September 25, 2018
Bank of Japan
Japan's Economy and Monetary Policy
Speech at a Meeting with Business Leaders in Osaka
Haruhiko Kuroda
Governor of the Bank of Japan
Introduction
It is my great pleasure to have the opportunity today to exchange views with a distinguished
gathering of business leaders in the Kansai region. I would like to take this opportunity to
express my sincerest gratitude for your cooperation with the various activities of the Bank
of Japan's branches in Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto.
In my speech today, I would like to first talk about the Bank's view on the recent
developments in economic activity and prices, and then explain its thinking behind the
conduct of monetary policy.
I. Economic Developments
Let me start by talking about economic developments. Japan's economy is expanding
moderately, with a virtuous cycle from income to spending being maintained in both the
corporate and household sectors. Although the real GDP growth rate for the January-March
quarter temporarily marked negative growth, due mainly to irregular weather, after
continuing to register positive growth for eight consecutive quarters, the rate for the
April-June quarter showed a return to firm growth, representing 3.0 percent on an
annualized basis (Chart 1).
The long-lasting recovery of Japan's economy is likely to be mainly attributable to both
external and domestic demand increasing in a well-balanced manner. As for external
demand, exports have continued on an increasing trend, exceeding the peak before the
global financial crisis, led mainly by those of capital goods and IT-related goods, in which
Japan has a comparative advantage (Chart 2). Looking at the underlying developments in
overseas economies in detail, the U.S. economy has continued to expand firmly, with the
growth rate for the April-June quarter registering 4 percent on an annualized basis. Firms'
sentiment has continued to improve in both the manufacturing and nonmanufacturing
sectors, and there has been positive momentum in private consumption on the back of the
favorable employment and income situation. Meanwhile, the European economy has
continued to recover on the whole with business fixed investment and private consumption
following an uptrend; however, exports recently have decelerated somewhat, due mainly to
the effects of the appreciation of the euro. As for emerging economies, the Chinese
economy has continued to see stable growth on the whole with private investment and
consumption remaining firm, although growth in infrastructure investment has decelerated
somewhat. Other emerging economies, mainly Asian economies, have been recovering
moderately, reflecting in part an increase in exports and the effects of their economic
stimulus measures. Thus, while the momentum of economic recovery differs to some extent
across countries and regions, the Bank judges that overseas economies have continued to
grow firmly on the whole.
Turning to the domestic situation, in the corporate sector, the profit environment has
remained favorable, with the ratio of current profits to sales having been at a record high
Tankan
level (Chart 3). Under these circumstances, according to the Bank's June
(Short-Term Economic Survey of Enterprises in Japan), firms' business fixed investment
plans for fiscal 2018 showed the highest growth for this time of the year since the survey
started. In the manufacturing sector, there has been a notable increase in research and
development investment with a view to advancing next-generation technology such as
self-driving systems and large-capacity batteries, in addition to investment intended for
capacity expansion on the back of firm domestic and external demand. In the
nonmanufacturing sector, investment aimed at improving efficiency and saving labor in
order to deal with the recent labor shortage has maintained its high growth. Such
improvement in the corporate sector has had positive effects on the household sector. In the
labor market, the active job openings-to-applicants ratio is currently 1.63, the high level last
seen during the period of high economic growth, and the unemployment rate has declined to
around 2.5 percent, the level observed during the bubble period (Chart 4). While the number
of employees has registered a year-on-year growth rate of around 2 percent, total cash
earnings per employee have risen moderately but steadily, led mainly by those of part-time
employees. Against the background of such improvement in the employment and income
situation, private consumption has been increasing moderately, albeit with fluctuations.
In terms of the contribution to economic growth, the recent increase in demand from foreign
visitors cannot be ignored. Sales of duty free goods at department stores in the first half of
this year registered an annual increase of close to 50 percent, and the occupancy rates of
city hotels have maintained the high level of almost 80 percent for the past few years. On
this point, as big events such as the Rugby World Cup and the G-20 summit are scheduled
to be held in Osaka next year, I hear that the construction of new hotels and rebuilding of
existing facilities have been taking place successively. As for the typhoon at the beginning
of September, the Bank will make efforts to firmly grasp the impact of the damage caused,
and expects that both the public and private sectors will work together to overcome the
disaster and create regions that are even stronger and more attractive.
So far, I have explained that Japan's economy has been improving, led by external and
domestic demand in a well-balanced manner. With regard to the outlook, the economy is
likely to continue its moderate expansion. However, there are various risks to this baseline
scenario, and uncertainties regarding overseas economies in particular warrant attention.
For example, it is necessary to thoroughly examine the extent to which recent protectionist
moves, such as the trade friction between the United States and China, will affect trade as
well as firms' investment activities. There have been active discussions over this issue at
international conferences that I have taken part in, including the G-20 and G-7 meetings. In
addition, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) recently released a simulation analysis of
the effects of protectionist moves on the global economy. According to the simulation,
downward pressure on the global economy stemming from stagnation in trade activity itself
is likely to be 0.1 percentage point at most in the next five years. However, if such
protectionist moves bring about turmoil in global financial markets and deterioration in
firms' sentiment, downward pressure on the global economy is expected to be around 0.5
percentage point at most. Global economies have become more interdependent than ever
before, with the recent progress in globalization and information technology. In this
situation, it is clear that protectionist policies will not benefit any economy, regardless of
whether it adopts such policies. Therefore, while a brake is expected to be put on excessive
protectionist moves at some point, it is essential to continue global discussion to ensure this
and to make sure that protectionist moves will not create instability in financial markets and
firms' sentiment.
Moreover, attention also should be paid to the effects that moves toward monetary policy
normalization, including the policy rate hikes in the United States, will have on global
capital flows and emerging economies. In fact, some emerging economies such as Turkey
and Argentina -- where there are vulnerabilities in the economy including twin deficits and
high inflation -- are confronted with a significant depreciation of their currencies, as the
inflow of dollar-based capital into these economies has turned to an outflow. That said, the
fundamentals of many other emerging economies including Asian economies have been
firm, and the Federal Reserve seems to be conducting its policy by carefully taking account
of developments in global financial markets and the global economy. Thus, it is fairly
unlikely at this point that the problems happening in some emerging economies will spread
widely. However, as sudden changes could arise in the market, we will continue to carefully
examine developments in global financial markets and emerging economies.
II. Price Developments
Now I will move on to price developments. Prices have continued to show relatively weak
developments compared to the economic expansion and the labor market tightening, and the
year-on-year rate of change in the consumer price index (CPI) excluding fresh food and
energy prices has been in the range of 0.0-0.5 percent (Chart 5). After five years, Japan's
economy is no longer in deflation, in the sense of a sustained decline in prices, but the
Bank's price stability target of 2 percent inflation on an annual basis has not yet been
achieved. For this reason, in the Outlook for Economic Activity and Prices (Outlook Report)
released at the end of July, the Bank focused on examining the reasons for these sluggish
price developments and updated the outlook for economic activity and prices. Today, I
would like to outline some key points of the report.
The first point is the reason why prices have been sluggish even though the economy has
improved steadily. Basically, this is likely to be mainly attributable to the experience of
prolonged low growth and deflation. The long and severe adjustment phase since the second
half of the 1990s, including the financial crisis, brought about sluggishness in economic
activity and asset prices. Under these circumstances, firms' wage- and price-setting stance
as well as households' views toward price rises have become cautious. The Bank introduced
quantitative and qualitative monetary easing (QQE) in 2013 and has been persistently
conducting powerful monetary easing. However, as the mindset and behavior based on the
assumption that wages and prices will not increase easily have become embedded in the
economy over a long period of time, it has been taking time for the situation to change.
In addition to such basic factors, the large room to raise productivity, mainly in the
nonmanufacturing sector, as well as the technological progress such as digitalization in
recent years, have allowed firms to maintain their cautious stance toward raising prices
despite an increase in labor costs. For instance, many firms in the accommodations as well
as eating and drinking services sectors have been compensating for a rise in personnel
expenses by introducing online reservation and ordering systems using tablet devices. In
addition, a further increase in labor participation by women and seniors in the past few
years has eased labor shortage in part, serving as a factor slowing the pace of wage
increases. In the long term, such moves are likely to strengthen the economy's growth
potential and make firms' and households' spending activities more active, thereby
contributing to pushing up prices. At least in the short term, however, these moves will
weaken upward pressure on wages and prices due to the reasons I mentioned earlier.
The second point concerning prices in Japan is that the mechanism for a rise in inflation
itself is not lost, although its pace is sluggish. Moves to raise sales prices have been
observed recently among a wide range of firms, reflecting rises in personnel expenses and
prices of raw materials as well as components. Also, according to the Tankan, for the first
time in about 10 years, the number of enterprises answering that the output prices have risen
has been exceeding the number of those answering that such prices have fallen (Chart 6).
Going forward, with the heightening perception of labor shortage, as wages of part-time
employees continue to increase, its effects are likely to spread to wages of regular
employees, mainly among small and medium-sized firms and the younger generations. In
fact, at this year's annual spring labor-management wage negotiations, the rise in the rate of
increase in base pay was more evident for small and medium-sized firms than for large
firms, and summer bonuses increased more significantly than last year. Such moves are
expected to ease consumers' cost-saving mentality and price rises by firms are likely to be
more easily accepted accordingly.
In this way, as a high level of utilization of labor and capital, or an improved output gap, is
sustained, many of the factors that have been delaying inflation -- such as firms' cautious
wage- and price-setting stance as well as households' cautiousness toward price rises -- will
likely be resolved gradually. When further price rises come to be observed widely as a result
of this, people's medium- to long-term inflation expectations are projected to rise gradually.
As a consequence, the year-on-year rate of change in the CPI is likely to increase gradually
toward the price stability target of 2 percent, although it will take more time than expected.
In the July Outlook Report, the Bank projected that the year-on-year rates of change in the
CPI (less fresh food) for fiscal 2018 through fiscal 2020 would likely be 1.1 percent, 1.5
percent, and 1.6 percent, respectively. We are in a difficult situation in terms of achieving 2
percent inflation by fiscal 2020. Nevertheless, maintaining a positive output gap -- a driver
for a rise in inflation -- for a long time, which will firmly push up actual prices as well as
inflation expectations, as I just mentioned, is likely to be the most certain path toward
achieving 2 percent inflation.
III. The Bank's Conduct of Monetary Policy
Lastly, I would like to talk about the Bank's thinking behind the conduct of monetary policy.
The Bank has been conducting powerful monetary easing under the framework of "QQE
with Yield Curve Control," aiming to achieve the price stability target of 2 percent (Chart 7).
In terms of yield curve control, with a view to facilitating the formation of the yield curve
that is considered most appropriate for achieving 2 percent inflation, the Bank has
purchased Japanese government bonds (JGBs) under the guideline for market operations, in
which it sets the short-term policy interest rate at minus 0.1 percent and the target level of
10-year JGB yields at around zero percent. Under the circumstances, not only JGB yields,
but also lending rates for firms as well as issuance rates for corporate bonds have remained
at extremely low levels, and the amount outstanding of bank lending has been increasing. In
addition, the Bank has purchased exchange-traded funds (ETFs) so that their amount
outstanding will increase at an annual pace of about 6 trillion yen, with a view to lowering
risk premia in the stock market and exerting positive effects on economic activity and
prices.
As I mentioned earlier, it is likely to take more time than expected to achieve 2 percent
inflation. On the other hand, the mechanism whereby an improvement in the output gap
leads to a rise in inflation has continued to operate. Considering such situation, the Bank
judged it important to persistently continue with powerful monetary easing and decided at
the July 2018 Monetary Policy Meeting (MPM) to strengthen the policy framework as
follows (Chart 8).
First, the Bank introduced forward guidance for policy rates. Specifically, it publicly made
clear to "maintain the current extremely low levels of short- and long-term interest rates for
an extended period of time, taking into account uncertainties regarding economic activity
and prices including the effects of the consumption tax hike scheduled to take place in
October 2019." This is based on the recognition that, in a situation where achieving 2
percent inflation is taking time, simply stating that it will persistently continue with
monetary easing cannot sufficiently ensure public confidence regarding its monetary policy.
I hope the introduction of forward guidance makes clear the Bank's strong policy stance
toward achieving the price stability target.
With regard to this forward guidance, some point out that it is difficult to understand how
long "for an extended period of time" means. First of all, as the words imply, it is not based
on a specific period of time. The phrase "for an extended period of time" was often used by
other central banks, presumably implying a fairly long period of time. Partly because central
banks in the United States and Europe are proceeding with monetary policy normalization
recently, some market participants speculated that a policy rate hike would take place soon
even in Japan. However, the situation regarding the price stability target in Japan differs
substantially from that in the United States and Europe. In terms of clarifying this point, it is
very important to make clear that the Bank will maintain the current extremely low levels of
short- and long-term interest rates for an extended period of time.
Of course, "for an extended period of time" does not mean permanently. Such being the
case, some may think that the period for which interest rate levels will be maintained should
be linked to a specific period of time or price indicators, in order to ensure the effectiveness
of the commitment. However, there are various uncertainties regarding economic activity
and prices in Japan, as I mentioned earlier. Therefore, in designing forward guidance, we
need to ensure not only the effectiveness of the commitment, but also the flexibility of the
future policy conduct, and in a balanced manner. The same applies to forward guidance by
other central banks. That is, in the initial stage following its introduction, as is the case in
Japan, it is common to commit to maintaining interest rate levels while presenting
qualitative conditions such as the economic situation and risk assessments, focusing rather
on the flexibility of the policy conduct.
In addition to the introduction of forward guidance, the Bank decided at the July MPM to
enhance the sustainability of "QQE with Yield Curve Control." In persistently continuing
with monetary easing, it is necessary to make adjustments to the policy framework so that it
can function in a competent manner over the period of the easing's duration. For example,
while the current target level of 10-year JGB yields is around zero percent, as I mentioned
earlier, the Bank made it clear that, under the target, the long-term yields might move
upward and downward to some extent mainly depending on developments in economic
activity and prices, thereby conducting market operations in a more flexible manner. Yield
curve control is an essential measure in stabilizing interest rates in Japan at low levels. On
the other hand, because it is powerful, interest rate formation in the JGB market has been
somewhat rigid, and there has been a notable decline in transactions. It is considered that
the measures decided at the July MPM will mitigate the side effects accompanying such
powerful monetary easing while facilitating the formation of an appropriate yield curve, and
as a consequence, lead to enhancing the sustainability of the policy. In addition, as for ETF
purchases, from the same aspect of enhancing the sustainability of the policy, the Bank
made it clear that it might increase or decrease the amount of purchases depending on
market conditions, while maintaining the annual pace of increase in the amount outstanding
of about 6 trillion yen.
Almost two months have passed since this policy decision was made. So far, stock prices
and foreign exchange rates have been stable on the whole, and the Bank recognizes that its
policy intention was accepted by market participants without misunderstanding. Meanwhile,
in the JGB market, transactions have become more active and price movements have
increased somewhat (Chart 9). According to a survey conducted in August, the proportion
of respondents answering that the degree of bond market functioning "has improved"
exceeded the proportion of those answering that it "has decreased" for the first time in about
three years. As market transactions usually tend to decrease in summer and it is difficult to
grasp actual developments, the Bank will continue to thoroughly examine the degree of
recovery in market functioning.
I have been given the opportunity to talk to you at this time every year, and this is the sixth
occasion for me to do so since taking office as Governor of the Bank of Japan in April 2013.
Six years ago, economic recovery had just started and overcoming deflation was not in sight.
Under such developments in economic activity and prices, it was necessary to decisively
implement a large-scale policy, and thus the policy that should be taken and the Bank's
thinking behind it were simple and clear. Over the past five years, Japan's economy has
continued its long-lasting recovery, corporate profits have been at record highs, and the
employment situation has improved substantially. Wages and prices are no longer seeing a
sustained decline and have turned to an uptrend. However, achieving the price stability
target of 2 percent is taking more time than expected. In such a situation where economic
activity and prices have improved significantly but their developments have been somewhat
varied, it is appropriate to conduct monetary policy by taking account of a variety of
developments in a comprehensive manner. This means that, in continuing with powerful
monetary easing, we now need to consider both its positive effects and side effects in a
balanced manner. The latest policy response is indeed in line with this thinking, and the
Bank's stance toward aiming at price stability with a view to contributing to the sound
development of the national economy has not changed at all. Going forward, it will
continue to make its utmost efforts as a central bank, taking account of developments in
economic activity and prices as well as financial conditions, and thereby firmly support
corporate activities in Japan.
Thank you very much for your attention.
Japan's Economy and Monetary Policy
Speech at a Meeting with Business Leaders in Osaka
September 25, 2018
Haruhiko Kuroda
Governor of the Bank of Japan
Chart 1
Japan's Economy
Real GDP
s.a., ann., tril. yen
540
530
520
510
500
490
480
470
460
450
CY 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Source: Cabinet Office.
Chart 2
Exports and Overseas Economies
Real Exports Projections for Major Economies (IMF)
y/y % chg.
s.a., CY 2015=100
2018 2019
120 2016 2017
Projection Projection
World
110 3.2 3.7 3.9 3.9
Advanced economies
1.7 2.4 2.4 2.2
100
United States
1.5 2.3 2.9 2.7
90
Euro area
1.8 2.4 2.2 1.9
80
Japan
1.0 1.7 1.0 0.9
Emerging market and
70
4.4 4.7 4.9 5.1
developing economies
China
6.7 6.9 6.6 6.4
60
ASEAN-5
4.9 5.3 5.3 5.3
50
CY 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Notes: 1. The figure for real exports for 2018/Q3 is the July-August average.
Notes: 2. The post-2018 figures in the right table are based on July 2018 WEO projections.
Sources: IMF; Ministry of Finance; Bank of Japan.
2
Chart 3
Corporate Profits and Business Fixed Investment
Business Fixed Investment Plans
Corporate Profits
(June Tankan)
s.a., % s.a., ann., tril. yen y/y % chg. ▼R&D investment
8 95 15
FY 2017 2018
Ratio of current profits to sales (all industries
+ +
y/y % chg. 2.7 3.5
and enterprises, left scale)
7
Business fixed investment (including land
90 10
Private nonresidential investment (SNA, real,
purchasing expenses)
right scale)
6
85 5
5
80 0
4
75 -5
3
70
-10
2
65 -15
1
0 60 -20
CY 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 FY 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 18
Chart 4
Employment Situation
Active Job
Unemployment Rate
Openings-toApplicants Ratio
s.a., ratio s.a., %
1.8 6
1.6
5
1.4
4
1.2
1.0
3
0.8
2
0.6
0.4 1
80 85 90 95 00 05 10 15 18
CY CY 80 85 90 95 00 05 10 15 18
Sources: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare; Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications.
4
Chart 5
Consumer Prices
y/y % chg.
2
Introduction of QQE
(April 2013)
1
0
-1
CPI (all items less fresh food)
CPI (all items less fresh food and energy)
-2
CY 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Chart 6
Environment Surrounding Prices
Changes in Prices (Tankan) Nominal Wages
DI ("rise" - "fall"), % points
y/y % chg.
60 5
Base pay increase for full-time
Change in output prices
50 employees
Change in input prices
4 Scheduled cash earnings per
40
fulltime employee
30
3
Introduction of QQE
(April 2013)
20
10 2
0
1
-10
-20
0
-30
-40
-1
CY 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 FY
88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18
Notes: 1. Figures in the left chart are those of all enterprises.
Notes: 2. In the right chart, the figure for scheduled cash earnings per full-time employee for FY 2018 is the April-July average. That for base pay increase for FY 2018 is as of July 6, 2018.
Sources: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare; Central Labour Relations Commission; Japanese Trade Union Confederation (Rengo); Bank of Japan.
6
Chart 7
Quantitative and Qualitative Monetary Easing with Yield Curve Control
Yield Curve Control
%
1.2
Recent JGB yield curve
1.0
0.8
Target level of the long-term interest rate:
0.6
around zero percent
0.4
Short-term policy interest rate:
0.2 minus 0.1 percent
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 40
residual maturity, year
Chart 8
Strengthening the Framework for Continuous Powerful Monetary Easing
Taking more time than expected to achieve the price stability target of 2 percent.
Maintaining the output gap as long as possible within positive territory is appropriate.
Persistently Continuing with Powerful Monetary Easing
Forward guidance for policy rates
"The Bank intends to maintain the current extremely low levels of short- and long-term interest rates for an
extended period of time, taking into account uncertainties regarding economic activity and prices including
the effects of the consumption tax hike scheduled to take place in October 2019."
⇒
Strengthening the commitment to achieving the price stability target
Enhancing the sustainability of "Quantitative and Qualitative Monetary Easing (QQE) with
Yield Curve Control"
Long-term interest rate: The Bank maintains the target level of around zero percent. While doing so,
the yields may move upward and downward to some extent mainly depending on
developments in economic activity and prices.
Purchases of ETFs: The Bank maintains the annual pace of increase in the amount outstanding of
about 6 trillion yen. While doing so, the Bank may increase or decrease
the amount of purchases depending on market conditions. etc.
Achieving the price stability target of 2 percent at the earliest possible time while
securing stability in economic and financial conditions.
8
Chart 9
JGB Market
Transaction Volume for JGBs Bond Market Survey
Degree of Bond Market Functioning
(Change from Three Months Ago)
tril. yen/day DI ("Has improved" - "Has decreased"), % points
1.2
20
Strengthening the Framework
Introduction of
for Continuous Powerful
Yield Curve Control
10
Monetary Easing
1.0
0
-10
0.8
-20
0.6
-30
Improve
-40
0.4
-50
-60
0.2
-70
0.0 -80
Jan. July Jan. July Jan. July Jan. July Feb. Aug. Feb. Aug. Feb. Aug. Feb. Aug.
15 16 17 18 15 16 17 18
Notes: 1. The left chart shows the trading volume via the Japan Bond Trading. Excluding T-bills, etc. The figure for September 2018 is the September 1-20 average.
Notes: 2. In the right chart, the survey from February 2018 onward includes responses from major insurance companies, asset management companies, etc., in addition to those from eligible
Notes: 2. institutions for the Bank's outright purchases and sales of JGBs. The latest survey was conducted from August 8-16, 2018.
Sources: QUICK; Bank of Japan.