The Press.
London, England, 1856-05-17 00:00:00

THE PRESS.

MAY 17, 1856.

Nittraturt.

The Russian Empire, its People, Institutions,
and Resources. By Baron Von Haxthausen.
Translated by Robert Farie, Esq. Two
Vols. London : Chapman and Hall.
Wi have long desired a book which should
fairly exhibit the social state of the Russian
people, and show us their internal orga-
nisation. These volumes by Baron Haxt-
hausen exactly fulfil that desire. We have
no hesitation in saying that they give more
valuable information on the character of the
people, and on their social relations in rural
districts, than any work that has yet been pre-
sented to the British public. On society in
the great towns our author scarcely touches ;
of the Imperial government he says very
little ; but he furnishes the most curious,
exact, and copious details concerning the very
framework of Russian society, and the elemen-
tary administration which rules villages, do.
mains, circles, and establishes a solid founda-
tion of social union and order.
Persons who have been accustomed to regard
Russia as merely divided into large estates with
the two classes of proprietors and serfs, will
be surprised to find from this book that to
some extent there prevails throughout
Russia that system of social equality which
such theorists as St. Simon, Prudhon, and
Louis Blanc have vainly endeavoured to estab-
lish in Western Europe, though the Mor-
monites have carried it into practice on the
borders of the Great Salt Lake. The first
great fact which strikes us in this book is,
that, practically, the Russian people do not
recognise property in the soil at all. It
belongs equally to all who dwell on it ; one
has no more right to it than another. All
share alike; and to preserve this equality
there is a periodical division—often annual,—
by which the changes that take place in
families can be met. On the death of any
inhabitant of a village or commune, his share
reverts to the commune ; and on the birth of a
male child, a portion of land is set apart to
him from the reserve which each commune
has at his disposal. A more complete exem-
plification of what we regard as the Socialist
system cannot be conceived as regards the
mass of the people theinselves,—though, to
be sure, the rights of the proprietors or the
Crown have to be respected—rights which
practically take from the people a certain part
of their labour.

Moreover, this social organisation is carried
out in all kinds of handicraft manufacture.
In some communes shoemaking prevails to
the exclusion of other kinds of labour ; in
other communes tailoring, and so on. In all
these cases the labour of the people forms a
common stock ; they work like bees in a hive
under their appointed officers usually elected
by themselves, and know in their communes
no other degrees of rank than those which
arise from necessary divisions of labilur.
All the details on this social organisation
are so exceedingly curious and instructive,
that we could have wished they had been
collected together, instead of being scattered
as they are throughout the two volumes. But
an excellent index partly remedies this defect;
and we strongly advise the reader before com-
mencing a regular perusal of this work to
turn to the article " Commune " in the Index,
and collect from the references some general
idea of that aspect of Russian life, the deli-
neation of which constitutes the most impor-
tant part of the author's work.
The communal system can be traced to the
earliest period of Russian society. As the
people originally settled on the lani, they
formed themselves into communities, and cul-
tivated as much of the soil as they required.
In time, as other communities settled in the
neighbourhood, boundaries were formed, and
each commune had its chief, or Starosta.
Each commune had thus a right to the land
Within its boundaries, and when the Czar
became the head of the nation he was recog-
nised as direct superior of all the lands, and
Peter I. granted large lordships to his nobles.
But, independent of this sovereignty, or pro-
prietorship, all "idea of a private right of

" property in the soil is foreign to the ideas
" and manners of the people. There is no
" right of inheritance, nor even a life or tem-
" porary right of usufruct in any definite share
" of land."

In many parts of Russia the communes are
entirely free, and have no superior whatever.
All the Cossack communes, says the author,
are of this class. The periodical division of
lands among them is carried out with the
greatest fairness:—

The principle is, that the whole of the land (tillage,
meadows, pasture, woods, streams, &c.) belongs to the
population regarded as a unity, and every male inhabitant
has a right to an equal share. This share is therefore
constantly changing; for the birth of every boy creates a
new claim, and the shares of those who die revert to the
commune. The woods, pastures, hunting•grounds, and
pastures, remain undivided, and free to all the inhabitants ;
but the arable land and meadows are divided, according to
their value, among the males. This equal division is of
course difficult, as the soil differs in quality, and portions
of it may be distant, or inconveniently situated. There
are, however, in each commune skilful land-surveyors,
without any education but what has been acquired from
the traditional habits of the place, who execute the work to
the satisfaction of all.

The author describes at length the Ural
Cossacks, who form the most perfect common-
wealth that can be conceived, each commune
having its own lands, and electing its own
officers, but all uniting together for common
purposes of government.

Where—as is most generally the case—there
is proprietorship of land and people, the
revenue of the owner is derived from various
modes. SomAilues he takes for himself a
portion of his estate, say a third, and requires
the peasants to cultivate it for him without
any act of his own, and without stock or im-
plements, leaving to the peopla the rest of the
estate to manage in their own way ; some•
times he levies a poll tax on the peasants ; and
sometimes assesses the commune in a fixed
sum mutually agreed on. But in all cases the
commune preserves its power. In all the
Crown lands the practice of assessing the
communes, instead of levying a tax on each
individual, is becoming general.

Custom has prescribed limits to the rights
of the proprietor. In theory he is absolute
lord not only of his estates, but of all the
goods of the people dwelling upon them. Bu
such right is not practically exercised. Thet
people of a commune are often wealthy enough
to purchase their territory from their owner,
and some instances of the kind are given in
these volumes. The following is curious :

Iu the next village we again observed the paramount
influence of the principles of the Russian communal insti•
tutions. This place was called Selzo Mayanica. A Prince
Viazemski had brought the people from the Government
of Riazan, and settled them here in the beginning of the
present century. The village, to which 18,900 acres of
land of average quality belonged, was mortgaged ; the
Prince became insolvent, and on its being publicly offered
for sale the peasants bought it for 129,000 roubles (5,9001.),
and at the same time purchased their own freedom. In-
stead, however, of dividing the land in perpetuity as private
property among themselves, in proportion to the share of
the purchase•money contributed by each, they held by the
Russian communal division, according to the number
of souls.

~s~~

We may remark, in passing, that these
volumes show the general accuracy of the
statements in that most amusing book, " The
Englishwoman in Russia." She gives an in-
stance of the peasants of an estate purchasing
it when the proprietor was embarrassed, and
then returning it into his hands.
In the manufacturing communes the same
principle is observed :

The various trades have mostly formed themselves into
separate communes ; for instance, ail the inhabitants of
one village are shoemakers, those of another are smiths,
of a third curriers, &c. This arrangement possesses great
advantages. As the Russians are accustomed to live to-
gether in large families, often two generations at a time,
the division of labour takes place naturally which is so
essential to manufacturing industry. The members of
the artisan communes also constantly assist each other
with their capital and labour; purchases and sales are
transacted in common, and they send their commodities
together to the markets and towns, where they have shops
for the sale of them ; they do not form exclusive corpora-
tions like those of the German artisans; but their associa-
tions are open to all, and the members are united only by
the bonds of communal life. Every one is at liberty to
assume a profession, or to give it up, commence another,
and enter a commune where his new occupation is carried
on. This, however, is seldom the case, as a change would
not often be advantageous; but no restraint is imposed by
any of the communal regulations. They are voluntary
associations of manufacturers, and again remind Qs of the
St. Simonian theories.

471

Throughout his book the author insists that
Russian society is founded not on associations
of trades, but on associations of families. Of
guilds they have no conception. The com-
mune, or Mir, is their sole idea of union.
To the Mir they ascribe all strength and
goodness. The author has collected a num-
ber of proverbs showing their sense of the
rights and sacredness of the commune :
God alone directs the Mir.
The Mir is great.
The neck and shoulders of the Mir are broad.
Throw everything upon the Mir, it will carry it all.
The Mir sighs, and the rock is rent asunder.
The Mir sobs, and it re-echoes in the forest.
A thread of the Mir becomes a shirt for the naked.
No one in the world can separate from the Mir.
What belongs to the Mir belongs to the mother's
little son.

What is decided by the Mir must come to pass
The Mir is answerable for the country's defence.
The Mir is to the Russian a lasting home,
always able to shelter and protect him. No
circumstances can separate him from it. He
can never he deprived of his inheritance, and
can never lose his share in his social patri-
mony. Owing to this feeling of security, per-
haps, the Russian is fond of travel; he delights
to absent himself from his commune for years
together, and then to return to it with an in-
crease of knowledge. But his liberty has
been much abridged. He is highly ingenious,
but he is averse to steady, continuous labour,
delighting in a variety of occupations. We
read here, as in " The Englishwoman in Rus-
sia," of the wonderful use he makes of his
axe : it is almost his only implement for every
kind of carpenter's work ; with it he builds
his house, and executes the most delicate
carving. He finds the timber for his cottage
in the neighbouring forest, he shapes it with
his axe, and he erects it at a cost of fifteen
shillings, decorating it afterwards with such
carving as his fancy suggests.
While the communal system lasts, the
author is of opinion that Russia has nothing
to fear from revolution. " The power of the
" communes," ho says, "and the obedience
" shown to them, meet us everywhere." In his
travels he frequently observed proofs of the
commune's authority :
Not far from one village we saw a number of people en-
gaged in pulling down a fence. We were told that an act
of justice was being administered. A member of the
commune had presumed to inclose his pasture. The
commune had called upon him to explain his conduct, but
instead of appearing he had hidden himself, for fear of
the communal stick, which is said to inflict very hard and
ignominious blows. The whole commune had assembled
to pull down the unlawful fence. " Mir polozhil " (the
commune has decided ), said our drivers. Everywhere we
meet the despotic power of the communes in Russia—all
submit to it.

In cases where the whole commune is assessed,
instead of an obrok or poll tax being laid on
each individual, the peasants are generally
flourishing. The author mentions one com-
mune which from 1798 to 1813 paid annually
4,000 roubles (1801.) to the proprietor; from
1813 till now 7,000 roubles ; and when the
author visited the village 2.000 additional
roubles were demanded. and the new contract
was in course of negotiation. It appears sin-
gular that while no private property is recog-
nised by the peasants in land, each person's
personal property is scrupulously respected,
the degrees of wealth in a commune being
very various. Many of the communes have
their own schools and stores, each head of a
family making a certain contribution to the
latter.

In each commune the peasants elect their
own White-Heads or elders ; over these pre-
sides the Starosta, sometimes elected by the
people, sometimes appointed by the pro-
prietor; several communes are constituted a
district, and several districts a circle, over
which an officer of the Imperial Government
presides. All the details of these several
governments will be found in Baron Haxt-
hausen's volumes. We can but glance at the
vast amount of valuable information he has
brought together on the Russian social system.
Its great drawback is the power it leaves in
the hands of the proprietors of abusing their
authority and oppressing the people.
The communal system is thought by the
author to possess this vast advantage, that
while it lasts there can be no destitute popu-
lation to shake society :

%., ....., . ,
MAY 17, 1856. THE PRESS. 471
IMMIIMINIIMOIMMIT
. ------"------'---..--------..--.--
" property in the soil is foreign to the ideas
vittraturt.
ow Throughout his book the author insists that
" and manners of the people. There is no Russian society is founded not on associations
" right of inheritance, nor even a life or tem- of trades, but on associations of families. Of
-- " porary right of usufruct in any definite share guilds they have no conception. The corn-
"of land." mune, or Mir, is their sole idea of union.
The Russian Empire, its People, Institutions,
and Resources. By Baron Von Haxthausen. In many parts of Russia the communes are To the Mir they ascribe all strength and
entirely free, and have no superior whatever. goodness. The author has collected a num-
Translated by Robert Farie, Esq. Two All the Cossack communes, says the author, ber of proverbs showing their sense of the
Vols. London : Chapman and Hall. are of this class. The periodical division of rights and sacredness of the commune :
Ws have long desired a book which should lands among them is carried out with the God alone directs the Mir.
fairly exhibit the social state of the Russian greatest fairness:— The Mir is great.
pc, ople and show us their interns] orga- The principle is, that the whole of the land (tillage, The neck and shoulders of the Mir are broad.
nisation. These volumes by Baron Haxt- meadows, pasture, woods, streams, &c.) belongs to the Throw everything upon the Mir, it will carry it all.
hausen exactly fulfil that desire. We have population regarded as a unity, and every male inhabitant The Mir sighs, and the rock is rent asunder.
nasari ghtto an equal share. This share is therefore The Mir sobs, and it re-echoes in the forest.
no hesitation in saying that they give more
constantlychanging; for the birth of every boy creates a A thread of the Mir becomes a shirt for the naked.
valuable information on the character of the new claim, and the shares of those who die revert to the No one in the world can separate from the Mir.
people, and on their social relations in rural commune. The woods, pastures, hunting-grounds, and What belongs to the Mir belongs to the mother's
districts, than any work that has yet been pre- pastures, remain undivided, and free to all the inhabitants; little son.
seated to the British public. On society in but the arable land and meadows are divided, according to What is decided by the Mir must come to pass
theirpoura evedlufae, amltong ,
as the
hhe males. This This equaluo. division is of The Mir is answerable for the country's defence.
the great towns our author scarcely touches ;
an
of the Imperial government he says very
of it may be distant, or inconevrseniennlly slittyt;atedd.poTrthioenres The Mir is to the Russian a lasting home,
little ; but he furnishes the most curious, are, however, in each commune skilful land-surveyors, always able to shelter and protect him. No
exact, and copious details concerning the very without any education but what has been acquired from circumstances can separate him from it. He
the traditional habits of the place, who execute the work to can never be deprived of his inheritance, and
framework of Russian society, and the elemen-
tary administration which rules villages, do- the satisfaction of all. can never lose his share in his social patri-
mains, circles, and establishes a solid founda- The author describes at length the Ural mony. Owing to this feeling of security, per-
tine of social union and order. Cossacks, who form the most perfect common- flaps, the Russian is fond of travel; he delights
Persons who have been accustomed to regard wealth that can be conceived, each commune to absent himself from his commune for years
Russia as merely divided into large estates with having its own lands, and electing its own together, and then to return to it with an in-
the two classes of proprietors and serfs, will officers, but all uniting together for common crease of knowledge. But his liberty has
be surprised to find from this book that to purposes of government. been much abridged. He is highly ingenious,
some extent there prevails throughout Where—as is most generally the case—there but he is averse to steady, continuous labour,
Russia that system of social equality which is proprietorship of land and people, the delighting in a variety of occupations. We
such theorists as St. Simon, Prudhon, and revenue of the owner is derived from various read here, as in " The Englishwoman in Rus-
Louis Blanc have vainly endeavoured to estab- modes. Somstirees he takes for himself a sia," of the wonderful use he makes o f his
lish in Western Europe, though the Mor- portion of his estate, say a third, and requires axe :it is almost his only implement for every
monites have carried it into practice on the the peasants to cultivate it for him without kind of carpenter's work ; with it he builds
borders of the Great Salt Lake. The first any act of his own, and without stock or im- his house, and executes the most delicate
great fact which strikes us in this book is, plements, leaving to the peopla the rest of the carving. He finds the timber for his cottage
that, practically, the Russian people do not estate to manage in their own way ; some. in the neighbouring forest, he shapes it with
recognise property in the soil at all. It times he levies a poll tax on the peasants ; and his axe, and he erects it at a cost of fifteen
belongs equally to all who dwell on it; one sometimes assesses the commune in a fixed shillings, decorating it afterwards with such
has no more right to it than another. All sum mutually agreed on. But in all cases the carving as his fancy suggests.
share alike; and to preserve this equality commune preserves its power. In all the While the communal system lasts, the
there is a periodical division—often annual,— Crown lands the practice of assessing the author is of opinion that Russia has nothing
by which the changes that take place in communes, instead of levying a tax on each to fear from revolution. " The power of the
families can be met. On the death of any individual, is becoming general. " communes," ho says, "and the obedience
inhabitant of a village or commune, his share Custom has prescribed limits to the rights " shown to them, meet us everywhere." In his
reverts to the commune ; and on the birth of a of the proprietor. Iu theory he is absolute travels he frequently observed proofs of the
male child, a portion of land is set apart to lord not only of his estates, but of all the commune's authority :
him from the reserve which each commune goods of the people dwelling upon them. Bu Not far from one village we saw a number of people en-
has at his disposal. A more complete exem- such right is not practically exercised. Thet gaged in pulling down a fence. We were told that an act
of ustice was being administered. A member of the
plification of what we regard as the Socialist people of a commune are often wealthy enoughunclose his pasture. The
system cannot be conceived as regards the to purchase their territory from their owner, commune
communeha called upon
had
tnim exp am. his conduct, but
mass of the people theinselves,—though, to and some instances of the kind are given in instead of appearing he hidden himself, for fear of
be sure, the rights of the proprietors or the these volumes. The following
the communal stick, which is said to inflict very hard and
is curious :
Crown have to be respected—rights which ignominious blows. The whole commune had assembled
Iu the next village we again observed the paramount
practically take from the people ft certain part to pull down the unlawful fence. "Mir polozhil " (the
influence of the principles of the Russian communal insti• commune has decided ), said our drivers. Everywhere we
of their labour. tutions. This place was called Selzo Mayaniea. A Prince meet the s despotic power of the communes Busses—all
a_..11 —_
Moreover, this social organisation is carried Viazemski had brought the people from the Government submit to it.
in
out in all kinds of handicraft manufacture. of Riazan, and settled them here in the beginning of the
In some communes shoemakina prevails to present century. The village, to which 18,900 acres of In cases where the whole commune is assessed,
Princeand ofbeaverage.
iquality belonged,d beingwas mothtticardfethde instead of an obrok or poll tax being laid on
the exclusion of other kinds of'' labour ; ineach individual, the peasants are generally
other communes tailoring, and so on. In all for sale th.ceameasiannantsvbeonutghatnit onfor itsl29,oooropunbleisc (y 5 ,9 00r1e) , flourishing. The author mentions one corn-
these cases the labour of the people forms a and at the same time purchased their own freedom. In
muse which from 1798 to 1813 paid annually
common stock ; they work like bees in a hive stead, however, of dividing the land in perpetuity as private
under their appointed officers usually elected property among themselves, in proportion to the share of 4,000 roubles (1801.) to the proprietor; from
the purchase-money contributed by each, they held by the 1813 till now 7,000 roubles ; and when the
by themselves, and know in their communes Russian communal division, according to the number author visited the village 2.000 additional
no other degrees of rank than those which of souls. roubles were demanded. and the new contract
arise from necessary divisions of labuitir. We may remark, in passing, that these was in course of negotiation. It appears sin-
All the details on this social organisation volumes show the general accuracy of the gular that while no private property is recog-
are so exceedingly curious and instructive, statements in that most amusing book, " The nised by the peasants in land, each person s
that we could have wished they had been Englishwoman in Russia." She gives an in- personal property is scrupulously respected,
collected together, instead of being scattered stance of the peasants of an estate purchasing the degrees of wealth in a commune being
as they are throughout the two volumes. But
it when the proprietor was embarrassed, and very various. Many of the communes have
an excellent index partly remedies this defect ; then returning it into his hands. their own schools and stores, each head of a
and we strongly advise the reader before cum-
In the manufacturing communes the same family making a certain contribution to the
mencing a regular perusal of this work to
turn to the article " Commune "in the Index, principle is observed : latter.
and collect from the references some general The various trades have mostly formed themselves into In each commune the peasants elect their
separate communes; for instance, all the inhabitants of
idea of that aspect of Russian life, the deli-own White-Heads or elders ; over these pre-
eseshoed‘meakers, those of another are smiths,
neation of which constitutes the most impor- oofnea villagethird cuarme. This arrangement possesses great sides the Starosta, sometimes elected by the
tart part of the author's work. advantages. As carriers,
Russians are accustomed to live to- people, sometimes appointed by the pro-
prietor ; several communes are constituted a
The communal system can be traced to the gether in large families, often two generations at a time,
earliest period of Russian society. As the the division of labour takes place naturally which is so district, and several districts a circle, over
essential to manufacturing industry. The members of which an officer of the Imperial Government
people originally settled on the lani, they the artisan communes also constantly assist each other
formed themselves into communities, and cul- with their capital and labour; purchases and sales are presides. All the details of these several
tivated as much of the soil as they required. transacted in common, and the y send their commodities governm. s
volumes. We can but glance at the ents will be found in Baron Haxt-
In time, as other communities settled in the together to the markets andtowns, where they have shops hausen's
for the sale of them ; they do not form exclusive corpora- vast amount of valuable information he has
neighbourhood, boundaries were formed, and
each commune had its chief or Starosta.
Lions like those of the German artisans; but their associa• brought together on the Russian social system.
teens are open to all, and the members are united only by ..
its great drawback is the power it leaves in
Each commune had thus a right to the land the bonds of communal life. Every one is at liberty to
within its boundaries, and when the Czar assume a profession, or to give it up, commence another, the hands of the proprietors of abusing their
became the head of the nation he was recog- and enter a commune where his new occupation is carried authority and oppressing the people.
fused as direct superior of all the lands, and on. This, however, is seldom the case, as a change would The communal system is thought by the
Peter I. granted large lordships to his nobles.advantageous; but no restraint is imposed by
author to possess this vast advantage, that
But, independent of this sovereignty, or pro- notan y often
of
thbee communal regulations. They are voluntary
while it lasts there can be no destitute popu-
prietorship, allassociations ciations of manufacturers, and again remind us of the
"idea of a private right of St. Simonian theories. . lation to shake society :