The Liverpool Standard and General Commercial Advertiser.
Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1835-08-14 00:00:00

SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS,

usual hour

Shortly after twelve o'clock the business sittings of the society
commenced, and the sections were opened in the following
places
A. Mathematics and Physics, the Philosophy School, Tri-
nity College.
B. Chemistry and Mineralogy, Chemical School, Ditto.
C. Geology and Geography, Theatre of the Royal Dublin
Society.
D. Zoology and Botany, Board-room, ditto.
E. Anatomy and Medicine, Council-room, Royal Irish Aca-
demy.
P. Statistics, Divinity School, Trinity College.
The different places of meeting were densely crowded at an
early hour.

GENERAL MEETING AT THE 140TONDA,--AtONDAT EVENING

At a quarter past eight o'clock the Lord Lieutenant, attended
by his suite, took his seat on the right of the chair, which was
taken by the outgoing president, Sir Thomas Brisbane. Sir
Thomas addressed the meeting at some length, and concluded
by calling on Dr. Lloyd to take the chair, which he vacated.

Dr. Lloyd, on taking the chair, vindicated modern science
from the charge of impiety, and proved that scientific investiga-
tions, so far from throwing doubt on the accuracy of revelation,
tendeci.more and more to confirm it. This must always be the
case, that the more we sought after the truths of nature, the
more illustrations and confirmations would divine truths ieceve.
The God of nature was the God of revelation ; and science,
which developed the laws of nature, could not trace anything
contrary to revelation. He repudiated the notion that the cause
of religion could he served by ignorance i • it was exploded
absurdity, mendaci Dee gracitim. Dr. Lloyd (we believe) con-
tinued to expatiate, at considerable length, upon the advantages
of an association which formed a bond of union between scien-
tific men of different countries. He made several quotations
from Bacon, the purport of which only those close to him could
catch, as he was perfectly inaudible at the distance of a few feet,
and at last he concluded by calling on Professor Hamilton, one
of the secretaries, to present the annual report.
The learned professor read from a paper a very diffuse and
very eloquent statement of the origin, progress, and completion
of the British Association—its objects, and the mode by which
it purposed to effect them, which appeared to give very general
satisfaction.

The provosts then called on the presidents of. the different
sections to report the respective proceedings during the day.
Dr. Romney Robinson detailed the proceedings of the,physical
m 'arid ath e matical section. -31 r. 'had 'reed a magnifi-
cent paper on the subject of electricity, proving that its laws
could be made the subject of mathematical investigation. It
appeared that a theory, which had been recently published in
France as a new discovery, had been known seventy years ago
to an Irishman. (This statement was received with true na-
tional feeling--with loud applause.) The learned professor
said that hitherto electricity had been a kind of scapegoat among
the powers of nature ; every thing, for which no explanation
could be given, had been set down to its account; but Mr. Whe-
well would deprive philosophers of this convenience, and the
laws and motions of this power be made subject to the same in-
vestigation that disclosed the other operations of nature.
Mr. Snow Harris had exhibited a new construction of balance,
formeasuring electrical forces. It seems to be on the principle
of Coulombe's balance of tort ion, but is less complicated in its
contrivance, anu more accurate in its result. (Just as Mr.
Harris was about to exhibit some electrical experiments during
the day a sudden flash of light ning seemed as if to furnish an apt
illustration of his subject; perhaps to warn him that the state
of the atmosphere was not such as to permit him to trifle with
the electric fluid.)
Mr: Powell made a communication with regard to the polari-
zation of non-luminous heat. It seemed to gratify the Irish
audience to be informed that Mr. Powell, suspicions of an inac-
curacy in a very intricate calculation connected with some of his
• experiments, had selected our countryman, Mr. Murphy, of
Cambridge, as the best person to whom' he could submit it.
Dr. Hudson read a paper on the radiation of heat. Ile
I stated, as illustrative of the advantages of the British Associa-
lion, that it was by these meetings he had been excited to make
the experiments, the results of which he now submitted.
Captain Sir John Ross had occupied the section with a new
theory with respect to the aurora borealis. The gallant cap-
tain supposes it to be caused by a double reflection of the rays
of the sun, first from the snow and ice, and then from the clouds.
We do not believe that he has succeeded in making many pro-
selytes to his opinion.
Mr. Mallet had exhibited an application of electric magnetism
to the separation of iron filings from copper.
The reports from the other sections were then made.
In the geological section the exhibition of Mr. Griffith's map
was the chief business of the day. Messrs. Seclgtvick, Murchie-
son, and Greenough expressed themselves in very high terms
of the great research and talent displayed by Mr. Griffith. This
is, perhaps, the most important subject brought under the no-
tice of the association, as may lead to the development of the
rnan!,e mineral resources of Ireland..
Dr. West read a paper un the geographical position of Cape
Farewell.
Dr. Ceulte . who bas just returned from Mexico, made many
interesting observations on the natural history of that country.
In the anatomical section Dr. Greaves's paper has been very
much admiral by the profession.
The statistical section is not; pe!ltaps, the most generally in-

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teresting, yet certainly it is not the least important. The laws
of population, and the proportion of foundlings to the general
poputation, were illustrated by a variety of tables. Dr. Maun-
sell, Professor of Midwifery to the Royal College of Surgeons,
read a paper..exhibiting the results that would be gleaned from
the reports of the Foundling Hospital in this city,
After the different reports had been made, professor Sedg-
wick addressed the chair in a very effective speech, in which he
descanted on the success that had as yet attended the British
Association. He moved a vote of thanks to Sir John Tobin for
his_liberality and munificence. _

The resolution, having been seconded by Professor Murchie-
son, was carried amid loud acclamations, and/ the meeting

adjourned at eleven o'clock

TUESDAY.
All the sections met. at eleven o'clock, and closed at the

In the evening the Rotunda was crowded in every part to ex-
cess, but no chair was taken. The attraction of the night

DOCTOR LARDNER'S LE.cruitF. ON STEAM CARRIAGES.
The learned doctor commenced by speaking generally of the
properties of steam. A solid inch of water, in being converted
into the invisible power called steam, (for the vapour which we
see is not the steam, but smoke,) raises a weight of 16 pounds nu
feet, or of 150 times 15 pounds one foot; and hence we might
obtain as a simple formula easy to be remembered, that a solid
inch of water in evaporation raises a.ton one foot; and it pos-
sesses the same power in the reconversion, so that by- this
principle we have a double mechanical agency ; first, in the
conversion of water into steam, and, secondly, in the re-
conversion of steam into water. In the common steam

eugines both these agencies are employed. The learned
professor then referred to the beautiful model of a steam-engine
which w on the platform, and explained the principles of
its constfirction and action with great minuteness of detail.
Speaking of the speed of the locomotive engine he said its
speed depends altogether on the heat. The inquiry, therefore,
as to the speed of locomotive engines is simply an inquiry how
the greatest degree of heat can be applied to the, generation of
steam. heat acts in two ways; it acts first by radiation, just
as the lamps communicate their light; the particles of heat are
•radiated against the sides of the boiler, and so the water becomes
hot; but, besides, the air which is employed in sustaining com-
bustion escapes at an intense temperature. If this air were,
therefore, allowedaospaes away without any diminution of its
temperature, it would be a waste of fuel; it is, therefore, con-
trived by making it pass thrOugh intricate passages, that it shall
not pass away without being reduced to the temperature of the
water. Here, then, was difficulty—so to regulate its escape,
that it might just be reduced to the proper temperature—and it
was interesting to observe the struggles of invention to attain
this object. Iwo or three expedients bad been employed,—
the first plan he would endeavour to explain—(here he referred
to a diagram placed in o conspicuous position dupon the wall, )
round about the'fire-iflace'there was a hollow its& filled with
Water, against the sides of this the heat radiates, and the steam
bubbles, being generated, the steam is conveyed into the cham-
ber prepared tor its reception—the air, however,' employed in
combustion is not permitted to escape at once—a round vessel
filled with water is placed between the fire and the chimney--
through this vessel run a hundred tubes open at both ends—
and these are so contrived in their diameters and arrangement
that the heated air which rushes through them is reduced, by
the time it reaches the chimney, to the temperature of the
water; by this all waste of fuel is prevented; and the air
having reached the chimney, although in its cooled state it does
not retain sufficient tendency to ascend to bear it up with suffi-
cient rapidity, is caught by the blast produced by the admission
of the steam, and carried up the chimney with great force.
This was the contrivance adopted in locomotive engines; and
by this an engine, weighing itself 10 tons, and with a train
attached of 100,.200, or even 240 tons, moves along a railroad
at the rate of 12 miles an hour. Of the violence of the com-
bustion employed no idea could be formed by those who only
knew fire in its culinary and domestic purposes. Of the in-
tensity of the heat some notion• might be formed fsom an in-
stance of which he (Dr. Lardner) had been himself a witness.
In an experimental trip from Manchester to Liverpool, new
grate bars had been absolutely melted away by the violence of
the heat. Dr. Lardner then proceeded to mention several
other contrivances, one in which a number of concentric cylin-
ders were employed, the spaces between being alternately filled
up with fire and water; but the object sought in every such
contrivance was to expose as large a surface of water as possible
to the action of the heat. Having thus given a rapid outline of
locomotive engines, he would proceed to explain the principle
of railroads. The difficulty of employing steam on common
roads arises from a principle pervading. all inert mechanical
agency—every species of power but animal exertion—that it
could not vary its energy without loss. There is no mecha-
nical contrivance by which you can obtain superior power when
occasion may require; on a common road the resistance is
variable. Dr. Lardner then proceeded to make some observa-
tions on roads in general, and on what he termed M'Adam's
paradox, that a road through a bog was as good as over a rock ;
this was by no means the case, and the newest plan of making
roads is to have for them all a paved foundation; the perfection
of a road is that it should be perfectly hard, smooth, and level.
The first requisite, railroads possess alsnost to perfection—the
second is disturbed by the joining of the rails; this is not ap-
parent on the Kingstown railway, where the rails are new, but
on the Manchester and Liverpool it is possible to count the
number of rails by the jolts of the carriage. To obtain the
level is the most difficult part of all—on a level railroad the
power of nine pounds is sufficient to draw a ton; that is, in
round numbers the same as I to 230; this_ proportion of weight
upon a level would be equivalent to the resistance of an acclivity
rising! foot in 250—an acclivity of so gentle ascent as not to be
perceptible to the eye, and yet requiring double the power which
is ,necessary on a level road. Engines have been constructed
so as to surmont this difficulty; in fact, at one time to put
forth double the power which they do at another; but when
the rise is one foot in 125, it requires treble force to sur-
mount it, and this is beyond the power of the profitable apreica-
tion of locomotive force. If the rise is less than one foot in one
hundred an additional engine is added, that pulls the train up
the hill; but if it be greater than this, it is beyond the power of
locomotive engines forthis ascent. Another and more power-
ful species of engine must be employed, which remains sta-
tionary at the top of the hill and pulls up the train by a rope.
To illustrate how slight were the acclivities that to locomotive
engines were formidable hills, Dr. Larduet stated, that to draw
a weight of a ton up Sackville-street, wheee the rise ie one foot
in five hundred, a force of thirteen poundi instead online won't&
be required. Up the lower part of Grafton-street an additional
engine would be requisite; from Anne-street to 'Stephen's,-
green, level as it might appear, the ascent is beyond the power
of locomotive engines on a rail-road, and should be,accomplish-
ed by a fixed engine •at the head of the ascent ; and all the
power of steam could not bring any weight up by a railroad laid
on Cavendish-row. Another difficulty is, that rail-roads must
be straight—they cannot go round corners, or even make any
I Considerable curve, because, in passing round a curve with such
tremendous velocity, the carriages receive a centrifugal force,
anti will be very likely to fly off at the convex side of the curve.
This was the only blemish in the Kingstown railway, which, of
all railways, was the must perfect in design. There was just at
its termination a curve, with the small radius of half a mile; no
curve should have a less radius than a mile; at present this
blemish was of no consequence, because this curve occurred at
the termination of the. railway, where the carriages slackened
their rate. If ever, however, the railway is carried farther, as
he hoped and was confident it would, this curve must be re-
moved. He knew, however, that the distinguished engineer
who had so admirably planned the line was perfectly aware of
the circumstance of the curve, and had only yielded to inevita-
ble necessity in making it, even where at present, from the
cause already mentioned, it was not dangerous. It was not
from any inferiority in railways that a curve or a hill, which
would be of no consequence in a common road, became so eerie
ous here. It was in consequence of their perfection, just as, a
slight gash that would scarcely injure a less perfect instrument
would utterly destroy a.razor. He had trespassed very long,
(here the learned professor was interruptedlaysalong and enthu-
siastic burst of applause,) but' he would only. detain them by
glancing briefly at the great lines of communication which are
projected: the most forward is the line between Liverpool and
London—a railway is to run from Liverpool to Birmingham
and firm Birmingham to meet the' Manchester railway at a
point about half way to Liverpool; this railway will be two
hundred miles long; there is a magnificent viaduct over the
Ouse, a mile and a quarter long; anti several tunnels, one
under Primrose-hill, close to the Regent's Park, of half a mile,
another a mile and a half, with some of shorter lengths. By
this raihroad, even were no further improvement to be effected
in the speed of the engines beyond the ordinary rate of travel-
ling, the journey front London to Liverpool would be effected
in ten hours; but, as it is probable that carriages built express-
ly for the purpose of speed, which has never vet been made the
object of attention, could keep up during the whole way the
rate of forty, fifty, or even sixty miles, which speed had been
attained on the Kingstown railway in experimental trips, the
mail might be conveyed from London to Liverpool in thee
hours and a half. Dr. Lardner then referred toa map on which
all the projected rail-roads are marked—one from London to
Southampton, another frotn London to Bristol. It was impos-
sible to calculate the moral political, and commercial effects of
these rail-roads. It was found that the making of a rail-road
trebled the intercourse on the line. The intercourse between
London and Liverpool was 1,300 persons a-day, as ascettained
by stamp returns. The intercourse between London and the
three towns he had mentioned was annually a million and a
quarter—very nearly the amount of the whole population of
London. Other rail-roads were projected to York, and Edin-
burgh, and Lincoln; and last, not least—one that he trusted
yet to see—the highway to New York, Itremendous cheering,)
he meant the projected one to Valentia. (Renewed and loud
cheering.) From this the greatest good must follow ; steam
packets could ply from Valentia to Halifax in twelve days, and
thus the whole intercourse with skoaerioelle.leroughtistithin the
reach of steam navigation ; all passengers from the western
world would then pass through Ireland, and he (Dr. Lardner)
knew of no project more calculated to tranquillize and enrich it
than the construction of the proposed railway, in the line of
which there is no insuperable obstacle.• (Great cheering.)
Our transatlantic brethren had done much in constructing rail-
roads, which were not inferior to ours, as had been erroneously
stated—forty-six were completed, and one hundred and thirty-
seven either completed or in progress; one was now projecting
from Baltimore to the vale of Ohio, which would be three
hundred and thirty miles in length. [The learned professor
concluded his interestinglecture, which was one of the most po-
pular and the clearest exposition of scientifice principles that
we ever had the good foitune to hear,—ainid the loudest plaudits
of the highly respectable crowd which filled the room.]
The sectional meetings were continued through this day, but
no report of their proceedings was made in the evening.
WEDNESDAY.
At 9 o'clock the College of Surgeons entertained, the distin-
guished strangers then in Dublin, and a great body of 'Visitors,
at their splendid college, in Stephen's-green. The library, ex-
amination-hall, and museum, were thrown open as reception
rooms, and the dejeune, on a scale of princely magnificence,
was laid out in the boarl-room, committee-rooms, and other
apartments, in this chaste and magnificent building. Every
luxury that taste could suggest., or munificent outlay procure,
was in variety and profusion, and the members of the profession,
wholly regardless of their own pereonal convenience, devoted
their attention exclusively to the accommodation of their guests.
About six hundred persons were present, and we will venture
to affirm, so admirable were the arrangements, that not a wish
or want of any of the numerous persons assembled was left un-
gratified. Notwithstanding so vast a body, the entertainment
had all the quietude and comfort of one given in a private house,
and to an ordinary party, and was spoken of in terms of the
highest approbation by its partakers.
Mr. Read, the president of the College of Surgeons, was un-
remitting in his attentions, and unceaeiug in his exertions.
After the dejeune all the rooms in the college' were thrown
open for inspection. The party having assembled in the theatre,
Dr. Hart read an abstract of time proceedings of this section
yesterday. Dr. M•Donuell, of Belfast, reada paper on the
pulse; after which some observations were made in connexion
with the sounds of the heart by Dr. Carlile and Dr. Cori igen.
Surgeon Harrison then read a paper \On the junction of the
heart in various classes of animals. Papers on the ruminantia,
by Dr. Bowes; on hydutods, by Surgeon i Houston; on entazoii
in human muscles, by Dr. Harrison ; a report, by Dr. Collins,
and a paper on atmospheric pressure, by Sir J. Murray, M.D.,
were then read.
The president of the college, Surgeon Read, presided at the
general meeting; and the surgeon-general at the meeting of the
section.
We take the following observations on the association from
the Dublin Eteniny Mail of Wednesday :
We cannot but he highly gratified with the progresa which

AUGUST 14, I 5:35,

British association has made in this country ; and certain
we are, that the learned and eminent stranler.e who have visitel
our shores, will be equally pleased with the reception they have
met, and the effects which their presence and labours have al-
ready produced at the present, and those likely to arise from
the mental excitement they have set in motion. The Irish are
an intellectual people—and intellect needs but the impulse of
example, and the spur of glory, to arouse its activity and draw
forth its vigour. These outward appliances have 'already been
given; and we doubt not their happy results will be soon visi-
ble through all the educated classes of society. We need Site,
nothing of the exertions made, and the mental powers exhibited
by our own countrymen on the occasion. Hamilton, Robinson.
Lardner, are names whose celebrity does honour to the land of
their birth, and are ,econd to few, perhaps to none, in that bril-
liant galaxy of worthies of whom they are the fellow-associates.
But we speak of that general and promiscuous body who, with
inferior pretensions, contributes• their full quota to the general
enlightenment of the age, and of such as, without, pretensions
to distinction at all, show a readiness of comprehension, and au
aptness to appropriate instruction, which indicate the very
broad basis upon which science founds its' prospects of future
greatness in this country. The more recondite discussions are,
of course, reserved for those, and they are a numerous body,
whose minds have been disciplined and prepared by previous
study for the reception of new truths and wider generalizations.
But the association, adopting a most useful system, opens' its
stores even for the uninitiated, and its evening reunions are de-
voted to the information of those who as yet are groping in the
twilight for further knowledge. These lectures are, very pro-
perly, of an elementary nature; and we cannot too earnestly
impress on the gentlemen engaged in these discussions the
importance of this branch of their system. Were we to give
an instance of what we consider wanted—and at the same time
of what has been admirably performed, we should refer to the
lecture on steam-engines, and locomotive carriages, and rail-
roads, delivered at the Rotunda yesterday evening Dr. Lard-
ner. Such was the fullness, the cleat ness, the simplicity of this
eminent gentleman's statements, that we venture to say they
were comprehensible to the humblest intellect in his auditory—
and to all they carried conviction with the force of demonstra-
tion. We can be accused of no partialities towards Dr. Lunt-
ner ; but we repudiate injustice towards his merits or any other
•man's; and what we have said, we have said under the impres-
sion of his great powers as a popular lecturer, and a strong con-
sciousness of benNits likely to result from a similar treatnient
of such subjects.

MUNICIPAL REFORM.-MR. HOGG'S PROTEST.

We have now before us a copy of Mr. Hogg's much
talked of protest, the production of which was so obsti-
nately resisted ,by his Majesty's ministers until they
were forced to_ vield to the .coercion complained .of, so
pathetically in the House of Lords by Lord Melbourne.
Mr. Hogg's protest is a long, and in some respects a la-
boured commentary on the report of his learned brother
commissioners, upon which the corporation bill is found-
ed ; but, divested of its verbiage, contains the remarks.
ffa sensible and shrewd observer. The subjoined ex-
traCt% are taken from the several divisions of the protest
which'We have classed them under.