The Sun.
London, England, 1861-09-05 00:00:00

north-western Hebrides and the west coasts of Sutherland
and Ross, is the oldest rock formation on the British Isles,
it being unknown in England, Wales, or Ireland. It is
well known that the temperature increases as we descend
through the earth's crust, from a certain point near the
surface, at which the temperature is constant. In various
mines, borings, and Artesian wells the temperature has been
found to increase about 1 deg. Fahrenheit for every 60 or
65 feet of descent. In some carefully conducted experi-
ments during the sinking of Dokinfield Deep Mine—one of
the deepest pits in this country—it was found that a mean
increase of about 1 deg. in 71 feet occurred. If we take the
ratio thus indicated, and assume it to extend to much
greater depths, we should reach at two-and-a-half miles
from the surface strata at the temperature of boiling water ;
and at depths of about 50 or 6e miles the temperature
would be sufficient to melt, under the ordinary pressure of
the atmosphere, the hardest rocks. Reasoning from these
facts, it would appear that the mass of the globe, at no
great depth, must be in a fluid state. But this deduction
requires to be modified by other considerations, namely, the
influence of pressure on the fusing point, and the relative
conductivity of the rocks which form the earth's crust.
To solve these questions a series of important experiments
were instituted by Mr. Hopkins, in the prosecution of
which Dr. Joule and myself took part ; and after a long
and laborious investigation it was found that the tem-
perature of fluidity increased about 1 deg. Fahrenheit
for every 5001 b. of pressure in the case of spermaceti,
bees'-wax, and other similar substances. However, on
extending these experiments to less compressible sub-
stances, such as tin and barytes, a similar increase was
not observed. But this series of experiments has been
unavoidably interrupted ; nor is the series on the con-
ductivity of rocks entirely finished. Until they have been
completed by Mr. Hopkins we can only make a partial use
of them in forming an opinion of the thickness of the earth's
solid crust. Judging, however, alone from the greater con-
ductivity of the igneous rocks, we may calculate that the
thickness cannot possibly be less than nearly three times as
great as that calculated on the usual suppositions of the con-
ductive power of the terrestrial mass at enormous depths
being no greater than that of the superficial sedimentary
beds. Other modes of investigation which Mr. Hopkins has
brought to bear on this question appear to lead to the conclu-
sion that the thickness of the earth's crust is much greater
even than that:above stated. This would require us to assume
that a part of the heat in the crust is due to superficial and
external rather than central causes. This does not bear
directly against the doctrine of central heat, but shows that
only a part of the increase of temperature observed in
mines and deep wells is due to the outward flow of that
heat. Touching those highly interesting branches of science,
Botany and Zoology, it may be considered presumptuous
in me to offer any remarks. I have, however, not entirely
neglected, in my earlier days, to inform myself of certain
portions of natural history, which cannot but be attractive
to all who delight in the wonderful beauties of natural
objects. How interesting is the organisation of animals and
plants; how admirably adapted to their different functions
and sphere of life. They want nothing, yet have nothing
superfluous. E very organ is adapted perfectly to its func-
tions ; and the researches of Owen, Agassiz, Darwin,
Hooker, Daubeney, Babington, and Jardine fully illustrate
the perfection of the animal and vegetable economy of
nature. Two other important branches of scientific research,
Geography and Ethnology, have for some years been united,
in this association, in one section, and that probably the
most attractive and popular of them all. We are much
indebted to Sir Roderick Murchison, among other members
of the association, for its continued prosperity, and the
high position it has attained in public estimation. The
spirit of enterprise, courage, and perseverance displayed
by our travellers in all parts of the world have been
powerfully stimulated and well supported by the Geo-
graphical Society; and the prominence and rapid publicity
given to discoveries by that body have largely promoted
geographical research. In physical geography the late
Baron von Humboldt has been one of the largest contri-
butors, and we are chiefly indebted to his personal re-
searches and numerous writings for the elevated posi-
tion it now holds among the sciences. To Humboldt
we owe our knowledge of the physical features of Central
and Southern America. To Parry, Sir James Ross, and
Scoresby we are indebted for discoveries in the Arctic
and Antartic regions. Geography has also been advanced
by the first voyage of Franklin down the Copper Mine
River, and along the inhospitable shores of the Northern
Seas, as far as Point Turn Again ; as also by that ill-fated
expedition in search of a North-West passage, followed by
others in search of the unfortunate men who perished in. their
attempt to reach those ice-bound regions, so often stimu-
lated by the untiring energy of a high-minded woman. In
addition to these the discoveries of Dr. Livingstone in
Africa have opened to us a wide field of future enterprise
along the banks of the Zambesi and its tributaries. To these
we may add the explorations of Captain Burton in the same
continent, and those also by Captain Speke and Captain
Grant of a hitherto unknown region, in which it has been
suggested that the White Nile has its source, flowing from
one of two immense lakes, upwards of 300 miles long by 100
broad, and situated at an elevation of 4,000 feet above the
sea. To these remarkable discoveries I ought to add an
honourable mention of the sagacious and perilous explora-
tion of Central and Northern Australia by Mr. M'Douall
Stuart. Having glanced, however imperfectly, at some of
the most important branches of science which engage the
attention of members of this association, I would now invite
attention to the mechanical sciences, with which I am more
familiarly acquainted. They may be divided into theoreti-
cal mechanics and dynamics, comprising the conditions of
equilibrium and the laws of motion ; and applied mechanics,
relating to the construction of machines. I have already
observed that practice and theory are twin sisters, and must
work together to ensure a steady'progress in mechanical act.
Let us, then, maintain this union as the best and safest basis
of national progress, and, moreover, let us recognise it as
ono of the distinctive aims of the annual reunions of this
association. During the last century the science of 'applied
mechanics has made strides which astonish us by their
magnitude ; but even these, it may reasonably be hoped, are
but the promise of future and more wonderful enlargements.
I therefore propose to offer a succinct history of these im-
provements, as an instance of tjae influence of scientific pro-
gress on the wellbeing of society. I shall take in review
the three chief aids which engineering science has afforded
to national progress—namely, canals, steam navigation, and
railways; each of which has promoted an incalculable ex-
tension of the industrial resources of the country. One
hundred years ago the only means for the conveyance of
inland merchandise were the packhorses and waggons on
the then imperfect highways. It was reserved for Brindley
Smeaton and others to introduce a system of canals, which
opened up facilities for an interchange of commodities t a
cheap rate over almost every part of the country. The
impetus given to industrial operations by this new system
of conveyance induced capitalists to embark in trade, in
mining, and in the extension of manufactures in almost
every district. These improvements continued for a
series of years, until the whole country was intersected by
canals requisite to meet the demands of a greatly extended
industry. But canals, however well adapted for the transport
of minerals and merchandise, were less suited for the con-
veyance of passengers. The speed of the canal boats seldom
exceeded from two and a half to three miles an hour, and
in addition to this the projectors of canals sometimes
sought to take an unfair advantage of the Act of Parliament,
which fixed the tariff at so much per ton per mile, by adopt-
ing circuitous routes, under the erroneous impression that
mileage was a consideration of great importance in the suc-
cess of such undertakings. It is in consequence of short-
sighted views and imperfect legislation that we inherit the
numerous curves and distortions of our canal system.
These defects in construction rendered canals almost use-
less for the conveyance of passengers, and led to the im-
provement of the common roads and the system of stage
coaches; so that before the year 1830 the chief public high-
ways of the country had attained a remarkable smoothness
and perfection, and the lightness of our carriages and the
celerity with which they were driven still excite the admi-
ration of those who remember them. These days of an effi-
ciently worked system, which tasked the power and speed
of the horse to the utmost, have now been succeeded by
changes more wonderful than any that previously occurred
in the history of the human race. Scarcely had the canal
system been fully developed when a new means of propul-
sion was adopted—namely,' steam. I need not recount to
you the enterprise, skill, and labour that have been exerted
in connexion with steam navigation. You have seen its re-
sults en every river and everysyrai nsgetoa
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Viewing the past, with a knowledge of the present and a
prospect of the future, it is difficult to estimate sufficiently
the benefits that have been conferred by this application of
mechanical science to the purposes of navigation. Power,
speed, and certainty of action have been attained on the
most gigantic scale. The celerity with which a modern
steamer, with a thousand tons of merchandise and some
hundreds of human beings on board, cleaves the water and
pursues her course far surpasses the most sanguine expec-
tations of a quarter of a century ago, and indeed almost ri-
vals the speed of the locomotive itself. Previous to 1812 our
intercourse with foreign countries and with our colonial pos •
sessions depended entirely upon the state of the weather.
It was only in favourable seasons that a passage was open,
and we had often to wait days, or even a week, before Dub-
lin could be reached from Holyhead. Now this distance of
63 miles is accomplished in all weathers in little more than
three hours. The passage to America used to occupy six
weeks or two months, now it is accomplished in eight or
nine days. The passage round the Cape to India is reduced
from nearly half a year to less than a third of that time,
while that country may be reached by the overland route in
less than a month. These are a few of the benefits derived
from steam navigation, and as it is yet far from perfect, we
may reasonably calculate on still greater advantages in our
intercourse with distant nations. I will not here enter upon
the subject of the numerous improvements which have so
rapidly advanced the progress of this important service.
Suffice it to observe that the paddlewheel system of propul-
sion has maintained its superiority over every other method
yet adopted for the attainment of speed, as by it the best re-
sults are obtained with the least expenditure of power. In
ships of war the screw is indispensable, on account of the
security it affords to the engines and machinery, from their
position in the hold below the water line, and because of
the facility it offers in the use of sails, when the screw is
raised from its position in the well to a recess in the stern

prepared for that purpose. It is also preferable in ships
which require auxiliary power in calms and adverse
winds, so as to expedite the voyage and affect a con-
siderable saving upon the freight. The public mind had
scarcely recovered itself from the changes which steam
navigation had caused, and the impulse it had given to com-
merce, when a new and even more gigantic power of loco-
motion was inaugurated. Less than a quarter of a century
had elapsed since the first steamboats floated on the waters
of the Hudson and the Clyde, when the achievements
thence resulting were followed by the application of the
same agency to the almost superhuman flight of the loco-
motive and its attendant train. I well remember the com-
petition at Rainhill in 1830, and the incredulity everywhere
evinced at the proposal to run locomotives at 20 miles an
hour. Neither George Stephenson himself, nor anyone
else, had at that time the most distant idea of the capabili-
ties of the railway system. On the contrary, it was gene-
rally considered impossible to exceed 10 or 12 miles an hour;
and our present high velocities, due to high-pressure steam
and the tubular system of boilers, have surpassed the most
sanguine expectations of engineers. The sagacity of George
Stephenson at once seized upon the suggestion of Henry
Booth to employ tubular boilers, and that, united to the
blast pipe, previously known, has been the means of effect-
ing all the wonders we now witness in a system that has
done more for the development of practical science and the
civilisation of man than any discovery since the days of
Adam. From a consideration of the changes which have
been effected in the means for the interchange of commodi-
ties, I pass on to examine the progress which has been made
in their production. And as the steam-engine has been the
basis of all our modern manufacturing industry, I shall
glance at the steps by which it has been perfected. Pass-
ing over the somewhat mythical fame of the Marquis of
Worcester and the labours of Savery, Beighton, and New-
cornen, we come at once to discuss the state of mechanical
art at the time when James Watt brought his gigantic
powers to the improvement of the steam-engine. At that
time the tools were of the rudest construction, nearly every-
thing being done by hand, and, in consequence, wood was
much more extensively employed than iron. Under these
circumstances Watt invented separate condensation, ren-
dered the engine double acting, and converted its rectili-
near motion into a circular one suitable for the purposes of
manufacture. But the discovery at first made little way,
the public did not understand it, and a series of years
elapsed before the difficulties, commercial and mechanical,
which opposed its application, could bo overcome. When
1 the certainty of success had been demonstrated, Watt was
harassed by infringements of his patent, and lawsuits for
the maintenance of his rights. Inventors, and pretended
inventors, set up claims, and entered into combination with
manufacturers, miners, and others, to destroy the patent
and deprive him of the just fruits of his labour and genius.
Such is the selfish heartlessness of mankind in dealing with
discoveries not their own, but from which they expect to
derive benefit. The steam-engine, since it was introduced
by Watt, has changed our habits in almost every condition
of life. Things which were luxuries have become necessa-
ries, and it has given to the poor man in all countries in
which it exists a degree of comfort and independence and a
participation in intellectual culture unknown before its in-
troduction. It has increased our manufactures tenfold, and
has lessened the barriers which time and space interpose.
It ploughs the land and winnows and grinds the corn. It
spins and weaves our textile fabrics. In mining it'pumps,
winds, and crushes the ore. It performs these things with
powers so great and so energetic as to astonish us at their
immensity, while they are at the same time perfectly docile,
and completely under human control. In war it furnishes
the means of aggression, as in peace it affords the
bonds of conciliation, and, in fact, places within reach
a power which, properly applied, produces harmony and
goodwill among raen, and leads to the happiest results in
every condition of human existence. We may, therefore,
well be proud of the honour conferred on this country as the
cradle of its origin, and as having fostered its development
from its earliest applications to its present high state of per-
fection. I cannot conclude this notice of the steam engine
without observing the changes it is destined to effect in the
cultivation of the soil. It is but a short time since it was
thought inapplicable to agricultural purposes from its great
weight and expense. - But more recent experience has
proved this to be a mistake, and already in most districts we
find that it has been pressed into the service of the farm.
The small locomotive, mounted on a frame with four wheels,
travels from village to village with its attendant, the thrash-
ing machine, performing the operations of thrashing, win-
nowing, and cleaning at less than one-half the cost by the
old and tedious process of hand-labour. Its application to
ploughing and tillage on a large scale is, in my opinion,
still in its infancy, and. I doubt not 'hat many members of
this association will live to see the steam :plough in opera-
tion over the whole length and breadth of the land. Much
has to be done before this important:change can be success-
fully accomplished; but, with the aid of the agriculturist
preparing the land so as t) meet the requirements of steam
machinery, we may reasonably look forward to a new era in
the cultivation of the soil. The extraordinary developments
of practical science in our system of textile manufacture
are, however, not entirelydue to the steam engine, although
they are now in a great racaeuxe dependent on it. The
machinery of these manufactures had its origin before the
steam engine had been applied, except for mining purposes;
and the inventions of Arkwright, Hargreaves, and
Crompton were not conceived under the impression that
steam would be their moving power. On the contrary,
they depended upon water; and the cotton machinery
of this district had attained considerable perfection
before steam came to the aid of the manufacturer
and ultimately enabled him to increase the production
to its present enormous extent. I shall not attempt a de-
scription of the machinery of the textile manufactures, be-
cause ocular inspection will be far more acceptable. I can
only refer you to a list of establishments in which you may
examine their operations on a large scale, and which I
earnestly recommend to your attention. I may, however,
advert to a few of the improvements which have marked
the progress of the manufacturing system in this country.
When Arkwright patented his water-frames in 1767 the
annual consumption of cotton was about 4,ooo,ooolb.weight.
Now it is 1,200,000,0001 b. weight-300 times as much.
Within half a century the number of spindles at work, spin-
ning cotton alone, has increased tenfold ; while by superior
mechanism each spindle produces 50 per cent. more yarn
than on the old system. Hence the importance to which the
cotton trade has risen, equalling at the present time the
whole revenue of the three kingdoms, or £70,000,000 ster-
ling per annum. As late as 1820 the power loom was not
in existence; now it produces about 14,000,000 yards of
cloth, or, in more familiar terms, nearly 8,000 miles of cloth
pero
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con-
ception of the number and quality of the machines which
effect such wonderful results. Mule spinning was ,intro-
p e r
duced by Crompton in 1787, with about 20 spindles to each
machine. The powers of the machine were, however,
rapidly increased ; and now it has been so perfected that
2,000 or even 3,000 spindles are directed by a single person.
At first the winding on, or forming the shape of the cop,
was performed by hand ; but this has been superseded by
rendering the machine automatic, so that it now performs
the whole operation of drawing, stretching, and twisting the
thread, and winding it on to the exact form, ready for the
reel or shuttle as may be required. These and other im-
provements in carding, roving, combing, spinning, and
weaving, have established in this country an entirely new
system of industry; it has given employment to greatly
increased numbers, and a more intelligent class of work
people. Similarly important improvements have been ap-
plied to the machinery employed in the manufacture of silk,
flax, and wool; and we have only to watch the processes in
these different departments to be convinced that they owe
much to the development of the cotton manufacture. In the
manufacture of worsted, the spinning jenny was not em-
ployed at Bradford until 1790, nor the power loom until
about 1825. The prod ] ction of fancy or mixed goods from
alpaca and mohair wool, introduced to this country in 1836,
is, perhaps, the most striking example of a new creation in
the art of manufacture, and is chiefly due to Mr. Titus Salt,
in whose immense palace of industry, at Saltaire, it may be
seen in the greatest perfection. In flax machinery, the late
Sir Peter Fairbairn was one of the mast successful inven-
tors, and his improvements have contributed to the rapid
extension of this manufacture. I might greatly extend this
description of our manufacturing industry, but I must for
the present be brief, in order to point out the dependence of
all these improvements on the iron and coal so widely dis-
tributed among tlfe mineral treasures of our island. We
are highly favoured in the abundance of these minerals, de-
posited with an unsparing hand by the great Author of
Nature, under so slight a covering as to bring them within
reach of the miner's art. To them we owe oar present high
state of perfection in the useful arts; and to their extended
application we may safely attribute our national progress
and wealth. So that, looking to the many blessings which
we daily and hourly receive from these sources alone, we
are impressed with devotional feelings of gratitude to the
Almighty for the manifold bounties He has bestowed on us.
Previous to the inventions of Henry Cort, the manufacture
of wrought iron was of the most crude and primitive descrip-
tion. A hearth and a pair of bellows was all that was em-
ployed. But since the introduction of puddling, the iron-
masters have increased the production to an extraordinary
extent, down to the present time, when processes for the
direct conversion of wrought iron on a large scale are being
attempted. A consecutive series of chemical researches into
the different processes, from the calcining of the ore to the
production of the bar, carried on by Dr. Percy and others,
has led to a revolution in the manufacture of iron ; and
although it is at the present moment in a state of transi-
tion, it nevertheless requires no very great discernment to
perceive that steel and iron of any required tenacity will be
made in the same furnace with a facility and certainty never
before attained. This has been effected to some extent by
improvements in puddling; but the process of Mr. Besse-
mer—first made known at the meetings of this association
at Cheltenham—affords the highest promise of certainty
and perfection in the operation of converting the melted pig
direct into steel or iron, and is likely to lead to ale most im-
portant
developments in this manufacture. These improve-
ments
in the production of a material must, in their turn,
stimulate its application on a larger scale and lead to new
constructions. In iron shipbuilding an immense field is
opening before us. Our wooden walls have to all appear-
ances
seen their last days; and as one of the early pioneers
in iron construction, as applied to shipbuilding, I am highly
L gratified to witness a change of opinion that augurs well for

the security of the liberties of the country. From the com-
mencement of iron shipbuilding in 1830 to the present time,
there could only be one opinion among thosebest acquainted
with the subject—viz., that iron must eventually supersede
timber in every form of naval construction. The large ocean
steamers, the Himalaya, the Persia, and the Great Eastern,
abundantly show what can be done with iron, and we have
only to look at the new system of casing ships with armour
plates, to be convinced that we can no longer build wooden
vessels of war with safety to our naval superiority and the
best interests of the country. I give no opinion as to the
details of the reconstruction of the navy—that is reserved
for another place—but I may state that I am fully persuaded
that the whole of our ships of war must be rebuilt of iron,
and defended with iron armour calculated to resist projec.
tiles of the heaviest description at high velocities. In the
early stages of iron shipbuilding, I believe I was the first
to show, by a long series of experiments, the superiority of
wrought iron over every other description of material in
security and strength, when judiciously applied in the con-
struction of ships of every class. Other considerations, how-
ever, affect the question of vessels of war; and although nu-
merous experiments were made, yet none of the targets were
on a scale sufficient to resist more than a 6-pounder shot.
It was reserved for our scientific neighbours, the French, to
introduce thick iron plates as a defensive armour for ships.
The success which has attended the adoption of this new
system of defence affords the prospect of invulnerable ships
of war, and hence the desire of the Government to remodel
the navy on an entirely new principle of construction, in
order that we may retain its superiority as the great bul-
wark of the nation. A committee has been appointed by the
War-office and the Admiralty for the purpose of carrying
out a scientific investigation on the subject, so as to deter-
mine—first, the best description of material to resist projec-
tiles ; secondly, the best method of fastening and applying
that material to the sides of ships and land fortifications ;
and, lastly, the thickness necessary to resist the different
descriptions of ordnance. It is asserted, probably with
truth, that whatever thickness of plates is adopted for casing
ships, guns will be constructed capable of destroying them.
But their destruction will even then be a work of time, and
I believe, from what I have seen in recent experiments,that
with proper armour it will require, not only the most power-
ful ordnance, but also a great concentration of fire, before
fracture will ensue. If this be the case, a well-constructed
iron ship, covered with sound plates of the proper thick-
ness, firmly attached to its sides, will, for a considerable
time, resist the heaviest guns which can be brought to bear
against it, and be practically shot-proof. But our present
means are inadequate for the production of large masses of
iron, and we trust that, with new tools and machinery, and
the skill, energy, and perseverance of our manufacturers,
every difficulty will be overcome, and armour plates pro-
duced which will resist the heaviest existing ordnance.
The rifling of heavy ordnance, the introduction of wrought
iron, and the new principle of construction with strained
hoops, have given to all countries the means of increasing
enormously the destructive power of their ordnance. One
of the results of this introduction of wrought iron, and cor-
rect principles of manufacture, is the reduction of the
weight of the new guns to about two-thirds the weight of
the older cast iron ordnance. Hence follows the facility
with which guns of much greater power can be worked,
while the range and precision of fire are at the same time
increased. But these improvements cannot be confined to
ourselves. Other nations are increasing the power and
range of their artillery in a similar degree, and the energies
of the nation must, therefore, be directed to maintain the
superiority of our navy in armour as well as in armament.
We have already seen a new era in the history of the con-
struction of bridges, resulting from the use of iron ; and we
have only to examine those of the tubular form over the
Conway and Menai Straits to be convinced of the durability,
strength, and lightness of tubular constructions applied to
the support of railways or common roads in spans which
ten years ago were considered beyond the reach of human
skill. When it is considered that stone bridges do not ex-
ceed 150 feet in span, nor cast-iron bridges 250 feet, we can
estimate the progress which has been made in crossing
rivers 400 or 500 feet in width, without any support at the
middle of the stream. Even spans greatly in excess of this
may be bridged over with safety provided we do not exceed
1,800 to 2,000 feet, when the structure would be destroyed
by its own weight. It is to the exactitude and accuracy of
our machine tools that our machinery of the present time
ewes its smoothness of motion and certainty of action.
When I first entered this city the whole of the machinery
was executed by hand. There were neither planing, slot-
ting, nor shaping machines, and, with the exception of very
imperfect lathes and a few drills, the preparatory operations
of construction were effected entirely by the hands of the
workmen. Now everything is done by machine tools with
a degree of accuracy which the unaided hand could never
accomplish. The automaton, or self-acting machine tool,
has within itself an almost creative power ; in fact, so great
are its powers of adaptation, that there is no operation of
the human hand that it does not imitate. For many of
these improvements the country is indebted to the genius
of our townsmen, Mr. Richard Roberts and Mr. Joseph
Whitworth. The importance of these constructive ma-
chines is, moreover, strikingly exemplified in the Govern-
ment works at Woolwich and Enfield Lock, chiefly arranged
under the direction of Mr. Anderson, the present inspec-
tor of machinery, to whose skill and ingenuity the country
is greatly indebted for the efficient state of those great ar-
senals. Among the changes which have largely contributed
to the comfort and enjoyment of life are the improvements
in the sanitary condition of towns. These belong probably
to the province of social rather than mechanical science;
but I cannot omit to notice some of the great works that
have of late years been constructed for the supply of water
and for the drainage of towns. In former days 10 gallons
of water to each person per day was considered an ample
allowance. Now 30 gallons is much nearer the rate of
consumption. I may instance the water-works of this city
and of Liverpool, each of which yield a supply of from 20

to 30 gallons of water to each inhabitant. In the former
case the water is collected from the Cheshire and Derby-
shire hills, and, after being conveyed in tunnels and aque-
ducts a distance of 10 miles to a reservoir, where it is
strained and purified, it is ultimately taken a further dis-
tance of eight miles in pipes, in a perfectly pure state, ready
for distribution. The greatest undertaking of this kind,
however, yet accomplished is that by which the pure waters
of Loch Katrine are distributed to the city of Glasgow. This
work, recently completed by Mr. Bateman, who was also
the constructor of the waterworks of this city, is of the most
gigantic character, the water being conveyed in a covered
tunnel a distance of 27 miles through an almost impassable
country to the service reservoir, about eight miles from
Glasgow. By this means 40 million gallons of water per
day are conveyed through the hills which flank Ben Lomond,
and after traversing the sides of Loch Chon and Loch Aird
are finally discharged into the Mudgdock Basin, where the
water is impounded for distribution. We may look for-
ward to an extension of similar benefits to the metropolis,
by the same engineer, whose energies are now directed
to an examination of the pure fountains of Wales, from
whence the future supply of water to the great city is likely
to be derived. A work of so gigantic a character may be
looked upon as problematical, but when it is known that six
or seven millions of money would be sufficient for its execu-
tion, I can see no reason why an undertaking of so much
consequence to the health of London should not ultimately
be accomplished. In leaving this subject, I cannot refrain
from an expression of deep regret at the loss which science
has sustained through the death of one of our vice-presi-
dents, the late Professor Hodgkinson. For a long series of
years he and I worked together in the same field of scientific
research, and our labours are recorded in the "Transactions"
of this and other associations. To Mr. Hodgkinson we owe
the determination of the true form of cast-iron beams, or
section of greatest strength ; the law of the elasticity of iron
under tensile and compressive forces ; and the laws of resis-
tance of columns to compression. I look back to the days
of our joint labour with unalloyed pleasure and satisfaction.
' I regret to say that another of our vice-presidents, my friend
Mr. Joseph Whitworth, is unable to be present with us
through serious, but I hope not dangerous illness. To Mr.
Whitworth mechanical science is indebted for some of the
most accurate and delicate pieces of mechanism ever exe-
cuted; and the exactitude he has introduced into every me-
chanical operation will long continue to be the admiration of
posterity. His system of screw threa is and gauges is now
in general use throughout Europe. We owe to him a ma-
chine for measuring with accuracy to the millionth of an
inch, employed in the production of standard gauges; and
his laborious and interesting experiments on rifled ordnance
have resulted in the production of a rifled small arm and
gun which have never been surpassed for range and preci-
sion of fire. It is with pain that I have to refer to the cause
which deprives me of his presence and support at this meet
ing. A brief allusion must be made to that marvellous dis-
covery which has given to the present generation the power
to turn the spark of heaven to the uses of speech ; to trans-
mit along the slender wire for a thousand miles a current ,
of electricity that renders intelligible words and thoughts.
This wonderful discovery, so familiar to us, and so use-
ful in our communications to every part of the globe,
we owe to Wheatstone, Thomson, De la Rivo, and
others. In land telegraphy the chief difficulties have
been surmounted, but in submarine telegraphy much
remains to be accomplished. Failures have been re-
peated so often as to call for a commission on the part
of the Government to inquire into the causes, and the best
means of overcoming the difficulties which present them-
selves. I had the honour to serve oa that commission, and
I believe from the report and mass of evidence and experi-
mental research accumulated, the public will derive very
important information. It is well known that three condi-
tions are essential to success in the construction of ocean
telegraphs—perfect insulation, external protection, and aP'
propriato apparatus for laying the cable safely on its ocean
bed. That we are far from having succeeded in futfllting
these conditions is evident from the fact that out of 120000
miles of submarine cable which have been laid el"
e
only 3,0.;0 miles are actually in workingtha so that
three
fourths may be considprod a. a tenure and loss to the cum-
try. TLe insulators hitherto employed are subject to dete-
rioration from mechanical \ iolence, from chemical decompo-
sition or decay, and from the absorption of water ; but the
last circumstance does not appear to influence seriously the
durability of cables. Electrically, indiarubber possesses
High advantages, and, next to it, Wray's compound and pure
gutta percha far surpass the commercial gutta percha
hitherto employed ; but it remains to be seen whether the
mechanical and, commercial difficulties in the employment
of these new materials can be successfully overcome. The

external projecting covering is still a subject of anxious
consideration. The objections to iron wire are its weight
and liability to corrosion. Hemp has been substituted, but
at present with no satisfactory result. All these difficulties,
together with those connected with the coiling and paying
out of the cable, will no doubt yield to careful experiment
and the employment of proper instruments in its construc-
tion, and its final deposit on the bed of the ocean. Irre-
spective of inland and international telegraphy, a new sys-
tem of communication has been introduced by Professor
Wheatstone, whereby intercourse can be carried on between
private families, public offices, and the works of merchants
and manufacturers. This application of electric currents
cannot be too highly appreciated, from its great efficiency
and comparatively small expense. To show to what an
extent this improvement has been carried, I may state
that 1,000 wires, in a perfect state of insulation, may be
formed into a rope not exeeeding half-an-inch in diameter.
I must not sit down without directing attention to a sub-
ject of deep importance to all classes—viz., the amount
of protection inventors should receive from the laws of the
country. It is the opinion of many that patent laws are inju-
rious rather than beneficial, and that no legal protection of
this kind out to be granted ; in fact, that a free•-trade in
inventions, as in everything else, should be established. I
confess lam not of that opinion. Doubtless there are
abuses in the working of the patent lxw as it at present
exists, and protection is often granted to pirates and impos-
tors, to the detriment of real inventors. This, however, does
not contravene the principle of protection, but rather calls
for reform and amendment. It is asserted by, those who
have done the least to benefit their country by inventions,
that a monopoly is injurious, and that if the patent laws are
defended, it should be, not on the ground of their benefit to
the inventor, but on that of their utility to the nation. I
believe this to be a dangerous doctrine, and I hope it will
never be acted upon. I cannot see the right of the nation
to appropriate the labours of a lifetime, without awarding
any remuneration. The nation, in this case, receives a be-
nefit ; and assuredly the labourer is worthy of his hire. I am
no friend of monopoly, but neither am I a friend of injus-
tice ; and I think that before the public are benefited by an
invention, the inventor should be rewarded either by a 14
years' monopoly, or in some other way. Our patent laws
are defective, so far as they protect pretended inventions ;
but they are essential to the best interests of the State in
stimulating the exertions of a class of eminent men, such as
Arkwright, Watt, and Crompton, whose inventions have
entailed upon all countries invaluable benefits, and have
done honour to the human race. To this association is com-
mitted the task of correcting the abuses of the present sys-
tem, and establishing such legal provisions as shall deal out
equal justice to the inventor and the nation at large. I
must not forget that we owe very much to an entirely new
and most attractive method of diffusing knowledge, admi-
r ably exemplified in the Great Exhibition of 1851, and its
successors in France, Ireland, and America. Most of us re-
member the gems of art which were accumulated in this
city during the summer of 1857, and the wonderful results
they produced on all classes of the community. The im-
provement of taste, and the increase of practical knowledge
which followed these exhibitions, have been deeply felt ;
and hence the prospects which are now opening before us in
regard to the Exhibition of the next year cannot be too
highly appreciated. That Exhibition will embrace the whole
circle of the sciences, and is likely to elevate the general
culture of the public to a higher standard than we have ever
before attained. There will be unfolded almost every known
production of art, every ingenious contrivance in machinery,
and the results of discoveries in science from the earliest
period. The fine arts, which constituted no part of the Ex-
hibition of 1851, and which were only partially represented
at Paris and Dublin, will be illustrated by new creations
from the most distinguished masters of the modern scho6l.
Looking forwards, I venture to hope for a great success and
a further development of the principle advocated by this
association—the union of science and art. In conclusion,
my apologies are due to you for the length of this address,
and I thank you sincerely for the patient attention with
which you have listened to the remarks I have had the
honour to lay before you. As the President of the British
Association, I feel that far beyond the consideration of
merely personal qualifications, my election was intended as
a compliment to practical science, and to this great and in-
fluential metropolis of manufacture, where those who culti-
vate the theory of science may witness, on its grandest
scale, its application to the industrial arts. As a citizen of
Manchester, 1 venture to assure the association that its in-
tentions are appreciated ; and to its members, as well as to
the strangers who have been attracted here by this meet-
ing, I offer a most cordial welcome."

Lord STANLEY then rose, and was greeted with cheering.
The noble lord said—Ladies and Gentlemen,--I am afraid
that it will be altogether out of my power to make myself
audible to more than a small portion of that vast audience
which I am attempting to address. I have been asked to
propose a resolution, and I do so with great pleasure.
(Cheers.) I have come here like the great majority of those
to whom I am speaking, as a learner, and not as a teacher
—as a pupil, and not as a master ; and therefore my remarks
will be exceedingly brief. I believe we are all agreed in our
wish to pay due honour to those eminent men of scielice who
L have met in Manchester on this interesting occasion.
(Cheers.) You are always ready in Manchester to pay a
due tribute of respect to intellectual eminence in any pro-
. fession ; and scientific men—l may speak of them freely,
for I am not one myself—have upon you this especial claim,
i that while their works are comparatively less before
the public eye than those of men who pursue
other professions, the results of that work endure for
ever. (Cheers.) Great conquerors, great statesmen, great
authors, have their day of influence and popularity ; but
that influence and that popularity pass away, and even their
names are but faintly remembered. But every victory
' which is won in the field of physical discovery—every con-
quest of man over mature, however slight it may seem to
I be, however slowly and gradually it may be effected, is
• effected not for a single nation nor for a single age, but for
• all countries and for all time. (Applause.) Lancashire
• has contributed her full share to the long list of English
cultivators of science. There are many names which will
• occur to every one here—the name of the illustrious Dalton,
• the name of Dr. Whewell, one of the first mathematicians
of the day, and the name of Professor Owen, whom we have
fortunately present amongst us. There are others hardly
less illustrious, who if time and opportunity served I might
enumerate here. But I will pass from that topic, and will
only say this—that I believe there is no city and no dis-
trict in the country which has profited more by the prac-
tical application of science than this city of Manchester,
and the district of which it is the centre. (Applause.)
What is it has made this great metropolis of manufactur-
ing industry that which it is ? It is not manual labour;
that we have everywhere. It is not the abundance of capi-
tal ; for capital goes wherever it can find an investment.
It is not even the coal under our feet, or the water which
feeds our steam engines; nor is it our proximity to the sea.
Though all these are great, and some of them indispensable
advantages, still they may be found in other localities less
distinguished. What I believe has made us a race of prac-
tical workers, is the inventive aptitude and the peculiar and
the almost exclusive devotion which has been shown here
to the practical application of scientific methods and processes
to supply the material wants of mankind. (Applause.)
It is here, therefore, above all other places that the workers
—and when I say workers there are workers in all classes—
that the men of business should pay honour to the men of
thought. (Cheers.) It is here, above all places, that those
who have reaped the reward, and have profited by the result,
of scientific invention, should be the foremost to acknowledge
the merits of those without whose labours scientific inven-
tions could not have taken place. (Cheers.) But there are
other objects of our meeting besides those of paying honour
to those who are visiting us here. There are two classes of
persons who are in the habit of attending such meetings as
ours. There are some who come here as student ; who
come in the hope—and it is a hope not often disappointed—
of gathering from our lectures and our discussions some
hints and suggestions which they may afterwards have an
opportunity of working out in the only way in which scien-
tific ideas can be worked out—in retirement, and at leisure.
There is another class of persons, not hitherto devoted to i
science, who come here partly from the instigation of a
natural curiosity, and a desire to meet the leading men of
our time ; who come here to catch from the impulse of a
popular enthusiasm that taste for experimental research,
and for scientific investigation, which is often latent in
many a man's mind, but of which he is not aware that it
is there until circumstances cad it out. For both,
our meetings are designed ; and I think that neither
will be disappointed. If they are—if these meetings
are barren of results—l think the fault will be
our own ; and I hope, nay I confidently believe and expect,
that there will be many men who will look back hereafter
with pleasure to what has passed here, and will be able to
say that here was first sown the seed which afterwards ger-
minated in their minds, and which they have known how
to render practically available, not only for their own ad-
vantage, but for the advantage of their neighbours, their
country, and all mankind. (Applause.) Ladies and gen-
tlemen, I have said a little more than I meant; but the ob-
ject for which I rose was to propose a resolution whichi allhas
been put into my hands, and which I am sure you w
cordially accept. Ido not venture to offer any word of
criticism upon the address to which you have just listened
This I will say. We all hear Mr. Fairbairn with respect,
not only on account of the private character of the men_
and he is known to us all—but also because he himself is
entitled to take an honourable place amongst the pioneers
of scientific research. (Cheers.) I have to propose, "That
the thanks of the members of the Association be voted to
the President for his excellent addrc6s, and that his per-
mission be asked to allow 5s- co be circulated among the
members." (Lona applause.)
Mr. J. A. 1 URNER, M.P.—I assure you it is not any
„ -.LI of my own that I should rise to address you, but I do
so in obedience to the request of the commitoe that I should
second the resolution which has been so ably placed before
you by rey Lord Stanley. (Hear, hear.) I presume I have
been requested to second this resolution because I happen
to be one of the representatives of this city; and as Lord
Stanley, representing the aristocracy of the county, has ex-
pressed his high approval of Mr. Fairbairn's merits, and as
he rejoices that the Association has met in this district, so I,
identified entirely with commerce, and representing this
city, may perhaps be not unfitted to second this resolution—
(applause)—and to express my own most cordial feeling of
rejoicing, not only that the British Association has honoured
Manchester with a visit this year, but still further has bon. t