The Sun.
London, England, 1859-07-11 00:00:00

LI

On Liberty. By John Stuart Mill. Parker & Son.
This is, in every respect, a remarkable work.
The writer is one whose keen intelligence and
broad grasp of mind have already done good service
in some of the most arduous branches of literature.
The name of John Stuart Mill is one that commands
the respect of the reader, of whatever sect or party,
if only from the vast amount and research of his
labours, whether as the historian of British India,
the expounder of the principles of political economy,
the upholder of a new system of logic, or the author
of any of those other works which have instructed
and gratified his readers. He now gives to the
public a short treatise with a simple title, which
discusses some of the fundamental principles of
social economy, and makes the common place asser-
tions and prejudices around us come forth into the
light of reason and bear the brunt of his tren-
chant arguments. The Liberty he speaks of is not
what is usually understood by the term. It is not
the freedom of action, the possession of a constitu-
tional government, the abolition of slavery, or any
such view of the question. The Liberty he speaks
of is the right of every rational man to obtain a
fair hearing for his opinions, an individual in-
dependence of thought and word, an enfranchise-
ment from the tyranny of society and custom. In
his introductory chapter he speaks as follows :
The object of this Essay is to assert one very simple
principle, as- entitled to govern absolutely the dealings of
society with the individual in the way of compulsion and
control, whether the means used be physical force in the
form of legal penalties, or the moral coercion of public
opinion. That principle is, that the sole end for which
mankind are warranted, individually or collectively,
in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their
number, is self-protection. That the only purpose
for which power can be rightfully exercised over
any member of a civilised community, against his will,
is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either
physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot
rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be
better for him to do so, because it will make him happier,
because, in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or
even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with
him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or entreat-
ing him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with
any evil in case he do otherwise. To justify that, the con-
duct from which it is desired to deter him, must be calcu-
lated to produce evil to some one else. The only part of
the conduct of any one, for which he is amenable to society,
is that which concerns others. In the part which merely
concerns himself, his independence iai of right, absolute.
Over hitneelf,.over his own body and'mind, in
dividual
is the
is sovereign.
The first department of the subject is fully
discussed in the first chapter, "On the li-
berty of thought and discussion." This great
question has advanced with rapid strides
in the last century. It is impossible to
overrate its importance. It is the keystone of all
our rights and liberties, and it will always be a
matter for national rejoicing that England has been
the foremost in the proclamation and upholding of
this invaluable right of rational and responsible
beings. The author carries this principle out to its
fullest extent ; he would fearlessly encourage dis-
cussion on every subject, maintaining it to be the
touchstone of truth and the most powerful method
of impressing men's minds with the reality of their
own convictions. He attaches the greatest impor-
tance to the free circulation of the mental atmo-
sphere. He would rather have a hurricane than a
dead calm. " Truth gains more even by the errors of
one who, with due study and preparation thinks for
himself, than by the true opinions of those who only
hold them because they do not suffer themselves to
think. Not that it is solely, or chiefly, to form great
thinkers that freedom of thinking is required ; on
the contrary, it is as much, and even more in-
dispensable, to enable average human beings to
attain the mental stature which they are capable of.
There have been, and may again be, great indivi-
dual thinkers, in a general atmosphere of mental
slavery. But there never has been, nor ever will
be, in that atmosphere an intellectually active
people." In one point we do not quite coincide
with Mr. Mill's argument, which has something
too material in its tone. He says, "It is proper to
state that I forego any advantage which could be
derived to my argument from the idea of abstract
right, as a thing independent of utility. I regard
utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical ques-
tions ; but it must be utility, in the largest sense,
grounded on the permanent interests of man as a
progressive being." Even taking this elevated view
of utility it would be dangerous to make it our guide
independent of any higher consideration. Unless we
hold firm to abstract principles we shall find our best
philosophy will have a downward instead of an up-
ward tendency. In his forcible arguments against
intolerance, he cites several remarkable proofs of
its now acknowledged error and fallacy. Among
these he mentions the career, of Marcus Aurelius,
and gives a striking sketch of the notions and
theories which led " the gentlest and most amiable
of philosophers and rulers, under a solemn sense of
duty, to authorise the persecution of Christianity."
He adds—" To my mind this is one of the most
tragical facts in all history." On the subject of
religious theories and doctrines, we cannot agree
with Mr. Mill • that the New Testament only con-
tains part of a system of morality, insufficient for
the guidance of its followers on questions of right
and wrong. " And this being so, I think it a great
error to persist in attempting to find in the Chris-
tian doctrine that complete rule for our guidance
which its author intended it to sanction and en-
force, but only partially to provide." Of course it
would be folly to expect to draw from it practical
directions for every difficulty that arises in the
complicated relations of life. But the theory of
the morality is complete enough to furnish an un-
failing gu;de in the formation and adoption of
mental principles ; and could we find a man who
acted thoroughly up to the morality of the New
Testament, we do not think philosophers or fellow-
citizens would have much cause to complain of his
defective theory. The Christian doctrine includes
within itself the principles of the highest morality,
adapted to every clime and suited to every age,
only it gives them in their simplest and purest
form, leaving successive generations to add
to that foundation the superstructure best
fitting their race and time. The reader will
recal that fine passage in St. Augustine's writings
in which he asks for such fathers, such children,
such teachers, such rulers, above all, such public
men and citizens as Christianity would give us, to
prove its power to aid the progress of the human
race. After this able chapter on the liberty of
thought and dikussion, we come to one perhaps even
more striking from the greater novelty of its subject.
It is on " Individuality as one of the elements of
well-being." It is highly interesting, and sets
forth a valuable truth which in these days is over-
looked. Everything now is done by the force of
numbers and majorities. Mr. Bright furnishes a
striking sample of this theory in his proposed re-
forms, where numbers are everything. Though at
first sight bearing a fair appearance, this is a most
dangerous doctrine. It prevents the arbitrary
dictation of the few, but it encourages the more
formidable tyranny of the many: After pourtray-
ing the general conformity to custom, in accordance
with which, in purely personal matters, people do
not ask what is best for their own moral character
or most suited to their own disposition, but what
is usually done by persons of their position, Mr.
Mill asks, " Is this a desirable conditioniof human
nature ?"
It is so, on the Calvinistic theory. According to that,
the one great offence of man is self-will. All the good of
which humanity is capable, is comprised in obedience. You
have no choice ; thus you must do, and no otherwise :
"whatever is not a duty, is a sin." Human nature being
radically corrupt, there is no redemption for any one until
human nature is killed within him. To one holding this
theory of life, crushing any out of the human faculties,
capacities, and susceptibilities, is no evil ; man need no capa-
city, but that of surrendering himself to the will of God; and
if he uses any of his faculties for any other purpose but
to do that supposed will more effectually, he is better with-
out them. That is the theory of Calvinism; and it is held,
in a mitigated form, by many who do not consider them-
selves Calvinists ; the mitigation consisting in giving a less
ascetic interpretation to the alleged will of God ; asserting
it to be His will that mankind should gratify some of their
inclinations : of course not in the manner they themselves
prefer, but in the way of obedience, that is, in a way pre-
scribed to them by authority ; and, therefore, by the neces-
sary conditions of the case, the same for all.
In some such insidious form there is at present a strong
tendency to this narrow theory of life, and to the pinched
and hidebound type of human character which it pat-
ronises. Many persons, no doubt, sincerely think that
human beings thus cramped and dwarfed, are as their
Maker designed them to be; just as many have thought
that trees are a much finer thing when clipped into
pollards, or cut out into figures of animals, than as
nature made them. But if it be any part ofi religion
to believe that man was made by a good being, it is
more consistent with that faith to believe that this
being gave all human faculties that they might be culti-
vated and unfolded, not rooted out and consumed, and that
he takes delight in every nearer approach made by his
creatures to the ideal conception embodied in them, every
increase in any of their capabilities cf comprehension, of
action, or of, enjoyment. There is a different type of human
excellence from the Calvinistic ; a conception of humanity
itbwbipsinleoheeonr
intainhedscehjeels
selootfewshfh-
days,
dtehepne
aao,n,elementsPlatonic
Thereau dof
Christianihuman
aG reekwijoddrLahli,
ooaffssseewi
self-government,
oavvse
n'pCmmlst,
as having it nature bestowed on it for other purposes
than merely to be abnegated. " Pagan self-assertion"
but does not supersede. It may be better to
Knox than an Alcibildes, but it is better to be a
tni thha n either ; nor would a Pericles, if we had one
be without anything good which belonged to
John Knox.
Again, in speaking of the same subject, he says :
In sober truth, whatever homage may be professed, or
even paid, to real or supposed mental superiority, the gene-
ral tendency of things throughout the world is to render
mediocrity the ascendant power among mankind. In
ancient history, in the middle ages, and in a diminishing
degree through the long transition from feudality to the
present time, the individual was a power in himself; and if
he had either great talents or a high social position, he was
a considerable power. At present individuals are lost in
the crowd. In politics it is almost a triviality to say that
public opinion now rules the
wor_Ld.
The only power de-
serving the name is that of masses
44,1 of
govern-
meats while they make themselves the orgao. of the

'tendencies and instincts of masses. This is as true in
the moral and social relations of private life as in public
transactions. Those whose opinions go by the name of
public opinion, are not always the same sort of public ;
in America they are the whole white population ; in
England, chiefly the middle class. But they are always a
mass, that is to say, eollective mediocrity. And what is a
still greater novelty, the mass do not now take their
opinions from dignitaries in Church or State, from osten-
sible leaders, or from books. Their thinking is done fdr
them by men much like themselves, addressing them or
speaking in their name, on the spur of the moment,through
the newspapers. I am not complaining of all this. Ido
not assert that anything better is compatible, as a general
rule, with the present low state of the human mind. But
that does not hinder the government of mediocrity from
being 'mediocre government. No government by a demo
cracy or a numerous aristocracy, either in its political acts
or in the opinions, qualities, and tone of mind which it
fosters, ever did or could rise above mediocrity, except in so
far as the sovereign many have let themselves be guided
(which in their best times they always have done) by the
counsels and influence of a more highly gifted and in•
strutted one or few. The initiation of all wise or noble
things comes and must come from individuals ; generally
at first from some one individual. The honour and glory
of the average man is that he is capable of following that
initiative; that he can respond internally to wise and noble
things, and be led to them with his eyes open. I anck not
countenancing the sort of " hero-worship" which applauds
the strong man of genius for forcibly seizing on the govern-
ment of the world and making it to do his bidding in spite
of itself. All he can claim is, freedom to point out the way.
The power of compelling others into it, is not only
inconsistent with the freedom and development of all the
rest, but corrupting to the strong man himself. It does
seem, however, that when the opinions of masses of merely
average men are everywhere become or becoming the do-
nifnant power, the counterpoise and corrective to that ten-
dency would be, the more and more pronounced individuality
of those who stand on the higher eminences of thought. It is
in these circumstances most especially, that exceptional
individuals, instead of being deterred, should be encouraged
in acting differently from the mass. In other times there
was no advantage in their doing so, unless they acted not
only differently, but better. In this age the mere example
of non-conformity, the mere refusal to bend the knee to
custom, is itself a service. Precisely because the tyranny
of opinion is such as to make eccentricity a reproach, it is
desirable, in order to break through that tyranny, that peo-
ple should be eccentric. Eccentricity has always abounded
when and where strength of character has abounded ; and
the amount of eccentricity in a society has generally been
proportional to the amount of genius, mental vigour, and
moral courage which it contained. That so few now dare
to be eccentric, marks the chief danger of the time.

We have little space to treat of the last chapters in
which Mr. Mill discusses the power of society over
the individual and his " applications" of his
argument. We, can _ only commend all who
wish for deep and earnest thought, for clear
and unprejudiced reasoning, to peruse, this
volume, which contains, as it were, in its
brief compass the essence of the grand prin-
ciples of our social and religious liberty. Raised
by his own rare abilities and the experience and
study of years to a height in mental philosophy
seldom attained, Mr. Mill sees beyond his age. The
great principles he maintains are stirring amongst
us, but he looks forward to their full development.
Amid the jar and strife of the discordant elements
of society, the calm voice of the social philosopher
makes itself heard " distinct as lutes 'mid trumpets."
What he sees clearly and feels deeply he sets simply
and earnestly before mankind, and though his
maxims and arguments may be only appreciated
by the few, still by their dissemination and concur-
rence they will gradually descend to impress and
to influence the many.

POLICE INTELLIGENCE.-(711IS DAY.)