For release on delivery
10:15 a.m. EST
February 21, 2020
Monetary Policy Strategies and Tools When Inflation and Interest Rates Are Low
Comments on Monetary Policy for the Next Recession, a report by
Stephen Cecchetti, Michael Feroli, Anil Kashyap, Catherine Mann,
and Kim Schoenholtz
Remarks by
Lael Brainard
Member
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
at the
2020 U.S. Monetary Policy Forum, sponsored by
the Initiative on Global Markets
at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business
New York, New York
February 21, 2020
I want to thank Anil Kashyap and the Initiative on Global Markets for inviting
me, along with my colleague Raphael Bostic, to comment on this year's U.S. Monetary
Policy Forum report by a distinguished set of authors.1 This year's report addresses the
challenges that monetary policy is likely to encounter in the next downturn. This topic is
under active review by the Federal Reserve and our peers in many other economies.2
Looking Back
The report explores the important question of whether the new monetary policy
tools are likely to be sufficiently powerful in the next downturn. The report assesses how
unconventional tools-including forward guidance, balance sheet policies, negative
nominal interest rates, yield curve control, and exchange rate policies-have performed
over the past few decades. It employs a novel approach by examining the effect on an
index of financial conditions the authors construct. This approach adds to what we have
1
I am grateful to Ivan Vidangos of the Federal Reserve Board for assistance in preparing this text. These
remarks represent my own views, which do not necessarily represent those of the Federal Reserve Board or
the Federal Open Market Committee.
See Stephen G. Cecchetti, Michael Feroli, Anil K. Kashyap, Catherine L. Mann, and Kim Schoenholtz
(2020), Monetary Policy for the Next Recession, report presented at the 2020 U.S. Monetary Policy Forum,
sponsored by the Initiative on Global Markets at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business, held
in New York, February 21.
2
See European Central Bank (2020), "ECB Launches Review of Its Monetary Policy Strategy," press
release, January 23,
https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2020/html/ecb.pr200123~3b8d9fc08d.en.html; Bank of Canada
(2017), "Monetary Policy Framework Issues: Toward the 2021 Inflation-Target Renewal," workshop held
at the Bank of Canada, Quebec, September 14,
https://www.bankofcanada.ca/2017/09/monetary-policyframework-issues-toward-2021-inflation-target-renewal; and Mark Carney (2020), "A Framework for All
Seasons?" speech delivered at "The Future of Inflation Targeting," a research workshop held at the Bank of
England, London, January 9,
https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/events/2020/january/the-future-ofinflation-targeting.
The Federal Reserve's review of its monetary policy strategies, tools, and communications is ongoing.
See the Board's website at
https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/review-of-monetary-policystrategy-tools-and-communications.htm; Richard H. Clarida (2019), "The Federal Reserve's Review of Its
Monetary Policy Strategy, Tools, and Communication Practices," speech delivered at the 2019 U.S.
Monetary Policy Forum, sponsored by the Initiative on Global Markets at the University of Chicago Booth
School of Business, New York, February 22,
https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/clarida20190222a.htm; and Jerome H. Powell (2019),
"Monetary Policy: Normalization and the Road Ahead," speech delivered at the 2019 SIEPR Economic
Summit, Stanford Institute of Economic Policy Research, Stanford, Calif., March 8,
https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/powell20190308a.htm.
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learned from earlier papers that have examined the performance of unconventional policy
tools with respect to individual components of financial conditions-most notably, long-
term sovereign yields, but also mortgage rates, equities, exchange rates, and corporate
debt spreads.3
Empirically assessing the question in the report is not only important, but also
challenging, as the report readily acknowledges. There are a host of difficult endogeneity
and omitted-variable issues, which the authors endeavor to address. The authors
conclude that unconventional monetary policies worked during the crisis but did not fully
offset a significant tightening in financial conditions. This finding leads the authors to
conclude that these policies should be deployed quickly and aggressively in the future
through a plan that is communicated in advance. This point is very important, so it will
be the focus of my discussion.
3
See Joseph Gagnon, Matthew Raskin, Julie Remache, and Brian Sack (2011), "The Financial Market
Effects of the Federal Reserve's Large-Scale Asset Purchases," International Journal of Central Banking,
vol. 7 (March), pp. 3-43; Michael E. Cahill, Stefania D'Amico, Canlin Li, and John S. Sears (2013),
"Duration Risk versus Local Supply Channel in Treasury Yields: Evidence from the Federal Reserve's
Asset Purchase Announcements," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2013-35 (Washington: Board
of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, April),
https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2013/201335/201335pap.pdf; Michael A.S. Joyce, Ana Lasaosa,
Ibrahim Stevens, and Matthew Tong (2011), "The Financial Market Impact of Quantitative Easing in the
United Kingdom," International Journal of Central Banking, vol. 7 (September), pp. 113-61; Simon
Gilchrist, David López-Salido, and Egon Zakrajšek (2015), "Monetary Policy and Real Borrowing Costs at
the Zero Lower Bound," American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, vol. 7 (January), pp. 77-109;
Marcel Fratzscher, Marco Lo Duca, and Roland Straub (2016), "ECB Unconventional Monetary Policy:
Market Impact and International Spillovers," IMF Economic Review, vol. 64 (April), pp. 36-74; Michael T.
Kiley (2013), "Exchange Rates, Monetary Policy Statements, and Uncovered Interest Parity: Before and
after the Zero Lower Bound," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2013-17 (Washington: Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System, January),
https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2013/201317/201317pap.pdf; Michael T. Kiley (2014), "The
Response of Equity Prices to Movements in Long-Term Interest Rates Associated with Monetary Policy
Statements: Before and after the Zero Lower Bound," Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, vol. 46
(August), pp. 1057-71; Michael T. Kiley (2016), "Monetary Policy Statements, Treasury Yields, and
Private Yields: Before and after the Zero Lower Bound," Finance Research Letters, vol. 18 (August), pp.
285-90; and John H. Rogers, Chiara Scotti, and Jonathan H. Wright (2014), "Evaluating Asset-Market
Effects of Unconventional Monetary Policy: A Multi-Country Review," Economic Policy, vol. 29
(October), pp. 749-99.
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Looking back at the international experience, the evidence suggests that forward
guidance and balance sheet policies were broadly effective in providing accommodation
following the financial crisis. But they were less effective when there were long delays
in implementation or apparent inconsistencies among policy tools. It is important to
distill key lessons from the past use of these tools in order to make them more effective in
the future.4
First, in some cases around the world, unconventional tools were implemented
only after long delays and debate, which sapped confidence, tightened financial
conditions, and weakened recovery. The delays often reflected concerns about the
putative costs and risks of these policies, such as stoking high inflation and impairing
market functioning. These costs and risks did not materialize or proved manageable, and
I expect these tools to be deployed more forcefully and readily in the future.5
Second, forward guidance proved to be vital during the crisis, but it took some
time to recognize the importance of conditioning forward guidance on specific outcomes
or dates and to align the full set of policy tools. In several cases, the targeted outcomes
set too low a bar, which in turn diminished market expectations regarding monetary
4
For instance, analysis by Ben Bernanke suggests "that a combination of asset purchases and forward
guidance can add roughly 3 percentage points of policy space." See Ben S. Bernanke (2020), "The New
Tools of Monetary Policy," presidential address to the American Economic Association, San Diego, Calif.,
January 4, p.3, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Bernanke_ASSA_lecture.pdf.
5
This issue was discussed in the July 2019 Federal Open Market Committee meeting in the context of the
framework review. As noted in the minutes of the meeting (p. 3), "Participants further observed that such
inflation risks-along with several of the other perceived risks of providing substantial accommodation
through nontraditional policy tools, including possible adverse implications for financial stability-had not
been realized. In particular, a number of participants commented that, as many of the potential costs of the
Committee's asset purchases had failed to materialize, the Federal Reserve might have been able to make
use of balance sheet tools even more aggressively over the past decade in providing appropriate levels of
accommodation." (Available on the Board's website at
https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/files/fomcminutes20190731.pdf).
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accommodation. In some cases, expectations regarding the timing of liftoff and asset
purchase tapering worked at cross-purposes.
In addition, in some cases, it proved difficult to calibrate asset purchase programs
smoothly over the course of the recovery. To the extent that the public is uncertain about
the conditions that might trigger asset purchases, the scale of purchases, and how long the
purchases might be sustained, it could undercut the efficacy of the policy. Furthermore,
the cessation of asset purchases and subsequent balance sheet normalization can present
challenges in communications and implementation.
Finally, in the fog of war, it was difficult for policymakers to distinguish clearly
between temporary headwinds associated with the crisis and emerging structural features
of the new normal. In part as a result, it took some time to integrate forward guidance
and other unconventional policies seamlessly, and it took even longer to recognize that
policy settings were unlikely to return to pre-crisis norms.
Looking Ahead
The current generation of central bankers faces a different core challenge than the
last generation, with substantially smaller scope for cutting interest rates to buffer the
economy and inflation that is low and relatively unresponsive to resource utilization.
With trend inflation running below the symmetric 2 percent objective, there is a risk that
inflation expectations have slipped. With price inflation showing little sensitivity to
resource utilization, policy may have to remain accommodative for a long time to achieve
2 percent inflation following a period of undershooting. With the equilibrium interest
rate very low, the Federal Open Market Committee can cut the federal funds rate by only
about half as much as it has done historically to buffer the economy from recession.
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Consequently, the policy rate is likely to be constrained by the lower bound more
frequently, likely at times when inflation is below target and unemployment is elevated.
The likelihood that the policy rate will be stuck at the lower bound more frequently risks
eroding expected inflation and actual inflation, which could further compress the room to
cut nominal interest rates in a downward spiral. Japan's experience illustrates the
challenges associated with such a downward spiral.
Today's new normal calls not only for a broader set of tools, but also a different
strategy.6 We should clarify in advance that we will deploy a broader set of tools
proactively to provide accommodation when shocks are likely to push the policy rate to
its lower bound. Equally important, we should adopt a strategy that successfully achieves
maximum employment and average inflation outcomes of 2 percent over time.
The lessons from the crisis would argue for an approach that commits to maintain
policy at the lower bound until full employment and target inflation are achieved. This
forward guidance could be reinforced by interest rate caps on short-term Treasury
securities over the same horizon. To have the greatest effect, it will be important to
communicate and explain the framework in advance so that the public anticipates the
approach and takes it into account in their spending and investment decisions.
Forward guidance that commits to refrain from lifting the policy rate from its
lower bound until full employment and 2 percent inflation are achieved is vital to ensure
achievement of our dual-mandate goals with compressed conventional policy space.7 To
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strengthen the credibility of the forward guidance, interest rate caps could be
implemented in tandem as a commitment mechanism. Based on its assessment of how
long it is likely to take to achieve full employment and target inflation, the Committee
would commit to capping rates out the yield curve for a period consistent with its
expectation for the duration of the outcome-based forward guidance. Of course, if the
outlook shifted materially, the Committee could reassess how long it will take to reach its
goals and adjust policy accordingly.
One important benefit is that this approach would smoothly move to capping
interest rates on the short-to-medium segment of the yield curve once the policy rate
moves to the lower bound and avoid the risk of delays or uncertainty that could be
associated with asset purchases regarding the scale and timeframe. The interest rate caps
would transmit additional accommodation through the longer rates that are relevant for
households and businesses in a manner that is more akin to conventional policy and more
continuous than quantitative asset purchases.
Another important benefit is that the forward guidance and the yield curve caps
would reinforce each other. Setting the horizon on the interest rate caps to reinforce
forward guidance on the policy rate would augment the credibility of the yield curve caps
and thereby diminish concerns about an open-ended balance sheet commitment. Once
target inflation and full employment are achieved, and the caps expire, any short-to-
medium-term Treasury securities that were acquired under the program would roll off
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organically, unwinding the policy smoothly and predictably. This approach should avoid
some of the tantrum dynamics that have led to premature steepening of the yield curve in
several jurisdictions.8
Today's low-inflation, low interest rate environment requires not only new
recession-fighting tools but also a new strategy to address the persistent undershooting of
the inflation target-and the risk to inflation expectations-well before a downturn.
Various strategies have been proposed that seek to make up for past inflation deviations
from target.9 To be successful, formal makeup strategies, such as an average-inflation-
targeting rule, require that market participants, households, and businesses understand the
policy in advance and find it credible. While formal average-inflation-targeting rules
have some attractive properties in theory, they could be difficult to communicate and
implement in practice due to time-inconsistency problems as well as uncertainty about
underlying economic parameters.10
I prefer flexible inflation averaging that would aim to achieve inflation outcomes
that average 2 percent over time. Flexible inflation averaging would imply supporting
inflation a bit above 2 percent for some time to compensate for the inflation shortfall over
previous years and anchor inflation expectations at 2 percent. Flexible inflation
8
For unusually severe recessions, such as the financial crisis, such an approach could be augmented with
purchases of 10-year Treasury securities to provide further accommodation at the long end of the yield
curve. The requisite scale of such purchases-when combined with medium-term yield curve ceilings and
forward guidance on the policy rate-should be relatively smaller than if the longer-term asset purchases
were used alone.
9
See, for example, Lars E.O. Svensson (2020), "Monetary Policy Strategies for the Federal Reserve,"
NBER Working Paper Series 26657 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, January).
10
See the discussion of formal makeup strategies in the minutes of the September 2019 Federal Open
Market Committee meeting (pp. 2-3), available on the Board's website at
https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/files/fomcminutes20190918.pdf. See also David
Reifschneider and David Wilcox (2019), "Average Inflation Targeting Would Be a Weak Tool for the Fed
to Deal with Recession and Chronic Low Inflation," Policy Brief PB19-16 (Washington: Peterson Institute
for International Economics, November), https://www.piie.com/sites/default/files/documents/pb19-16.pdf.
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averaging would bring some of the benefits of a formal average-inflation-targeting rule,
but it could be more robust and simpler to communicate and implement. Following
several years when inflation has remained in the range of 1-1/2 to 2 percent, the
Committee could target inflation outcomes in a range of 2 to 2-1/2 percent for a period to
achieve inflation outcomes of 2 percent, on average, overall.
By committing to achieve inflation outcomes that average 2 percent over time, the
Committee would make clear in advance that it would accommodate rather than offset
modest upward pressures to inflation in what could be described as a process of
opportunistic reflation.11 This approach will help move inflation expectations back to our
2 percent objective, which is critical to preserve conventional policy space.
It is important to emphasize that for monetary policy to be effective, it will be key
for policymakers to communicate their strategy clearly in advance to the public, to act
early and decisively, and to commit to providing the requisite accommodation until full
employment and target inflation are sustainably achieved. This was one of the important
conclusions of this year's U.S. Monetary Policy Forum report.
Fiscal Policy
Even with a revamped monetary policy strategy and expanded tools, there are
risks. As the authors note, persistent very low levels of long-run rates could hamper the
ability of monetary policy to support the economy in a downturn through the traditional
mechanism of pushing down long-term rates.12 Moreover, the equilibrium interest rate
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or, possibly, inflation expectations could be lower than most current estimates, with the
implication that unconventional policies would need to compensate for a larger reduction
in the conventional policy buffer.13
Accordingly, in addition to a forceful response from monetary policy, robust
countercyclical fiscal policy is vital. The reduced conventional monetary policy buffer
makes the importance of fiscal support during a downturn even greater than it has been in
the past, and the case for fiscal support is especially compelling in the context of very
low long-term interest rates. Not only is fiscal policy more vital when monetary policy is
constrained by the lower bound, but research suggests it is also more powerful.14
Whereas monetary policy is powerful but blunt, fiscal policy can be more targeted
in its effects. This is especially important today, when a large share of American
households have low liquid savings and are particularly vulnerable to periods of
unemployment or underemployment.
The appropriate design of a more automatic, faster-acting countercyclical fiscal
approach requires study and development. Just as monetary policymakers are actively
reviewing their tools and strategies, now is the time to undertake a review of fiscal tools
and strategies to ensure they are ready and effective.
longer-term interest rates have declined to very low levels and would likely be even lower following an
adverse shock that could lead to the resumption of large-scale asset purchases; as a result, there might be
limited scope for balance sheet tools to provide accommodation." (Available on the Board's website at
https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/files/fomcminutes20191030.pdf).
13
See, for instance, Michael T. Kiley (2019), "The Global Equilibrium Real Interest Rate: Concepts,
Estimates, and Challenges," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2019-076 (Washington: Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System, October), https://doi.org/10.17016/FEDS.2019.076.
14
See Paul R. Krugman (1998), "It's Baaack: Japan's Slump and the Return of the Liquidity Trap,"
Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, no. 2, p. 137-87; and Olivier J. Blanchard and Daniel Leigh (2013),
American Economic Review,
"Growth Forecast Errors and Fiscal Multipliers," vol. 103 (May, Papers and
Proceedings), pp. 117-20.
Financial Stability
Financial stability is central to the achievement of our dual-mandate goals. The
new normal of low interest rates and inflation also has implications for the interplay
between financial stability and monetary policy. In the decades when the Phillips curve
was steeper, inflation tended to rise as the economy heated up, which would prompt the
Committee to raise interest rates to restrictive levels. These interest rate increases would
have the effect of tightening financial conditions more broadly, thereby naturally
damping financial imbalances as the expansion extends.
With trend inflation persistently below target and a flat Phillips curve, not only is
the policy rate expected be low for long due to the decline in the neutral rate, but the
policy rate may also remain below the neutral rate for longer in order to move inflation
back to target sustainably. The expectation of a long period of accommodative monetary
policy and low rates, during a period with sustained high rates of resource utilization, is
conducive to risk-taking, providing incentives to reach for yield and take on additional
debt.
To the extent that the combination of a low neutral rate, a flat Phillips curve, and
low underlying inflation may lead financial imbalances to become more tightly linked to
the business cycle, it is important to use tools other than monetary policy to temper the
financial cycle. In today's new normal, a combination of strengthened structural
safeguards along with countercyclical macroprudential tools is important to enable
monetary policy to stay focused on achieving maximum employment and target
inflation.15 The countercyclical capital buffer, which was not available before the crisis,
is particularly well designed to address financial imbalances over the cycle.
Conclusion
With the policy rate more likely to be constrained by the lower bound, the core
challenge facing the current generation of central bankers is different than the last
generation. The authors of the report emphasize the importance of deploying an
expanded toolkit proactively, avoiding costly delays, and communicating clearly to the
public. To be fully effective, proactive use of an expanded toolkit needs to be coupled
with a new strategy that achieves average inflation outcomes of 2 percent along with
maximum employment over time.