, unfortunate accidents can arise. Macroeconomic management can become a tug of war
between securing stability and inflicting misdirection; daily operational decisions lead to power
struggles; and, as the central bank is forced to bend over backwards to retain credibility in the
face of imminent pressures that would erode its independence, counter efforts to reduce its
independence escalate.
As this dynamic plays out, markets watch keenly, and if uncertainty grows and confidence in
central bank independence and credibility erode, then markets rap bond yields and exchange rate
on the knuckles!
Let me elaborate.
Modern economies are, by and large, not autarkies; they rely on capital markets to finance their
investments. This is especially true of governments as reflected in the relatively large size of
sovereign (and quasi-sovereign) debt markets, denominated in domestic currency as well as
foreign currency. As long-term risks such as inflation or financial instability rise, markets reprice
sovereign debt and may potentially shun its financing altogether. This could have immediate
spillovers to other markets such as for foreign exchange and foreign investments, potentially
putting at risk also the external sector stability of the economy.
Therefore, the presence of this third player - the market - in the back and forth between a
government and the central bank (more generally, regulatory institutions) is an important
feedback mechanism. The market can discipline the government not to erode central bank
independence, and it can also make the government pay for its transgressions. Interestingly, the
market also forces central banks to remain accountable and independent when it is under
government pressure.5
Besides the market revolt and strictures during the Argentine episode of 2010 that I recounted in
my introductory remarks, it is to be noted that both of this year's emerging market sovereign
bond and currency meltdowns got catalysed through a perception of government influence on
central bank's monetary policy, including through sporadic communication by government with
public on its desire to control the central bank's decision-making. In one case, a rate cut in the
wake of rising inflation and mounting fiscal deficit did the damage; and in the other, it was a
public pronouncement by the premier of the state about the "evils" of interest rate hikes even
when inflation was in double digit terrain.
Indeed, the market censure need not be limited to emerging markets. The public expression of
government's bewilderment and disappointment at monetary tightening in the world's largest
safe-haven economy, again at a time of rising inflation and fiscal deficit, has raised in minds of
investors scenarios under which its reserve currency status cannot anymore be taken for granted
(A debate about central-bank independence is overdue, The Economist, Oct 20, 2018).
Barry Eichengreen, Professor of Economics and Political Science at the University of California,
Berkeley, covers superbly, in his recent piece (2018), this critical feedback role of the market:
"There are good reasons why countries ... delegate monetary policy decisions to technocrats
appointed for their expertise. They can take the long view. They can resist the temptation to
manipulate monetary conditions for short-term gain. Privileging long-term stability, as history
has shown, is positive for economic performance. And it is on this performance that elected
leaders, rightly or wrongly, are judged.
Thoughtful politicians understand this. Hence their support for central bank independence and
their respect for the convention that they should refrain from seeking to influence central bank
decisions. Unfortunately, not all politicians are thoughtful. Not all have the patience to wait for
long-term gains. Not all are pleased when appointees refuse to bow to their wishes. And not all
are respectful of inherited institutions and conventions, be they central bank independence or,
more broadly, the division of powers.
The question is whether they pay attention to markets."
What Barry Eichengreen is perceptively observing is that if a government were to pay attention
to markets, it would realize that central bank independence is in fact its strength and the central
bank a sort of a true friend, someone who will tell the government unpleasant but brutally honest
truths and correct to the extent it can any adverse long-term consequences of government
policies.
Let me now turn to how all this relates to the Reserve Bank of India.
The Late Deena Khatkhate provides a masterful and scholarly assessment in Reserve Bank of
India: A Study in the Separation and Attrition of Powers (2005). Some of the discussion below
draws heavily from his assessment and is updated for developments since then. Other excellent
discussions of the central bank's autonomy and independence in the Indian context are contained
in lectures by the Reserve Bank of India's former Governors, Dr. C. Rangarajan (1993) and Dr.
Y. V. Reddy (2001, 2007). As we will see below, other Governors and Deputy Governors have
also carried this abiding theme through their tenures. For some of them, even when the Reserve
Bank's independence has been unclear de jure, governments have in the end have had the
wisdom to support it de facto; for others, however, the Reserve Bank's independence has
remained a work in progress, an enduring challenge that the nation has been grappling with on an
ongoing basis.
Progressive Evolution in Restoring Independence of the Reserve Bank of India
While the Reserve Bank has always derived several important powers from the Reserve Bank
Act, 1935 and the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, what matters is the effective independence
with which these powers can be exercised in practice. Over time, great strides have been
undertaken by successive governments at the behest of the central bank, several economists, and
umpteen committee reports, to restore the operational independence of the Reserve Bank. I will
touch upon three such areas of healthy progress.
(1) Monetary Policy: The Reserve Bank, like many central banks of the time, got quickly
trapped into the socialist planning policies of post-independence government, setting not
just the rate of interest on money but practically all rates of credit at different maturities,
as well as doing sectoral credit allocation to the real economy.
Post the deregulation of interest rates in the 1990s, monetary policy achieved a more
modern dimension. To start with, there was a "multiple indicators" approach to setting
interest rates. Having too many objectives for monetary policy violates the Tinbergen
principle of "one objective, one instrument"; it also renders it difficult to understand or
communicate what the interest-rate setting is attempting to achieve at any point of time.
Importantly, this approach entertained much regulatory discretion, often at the level of an
individual, viz. the Reserve Bank Governor. This made independence of monetary policy
individual-specific; in other words, it allowed for government pressure to creep in easily
for keeping rates low at times of fiscal expansion under one guise or the other.
This is exactly a setting where rules would be better than discretion, in particular to avoid
the time-inconsistency problem, highlighted in the work of Nobel laureates Finn Kydland
and Edward Prescott in 1970s and early 1980s. Kydland and Prescott (1977) consider the
implication that people, including investors, could look into the future and anticipate the
behavior of self-interested governments, so that a discretionary monetary policy could
end up being compromised by government pressures, leaving inflationary expectations
unanchored, whereas a monetary policy committed to a rule would be harder to bend and
keep inflationary expectations at bay.6
Following several episodic bouts of double-digit inflation, a war on inflation and
inflationary expectations, was finally launched in September 2013 by the then Governor
Raghuram G Rajan; the Urjit Patel Committee Report to Revise and Strengthen the
Monetary Policy Framework was released in 2014; and, finally, the Reserve Bank of
India Act was modified in August 2016 to constitute the Monetary Policy Committee
(MPC).
The MPC consists of three RBI members, including the Governor who reserves a casting
vote, and three external members appointed by the government. The MPC has been
legislatively awarded a flexible inflation-targeting mandate of achieving 4% consumer
price index (CPI) inflation in the medium term, while paying attention to growth, with
operational independence to achieve it, and with accountability in terms of transparency
around the MPC's resolution, minutes summarising each individual committee member's
decision, bi-annual monetary policy reports, and a written report to the government in
case a +/- 2% band around the target inflation level is violated for three quarters in a row.
The MPC, two years old since, has attempted steadfastly through its rate-setting decisions
to build credibility of the inflation target, a process that is generally believed, and
empirically documented, to help lower the long-term bond yields as well as stabilise the
exchange rate. While the jury will remain out for some time on the economic impact of
the flexible inflation-targeting framework, it is incontrovertible that the MPC has given
monetary policy an independent institutional foundation. The government deserves much
credit for its far-sightedness in legislating the required changes to strengthen this aspect
of central bank's independence and distancing itself in the process from monetary
decision-making (other than through the appointment of external members on the MPC).
(2) Debt Management: For several decades post-independence, the Reserve Bank
participated in short-term Treasury Bill issuances of the Government of India (bearing
extraordinarily low interest rates) to fund its fiscal deficits. The Reserve Bank also
publicly acknowledged that its open market operations (OMOs) were primarily geared to
manage the government bond yields. This implied that the central bank balance-sheet
was always available as a resource - just like tax receipts - ready to monetise excessive
government spending. Unsurprisingly, high inflation in India was engineered to please
both Milton Friedman and Thomas Sargent, i.e., it was always both a monetary and a
fiscal phenomenon, as these two Nobel laureates in economics had respectively argued
(Friedman, 1970 and Sargent, 1982).
Eventually, recognizing the fiscal imprudence and inflationary risks engendered by such
automatic monetization of government deficits, joint efforts between the Reserve Bank
and the government during 1994-1997 limited deficit financing from the Reserve Bank to
the capped Ways and Means Advances (WMA). The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget
Management (FRBM) Act of 2003 explicitly prohibited the Reserve Bank from
participating in primary issuances of the government securities. Open market operations
came to be designed to sterilise the impact on domestic money supply of foreign
exchange interventions and/or to meet durable liquidity needs of the economy, rather than
to fund deficits. While there have been relapses to old habits, overall these changes have
left the task of government debt management with the Reserve Bank as primarily being
one of auctioning government debt and helping it switch between securities or conduct
buybacks, rather than of intricate involvement in fiscal planning, and more importantly,
in its funding.
Furthermore, the repressive levels of Statutory Liquid Ratio (SLR) and Cash Reserve
Ratio (CRR), which ensured substantial portions of bank deposits were channeled to the
government or were readily available to debase in value through monetary expansion,
have now been rationalised to be more or less in line with international prudential
standards. For instance, in case of SLR, the level has been steadily reduced and the plan
is to harmonise it with the Basel III Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR).
(3) Exchange Rate Management: In the Five Year Plans post-independence, prices
including the exchange rate were assumed to be constant; however, since the true value
of the Rupee fluctuated with market prices and macroeconomic conditions, the Sterling
holdings had no choice but to take an undue hit. The underlying true value of the Rupee
was also affected heavily -- but not reflected in reality -- by monetary policy and debt
management operations that were implicitly supporting the ballooning of government
deficits. The result of the fixed exchange rate regime in the midst of "fiscal dominance"
was that the Reserve Bank was essentially a silent spectator in the build-up to the
inevitable exchange rate disequilibrium (though arguably this was true of much of the
world at that time).
Since 1976, when the level of the Rupee moved to being a "managed float" against a
basket of currencies, and especially since 1993, the exchange rate has gradually evolved
from being entirely a fixed rate to being market-determined for all practical purposes.
The Reserve Bank deploys reserves management and macro-prudential controls on
foreign capital flows to manage excessively large movements. With a flexible
inflationtargeting mandate for interest-rate policy and funding of fiscal deficit no longer the
objective of monetary operations, the desired exchange rate management rests with the
Reserve Bank.
Ongoing Challenges in Maintaining Independence of the Reserve Bank of India
Few important pockets of persistent weakness, however, remain in maintaining independence of
the Reserve Bank. Some of these areas were also identified in the 2017 Financial Sector
Assessment Programme (FSAP) of India by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Bank (WB) as ways to strengthen the independence of the Reserve Bank, an area in which
the FSAP rates India as "materially non-compliant".
(1) Regulation of Public Sector Banks: One important limitation is that the Reserve Bank
is statutorily limited in undertaking the full scope of actions against public sector banks
(PSBs) - such as asset divestiture, replacement of management and Board, license
revocation, and resolution actions such as mergers or sales -- all of which it can and does
deploy effectively in case of private banks. The significant implications of this limitation
were highlighted in detail in Governor Patel's speech in March 2018, Banking Regulatory
Powers should be Ownership Neutral. To reiterate from the FSAP (Para 39 in Summing
up Responsibilities, Objectives, Powers, Independence, and Accountabilities, the Basel
Core Principles Detailed Assessment Report):
"Legislation should be amended to enable the RBI to extend all the powers currently
exercised over private sector banks to PSBs; in particular, regarding Board member
dismissals, mergers and license revocation. ... It should also remove the option of an
appeal to the government when the RBI revokes a license. If statutory changes are
difficult, the RBI and the government should consider adopting a framework agreement
whereby the government would acknowledge the RBI's full operational authority and
independence in supervision and regulation, as they did recently for monetary policy."
(2) The Reserve Bank's Balance-sheet Strength: Having adequate reserves to bear any
losses that arise from central bank operations and having appropriate rules to allocate
profits (including rules that govern the accumulation of capital and reserves) is
considered an important part of central bank's independence from the government (see,
for example, Moser-Boehm, 2006). A thorny ongoing issue on this front has been that of
the rules for surplus transfer from the Reserve Bank to the government (Cogencis, 2018,
"Govt pegs RBI excess capital at 3.6 trln rupees, seeks it as surplus"), an issue that
relates closely to the leading Argentine example in my introductory remarks. It has been
covered deftly by Rakesh Mohan (2018) in the last of his three-part series of recent
articles on the Reserve Bank, titled Protect the RBI's balance-sheet; therein, he elucidates
why a central bank needs a strong balance-sheet to perform its full range of critical
functions for the economy. I quote his main points below:
"First, ... The longer-term fiscal consequences would be the same if the government
issued new securities today to fund the expenditure. [R]aiding the RBI's capital creates
no new government revenue on a net basis over time, and only provides an illusion of
free money in the short term."
"Second, ... The use of suc