Mark Carney: Guidance
Remarks by Mr Mark Carney, Governor of the Bank of Canada and Chairman of the
Financial Stability Board, to the CFA Society Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, 11 December 2012.
* * *
Introduction
It is a pleasure to be here today to discuss guidance.
Guidance is fundamentally about managing expectations, so let me manage yours up front.
This speech is primarily about policy guidance; it will not itself provide new policy guidance.
We all need guidance from time to time - we look to our parents, teachers, partners and
peers for their help to make life, career or major financial decisions. Ultimately, though, these
decisions are ours to make, and the consequences ours to bear.
Taking responsibility is why you became Chartered Financial Analysts: to learn how to
analyse information, to make difficult valuation and credit decisions, and to bear the risks and
reap the rewards that result. You rely on accurate and full disclosure by the companies you
analyse. Without it, you could not do your jobs; and, indeed, financial markets could not do
theirs of bringing together savers and investors to allocate capital efficiently. With more CFA
Charter holders per capita than any other major jurisdiction, Canada is favoured by such an
emphasis on fundamental analysis at the core of our system.
Beyond disclosure, what else can be usefully conveyed? Does the communication of
companies' expectations of performance serve a purpose? What about central bank
expectations about future policy?
In my remarks, I will discuss where such guidance can be effective and when it may be
warranted. My main message is while transparency is critical to well-functioning capital
markets and effective monetary policy, forward guidance of policy is best used sparingly in
normal times. In extraordinary times, however, conditional guidance can be used to resolve
time inconsistencies and achieve a better path for the economy.
First, allow me to address the private sector use of guidance and its impact on the financial
markets.
Company disclosure
An ongoing focus of regulators is ensuring that company disclosure is full, fair and timely.
The crisis demonstrated the need for better disclosure by financial institutions. Insufficient
and inconsistent disclosure by financial institutions contributed to uncertainty and eroded
market confidence. This led to a withdrawal of market liquidity, depressed valuations and
increased funding pressures.
Regulators and market participants are addressing these shortcomings. An Enhanced
Disclosure Task Force was formed last May at the initiative of the Financial Stability Board.
This private sector Task Force is a unique undertaking that brings together senior officials
from the banking sector, investors, analysts, rating agencies and audit firms, in consultation
with international standard-setting bodies and national regulators. In its October report, the
Task Force outlined principles and recommendations for improved risk disclosures that are
better aligned with banks' risk management and business strategies. Together with
regulatory initiatives and capital increases, these measures will contribute to improved
market confidence in financial institutions.
Earnings guidance
That companies should communicate material facts about their businesses, and do so to
everyone at the same time, is no longer controversial.1 There are, however, differing views
as to whether companies should also provide their expectations of how their businesses will
perform.
Most research finds little evidence that earnings guidance systematically improves company
valuations, increases shareholder returns or reduces market volatility.2 Some even argue
that forward earnings guidance can be harmful, focusing both financial market and company
management attention on a short-term "numbers game" at the expense of long-term
business fundamentals.3 Accordingly, a number of companies have stopped providing
earnings guidance, with research finding that these companies do see a subsequent
increase in analyst forecast dispersion and a decrease in forecast accuracy - but no change
in actual market volatility.4
Is central bank communication different?
First and foremost, central banks pursue transparency to be accountable in democratic
societies. Moreover, research and experience demonstrate that clear and open
communications also enhance the effectiveness of monetary policy. In particular, successful
monetary policy requires transparency around two aspects of the policy approach - what we
are trying to achieve and how we go about achieving it.
With respect to the former, Canada has benefitted from a clear objective for monetary policy
since the adoption of an explicit inflation target in 1991. As Canadians have come to
understand the Bank's policy objective and have gained confidence in its attainment over
time, inflation expectations have become firmly anchored around the 2 per cent target.
This confidence allows households and firms to make longer-term plans with greater
confidence, aligning their savings, investment and spending decisions with a common
inflation-control objective. These actions collectively serve to make the inflation target
self-reinforcing. They also give the Bank greater latitude to respond aggressively to
economic shocks without fear of dislodging longer-term inflation expectations. In short, the
common understanding of our monetary policy objective makes its attainment easier.
Of course, it would be quite remarkable if simply communicating the monetary policy
objective were sufficient to ensure its achievement. The conduct of policy obviously matters
as well. The Bank of Canada implements policy through changes in the target overnight
interest rate, which has a limited direct impact on saving, investment and spending decisions.
Far more important is the impact the Bank's actions have on the broader spectrum of market
interest rates, domestic asset prices and the exchange rate.
What matters to these asset prices, however, is not so much the current setting of the policy
interest rate but, rather, its expected path over time. Thus monetary policy affects the
economy primarily through policy-rate expectations.5 The more those expectations are
aligned with the policy path necessary to achieve the policy objective, the higher the
probability the policy objective will be achieved.6
The Bank of Canada has become significantly more transparent. We now explain our
decisions eight times a year and provide rich supplemental detail in our quarterly Monetary
Policy
Report.7 These communications are designed both to report the Bank's views on the
forces at work on the Canadian economy and to help households, firms and financial market
participants understand how the Bank will respond to those forces over time. The goal here
is, in effect, to allow markets and the public to "think along with us," not only promoting the
appropriate formation of policy expectations given current information, but also allowing
those expectations to evolve efficiently as new information is received.
We would have an easy time communicating our "reaction function" if we followed a simple
mechanical rule. Life would indeed be easier if we could be so rigid. But achieving our target
requires that we take a flexible policy approach, one informed by considered analysis and
judgment. That is one reason why transparency - and occasionally guidance - matters.
Guidance in normal times to help achieve the monetary policy goal
In a perfect world, guidance would be unnecessary. The inherent uncertainty in economic
outcomes and thus in the policy path would be widely understood. With full information and
efficient markets, monetary policy expectations would effectively take care of themselves -
knowing a central bank's inflation objective and its reaction function would be sufficient for
markets and the public to form and evolve their expectations, without the need for any direct
guidance from the central bank.
In the real world, monetary policy guidance can be useful in providing additional information.
But this is not assured. How to get guidance right remains a subject of considerable debate.
One approach is to provide advance signals to markets, using stock phrases or code words.
Not surprisingly, this sort of signalling helps market participants predict policy decisions in the
near term.8 But it is not clear that fulfilling promises helps market participants understand
why those decisions are taken.9 Without this understanding, market participants may be even
less able to form efficient expectations over time, thus increasing their reliance on explicit
guidance from the central bank. Ultimately, the risk is that markets turn into an echo
chamber, to the benefit of no one.
Some other central banks directly disclose their policy interest rate forecast. "Putting it all out
there" is, on its face, an appealing approach. It avoids the challenge of trying to perfectly
5
J. Boivin, "How People Think and How It Matters," a speech delivered to the Canadian Association for
Business Economics, Kingston, Ontario, 23 August 2011.
6
Note the contrast here to company earnings guidance, where expectations are essentially irrelevant to how
the business actually performs, except indirectly through their effect on valuations and, thus, company funding
conditions.
7
J. Murray "Monetary Policy Decision-Making at the Bank of Canada," a speech delivered to the Mortgage
Brokers Association of B.C., Vancouver, British Columbia, 7 May 2012.
8
See C. Rosa and G. Verga, "The Impact of Central Bank Announcements on Asset Prices in Real Time,"
International Journal of Central Banking 4 no. 2 (June 2008): 175-217.
9
C. Fay, T. Gravelle, "Has the Inclusion of Forward-Looking Statements in Monetary Policy Communications
Made the Bank of Canada More Transparent?" Bank of Canada Discussion Paper 2010-15, November, 2010.
calibrate verbal guidance. It also makes it easier to illustrate how monetary policy interacts
with the economy.10
In practice, however, it does not appear that markets take systematic account of the
guidance offered by a published path beyond the very near term. Overall research has not
generally found that publishing a path leads to better outcomes.11
At the Bank of Canada, we take a different approach. We seek to provide the appropriate
degree of transparency regarding how we intend to achieve our policy objective by regularly
reporting on the forces we see at work on the economy and helping markets and the public
understand how policy responds.
The Bank occasionally provides guidance in normal times to give some sense of the
imminence and degree of prospective policy action. We seek to place that guidance in the
context of the most important economic and financial factors that will determine whether it is
prophetic. This guidance is never a promise, however. Actual policy will always respond to
the economic and financial outlook as it evolves. Market expectations of policy should do the
same, reflecting differences in perspectives amid a common understanding of our objective.
Let me offer some specific examples where the provision of additional guidance in normal
times on the path of interest rates might be helpful.
Headwinds and the neutral policy rate
First, through the spring and summer of 2011, it became clear that some Canadian market
participants were making the short-hand assumption that the policy interest rate needed to
be at neutral when inflation was on target and the output gap was closed.12 It was not fully
appreciated that, in an environment of material headwinds, the last two conditions would only
be satisfied if the policy rate remained at a more stimulative level to offset the impact of
weaker foreign demand on the domestic economy. To clarify our approach and guide market
participants, we inserted a Box in our July 2011 Monetary Policy Report (Charts 1 and 2).
This helped reduce unrealistic views of the pace of future tightening.
Communicating the links between price stability and financial stability
A second example concerns the links between price stability and financial stability. Our
flexible inflation-targeting framework requires that we re-evaluate - and communicate - the
optimal path for returning inflation to target, taking due consideration of the consequences for
volatility in output and financial markets. The variation in that optimal path has resulted in an
inflation-targeting horizon as short as 2 quarters and as long as 11 quarters since the Bank
began publishing its projections for inflation in 1998.
The global crisis was a stark reminder that economic stability and financial stability are
inextricably linked, and that pursuing the first without due regard for the second risks
10
Publishing the policy rate forecast path corresponding to the central bank's forecasts of growth and inflation
helps to communicate both the central bank's prevailing views on the economy and its policy reaction function,
which in turn should help policy expectations evolve efficiently as new information arrives.
11
11. See, for example, M. Andersson and B. Hofmann, "Gauging the Effectiveness of Quantitative Forward
Guidance Evidence from Three Inflation Targeters," European Central Bank, Working Paper No. 1098,
International Journal of Central Banking
October 2009; C. E. Walsh, "Optimal Economic Transparency," 3
no. 1 (March 2007): 5-36; and G.-A. Detmers and D. Nautz, "The Information Content of Central Bank Interest
Rate Projections: Evidence from New Zealand," Reserve Bank of New Zealand Discussion Paper
No. 2012/03.
12
level of the neutral rate itself is, of course, subject to some debate. For example, see D. Laidler, "Natural
Hazards: Some Pitfalls on the Path to a Neutral Interest Rate," Backgrounder No.140, C.D. Howe Institute,
July 2011.
achieving neither. While the primary tools to deal with financial stability are micro- and
macroprudential regulation and supervision, it may be appropriate in some circumstances for
monetary policy to contribute to financial stability directly by complementing macroprudential
policy.13
More specifically, because the consequences of financial excesses may be felt over a longer
horizon than other economic disturbances, the potential may exist for tension between price
and financial stability considerations over the typical monetary policy horizon. In current
circumstances, the Bank may want to set interest rates higher than would otherwise be
warranted to bring inflation back to target within the typical six- to eight-quarter time frame.
But that flexibility does not exist in a vacuum, and should never be used by stealth.
The most recent Financial System Review elaborates on risks related to household
imbalances in Canada. Their evolution may be a factor affecting the timing and degree of any
withdrawal of monetary stimulus. If the Bank were to lean against such imbalances, we
would clearly say we are doing so, and indicate how much longer we expect it would take for
inflation to return to the 2 per cent target.
Our current guidance is that "some modest withdrawal of monetary policy stimulus will likely
be required, consistent with achieving the 2 per cent inflation target. The timing and degree
of any such withdrawal will be weighed carefully against global and domestic developments,
including the evolution of imbalances in the household sector."
Our current guidance indicates that some policy action may be necessary, encouraging a
degree of prudence in household borrowing. The share of new fixed rate mortgages has
almost doubled to 90 per cent this year, reflecting the combination of attractively priced
fixed-rate mortgages and the tightening bias of the Bank of Canada.
Guidance as an unconventional policy tool
While the Bank believes it appropriate to be sparing in forward policy guidance under
ordinary circumstances, the calculus changes under extraordinary ones. When conventional
monetary policy has been exhausted at the zero lower bound (ZLB) on nominal interest
rates, the additional stimulus that is likely to be called for is impossible to achieve using the
conventional interest rate tool. Extraordinary forward guidance is one unconventional policy
tool, along with quantitative easing and credit easing.14
The Bank of Canada used extraordinary forward guidance in April 2009, when the policy
interest rate was at its lowest possible level and additional stimulus was needed. At the time,
we committed to holding the policy rate at that level through the second quarter of 2010,
conditional on the outlook for inflation. In effect, we substituted duration and greater certainty
regarding the interest rate outlook for the negative interest rate setting that would have been
warranted but could not be achieved. The Bank's conditional commitment succeeded in
changing market expectations of the future path of interest rates, providing the desired
stimulus and thereby underpinning a rebound in growth and inflation in Canada
(Chart 3).15
When the inflation outlook - the explicit condition - changed, the path of interest rates
changed accordingly.
Our conditional commitment worked because it was exceptional, explicit and anchored in a
highly credible inflation-targeting framework. It also worked because we "put our money
where our mouths were" by extending the almost $30 billion exceptional liquidity programs
we had in place for the duration of the conditional commitment. And it worked because it
reached beyond central bank watchers to make a clear, simple statement directly to
Canadians.
Obviously the optimal policy path will differ for central banks, depending on their
circumstances and mandates. For example, the Federal Reserve indicated at its September
meeting that its policy rate could be expected to remain at exceptionally low levels until
mid-2015, and provided additional certainty with respect to its reaction function by linking
future unconventional monetary policy to substantial improvements in the outlook for the U.S.
labour market. Further, it indicated that it will leave highly accommodative policy in place "for
a considerable time after the economic recovery strengthens." The Fed also expanded its
large-scale asset purchases, dubbed "QE3," consistent with this enhanced forward
guidance.16
Guidance and time inconsistency
Doing more may require overcoming the familiar monetary policy challenge of time
inconsistency - but not as it has been conventionally understood.17
Today, to achieve a better path for the economy over time, a central bank may need to
commit credibly to maintaining highly accommodative policy even after the economy and,
potentially, inflation picks up. Market participants may doubt the willingness of an
inflation-targeting central bank to respect this commitment if inflation goes temporarily above
target. These doubts reduce the effective stimulus of the commitment and delay the
recovery.
To "tie its hands," a central bank could publicly announce precise numerical thresholds for
inflation and unemployment that must be met before reducing stimulus.18 This could reinforce
the central bank's commitment to stimulative policy in the future and thus enhance the
stimulative impact of its policies in the present, helping the economy escape from the liquidity
trap.
Further enhancing guidance may require a change in framework
From our perspective, thresholds exhaust the guidance options available to a central bank
operating under flexible inflation targeting.
If yet further stimulus were required, the policy framework itself would likely have to be
changed.19 For example, adopting a nominal GDP (NGDP)-level target could in many
respects be more powerful than employing thresholds under flexible inflation targeting. This
is because doing so would add "history dependence" to monetary policy. Under NGDP
16
U.S. Federal Reserve, Federal Open Market Committee Press Release, 13 September 2012.
17
In the days before independent central banks, governments could not credibly commit to maintaining low and
stable inflation, since they subsequently had the incentive to violate that commitment by engineering a
growth-boosting inflation surprise. This time inconsistency led to the unfavourable stagflation equilibrium of the
1970s, and ultimately resulted in the widespread operational independence of central banks. See F. Kydland
and E. Prescott, "Rules Rather Than Discretion: The Inconsistency of Optimal Plans," Journal of Political
Economy 85 (3) (1977): 473-92.
18
See, for instance, C. L. Evans, "Perspectives on Current Economic Issues," a speech delivered to the Bank of
Ann Arbor Breakfast, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 18 September 2012.
19
In most jurisdictions, including Canada, a change in the policy framework would require the approval of the
political authority. In some others, it would require a change in the constitution.
targeting, bygones are not bygones and the central bank is compelled to make up for past
misses on the path of nominal GDP (Chart 4).
Bank of Canada research shows that, under normal circumstances, the gains from better
exploiting the expectations channel through a history-dependent framework are likely to be
modest, and may be further diluted if key conditions are not met. Most notably, people must
generally understand what the central bank is doing - an admittedly high bar.20
However, when policy rates are stuck at the zero lower bound, there could be a more
favourable case for NGDP targeting. The exceptional nature of the situation, and the
magnitude of the gaps involved, could make such a policy more credible and easier to
understand.21
Of course, the benefits of such a regime change would have to be weighed carefully against
the effectiveness of other unconventional monetary policy measures under the proven,
flexible inflation-targeting framework.
Conclusion
Companies can talk about their future performance, but cannot guarantee its delivery.
Central banks can talk about the future path of policy, and we can, at least on the surface,
deliver.
However, in ordinary times, achieving our objective will mean delivering a path of policy that
adjusts as economic circumstances evolve. Therefore, that path cannot be predicted with
certainty in advance. In the Bank's view, this limits the effectiveness of policy guidance to
relatively special circumstances.
In extraordinary times, policy guidance may be more appropriate, and, as the Bank has
demonstrated with its conditional commitment, it can be highly effective. But, in more
extreme circumstances, even such a conditional commitment may prove insufficient. In order
to provide even greater stimulus when at the ZLB, central banks can further "restrain" their
future policy path through pre-commitment or history-dependence.
In all cases, central banks must be mindful of the impact on financial stability of what
amounts to a "low for long" interest rate environment. This puts a premium on co-ordination
among the relevant authorities to provide active macroprudential management.
Our goal, as always, is to ensure that households, firms and investors can make their
decisions in a stable macro environment.
That will ensure that the fundamental analysis that CFAs perform every day plays a central
role in capital allocation, business investment and ultimately jobs and growth.
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