Northern Times.
Liverpool, Merseyside, England, 1859-03-19 00:00:00

THEMSELVES

PART FOURTH.

CHAPTER FIRST.

THE ELIZABETHAN ERA -THE RIGHT OF THE POOR

TO BE MAINTAINED CONSIDERED-EFFECT OF THE

POOR-LAWS ON THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING

CLASSES.

I now approach an important era in the History of
the Working Classes—namely, the Elizabethan one ;
and amongst the principal events which first strike
our notice in that Queen's reign, in connection with
our subject, is the law which was passed to enforce
a compulsory maintenance of the poor. (1.)
It is not my intention to enter into the whole of the
details concerning this important political question;
but having adverted, in the SECOND part of this
History, to the origin and introduction of the poor,
I may take occasion here to observe briefly on their
right to be maintained.
It is clear, on arguing on such a question as this,
that we must seek for its solution, either from the
laws of nature, or the institutions of society.
Perhaps I shall best make myself understood
to my readers when I say that the land is
unquestionably the people's in their aggregate
capacity, and that every one has a natural right to
live thereon. But, then, on the other hand, in a
state of society, 'man's natural claims are merged in
civil immunities, and the rights of each person are
prescribed by the laws. In a state of natural
liberty, every individual may claim the right to do
what he likes, or what he can ; his right, in
fact, to the enjoyment of this female or that piece
of land is only limited by his power to defend
his pretensions against all other claimants. But in
civil society it is entirely different, the natural
rights of mere force have been superseded by the
rights of property, of marriage, and personal se-
curity.

" The great ends of life," says Mr. Wade, in his
Political Philosophy, " are freedom, security, and
sustenance ; in a state of nature, these are all imper-
fectly guaranteed. The sayage is neither free nor
secure ; he is the slave of every member of his tribe
stronger than himself, and may be sacrificed to his
lust, his anger, or revenge. Sustenance, under
which is included food, clothing, and lodging, is not
less precarious than freedom and security. The
rights of property not being recognised, no one cau
possess anything which he can call his own; if he
cultivates a plot of ground, he cannot be sure he will
be allowed to reap the produce ; if, by superior toil
and ability in hunting and fishing, he lays up a stock
of provisions, he cannot be certain he will not be
compelled to share them with a stranger ; where
things are in common, spoliation is no robbery,—it is
only partnership : hence there can be no industry,
no provision for the future ; the gratification of
immediate wants is -the sole object of exertion, and
anything beyond this is an unprofitable, because it
is an unsafe, accumulation."

The establishment of civil rights entirely super-
sedes the operation of the natural rights which pre-
viously governed the relation of individuals. The
right of revenge, of the strong to oppose the weak,
and of all those powers which are supposed to apper-
tain to the wild justice of nature, are abrogated by
the institution of society. (2.) The law is then
supreme arbiter; it may be a bad law, but while it
continues unrepealed it is the sole rule, the only,
tribunal of resort to establish a claim, or redress an
injury. _ _ _

It is evident from this, therefore, that the rights
of the poor cannot be determined by reference to the
natural state of man, which has long since ceased,
but by reference to existing social institutions. Let
us ask ourselves the question, then, what are the
social rights of the poor ?

It is clear that if a man has not the means of sus-
tenance, and society will not relieve him, he must
starve. But the question is—Will he starve ? Most
certainly not. Self-preservation will be more im-
perative with him than respect for civil institutions.
If he cannot live in society, he will have ceased
to have an interest in its existence the social
compact will, in respect to him, be dissolved.
He will be left to his natural resources of
force, fraud, or circumvention ; and to such an
outcast mendicity, or theft, with its penal conse-
quences, would be a less evil than death by hunger.
But rather than be reduced to this extremity, in
which he has a paramount interest in the violation
of the laws, it became expedient that a legal provision
should be established for his relief ; and to this
though a pauper may have no claim as a matter
of right, and except as guaranteed to him by
the law, yet society concedes it to him as a
lesser evil adopted for its own conservation.
The poor rate is in fact nothing more than
the purchase money of personal freedom—the
price paid by the community for the emancipation
of all its members from personal bondage. 'While
the feudal system continued, the poor were unknown
as
.a body; beggars and vagrants there were, seek-
ing casual relief from conventual and other bodies,
but there was no national poor —they only began
when villainage was abolished, and villains acquired
the rights of freemen without the habits of industry
and forethought, which their new condition required,
and which it became necessary to supply the place of by
a parish assessment for their relief or support.. On the
question of the administration of these laws, namely,
as to whether a parish is bound to relieve or find
employment for all able-bodied persons who are
willing, but are unable to procure work, it is not my
intention to enter into its discussion. I may simply
record the circumstance that, in Glasgow, two or
three years ago, in a case of this kind being tried
before Sheriff Allison, he gave his decision in favour
of the claimants.

The operation of our poor-laws may be a great

(1.) Some writers have fallen into the error of supposing
that a compulsory poor rate was imposed as a compensation
or substitute for any loss the poor sustained at the
Reformation. It should be remembered, however, that
the celebrated Act of 1601 was not passed till seventy years
after the dissolution of the Monasteries, and was intended
to meet the overwhelming evil of vagabondage and mendicity
which proceeded much more from the abolition of vassalage
than the suppression of the religions houses.
(2.) "Society," says Paine, Rights of Man, "is pro-
duced by our wants, and Government by our wickedness.
The former promotes our happiness positively by uniting
our affections, the latter negatively by restraining our vices."
This is an ingenious distinction ; but it would have been more
correct to say that society is produced by the wants of man,
and government by the wants of society. Man would be
helpless and miserable without the cp-operation of his
fellow creatures, and society could not subsist without
laws and their ministers for its regulation and government.
. (3.) In 1696 we learn from King's statement that there
were 1,330,000 beggars in England, so that the vagrancy
and mendicancy of present day are not new horrors
arising out of civilisation and the manufacturing system,
but have only been too fully exemplified in former days.

evil existing amongst us, but, without them, the bulk
of society would remain in a state of hopeless and
irreclaimable misery. And misery, we well know,ls
incompatible with moral and intellectual culture ; it
is incompatible with personal and proprietary secu-
rity; it is incompatible with public liberty and
freedom of discussion.
" A mass of social wretchedness," remarks Mr.
Wade, "would always form the pabulum of sedition;
it would always form the combustible mass which
the arts of the demagogue could kindle into the
flames of discontent and agitation. Hence, in place
of public opinion, a barrier of force and delusion—of
standing armies—of well-paid ecclesiastics, and sine-
cure placemen would be necessary to shield the
ruling few against the ignorant and destitute many."
It has been urged by certain writers, that the poor
laws have tended to degrade and demoralise the
working classes. But such persons have evidently
put forth their statements without either inquiry or
reflection. It has been the abuse, I apprehend, not
the principle of the poor laws which has degraded
the working classes. Surely it can be no disgrace
to receive what the law allows. If it be disgraceful
to take what no services have earned, have not the
poor, the rich, and noble, and the spiritual likewise
to keep them in countenance ? Degraded as a pau-
per may be, he is at least an improvement on the
beggar ; and we all know that mendicity is the only
alternative in place of pauperism. The proba-
bility is, that had poor laws been introduced into
Ireland years ago, we would not have found her
in the state she is in at present. It is true that
many of her calamities may be traced to faction,
misgovernment, and degrading superstition ; but it
can scarcely be supposed that her landholders and
priesthood would have suffered, nay, encouraged,
her population to increase at such a fearful rate—to
multiply in filth and rags—had the indigent, those
who could neither obtain employment or food, had
a legal claim on their estates and income ? Most
unquestionably not ; they would have been incapable
of such recklessness, such suicidal infatuation.

Other writers again, condemning the existence of
poor-rates have put forth this objection—that people
work from necessity not choice ; and that it follows
if there be any fund to which they can i esort without
labour, it will always be resorted to. But this, after
all, is still arguing against the use from the abuse.
If a fund intended for a good purpose be perverted
to a bad one, the fault is to be traceable to those
having the management of it. The idle and dissolute
will always live on the industrious and deserving if
they can ; but this is the fault of individuals or of
society if they succeed. The poor-rate was intended
for the distressed ; if it is wasted by those to whom
is intrusted its istribution, the opprobrium rests
with them. The worthless members of society will
not labour if they can escape from it—they never
have been known to do so. If they can live by
standing at the corners of streets and touching their
hats to passers by, by holding up a box of matches,
or by exposing children to the inclemency of the
weather, and by these unworthy means appealing to.
the sympathies of those who may chance to behold
them ; if such vagrant artifices, I say, are successful,
the community are alone to blame, not the
principle.
It is only by the exertions of the wealthy,
operating through the instrumentality of the
poor-laws, that any great improvement in
the condition of the labouring classes can be
effected. The poor are'too depressed, and too inert,
to make any voluntary efforts for bettering their
lot. In all ages, and in all countries, indeed, we
find they remain stationary, unless acted upon by the
upper strata of society. In England, it may be said
that the course of social improvement has rather
been downwards. Villainage, as I have shown, was
not abolished by the serfs, but chiefly by the inter-
ference of the rich and educated clergy. The foun-
dations of civil liberty, and constitutional government
likewise, were not laid by the oppressed burghers of
cities and towns, but by the feudal barons of the age of
MAdisrA CHARTA. In like manner, it is chiefly by
the example, and almost coercive interference of the
opulent and intelligent, that the state of the poor in
our own day can be alleviated. The middle classes
suffer from their vices and their misery, and have,
by the exaction of an assessment for their relief, a
direct interest in inculcating in them right principles
of conduct, and thus a duty imposed upon them by
justice and humanity is further enforced by the
excellence of a civil institution.

I shall Conclude these observations with a quotation
from the work of an able and experienced writer on
this subject, who, in speaking in his essay of
Practical Hints on the Poor, says :
. . .

" The poor are not wholly to blame for their vices
Without instruction in the principles which influence
their condition, without example of economy, order
and forethought in their early years, they have not
an opportunity to become in after life anything
more than children in understanding, and it not
unfrequently happens that the most kind and
generous hearts among them are those least gifted
with the saving virtues by which the miseries of
future penury and want may be averted. They are the
orphans of society, to whom every indulgence
compatible with their own welfare should be
extended. If they • have been ignorant of their
duties, the rich have neglected theirs. How
can it be supposed the labouring man doomed
to unceasing toil, can discover those hidden
causes of poverty, which for thousands of years
escaped even the scrutiny of the philosopher. It is
not parish officers, clergymen, and magistrates only,
to whom the weal of the poor ought to be confided ;
upon every employer of work-people is imposed a
solemn duty, next to that he owes his own family,
to learn himself, and explain to these dependent upon
him, the origin of social distress arising from bad
habits, excess of population, change of the seasons,
and periodical vicissitudes of trades."
It is only in this manner, I would add, that popu-
lar education can be made universal, and knowledge
really useful disseminated through the, community.

[These articles being Copyright, the Author reserves
to himself the privilege of further publication or trans-
lation.]

FOR the attainment of habits of punctuality—for the
regulation of the usual routine of business and every-day life—
for the Morning's timely arousement, and the Evening's sufficient
repose —and for other and innumerable purposes of convenience,
necessity, and pleasure, much in reality depends on the judicious
selection of a Timekeeper; and even the character of a young man
has. been known to be much influenced by the quality of his Watch—
the possessor of an accurate timekeeper becoming ambitious to
emulate its excel ence, and thus gradually requiring habits remark-
able for punctuality.
THOMAS BUTT AND Co.,
WATCH AND CLOCK MANUFACTURERS,
71, ST. JAMES'S-STREET, LIVERPOOL,
AND
102, CHESTER-STREET, BIRKENHEAD.

The Timekeepers, so wellknown for accurate performance, can
only be obtained at the above Establishments.

COMMENCEMENT OF THE TWENTY-FIFTH WATCH

AND CLOCK CLUB.
THE Public are respectfully informed that the Twenty-
Fifth Watch and Clock Club is now commencing, at 71, St.
James's-street. One of the most striking characteristics of the age
we live in is the growing business habits developing themselves
among all classes of the people. Every one who has any pre-
tensions to improvement—wishes to rise in society, or even to fulfil
with eclat the common engagements as private individuals, must
have the means of ascertaining the correct time ; hence the great
demand in a commercial town like Liverpool for good clocks and
watches. As one means of satisfying this demand, Thos. BOTT
and Co. have instituted their Watch and Clock Clubs, by joining
which persons may obtain first-rate articles at the lowest cash
price, and pay for the same by easy weekly instalments, upon per-
fectly safe and equitable principles. The plan, summed up in a
few words, is, the following : —T. B. & Co. undertake to provide
good patent lever watches, capped and jewelled, with maintaining
power to make them go while winding up, hard enamelled dials
with seconds, double-bottom cases, in every respect good and ser-
viceable articles, each of which is warranted for £5. Now, if eaeh
person wanting a lever watch were to put by individually 2s per
week, each person would be fifty weeks, or nearly twelve months,
before he or she could purchase a watch ; but, by joining together
in a club, there may be sufficient to pay for one every week. We
will say there are fifty members-2s from each makes a fund of £5
each week, just sufficient for a watch; consequently a watch can
be had at the lowest cash price every week during the fifty nights
the club continues. Each night it is determined by ballot who
shall have the watch. The person winning the first night gets a
bondsman, has his watch, and of course his name not put in again,
but goes on paying 2a each week during the fifty weeks. The
second week all the other names are put in, and some one else gets
one, and so it goes on until all axe supplied. it will be seen, by
this method, that the person who may be so unlucky as to be the
last, only pays for it before he has it, the same as he would have
done had he not joined. Members may pay as much more as they
like, or pay up at any time.
Clocks or Jewellery can be had in the same manner, and articles
'of higher value by paying the difference. Thus a £lO gold watch
would be 4s per week, a £l2 lOs ditto Is per week, a Ll 5 ditto 6s
per week, or in that proportion according to the amount.
The management of the club is entirely in the hands of the
members.

. Any further information may be had by applying at 71, St.
James's street, where a great variety of watches and clocks may be
seen as specimens of work, or 102, Chester-street, Birkenhead.
Be areful you apply at the right shop. Beware of Imitators.

COPES PACKET TOBACCOS,
Manufactured by a patent process, which preserves the natural

flavour of the Leaf.

GOLDEN SHAG,

VIRGINIA BIRD EYE,

LATAKIA,

HAVANA,
CUT CAVENDISH,

IN SIXPENNY LXADFOIL PAOZZTS,

Bearing the Signature of COPE BROTHERS and CO.,

Can be had at the Tobacconists in town and country; or wholesale

t the Factory,

LORD NELSON-STREET.

Vnbii.c Amnon:ants.

ROYAL AMPHITHEATRE.
GREAT CHARLOTTE-STREET.
Proprietor Mr. W. R. COPELAND.

ger CONTINUED ENGAGEMENT of
MADAME CELESTE,
The Management has great pleasure in announcing that, in con-
. sequence of the great success that has already attended Mad.
CELESTE'S Engagement, she has been RE-ENGAGED for
TWELVE NIGHTS more in order to afford the opportunity of
producing the great Drama, written expressly for her, by John
Oxenford, Esq., entitled
THE LAST HOPE.

THIS EVENING (SATURDAY), the 19th instant,
The very popular Drama of
THE FLOWERS OF THE FOREST.
Cynthia... . (as originally performed by her) ..... Madame Celeste,
her second appearance in that character in Liverpool.
To conclude with THE .CHILD OF THE WRECK.
Maurice (a Dumb 80y)........ Madame Celeste.
On Monday next, GREEN BUSHES.
Miami Madame Celeste.
And THE FRENCH SPY.
Victoire de Meria .............Madame Celeste !
Henri St. Aime
Hemet
On Tuesday,--By desire,
THE MYSTERIOUS STRANGER.
The Mysterious Stranger .....Madame Celeste !
Cartouche, a wild French boy.. Madame Celeste ! !
Italian Prima Donna Madame Celeste ! ! !
Polish Princess Madame Celeste ! ! ! !
Young French Officer Madame Celeste ! ! ! !
And A SISTER'S SACRIFICE.
Genevieve. .
On Wednesday,—J. B. Buckstone's Drama of
THE FLOWERS OF THE FOREST.
Cynthia
And ST. MARY'S EVE.
Madeline .her original character).. Madame Celeste.
On Thursday, THE MYSTERIOUS STRANGER.
The Mysterious Stranger .....Madame Celeste !
Cartouche, a wild French boy. Madame Celeste ! !
Italian Prima Donna ......... Madame Celeste ! ! !
Polish Princess ................Madame Celeste ! ! !
Young French Officer Madame Celeste ! 1 1 ! !
And ST. MARY'S EVE.
Madeline
On Friday, will be produced, a new Drama, by John Oxenford,
Esq., (with new scenery, &c.,) and entitled
THE LAST HOPE.
Marie.. (her original character) Madame Celeste.
With other Entertainments.
On Saturday,—A variety of Entertainments, in which Madame
Celeste will appear.

Doors opened at Half-past Six, and the Performances commenc,
at Seven o'clock precisely.
Admission :—Dress Boxes, 3s. ; Side Boxes, 2s. ed. ; Pit, Is. 6d.
Gallery, 6d. Second Price—Dress Boxes 2s. ; Side Boxes, Is. 6d.
Pit, Is, _

The Box-office is open from Ten to Three for securing Seats in
the Dress Circle and taking Private Boxes, which may be had
under the direction of Mr. Geo. Weston.

ST. GEORGE'S HALL
PERFORMANCE ON THE GRAND ORGAN, BY
MR. W. T. BEST,
THIS (SATURDAY) AFTERNOON, 19th MARCH, 1859.

PROGRAMME.
Allegretto and Adagio, from the Symphony to the
" Hymn of Praise."
Reminiscences of the " Stabat Mater" :—lncluding •
the Quartett " Quando corpus ;" the Air " Pro Rossixi.
peccatis ;" the Cavatina, " Fac ut portera ;" and
the Air, " Cujus animam."
Tema Con Variazioni (Op. 34.) . ..... . ... Small..
Overture—" Alessandro Stradella." ........ FLOTOW.

TO COMMENCE AT THREE O'CLOCK.
THE CONCERT LASTS ONE HOUR.
ADMISSION, SIXPENCE.

THE PARISIAN GALLERY OF ANATOMY,
which contains upwards of 500 Models of the Human Frame
is now OPEN, in the NEW HALL,
29, PARADISE STREET, LIVERPOOL.