Y V Reddy: Banking sector reforms in India - an overview
Address by Dr Y V Reddy, Governor of the Reserve Bank of India, at the Institute of Bankers of
Pakistan, Karachi, 18 May 2005.
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Governor Ishrat Husain and distinguished bankers,
At the outset, let me express my gratitude to Governor Husain for inviting me to visit Karachi and meet
with you. I consider it an honour to be here amidst the banking fraternity. I would like to congratulate
Pakistan for its impressive economic performance. Governor Husain, in his address at the Seminar on
Management of Pakistan Economy in Lahore, a few weeks ago, had this to say about recent economic
performance of Pakistan and challenges ahead, in his characteristically candid fashion:
"Economic growth rate has reached a solid 6 per cent plus, inflation has been
contained to 5 per cent which has only recently started rising, exchange rate has
been stabilized, fiscal deficit has been drastically reduced, domestic interest rates
have declined dramatically, international reserves have jumped twelve times their
2000 level, debt ratios have fallen significantly and investment is booming."
He further added that,
"Pakistan has achieved macroeconomic stability, introduced structural reforms,
improved economic governance and resumed the path for high growth rates. But
there is no room for complacency."
Taking account of the nature of audience here and following the example of Governor Husain, who
spoke eloquently on the banking sector reforms in Pakistan in January this year, I have chosen to
present an overview of banking sector reforms in India.
It is useful to very briefly recall the nature of the Indian banking sector at the time of initiation of
financial sector reforms in India in the early 1990s. The Indian financial system in the pre-reform
period (i.e., prior to Gulf crisis of 1991), essentially catered to the needs of planned development in a
mixed-economy framework where the public sector had a dominant role in economic activity. The
strategy of planned economic development required huge development expenditure, which was met
through Government's dominance of ownership of banks, automatic monetization of fiscal deficit and
subjecting the banking sector to large pre-emptions - both in terms of the statutory holding of
Government securities (statutory liquidity ratio, or SLR) and cash reserve ratio (CRR). Besides, there
was a complex structure of administered interest rates guided by the social concerns, resulting in
cross-subsidization. These not only distorted the interest rate mechanism but also adversely affected
the viability and profitability of banks by the end of 1980s. There is perhaps an element of commonality
of such a 'repressed' regime in the financial sector of many emerging market economies. It follows that
the process of reform of financial sector in most emerging economies also has significant
commonalities while being specific to the circumstances of each country. A narration of the broad
contours of reform in India would be helpful in appreciating both the commonalities and the differences
in our paths of reforms.
Contours of banking reforms in India
First, reform measures were initiated and sequenced to create an enabling environment for banks to
overcome the external constraints - these were related to administered structure of interest rates, high
levels of pre-emption in the form of reserve requirements, and credit allocation to certain sectors.
Sequencing of interest rate deregulation has been an important component of the reform process
which has imparted greater efficiency to resource allocation. The process has been gradual and
predicated upon the institution of prudential regulation for the banking system, market behaviour,
financial opening and, above all, the underlying macroeconomic conditions. The interest rates in the
banking system have been largely deregulated except for certain specific classes; these are: savings
deposit accounts, non-resident Indian (NRI) deposits, small loans up to Rs.2 lakh and export credit.
The need for continuance of these prescriptions as well as those relating to priority sector lending
have been flagged for wider debate in the latest annual policy of the RBI. However, administered
interest rates still prevail in small savings schemes of the Government.
Second, as regards the policy environment of public ownership, it must be recognised that the lion's
share of financial intermediation was accounted for by the public sector during the pre-reform period.
As part of the reforms programme, initially, there was infusion of capital by the Government in public
sector banks, which was followed by expanding the capital base with equity participation by the private
investors. The share of the public sector banks in the aggregate assets of the banking sector has
come down from 90 per cent in 1991 to around 75 per cent in 2004. The share of wholly
Governmentowned public sector banks (i.e., where no diversification of ownership has taken place) sharply
declined from about 90 per cent to 10 per cent of aggregate assets of all scheduled commercial banks
during the same period. Diversification of ownership has led to greater market accountability and
improved efficiency. Since the initiation of reforms, infusion of funds by the Government into the public
sector banks for the purpose of recapitalisation amounted, on a cumulative basis, to less than one per
cent of India's GDP, a figure much lower than that for many other countries. Even after accounting for
the reduction in the Government's shareholding on account of losses set off, the current market value
of the share capital of the Government in public sector banks has increased manifold and as such
what was perceived to be a bail-out of public sector banks by Government seems to be turning out to
be a profitable investment for the Government.
Third, one of the major objectives of banking sector reforms has been to enhance efficiency and
productivity through competition. Guidelines have been laid down for establishment of new banks in
the private sector and the foreign banks have been allowed more liberal entry. Since 1993, twelve new
private sector banks have been set up. As already mentioned, an element of private shareholding in
public sector banks has been injected by enabling a reduction in the Government shareholding in
public sector banks to 51 per cent. As a major step towards enhancing competition in the banking
sector, foreign direct investment in the private sector banks is now allowed up to 74 per cent, subject
to conformity with the guidelines issued from time to time.
Fourth, consolidation in the banking sector has been another feature of the reform process. This also
encompassed the Development Financial Institutions (DFIs), which have been providers of long-term
finance while the distinction between short-term and long-term finance provider has increasingly
become blurred over time. The complexities involved in harmonising the role and operations of the
DFIs were examined and the RBI enabled the reverse-merger of a large DFI with its commercial
banking subsidiary which is a major initiative towards universal banking. Recently, another large
termlending institution has been converted into a bank. While guidelines for mergers between non-banking
financial companies and banks were issued some time ago, guidelines for mergers between private
sector banks have been issued a few days ago. The principles underlying these guidelines would be
applicable, as appropriate, to the public sector banks also, subject to the provisions of the relevant
legislation.
Fifth, impressive institutional and legal reforms have been undertaken in relation to the banking sector.
In 1994, a Board for Financial Supervision (BFS) was constituted comprising select members of the
RBI Board with a variety of professional expertise to exercise 'undivided attention to supervision'. The
BFS, which generally meets once a month, provides direction on a continuing basis on regulatory
policies including governance issues and supervisory practices. It also provides direction on
supervisory actions in specific cases. The BFS also ensures an integrated approach to supervision of
commercial banks, development finance institutions, non-banking finance companies, urban
cooperatives banks and primary dealers. A Board for Regulation and Supervision of Payment and
Settlement Systems (BPSS) has also been recently constituted to prescribe policies relating to the
regulation and supervision of all types of payment and settlement systems, set standards for existing
and future systems, authorise the payment and settlement systems and determine criteria for
membership to these systems. The Credit Information Companies (Regulation) Bill, 2004 has been
passed by both the Houses of the Parliament while the Government Securities Bills, 2004 is under
process. Certain amendments are being considered by the Parliament to enhance Reserve Bank's
regulatory and supervisory powers. Major amendments relate to requirement of prior approval of RBI
for acquisition of five per cent or more of shares of a banking company with a view to ensuring 'fit and
proper' status of the significant shareholders, aligning the voting rights with the economic holding and
empowering the RBI to supersede the Board of a banking company.
Sixth, there have been a number of measures for enhancing the transparency and disclosures
standards. Illustratively, with a view to enhancing further transparency, all cases of penalty imposed by
the RBI on the banks as also directions issued on specific matters, including those arising out of
inspection, are to be placed in the public domain.
Seventh, while the regulatory framework and supervisory practices have almost converged with the
best practices elsewhere in the world, two points are noteworthy. First, the minimum capital to risk
assets ratio (CRAR) has been kept at nine per cent i.e., one percentage point above the international
norm; and second, the banks are required to maintain a separate Investment Fluctuation Reserve
(IFR) out of profits, towards interest rate risk, at five per cent of their investment portfolio under the
categories 'held for trading' and 'available for sale'. This was prescribed at a time when interest rates
were falling and banks were realizing large gains out of their treasury activities. Simultaneously, the
conservative accounting norms did not allow banks to recognize the unrealized gains. Such unrealized
gains coupled with the creation of IFR helped in cushioning the valuation losses required to be booked
when interest rates in the longer tenors have moved up in the last one year or so.
Eighth, of late, the regulatory framework in India, in addition to prescribing prudential guidelines and
encouraging market discipline, is increasingly focusing on ensuring good governance through "fit and
proper" owners, directors and senior managers of the banks. Transfer of shareholding of five per cent
and above requires acknowledgement from the RBI and such significant shareholders are put through
a 'fit and proper' test. Banks have also been asked to ensure that the nominated and elected directors
are screened by a nomination committee to satisfy 'fit and proper' criteria. Directors are also required
to sign a covenant indicating their roles and responsibilities. The RBI has recently issued detailed
guidelines on ownership and governance in private sector banks emphasizing diversified ownership.
The listed banks are also required to comply with governance principles laid down by the SEBI - the
securities markets regulator.
Processes of banking reform
The processes adopted for bringing about the reforms in India may be of some interest to this
audience. Recalling some features of financial sector reforms in India would be in order, before
narrating the processes. First, financial sector reform was undertaken early in the reform-cycle in
India. Second, the financial sector was not driven by any crisis and the reforms have not been an
outcome of multilateral aid. Third, the design and detail of the reform were evolved by domestic
expertise, though international experience is always kept in view. Fourth, the Government preferred
that public sector banks manage the over-hang problems of the past rather than cleanup the balance
sheets with support of the Government. Fifth, it was felt that there is enough room for growth and
healthy competition for public and private sector banks as well as foreign and domestic banks. The
twin governing principles are non-disruptive progress and consultative process.
In order to ensure timely and effective implementation of the measures, RBI has been adopting a
consultative approach before introducing policy measures. Suitable mechanisms have been instituted
to deliberate upon various issues so that the benefits of financial efficiency and stability percolate to
the common person and the services of the Indian financial system can be benchmarked against
international best standards in a transparent manner. Let me give a brief account of these
mechanisms.
First, on all important issues, workings group are constituted or technical reports are prepared,
generally encompassing a review of the international best practices, options available and way
forward. The group membership may be internal or external to the RBI or mixed. Draft reports are
often placed in public domain and final reports take account of inputs, in particular from industry
associations and self-regulatory organizations. The reform-measures emanate out of such a series of
reports, the pioneering ones being: Report of the Committee on the Financial System (Chairman: Shri
M. Narasimham), in 1991; Report of the High Level Committee on Balance of Payments (Chairman:
Dr. C. Rangarajan) in 1992; and the Report of the Committee on Banking Sector Reforms (Chairman:
Shri M. Narasimham) in 1998.
Second, Resource Management Discussions meetings are held by the RBI with select commercial
banks, prior to the policy announcements. These meetings not only focus on perception and outlook of
the bankers on the economy, liquidity conditions, credit flow, development of different markets and
directions of interest rates, but also on issues relating to developmental aspects of banking operations.
Third, we have formed a Technical Advisory Committee on Money, Foreign Exchange and
Government Securities Markets (TAC). It has emerged as a key consultative mechanism amongst the
regulators and various market players including banks. The Committee has been crystallizing the
synergies of experts across various fields of the financial market and thereby acting as a facilitator for
the RBI in steering reforms in money, government securities and foreign exchange markets.
Fourth, in order to strengthen the consultative process in the regulatory domain and to place such a
process on a continuing basis, the RBI has constituted a Standing Technical Advisory Committee on
Financial Regulation on the lines similar to the TAC. The Committee consists of experts drawn from
academia, financial markets, banks, non-bank financial institutions and credit rating agencies. The
Committee examines the issues referred to it and advises the RBI on desirable regulatory framework
on an on-going basis for banks, non-bank financial institutions and other market participants.
Fifth, for ensuring periodic formal interaction, amongst the regulators, there is a High Level
Coordination Committee on Financial and Capital Markets (HLCCFCM) with the Governor, RBI as the
Chairman, and the Heads of the securities market and insurance regulators, and the Secretary of the
Finance Ministry as the members. This Co-ordination Committee has authorised constitution of several
standing committees to ensure co-ordination in regulatory frameworks at an operational level.
Sixth, more recently a Standing Advisory Committee on Urban Co-operative Banks (UCBs) has been
activated to advise on structural, regulatory and supervisory issues relating to UCBs and to facilitate
the process of formulating future approaches for this sector. Similar mechanisms are being worked out
for non-banking financial companies.
Seventh, the RBI has also instituted a mechanism of placing draft versions of important guidelines for
comments of the public at large before finalisation of the guidelines. To further this consultative
process and with a specific goal of making the regulatory guidelines more user-friendly, a Users'
Consultative Panel has been constituted comprising the representatives of select banks and market
participants. The panel provides feedback on regulatory instructions at the formulation stage to avoid
any subsequent ambiguities and operational glitches.
Eighth, an extensive and transparent communication system has been evolved. The annual policy
statements and their mid-term reviews communicate the RBI's stance on monetary policy in the
immediate future of six months to one year. Over the years, the reports of various working groups and
committees have emerged as another plank of two-way communication from RBI. An important feature
of the RBI's communication policy is the almost real-time dissemination of information through its
website. The auction results under Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) of the day are posted on the
website by 12.30 p.m the same day, while by 2.30 p.m. the 'reference rates' of select foreign currencies
are also placed on the website. By the next day morning, the press release on money market
operations is issued. Every Saturday, by 12 noon, the weekly statistical supplement is placed on the
web-site providing a fairly detailed, recent data-base on the RBI and the financial sector. All the
regulatory and administrative circulars of different Departments of the RBI are placed on the web-site
within half an hour of their finalization.
Ninth, an important feature of the reform of the Indian financial system has been the intent of the
authorities to align the regulatory framework with international best practices keeping in view the
developmental needs of the country and domestic factors. Towards this end, a Standing Committee on
International Financial Standards and Codes was constituted in 1999. The Standing Committee had
set up ten Advisory Groups in key areas of the financial sector whose reports are available on the RBI
website. The recommendations contained in these reports have either been implemented or are in the
process of implementation. I would like to draw your attention to two reports in particular, which have a
direct bearing on the banking system, viz., Advisory Group on Banking Supervision and Advisory
Group on Corporate Governance. Subsequently, in 2004, we conducted a review of the
recommendations of the Advisory Groups and reported the progress and agenda ahead.
What has been the impact?
These reform measures have had major impact on the overall efficiency and stability of the banking
system in India. The present capital adequacy of Indian banks is comparable to those at international
level. There has been a marked improvement in the asset quality with the percentage of gross
nonperforming assets (NPAs) to gross advances for the banking system reduced from 14.4 per cent in
1998 to 7.2 per cent in 2004. The reform measures have also resulted in an improvement in the
profitability of banks. The Return on Assets (RoA) of the banks rose from 0.4 per cent in the year
1991-92 to 1.2 per cent in 2003-04. Considering that, globally, the RoA has been in the range 0.9 to
1.5 per cent for 2004, Indian banks are well placed. The banking sector reforms also emphasized the
need to review the manpower resources and rationalize the requirements by drawing a realistic plan
so as to reduce the operating cost and improve the profitability. During the last five years, the business
per employee for public sector banks more than doubled to around Rs.25 million in 2004.
Continuity, change and context
We lay considerable emphasis on appropriate mix between the elements of continuity and change in
the process of reform, but the dynamic elements in the mix are determined by the context. While there
is usually a consensus on the broad direction, relative emphasis on various elements of the process of
reform keeps changing, depending on the evolving circumstances. Perhaps it will be useful to illustrate
this approach to contextualising the mix of continuity and change.
The mid-term review in November 2003, reviewed the progress of implementation of various
developmental as well as regulatory measures in the banking sector but emphasised facilitating the
ease of transactions by the common person and strengthening the credit delivery systems, as a
response to the pressing needs of the society and economy. The annual policy statement of May 2004
carried forward this focus but flagged major areas requiring urgent attention especially in the areas of
ownership, governance, conflicts of interest and customer-protection. Some extracts of the policy
statement may be in order:
"First, it is necessary to articulate in a comprehensive and transparent manner the
policy in regard to ownership and governance of both public and private sector
banks keeping in view the special nature of banks. This will also facilitate the
ongoing shift from external regulation to internal systems of controls and risk
assessments. Second, from a systemic point of view, inter-relationships between
activities of financial intermediaries and areas of conflict of interests need to be
considered. Third, in order to protect the integrity of the financial system by
reducing the likelihood of their becoming conduits for money laundering, terrorist
financing and other unlawful activities and also to ensure audit trail, greater accent
needs to be laid on the adoption of an effective consolidated know your customer
(KYC) system, on both assets and liabilities, in all financial intermediaries regulated
by RBI. At the same time, it is essential that banks do not seek intrusive details
from their customers and do not resort to sharing of information regarding the
customer except with the written consent of the customer. Fourth, while the stability
and efficiency imparted to the large commercial banking system is universally
recognised, there are some segments which warrant restructuring."
The annual policy statement for the current year reiterates the concern for common person, while
enunciating a medium term framework, for development of money, forex and government securities
markets; for enhancing credit flow to agriculture and small industry; for action points in technology and
payments systems; for institutional reform in co-operative banking, non-banking financial companies
and regional rural banks; and, for ensuring availability of quality services to all sections of the
population. The most distinguishing feature of the policy statement relates to the availability of banking
services to the common person, especially depositors.
The statement reiterates that depositors' interests form the focal point of the regulatory framework for
banking in India, and elaborates the theme as follows:
"A licence to do banking business provides the entity, the ability to accept deposits
and access to deposit insurance for small depositors. Similarly, regulation and
supervision by RBI enables these entities to access funds from a wider investor
base and the payment and settlement systems provides efficient payments and
funds transfer services. All these services, which are in the nature of public good,
involve significant costs and are being made available only to ensure availability of
banking and payment services to the entire population without discrimination".
The policy draws attention to the divergence in treatment of depositors compared to borrowers as:
" ... while policies relating to credit allocation, credit pricing and credit restructuring
should continue to receive attention, it is inappropriate to ignore the mandate
relating to depositors' interests. Further, in our country, the socio-economic profile
for a typical depositor who seeks safe avenues for his savings deserves special
attention relative to other stakeholders in the banks".
Another significant area of concern has been the possible exclusion of a large section of population
from the provision of services and the Statement pleads for financial inclusion. It states:
"There has been expansion, greater competition and diversification of ownership of
banks leading to both enhanced efficiency and systemic resilience in the banking
sector. However, there are legitimate concerns in regard to the banking practices
that tend to exclude rather than attract vast sections of population, in particular
pensioners, self-employed and those employed in unorganised sector. While
commercial considerations are no doubt important, the banks have been bestowed
with several privileges, especially of seeking public deposits on a highly leveraged
basis, and consequently they should be obliged to provide banking services to all
segments of the population, on equitable basis."
Operationally, it has been made clear that RBI will implement policies to encourage banks which
provide extensive services while disincentivising those which are not responsive to the banking needs
of the community, including the underprivileged.
The quality of services rendered has also invited attention in the current policy. I quote further,
"Liberalisation and enhanced competition accord immense benefits, but experience
has shown that consumers' interests are not necessarily accorded full protection
and their grievances are not properly attended to. Several representations are
being received in regard to recent trends of levying unreasonably high service/user
charges and enhancement of user charges without proper and prior intimation.
Taking account of all these considerations, it has been decided by RBI to set up an
independent Banking Codes and Standards Board of India on the model of the
mechanism in the UK in order to ensure that comprehensive code of conduct for
fair treatment of customers are evolved and adhered to".
It is essential to recognise that, while these constitute contextual nuanced responses to changing
circumstances within the country, the overwhelming compulsion to be in harmony with global
developments must be respected and that essentially relates to Basel II.
Basel II and India
RBI's association with the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision dates back to 1997 as India was
among the 16 non-member countries that were consulted in the drafting of the Basel Core Principles.
Reserve Bank of India became a member of the Core Principles Liaison Group in 1998 and
subsequently became a member of the Core Principles Working Group on Capital. Within the Working
Group, RBI has been actively participating in the deliberations on the New Accord and had the
privilege to lead a group of six major non-G-10 supervisors which presented a proposal on a simplified
approach for Basel II to the Committee.
Commercial banks in India will start implementing Basel II with effect from March 31, 2007. They will
adopt Standardised Approach for credit risk and Basic Indicator Approach for operational risk, initially.
After adequate skills are developed, both at the banks and also at supervisory levels, some banks may
be allowed to migrate to the Internal Rating Based (IRB) Approach.
Let me briefly review the steps taken for implementation of Basel II and the emerging issues. The RBI
had announced in its annual policy statement in May 2004 that banks in India should examine in depth
the options available under Basel II and draw a road-map by end-December 2004 for migration to
Basel II and review the progress made at quarterly intervals. The Reserve Bank organized a two-day
seminar in July 2004 mainly to sensitise the Chief Executive Officers of banks to the opportunities and
challenges emerging from the Basel II norms. Soon thereafter all banks were advised in August 2004
to undertake a self-assessment of the various risk management systems in place, with specific
reference to the three major risks covered under the Basel II and initiate necessary remedial measures
to update the systems to match up to the minimum standards prescribed under the New Framework.
Banks have also been advised to formulate and operationalise the Capital Adequacy Assessment
Process (CAAP) within the banks as required under Pillar II of the New Framework.
It is appropriate to list some of the other regulatory initiatives taken by the Reserve Bank of India,
relevant for Basel II. First, we have tried to ensure that the banks have suitable risk management
framework oriented towards their requirements dictated by the size and complexity of business, risk
philosophy, market perceptions and the expected level of capital. Second, Risk Based Supervision
(RBS) in 23 banks has been introduced on a pilot basis. Third, we have been encouraging banks to
formalize their capital adequacy assessment process (CAAP) in alignment with their business plan
and performance budgeting system. This, together with the adoption of RBS would aid in factoring the
Pillar II requirements under Basel II. Fourth, we have been expanding the area of disclosures (Pillar
III), so as to have greater transparency in the financial position and risk profile of banks. Finally, we
have tried to build capacity for ensuring the regulator's ability for identifying and permitting eligible
banks to adopt IRB / Advanced Measurement approaches.
As per normal practice, and with a view to ensuring migration to Basel II in a non-disruptive manner, a
consultative and participative approach has been adopted for both designing and implementing Basel
II. A Steering Committee comprising senior officials from 14 banks (public, private and foreign) has
been constituted wherein representation from the Indian Banks' Association and the RBI has also
been ensured. The Steering Committee had formed sub-groups to address specific issues. On the
basis of recommendations of the Steering Committee, draft guidelines to the banks on implementation
of the New Capital Adequacy Framework have been issued.
Implementation of Basel II will require more capital for banks in India due to the fact that operational
risk is not captured under Basel I, and the capital charge for market risk was not prescribed until
recently. Though last year has not been a very good year for banks, they are exploring all avenues for
meeting the capital requirements under Basel II. The cushion available in the system, which has a
CRAR of over 12 per cent now, is, however, comforting.
India has four rating agencies of which three are owned partly/wholly by international rating agencies.
Compared to developing countries, the extent of rating penetration has been increasing every year
and a large number of capital issues of companies has been rated. However, since rating is of issues
and not of issuers, it is likely to result, in effect, in application of only Basel I standards for credit risks
in respect of non-retail exposures. While Basel II provides some scope to extend the rating of issues to
issuers, this would only be an approximation and it would be necessary for the system to move to
rating of issuers. Encouraging rating of issuers would be essential in this regard. In this context,
current non-availability of acceptable and qualitative historical data relevant to ratings, along with the
related costs involved in building up and maintaining the requisite database, does influence the pace
of migration to the advanced approaches available under Basel II.
Above all, capacity building, both in banks and the regulatory bodies is a serious challenge, especially
with regard to adoption of the advanced approaches. We in India have initiated supervisory
capacitybuilding measures to identify the gaps and to assess as well as quantify the extent of additional capital
which may be required to be maintained by such banks. The magnitude of this task, which is
scheduled to be completed by December 2006, appears daunting since we have as many as 90
scheduled commercial banks in India.
Concluding observations
In the current scenario, banks are constantly pushing the frontiers of risk management. Compulsions
arising out of increasing competition, as well as agency problems between management, owners and
other stakeholders are inducing banks to look at newer avenues to augment revenues, while trimming
costs. Consolidation, competition and risk management are no doubt critical to the future of banking
but I believe that governance and financial inclusion would als