The Sun.
London, England, 1860-01-19 00:00:00

suit of the studies-of chemistry and geology, which
continued throughout his life, and even to within a
few days of his decease, constituted a substratum of
scientific and practical knowledge which few have
obtained, and fewer still have the ability properly
to' apply. One of the distinguishing character-
istics of his professional career was, that however
bold he was in the conception of an idea, as, for
instance, the Britannia Tubular Bridge, yet no one
with whom I ever came into contact watched
with more anxiety the completion of these enter-
prises than did Mr. Stephenson. His mind was
ever occupied in anticipating how and in what
shape failures might arise, and no doubt it
might appear to many that the precautions he took
were often superfluous. Of his successful profes-
sional career—his unbounded generosity, the libe-
rality of his views, and the dignity and urbanity
with which he filled this chair, you are all wit-
nesses, and it will be long before the place is ade-
quately filled which his decease has rendered vacant.
In approaching the subjects which ought to be con-
sidered the main object of this address, I would
venture to remind you of the custom of our society,
which is, that although we publish all that is said,
during the discuSsions and in the addresses of our
presidents, yet it is always with the distinct under-
standing that the remarks are not intended to re-
present the collective opinions of the institution,
but only of the individuals who utter them, and
that they. are not to be entitled to any more weight
than the intrinsic value of the opinions themselves,
or that which the position of the speaker may
secure for them. The object, therefore, of my
address will be to allude to subjects which
have not hitherto prominently occupied our at-
tention, or afforded ground for our discus-
sions, with the express intention of inviting your
consideration of them, and the design of securing
their discussion at our meetings. This institution,
which may be regarded as representing the objects
of the profession, now embraces among its members
those who are engaged not only in the construction
of roads, railways, harbours, &c., but of those also
who are occupied in the construction of engines and
machinery adaptable to every conceivable purpose
—in the building of vessels, in the erection of gas
and water-works, in the laying down of electric
telegraphs, and in the drainage of towns and rural
districts. Among the objects which appear prin-
cipally to demand our present consideration are
those questions most referable to hydraulic engi-
neering. The points of the utmost importance upon
which to arrive at a clear understanding are as to
the relative effects of the scour upon our rivers and
harbours, arising from the aotion of tidal or of land
waters. I am free to admit that I am one of those
who attribute the smallest effect to the action of
land waters, whilst I do attribute the most impor-
tant effects to the aotion of tidal scour. This con-
viction has been forced upon me by a general view
of oar rivers and estuaries. Looking, for instance,
to the river flowing past our doors—the river
Thames. Can it be supposed that the mere driblet
of water falling over Teddington-lock, even in sea-
sons of the highest floods, can give any effectual
aid to the tidal currents in preserving the channel
from the sea to the Nore and up to above Graves-
end ? Looking also to the fact that when any
great change or improvement has taken place in
any of our rivers we find them always to result
from some new arrangement of the tidal currents—
as, for instance, at Lynn, in the Clyde, and in many
other cases—on the other hand, where has any
marked result attended either the inerease or the
abstraction of the land waters ? Upon the solution
of this question depends the reclamation of large
tracts of land now lying not only waste and abso-
lutely useless, but in their present state exercising
a most pernicious influence upon the population of
the adjoining districts. The time has arrived when
the effects of under-draining—now every year more
actively pursued—upon the condition of your
rivers, should receive most serious consideration.
There is another branch of the profession, which is
now becoming most important—the extension of
the submarine telegraph cables—by which our
most remote passessions are being brought into
almost immediate contact with the home Govern-
ment. The experience up to the present time has,
however, been very unsatisfactory—whether we
consider the condition of the cables laid across the
Atlantic, or of several of those submerged in the
Mediterranean, and as regards their duration after
being laid down. It was the opinion of the late Mr.
R. Stephenson, whilst presiding over the affairs of
the Electric and International Telegraph Company,
that a cable could not be anticipated to last more
than 10 years, and he therefore insisted on an an-
nual provision being made for this decay. On the
other hand, there are other companies possessing
submarine cables who will not make any such pro-
vision. This anomalous state should not prevail in
a commercial community such as ours. I have much
pleasure in starling that on this subject the Govern-
ment have taken a very judicious and liberal course,
in which I am convinced the opinion of the coun-
try will support them. A commission has been ap-
pointed to investigate the question. with the most
ample scope for their inquiries. It is, no doubt,
owing to the want of such a preliminary inquiry
that so large an amount of national capital has been
wasted in such operations, and especially in laying
that across the Atlantic. This subject will, I trust,
receive your attention. There are many questions
which, it appears to me, we may discuss with ad-
vantage, in connection with our national defences.
It may be contended that this subject scarcely comes
withia the strict limits of our professional pursuits;
but seeing how important a part must devolve upon
steamvessels, upon our harbours generally, and espe-
cially those of refuge, upon the railway access to the
coast, and upon our artillery—the preparation of
which has now been admitted to have become part of
the duties of our profession, inasmuch as the recent
great improvements have been accomplished by Sir
W. Armstrong, Mr. Whitworth, and Mr. Ander-
son, all civilians and members of our profession—l
do not hesitate to advert to this subject, to which
the public attention is so much attracted, especially
as I do not know any other arena where such sub-
jects can be so advantageously discussed as in this
institution. There is no assemblage which com-
mands more general intelligence, and certainly
none which contains so much mechanical know-
ledge. Applying our minds to this question, the
first
considerationis, what are the peculiar re-
sources England possesses, and what is most
essential to be attained ? As to our resources, they
consist chiefly in our enormous and accumulating
wealth, our boundless mechanical 'skill, and the
wliich
genius to apply them. The object to be attained is
the maritime supremacy of the narrow seas. We
cannot, indeed, like the Continental nations, main-
tain large bodies of regular troops, nor have we,
like our neighbours, a large reserve of seamen at
command for emergencies. Before, however, I ap-
ply these general considerations, I must advert to
the fact of the small amount of novelty and of im•
provement in 'naval architecture which have origi-
nated in our own Government dockyards, espe-
cially having regard to the enormous total expen-
diture recorded. It is the fashion to visit the short-
comings upon the statesmen in power, but in point
of fact they are as littlo in fault as we are who are
sitting in this room. In a constitutional Govern-
ment carried on through the agency of the House
of Commons, the Government has not the power of
selecting the best mode of carrying on the public
departments, but is compelled to adopt that which,
under the circumstances, is exposed to the fewest
disadvantages. Having reference to the uncertain
tenure of office, it is therefore unreasonable and
useless to complain of statesmen ; the more patriotic
course is to suggest practical remedies. The main
reason of so little improvement emanating from the
public department is the total want of that com-
petition which exercises so irresistible an influence
on all our commercial relations. I cannot help
thinking that discussion at our meetings on
many of th© subjects within the scope of the
public departments will be reflected upon these de-
partments, and will work for the general good. I
repeat—why should not the skill, talent, and prac-
tical knowledge which has so rapidly improved our
artillery and has been resorted to by foreign Go-
vernments for their navies be rendered available
for our national objects ? The Governments of
Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Austria, Turkey, and the
Brazils resort to our commercial shipwrights to form
their navies, whilst Russia has recourse to the
United States, the British Government alone de-
spising the resources offered by the native genius of
the country. As to our national defences, the
all-important point is, as before stated, the mari-
time supremacy of the narrow seas. It appears
that, for this object, three conditions are essential:
—lst, That we should possess the fleetest boats, for
conveying intelligence, instructions, and informa-
tion as to hostile movements ; 2d, The strongest,
swiftest, and most powerful rams for running
down ; 3d, Armed ships of the most efficient de.
scription. As to the fast despatch-boats, they are
to be had in abundance from our commercial and
mail services; especially such as those now con-
structing for the Holyhead and Kingstown line.
As regards the rams, there are many points de-
manding serious investigation. The first is,
whether they should be constructed simply to act
as rams, or be provided with an armament, and com-
bine the two conditions? and thus, 'whether in
attempting to combine both objects in one vessel,
the actual efficiency of both may not be impaired
That is to say, whether giving to the ram its ade-
quate strength may not interfere with its pope). • •
armament, and whether the provisions required for
,the armament may not defeat its object as a ram ?
It would appear to be obvious that a vessel were
built solely for running down,
andher sphere of
action were restricted to the Channel,
her form and
the system of construction would not be essentially
different from that which would be adopted if her

------ ---
kind of force and never wouldbe efficient. The militia
were not as efficient as they might be, but if placed
on a proper footing they might be made efficient.
As to the volunteer force, it was perfectly useless,
and no general officer would command it.
Mr. C. COWAN said, he was quite aware that the
volunteer force could not expect to cope with the
Line, but it appeared to him that the spirit that
had been lately evoked throughout the country
was such as they ought to be proud of ; and he
thought it would be a great advantage if the youth
of the land, in any system of national education
that might be adopted, received that physical train-
ing and development of body which would improve
their efficiency when they came to be called out for
the defence of their country.
Sir J. G. BAIRD said, he was glad to hear this
statement from the Commander-in-Chief in Scot-
land, knowing the sentiments he entertained on the
subject, but he begged to say that the volunteer
movement had not arisen from any doubt of the
efficien3y of the army and the militia, nor from any
motive of rivalry with them. But they all knew
that, if a time of danger came, a great portion of
their army would be defending the British posses-
sions abroad, and the militia garrisoning their
towns, and, perhaps, their colonies, and they would
have little else than the volunteer force to depend
upon for the protection of the country. He was
happy to think that, as to the efficiency of the volun-
teer force, many officers of high rank held very dif-
ferent opinions from the noble lord. He believed
that the patriotic spirit of the people was such that
it would lead them to rush to meet any invading
foe, whether disciplined or not, and surely, there
fore, it would be far better to discipline them, and
make them an efficient auxiliary to any army in the
field.
Mr. G. WAucHoPE thought the volunteers should
not be condemned till they were tried. Ho thought
the movement a most glorious one, but, perhaps,
his noble friend would have more approved of it if
it had a little more red tape about it.
Sir W. G. CRAIG said, there was no fear whatever
of the volunteer movement interfering with recruit-
ing for the army, for the volunteers were generally
taken from a superior class who would never be-
come soldiers. He believed that with the best blood
of England and Scotland coming forward in this
way, and being properly drilled, they would prove
a most powerful and formidable auxiliary to the
regular forces.
A committee was appointed to consider in what
way the county could most advantageously give its
support to the volunteer movement.
A letter-press artillery corps has been formed in
Edinburgh, consisting of 130 enrolled members, and
it is to be associated with the City of Edinburgh
Volunteer Artillery. Mr. Robert Clark has been
chosen captain, and Mr. Robert Brydon first lieute-
nant. A meeting has been held to promote arrange-
ments and to stimulate subscriptions. -

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEEBS.

The following address of Mr. George Parker
Bidder, president of the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers, was delivered, on taking the chair for the
first time after his election, a few evenings ago :
Gentlemen,—I beg to thank you for the distin-
guished position in which your suffrages have placed
me. Looking back upon the eminent men who have
successively occupied this chair, I cannot but feel
anxious that the high character of onr profession and
the efficiency of this institution should not suffer any
abatement during the term of my tenure of office ;
and considering the powers and high professional
position of my predecessors, this anxiety cannot but
be increased ; indeei, it is only in one respect that I
can hope to place myself on an equality with those
eminent men—that is by zeal for your progress and
the ardent desire I entertain of conducting our dis-
cussions with impartiality and courtesy towards
all who may address you. On this I must act, and
I am sure you will give me your cordial co-
, operation and assistant. Before entering on the
main objects of my address I cannot but feel that it
would be unbecoming in me not to allude to the re-
cent loss of two of our most eminent brethren—Mr.
Brunel and Mr. Robert Stephenson—although I
am but well aware I can add but little to what has
' been already written and spoken here and elsewhere,
and in terms more eloquent than I can command.
With regard to Mr. Brunel, in common with you
all, I ever admired the wonderful resources of his
mind, his extreme ingenuity, his courage in facing
difficulties of every description, and his great tact
and resources in overcoming them, so long as he re-
tained his physical power. It has frequently been
my lot to be placed in professional conflict with that
gentleman, and I need hardly say that, in common
with every other member of the profession, I found
him a very dangerous and most able adversary ; but
at the same time he was equally high-minded, and
above all mean and pettifogging practices for accom-
plishing his objects ; he was one of those men in
whose minds private friendship ;vas never inter-
rupted by professional strife ; and there never was a
time when, if I needed it, Ilshould have hesitated to
recur to him for advioe, assistance, or sympathy;
whilst in private life I can, from personal knowledge,
attest his sympathy for distress, and his unhesitat-
ing generosity in pecuniary sacrifices to abate it. In
his professional career, it apears to me that full
justice has not been done to the memory of Mr.
Brunel. I allude more especially to his exertions
in accelerating the progress of oceanic steam navi-
gation. The Great Western was a brilliant example
of the correctness of his conceptions in this point.
It must must be conceded that he was the first
clearly and practically to conceive the advantages
to bo derived from augmenting the size of steamers,
with a view to increased speed and to the exten-
sion of their voyages. Looking back, therefore, to
the period of the construction of the Great Western
steamer, she must be admitted to have been an ab-
solutely successful experiment, mechanically and
commercially, and the names of Brunel as the engi-
neer, of Patterson as the shipwright, and of Mends-
lay and Field as the constructors of the engines, can
never be omitted from the records of oceanic steam
navigation. The next step was the Great Britain ;
and so far as regards the construction of the hull,
the efficiency of that vessel, even to the present day,
bears ample testimony to the skill of the design ;
whilst her having endured a whole winter's buffet-
ing of the waves in Dundrnm Bay testifies to the
strength of her construction and to the powers of
resistance of whish iron vessels are susceptible. It
must not be forgotten that it was to this vessel
I that the screw propeller was first applied on the
large scale ; and it should be stated that by Mr.
Brunel's exertions in experimenting upon the Archi-
medes, the introduction of that mode of propulsion
was greatly accelerated. The only part of this ex-
periment which was not satisfactory was' the per-
formance of the engines, and this may be mainly at-
tributed to the fact that, instead of confiding their
construction to men whose lives had been directed
to perfecting that particular branch of engi-
neering, Mr. Brunel took upon himself the respon-
sibility of designing the machines. It may not be
unbecoming here to remark that genius, however
great, cannot alone supply the results which can
only be attained by a life-long experience in prac-
tical details. It is deeply to be lamented that the
life of our friend was not spared to consummate his
conception of the Great Eastern steamship. This
great experiment has been already partially dis-
cussed in this institution, and there does not ap-
pear to be any reason why she should not be me-
chanically successful ; but all who have had ex-
tended experience in our profession are aware that
in all experiments there will arise certain pheno-
mena which no human foresight can anticipate.
Now seeing that the Great Eastern is six or seven
times the bulk of any existing vessel, and seeing
that this of necessity involved the application of
two sets of engines, two kinds of motive power—
the paddles and the screw-propeller—bearing also
in mind that she was intended to encounter head
seas at a speed never hitherto contemplated,
and knowing also the enormous forces which
ordinary vessels have to withstand in head-
ing the waves, however slowly, in heavy wea-
ther, it might reasonably be expected that in many
respects her first trial wovld be somewhat disap-
pointing. I sincerely hope, and lam sure that I
carry your sympathies with me in trusting that
there still remain in this country sufficient skill,
enterprise, and co-operative action, to bring this
great experiment to a real test, and thus to com-
plete the most fitting memorial to the fame of our
deceased friend. In alluding to Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson I cannot but feel that I am scarcely in a
position to take an impartial review of his career
and of his character. For upwards of a quarter of
a century I have enjoyed his most intimate, and I
may add, his most affectionate friendship. Even
this term is, perhaps, hardly strong enough, for
thrsughout the whole of this period his conduct to-
warch me was that of an elder and affectionate
brothcr—he has encouraged me in all lie thought
right,• and has not failed to criticise all lie
deemed wren g, and had the necessity arisen he would
have app!iedhis whole fortune, to his last sixpence,
I have said that our friendship
fhoarsilZll)°lit
endured for upwards of 25 years, but our ac-
quaintance extends over a much longer period, as
we were in the same class and on the same benches
at the University of Edinburgh. Probably no mem-
ber of our profession, either past or present, ever
availed himself more earnestly of varied opportu-
nities of acquiring professional accomplishment than
did Mr. Stephenson ; his early youth passed with
his engagements in the mines
1l hisoo
hood
at ht eEr
daitn
biCuill.
gl linl,gworth Colliery, his early man.
of South America, and on his return to England his
occupations iu perfecting the locomotive, and in ma-
naging the works at Newcastle, his connection with
the early railways, and added to all these his pur-

THE SUN, LONDON, THURSDAY EVENING, JANUARY 19, 1860.

operations were to be more extended.

It must

also be remembered that the crew requled
to work her solely as a ram would be
very small as compared with the additional
number of men required to work a powerful
armament ; and upon the perilous service to which
they would be applied we should risk but few lives,
which oannot be replaced, in addition to the pro-
perty whichwe can so easily re-establish—and thus
a powerful Channel fleet could be kept afloat at a
small current charge. These are surely points of
sufficient importance to demand careful discussion
and development. The points to be considered rela-
tive to the fighting ships are, whether they should
not, like the rams, be specially constructed for ser-
vice in the seas surrounding our coasts. Our men-of-

war are now all constructed ler carrying the Bri-
tish flag into distant seas, and. for this purpose they
are adequately masted and sparred, to economise
fuel on their passage to their destination. In a gene-
ral engagement the spars and rigging not only re-
quire the special attention of a large part of the
crew, but their destruction endangers the means of
propulsion, and thus, on an emergency, not unfre-
quently leaves the vessel a helpless log at the mercy
of the enemy. Now if a special class of vessels was
solely applied to the Channel service, there would
not be any object in so fully equipping them and in
burdening them with such cumbersome top-hamper.
Neither would such capacity be required for provi-
sions, water, and fuel for long voyages. Under these
circumstances it is worth consideration whether an
entirelynew class of vessels might not be constructed,
with less draught of water, sharper lines, more
power, greater speed, and heavier armament—all
essential elements in future warfare—and thus
secure for the nation a fleet of vessels strictly applic-
able to defensive purposes, which no other nation
would have the means of opposing, and insure in
future for this country that which it has hitherto
possessed—the maritime supremacy of the narrow
seas. Besides these points there is the question of
in what way the mechanical skill of the country and
the constructive genius of commercial shipwrights
shall be rendered available for the improvement of
our national marine. Another branch of the sub-
ject is, the most facile method of concentrating
forces upon those points accessible to an enemy.
It has been suggested that a littoral line of rail-
way should be constructed. This proposition
could only have emanated from those who were un-
acquainted with the physical features of our coasts.
Shakspere's Cliff, Beachy Head, the iron-bound
coasts to the west of the Isle of Wight, are familiar
to all. But, in point of fact, looking to the exist-
ing railways, the problem admits of an easier solu-
tion than has been generally supposed. The South-
Eastern, the East Kent, the South Coast, the South
'Western, with its branch to Dorchester and exten-
sion to Exeter, the Great 'Western, Bristol and
Exeter, and the West Cornwall, the South Wales,
and other railways, either directly approach every
accessible spot on the coast, or admit of easy con-
nection by branches. The only points remaining
to be considered are the defensive works at those
places. This should be discussed. It is admitted
that nothing can be more unsatisfactory than the
state of the fortifications around our coasts. Lord
Grey has graphically described those at Plymouth.
A short railway journey, and a cruise down the
Solent, past the fortifications at Hurst Point, will
prove that neither scientific investigations nor mo-
dern experience have, as yet, had any beneficial
effect upon that department which charges itself
with the control of such works. As a natural
sequence to the preceding objects, we are led to the
consideration of the proceedings which have taken
place with regard to what are termed our harbours
of refuge—as it must be obvious that one main ob-
ject of these works has reference to the operations
of our naval forces—and I believe I am justified in
observing, from what transpired during a recent
discussion at this institution, that neither mechani-
cally nor financially can they be considered to be in
a satisfactory position. According to the present
system of conducting such works, it is obvious that
the principle of construction employed at Dover
and at Alderney must necessarily restrict their
adoption to a very limited extent. Whether we
look to the time or to the cost, the results are alto-
gether inadequate to the sacrifices required. The
protracted time is, to a great extent, owing to the
system of voting the funds annually by driblets,
the result of which is, that neither the Government
nor Parliament fairly appreciate, at the commence-
ment of a work, the full extent of the responsibi-
lity involved, either as to time or cost. Can it
be supposed that Government or Parliament, when
adopting the recommendation of the commission to
construct a harbour of refuge at Dover, imagined
that the works would involve an actual cash outlay
of five or six millions, without interest, or of 30
or 40 millions, including interest, and. that 100
years, at least, would elapse, before the full of 1.
ciency of the works would be secured ; or that after
an expenditure of nearly half a million sterling, and
the lapse of upwards of 10 years, the constructive
resources of Great Britain would be' exhibited, to
the foreigner landing at Dover, in the shape of an
incomplete jetty, with two incommodious landing-
places. These, and other results of a similar cha-
racter, may be fairly attributed to the system
adopted, and must not be laid to the charge of any
individual, or department, and certainly not to the
eminent statesmen who guide the helm of the
nation for the time being ; for in matters of this
description they possess no interest, political or
otherwise, apart from that of the country at large.
No doubt one of the inconveniences of the present
system is that of having to apply to Parliament
annually for grants—the amounts of which, and the
chance of obtaining them, depend upon the finan-
cial state of the country, and the temper of the
House of Commons, even although the period of the
session may be selected when the Government has
the best command of the attendance in the house.
No doubt that, having regard to these circum-
stances, the original plans of the works have often
been conceived on a limited and narrow basis,
adapted to the proposed expenditure, but totally
inadequate to the objects supposed to be attained ;
the ultimate result generally being an extension of
the design, an enlargement of the estimates, and a
final completion of the works, in a form which de-
fies investigation to affiiliate. Thus money is wasted,
time is sacrificed, and full efficiency is not attained.
The remedy for this defective state would appear to
be that, antecedent to any application to Parliament,
the Government should prepare full and detailed
plans of the entire extent sf the works intended to
be executed, and obtain tenders from competent
contractors for the execution, stating the time of
completion and the terms and mode of payment.
These plans should be deposited at fixed periods at
the Private Bill-office, for the inspection of all who
are interested. Thus, before the vote was taken,
there would be ample time for full criticism on all
points; and though additional labour might be
thrown upon the public departments in preparing
the documents subjected to such investigation, the
House of Commons and the members of the State
would have the means of coming to the debate fully
informed on all paints connected with these addi-
tional works. In a financial point of view the gain
would be considerable, because a work which is exe-
cuted within a reasonable time is always more eco-
nomical than one which is extended over an indefi-
nite period; and also for direct financial considera-
tions, which may thus be exemplified. Suppose a
work estimated to cost £1,000,000 is made to ex-
tend over 20 years, the outlay being restricted by
the annual grant to £50,000 a year. The ultimate
cost of this work to the country, supposing the Go-
vernment to raise the money at 3 per cent., involves
an additional annual charge of about £42,000 per
annum—whereas, if the work was executed in five
years, by annual grants of £200,000 a year, the
annual charge to the country would only be £33,000
a year—thus, irrespective of all other advantages,
saving £9,000 a year. These observations only ap-
ply to works of real utility, and do not apply to
undertakings of so useless a character that their
execution cannot be too long protracted—such, for
instance, as the pier at St. Catherine's, in Jersey,
and others of a similar character. I cannot but feel
assured that, were the principle adopted which I
have enunciated, the defects wow admitted to exist
in the harbours of Holyhead and Alderney would
have been avoided, and the blue book mystification
at Portland, respecting the expenditure upon the
convicts employed on the breakwater works, would
not have occurree, and the nation and Parliament
would have had the satisfaction of realising, on all
these works, the full value of the outlay incurred.
Ministers by taking at once from Parliament a grant
for the full amount cf the expenditure, would avoid
the annoyance of the annual appeal and the re-
curring waste of the public time in redis-
cussing all the features of these undertakings.
Before concluding try address, I cannot avoid con-
trasting the progre.is of Government works with
those undertaken by private enterprise. There is,
within a short distance, an iron bridge, scarcely
even partly completed, across the river Thames.
There is no doubt thtt this bridge will be substan-
tially and skilfully constructed, but it cannot be
said to involve any future of mechanical difficulty;
it is constructed in london, and thus commands, in
respect of labour and materials, the resources of the
whole empire. Ancther iron bridge, spanning the
river St. Lewrence, ii Canada, is entirely completed
and is open fbr truffle. This bridge extends for nee,4
eyv h current
a mile and a half across a stream, hin
varying from 7 to 1( miles en hov' ; it has to resist
the pressure of iee accumulating, occasionally, to
the depth. or 30 or 40 feet. The severity of the cli-
mate is such as to l'estriet the actual period of work-
ing to a few months in each year; the iron work
and the great proportion of the skilled labour were
derived from England; and a severe monetary crisis
had also to be surmounted, which latter, however
comparatively unimportant in Government opera-