The Sun.
London, England, 1863-07-24 00:00:00

LITERATURE.

Climate : an Inquiry into the Causes of its Dire-
rences, and into its Influence on Vegetable Life.
By C. Daubeny, M.D. Parker, Oxford and
London.

Professor Daubeny's little book comprises the
substance of four lectures which he delivered before
the Natural History Society, at Torquay, in the Feb-
ruary of the present year, On the whole, it may
safely be said, that it is interesting and iastructive.
The highly important influence of climate upon
vegetable life demands a great deal more attention
and study than it has hitherto received. The
chemistry of plants and soils has engrossed so much
of the time and talents of investigators that the
Equally necessary study of climate, as it affects vege-
tation, has been too much neglected. While
therefore, we do not deem this little work to be all
that it should be, we heartily welcome it. We hai!
it as a step in the right direction. W hat faults we
have to find with it shall be stated at once. When
such lectures are committed to print for publica -
tion, we object to the reproduction of the apologies
and reasons for their delivery--generally, of
course, of a purely local interest, if any—and
also to the explanation of the personal bias which
led to the selection of the subject; and, yet further,
we object to all other matter extraneous to the
subject, as being of no value to the general public,
while it is a great annoyance to the student and
to the scientific reader. Neither do we perceive
the object of introducing into a work on climate, a
discussion on the material nature of the sun, toge-
ther with an exposition of spectrum analysis, oc-
cupying four closely-printed pages. Whether or
not a great deal too much is said, considering
the limited size of the book, about the geogra-
phical distribution of plants, we decline to decide;
but we have no hesitation i❑ saying that ii
less had been said about Sir C. Lyell's notions of
antiquity and Dr. Darwin's theory of selection, the
better would it have been for the book as a
work on Climate. Quotations from the Latin
poets, moreover, may be interesting to some,
but few would deem them of any value in con-
nection with the science of climate. In a lecture,
eloquent periods and quotations may very decently
be introduced to gain the spplause of the audience:
bat these in print are mere platitudes, andonly serve
to spin out the book. Weeded of much of this
superfluous matter, Dr. Daubeny's work would be
reduced about one-fourth in size, to the great ad-
vantage of the subject and of the reader. It is like-
wise to be regretted that no less than three pages of
corrections and additions have been found necessary
to be appended to the volume, while some blunders
have passed altogether unnoticed. The Sir John
Reade, alluded to in connection with the
theory of storms, is we suppose the late
Sir W. Reid. Toroughout the book tem-
perature figures are printed as degrees
and minutes, both by words and symbols, as if the
measurement were similar to that for latitude. Of
course the minutes of temperature should be decimal
parts of degrees. In a future edition, by judiciously
expunging and correcting,the meritof the work would
remain, and it would become truer to its title. It is
now, however, our agreeable duty to testify to the
value of these lectures. The first lecture considers the
causes which regulate the distribution of tempera-
ture, and the chief elements which constitute the
climate of any place. It then explains the sources
of heat, the dependence of temperature on latitude
together with the modifying agents, and the
instruments and methods by which extremes
and means of temperature are determined.
Finally, it illustrates equable and excessive
climates, and discusses the general causes which
account for peculiarities of climate. These
matters are treated of concisely, ciearly, and
methodically. In the second lecture the local
causes which affect climate come under discussion,
as oceanic currents, proximity to large extents of
land or water, elevation above the sea, nature of
soil, exposure to light, humidity (as productive of
fog, rain, dew, &e.), winds, electricity, and ozone.
The third and fourth lectures are devoted to the
influence of climate on vegetation, and are of espe•
cial value and interest to the' agriculturist. The
author very clearly expounds the physical condi-
tions which determine the adaptability of plants
to hot, temperate, extreme, or equable climate ; be
adduces instances of plants suited to bright, and of
others adapted to cloudy, skies; and he also exempli-
fies the suitability of some plants to humid, and of
others to dry climates. Then we are instructed in the
modifications probably effected in climate by the
peopling of new and uncleared countries; in the
treatment most likely to be successful in naturalis-
ing plants in a colder climate; in the influence of
climate on crops with its practical bearing on farm-
ing; and, finally, the husbandman is enlightened
on the importance to himself in his vocation, and
for his locality, in ascertaining its climate, in the
practice of keeping a simple meteorological register.
We feel that to extract at any length any of the
author's information on these interesting and im-
portant matters, or to attempt to give an adequate
account of any portion, would be to give the reader
in part that which he should seek as a whole
in the work itself. We will cite one or
two passages, however, for the purpose of
showing the mode of treatment of the subject, as
well as the style of the work. The barometer is
the oracle of the meteorologist, which admits of
various interpretations, not always very intelligible
to the uninitiated ; but the following remarks upon
the causes which may bring about a fall or rise in
the barometer, appear to us calculated to disperse a
little of the existing obscurity of the subject :
" As heat produces rarefaction, a sudden rise of tempera-
ture in a distant quarter may affect the weight of the atmo-
sphere over our heads, by producing an aerial current out-
wards, to supply the place of the lighter air which has
moved from its former position; in which case the barome-
ter will fall.
" Now such a movement in the atmosphere is likely to
bring about an intermixture of currents of air of different
temperatures, and from this intermixture rain, as we have
seen, is likely to result.
"On the other hand, as cold produces condensation, any
sudden fall of temperature causes the column to contract,
and sink to a lower level, whilst other air rushes in from
above to supply the void; and, accordingly, the barometer
rises.
" Should this air, as often happens, proceed from the
north, it will contain in general but little moisture; and
hence, on reaching a warmer latitude, will take up the
vapour of the air, so that dry weather will result.
" It is generally observed that winds cause a fall in the
instrument; and, indeed, in those greater movements of
the atmosphere which we denominate storms or hurricanes,
the depression, as we have seemly se considerable as to
forwarn the navigator of his impending danger."
The next extract, relative to the method of pro-
ducing hardier varieties of plants, will show the
vactical value of the book in an agricultural point

of view.

" I believe the cultivator may, in some cases, succeed in
acclimatizing a plant in a colder region by selecting for his
purpose the robuster varieties of the species he wishes to
introduce. Thus the late variety of the walnut flourishes in
localities where the early ones are killed by the frost. Thus
the early sorts of vine bear fruit in climates where, owing
to the insufficient heat of summer, or the early frosts of
winter, the plant in general fails.

" In like manner, by selecting the tubers of those pota-
toes which blossom first, and by repeating that selection
several times in succession, we may at length obtain a
variety which arrives at maturity in less than three months,
and which, therefore, as it would seem, might be intro-
duced into climates where the summer is too short to ripen
the ordinary samples.
"The importation of olive trees obtained in the Crimea,
which appear less sensible to cold than those of the
it southjva.
of France, might perhaps enable us to extend the
tion of that fruit beyond its present geographical culicnits.

- - -
" It follows, of course, that the larger portion will die,
but a few of the hardier individuals may nevertheless sur-
vive, Repeating this process by sowing seeds obtained
from these latter varieties, in a climate somewhat colder
than the first, it is conceived that a robuster race might be
ptoduced, inasmuch as the survivors wonldeboetehr than
hditeset
varieties of the hardiest parents, and therefore might be
capable of existing in a climate very much colder
one natural to the species in general."
The practical importance of the
possess
osubjectssess
the will
data ( :ifbo-r
viate any apology for our last citation on the in.
fitr,Encvesnotfo
tchleimfaarmteeurpit ayomnerboa usefulpa to
estimating the influence which a summer, warmer or colder,
the pr o -
dwue
et
tt
ieornosr
od rf i
he ri
s,
fthan os rod
asi n anr
not to
tho abse emx ei rs
lt
ee
dd
iunp ohni s
calcula-
tions as to the advantages or disadvantages of any novel
plan of cultivation,

"These data have in part been supplied by Mr, Limes in

a published in the eighth volume of the
i A ;rical t ural Society's Journal for 1848, in which he
shows that in 1844, 1845, and 1846, the difference in the
amount of produce was in accordance with the general cha-
racter of their respective seasons.
" Thus in 1844, when there were only 81 rainy days (in
301 weeks), and when the mean summer temperature was
57•5 deg. the farm produced 16 bushels of corn to the acre,
and the weight of the bushel was GOilbs., whilst the grain
bore to the straw as high a ratio as about 82 to 100.
" In 1846, when there were 93 rainy days, and when the
mean temperature was as high as 59deg., the yield was about
17 bushels per acre, and the weight of a bushel 6Slbs. ; but
the proportion of grain to straw was lower, namely 76 to
100, showing that the yield of corn had been influenced by
temperature, but that the quantity of straw had been in-
creased by the amount of rain.

"Lastly, in 1815, when the number of rainy days was
greater, though the temperature had been lower than in
either of the two other yews—the former being 110, the
latter 55 degrees—the yield was much greater, amounting
to 23 bushels per acre, but the weight of the corn per
bushel less, namely, 561b5., and the increase in the produce
of straw such that the grain only bore to it the proportion
of 49 to 100.
_ _ _

"These figures appear to show that although the greater
quantity of rain was favourable to the amount of grain, yet
that it tended to increase in a still greater ratio that of the
straw, and that the higher the temperature of the year was
the heavier the grain would prove, so as to make up in
quality for its deficiency iu actual quantity.
" Thus it would appear that, under the same treatment,
the produce may vary in the proportion of seven bushels
per acre, according to the difference of season, which is
equivalent to one quarter of the normal produce; or, cal
culating this at 30 million quarters in a good year, may be
as much as 7 million deficient."
'• '

In conclusion we would remark that climate
depends upon heat, cloud, rain, wind, the frequency
of electrical disturbance, and probably the diffusion
of ozone. As regards heat, the actual mean annual
temperature of any place has not such an impor-
tant influence upon life, either animal or vegetable,
as the abr ptness and magnitude of its changes.
Climate should be estimated more by the range
of the thermometer than by the average
of its indications. The Registrar-General's returns
prove that with a wide tango of the thermometer
the mortality greatly increases ; and it is now ap-
parent to meteorologists that the daily range of the
thermometer marks the effects of temperature on
the health of men, and the success of crops, better
than any other meteorological fact of which we take
cognisance. Now that we possess self-registering
thermometers constructed with mercury, the most
appropriate of all thermometric substances, not only
for maximum but likewise for minimum tempera-
tures, thanks to the ingenious invention of Mr.
Casella, the determination of the diurnal range of
temperature has become more certain, and observa-
tions are rendered more strictly comparable. The
prevalence of a serene or a cloudy sky tells strikingly
upon animal spirits and vegetable vigour. Vapour
and clouds are concerned in the important operations
of solar and terrestrial radiation. Cloudy days
diminish the effect upon the soil of solar radiation ;
cloudy nights retard the radiation from the earth.
Hence, it appears to us, that observations from
radiation-thermometers are of much greater im-
portance in judging of climate than is usually sup-
posed. These observations are very scanty, and
what few are yet upon record are not very reliable,
principally from bad exposure of the instruments,
while the want of uniformity in construc-
tion may be another evil. Thus, in the
recently invented vaccuum jacket for the
solar radiation thermometer, the makers are not
consistent in the shape which they give to the
outer bulb. So far as we can yet judge of it,
it should be made as by Casella—hemisphe-
rical. Herschel's actinometer, and Pouillet's
pyrheliometer, instruments for ascertaining the
heating effect of the sun's rays, should, more-
over, be more generally employed by meteorolo-
gists. Professor Tyndal calculates that 10 per cent.
of the heat radiated from the earth in this country is
stopped by 10ft. of the air which lies nearest to the
ground; and he very acutely remarks, that in com-
paring observations on the radiation it should be
kept in mind that the difference between a thermo-
meter which, properly confined, or shaded, gives the
true temperature of the night air, and one which is
permitted to radiate freely towards space, must be
greater at high elevations than at low ones. And this
because the higher the place, the less the thickness of
the vapour screen to intercept or retard the redid tion.
Rain is the result of the cooling of warm air laden
with moisture, and, as the feeder of springs and
brooks, and the fertilizer of soils, is of course an
essential element of climate. When a warm and
moist current of air encounters another body of
colder air which may not be extremely dry, the
mixture is unable to retain the whole of the vapour
in an invisible state ; so that the excess becomes
visible as mist or fog, and, when sufficiently
cooled, rain. The British Isles are more or
less enveloped in fog, or mist, at the commence-
ment of easterly winds, which with a sudden
change of wind is exhibited even in summer; while
the south-westerly winds, warm and arriving from
the ocean, deposit large quantities of rain by the
cooling effect of the land, colder by reason of its
latitude. When rain occurs with a north-easterly
wind it is probably due to the deposition from an
upper south-westerly current, often apparently
proved by the movements of the upper clouds.
Much consideration is due to winds in estimating
climate. Here we can only afford one or two re-
marks. In our islands the predominant westerly
winds are genial, and change little in temperature,
coming from the ocean, which maintains its tem•
perature with more uniformity than the land,
throughout the year. In summer the east winds
are often very hot, in winter they are intensely
cold ; because they arrive from countries charac-
terised by hot summers end cold winters. The
western shores of Europe, the borders of the
ocean and the continent, are the seat of conflict
of these easterly and westerly winds, of polar
and equatorial origin respectively ; and at
the spring and autumn, their temperature
being, as it were, more equally balanced, there
is a struggle for predominance, which results in the
equinoctial gales of the periods. Equatorial winds
are found to be negatively electric, polar winds
positively; hence the difference of electric tension
accounts for the occurrence of lightning and
thunder at some places, with violent gales of
wind. It is not, however, our intention to go
further into the subject now, while in reference to

ozone we content ourselves with reiterating Dr.

Daubeny's statement, that " ozone may play an im-
portant part in regulating the functions of the vege-
table kingdom ; and although it would be premature
at present to speculate upon its specific office, yet,
fur flair, rcaoon alono, it may bo woll to /lute the fact
of its frcqu3ncy, in conjunction with the different
phases which vegetation assumes, persuaded that
no principle can be generally diffused throughout
Nature, as appears to be the case with this, without
having some important and appropriate use assigned
for it to fulfil."

13L9.RSETS7This Day.

MARK LANE.

A very small suPPIY of English wheat was received fresh
'0 this morning's market. Good and fine parcels were
up
in fair demand at full quotations, but inferior parcels sold
heavily on former tterms.The show of foreign wheat on the stands was large. All
descriptions changed hands slowly, yet no change took place
in prices compared with Monday.
Floating cargoes of grain were in but moderate request
at late rates.

The market was scantily supplied with barley, yet the
trade ruled inactive at about stationary prices.
The value of malt was unchanged, but the demand ruled
inactive.

The supply of oats on offer was only moderate. For all
qualities, however, the demand ruled inactive at late rates.
Beans and peas were dull, and prices had a downward
tendency.

The demand for flour ruled far from active at about pre-
ViOUR quotations. Where was a good supply of barrels on
offer.

ARRIVALS THIS WEEK.
Wlleßt Earley. 1,1 99
Oats. Flout.
.. English... 670 - I ogo 1
850 110 ' 290
1041.
_
Foreign.... _lOOO 1,040 1 i 7,110 110 eke
_ _. . 13M0 brio

NEW GATE AND LEADENHALL.

The supply of meat on sal
generally speaking, rules ins.,
Per Slb. by
s d
Inferior beef .. 3 0 3 4
Nliddling do. 3 6 3 8
[rime large do. 3 10 4 0
Do. small d 0... 4 0 4 2
Large pork 3 4 3 10
Inferior mutton. 3 2 3 8

re is moderate, and the trade,
ctive at our quotations.
the carcase.

d s
Middlinginutton 3 10 4 2
Prime do .. 4 4 4 6
Veal .. 3 8 4 4
Small pork 4 0 4 4
Lamb

Mr. Glaisher's Thirteenth Balloon Ascent,

TO THE EDITOR OF THE SIIN.

Sir,—Mr. Coxwell having informed me that he
intended to ascend from the Crystal Palace on. Tues-
day, July 21, and the weather having changed so
that rain was falling and the wind rising, I availed
myself of the opportunity to investigate some
points on the formation of rain in the clouds them-
selves and its precipitation. My principal objects.
may be stated to have been-
1. To determine whether there was another stra-
tum of cloud above that from which the rain vas
falling, to confirm the accuracy of Mr. Green's de-
ductions relative to rain—viz., " That wherever a
fall of rain happens, and the sky is entirely over-
cast, there will invariably be found to exist another
stratum of cloud at a certain elevation above the
former."

. 2. To examine the size of the drops of rain at dif-
(
terent elevations, as from all results hitherto ob-
tained the amount of rain collected in a gauge
placed near the surface of the earth is larger than any gauge
placed above it, and that the big he
the gauge
determine
agebeplac
the temperature
edtheless waterof thedew
is collected.
3,point
in its relation to that of the air below, in, and aboTe
the clouds, &c.
11, e left the earth at 4h. 52m. p.m. In 10 &CF.
we were in a mist, and in 20 seconds on a level
with the clouds. At 4h. 53m. the earth
was
sight. At this time we were 1,200 ft high.out of
At
4h. 58m., at the height of 2,200 ft., we passed.
out
thin rain. When at 2,5001 t., the clouds surroundof
ing 113 were very white, and it was with diffi Y
cult -
I read those thermometers which had ivory scales.
At 517. 4m. we passed above the clouds, and saw a;
a considerable distance above us another stratum of
darker cloud. Presently the docks were visible
through a break in the lower clouds.
At sh. 7m. we saw clouds below us moving in a
different direction to that of the balloon, and these
near the earth with great rapidity. We then began
to descend, and at sh. 11,12-m., at the height of 1.100
feet, send was below, and the earth was visible with
rain falling fast upon it, though none was falling
upon the balloon. We then ascended, and at sh.
20m, were 3,500 feet high, but still below the
higher stratum of cloud ; at sh. 22m., at 2,700 feet
high, we entered a dry fog; the grapnel, hanging
by a rope about 100 feet in length, was just visible ;
at 2,600 feet we were in a wet fog ; at 2,000 feet
very fine drops of rain were falling; the clouds be-
neath were black ; at sh. 28m. a thick mist sur-
rounded us, and the grapnel was scarcely visible;
at sh. 30m. we were in a dense fog. At sh. 31m.
we saw Epping Forest, and heard the noise the rain
made falling on the trees 1,000 feet below ns ; at
sh. 33m. we again lost sight of the earth, and two
minutes afterwards could see only a small portion
of the grapnel line; at sh. 37m. we saw an open
country, and then were enveloped in mist, and
three minutes afterwards we descended to the earth
in a squall of wind and rain, the grapnel catching
on the bank of a piece of water, and landed with-
out breaking a single instrument.
From the existence of the two strata of clouds it
would seem to be an established fact that whenever
rain is falling from an overcast sky there is a second
stratum above. Last year in the ascent on the Ist
of September I was between two layers of cloud at
the time rain was falling from the lower. These
experiments, therefore, confirm the accuracy of Mr.
Green's observations and deductions,

It would also seem that when the sky is overcast
without rain that there is no stratum of cloud above,
but that the sun is shining on the upper surface.
In every instance in which I have been up under
these circumstances, I have found such to be the
case, agreeing in this respect also with Mr. Green's
observations.

The temperature of the air before leaving was 611
deg. ; at the height of 1,000 feet it was 59 deg. ; it
decreased to 54 deg. at 2,500 feet. We then dj-
scended. At 2,000 feet the temperature was 55
deg., at 1,400 feet was 56 deg., increasing to 58 deg.
at 700 feet. We then turned to ascend, and the tem-
perature gradually decreased to 52 deg. at 3,000
feet, increased to 61,1 deg. on descending to 500 feet,
decreased to 57 deg on ascending to 1,800 feet, and
rose to 611 deg. on descending again to 500 feet,
after which there was no change, and the tempera-
ture on the earth was 611 deg.
The temperature of the dew-point was half a de-
gree only below that of the air before starting; it
was nearly 2 deg. lower on first entering the cloud;
then there was no difference between the two tem-
peratures while in the cloud, and the difference in-
creased to 3 deg. on passing above it. These obser-
vations were repeated, giving the same results on
every occasion of ascent and descent.
The s•ze of the rain drops as they fell on my note-
book before starting was fully as large as a four-
penny piece ; they decreased in size on ascending,
but our upward movement was too quick, and we
soon passed out of rain. On descending from above
the clouds we first encountered a dry, then a wet
fog, passed into that which may be desdribed as
damp;air, or exceedingly fine rain, then experienced
very fine but decided drops of rain like pins' points
covering the note-book ; these increased in size on
approaching the earth, but more rapidly when very
❑ear the earth. The drops of rain ou returning to
the earth were as large as those noted on leaving,
and rain had been falling heavily all the time we
were i❑ the balloon.

The direction of the wind at the time of starting
was S. by E. ; at the height of 2,200 ft., we fell in
with a S.W. wind. At sh. 7m., at the height of
2,300 ft., the clouds beneath moved with great velo-
city,rfte. w
and in a direction different to that of the bal-
loon. At Oh. gining,, a
ate the height
certainly
of 180
ou
k b ; ; direction
seemed to be going
was changed. At sh. 33m. 30sec., at the height of
about 1,000 ft. the pressure of the wind was
felt against our faces, and then we changed direc-
tion, and again at sh. 3 i m., on rising at the height
of I,looft. the wind pressed strongly against the face,
at both these times the balloon must have been in
one current and the car in another, and
they are the first instances in which I have been
sensible of any wind in the balloon. At sh. 39m.,
at 800 ft. above the earth, we again changed our
direction on entering the lower current, which was
strong and gusty. Our place of descent wss about
25 miles, in a straight line from the Crystal Palace,
performed in about 53 minutes.
The horizontal movement of the sir at Greenwich
by Robinson's anemometer within the same inter-
val of time was about six miles.

The place of descent was Claverhambury-farm,
about five miles from Waltham Abbey, and we have
to thank Mr. Shepherd for his kind assistance. We
were accompanied by Captain Woodgate, Mr. F.
Norris, of the Conservative Club, and Mr. Birk-
beck, of lteigate.—l am, sir, &c.,
Blackheath, July 23. JAMES GLAISHER.

The trial of Bradley for the murder of Adam Grier-
son terminated at a late hour last night. For the
defence an attempt was yesterday made to prove an
alibi ; but the witnesses broke down on cross-exa-
mination, one of them,t a woman, who swore posi-
tively that she had met Bradley in a neighbouring
town on the night of the murder, April 10, not being
able to tell the non a of this month, or the number
of the day. Sergeant Sullivan spoke to evidence on
behalf of the Crown, after which the judge charged
the jury, who retired to consider their verdict.
Having been called out several times, they stated at
length that they found it impossible to agree, and
two of their number being seriously ill, they were
discharged, The prisoner is to be tried again at the
next assizes, His counsel applied that he should be
admitted to bail, but this was opposed by the counsel
for the Crown end refused. Tnis case places in e•
striking light the present inconvenient arrange-
ment with regsrd to the time of holding the assizes.
Assuming the prisoner to be innocent., as we must
do till he is found guilty, he will have to remmn
eight months in gaol, waiting for his trial ; and, if
we add the time already spent in prison, he will be
nearly a year in confinement. It is worthy of
remark that Mr. M'l)onogh was specially retained
to defend the prisoner at a fee of 100 guineas, This
sum—which is probably not more than half the cost
of the trial to tho prisoner —will no doubt be made
up by subscriptions, as in other eases where parties
have been tried for *clarion murders.