VIDYUT

27 ३५ OHH १ OMT २0८२

0७88

Welcome to the special eveni of he
Mal Signing Ceremony between
NEPAL ELECTRICITY EPAL ELELI RICHY AUTHORITY &
POWER GRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED
For De elo -nertitt Dorsdhara {I amk® ~b5:eilly

-५

MoU Signing Ceremony between Nepal Electricity Authority &
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited.

Recently Completed Udipur Substation in Lamjung District

CELA
aa.) 5२

CELA
--

Oa 36 अक १ OG 2079

प्रकाशल/व्यवस्थापन

बी = fe: we। र 1 " छ

हितेन्द्र देव शाक्य
कार्यकारी निर्देशक

प्रकाशक:

नेपाल विद्युत् प्राधिकरण
सामान्य सेवा विभाग दिर्घायु कुमार श्रेष्ठ तुलाराम गिरी मदन तिम्सिना
जनसम्पर्क तथा गनासो उपकार्यकारी निर्देशक उपकार्यकारी निर्देशक उपकार्यकारी निर्देशक
व्यवस्थापन शाखा वितरण तथा ग्राहक सेवा निर्देशनालय प्रशासन निर्देशनालय उत्पादन निर्देशनालय

दरबारमार्ग, काठमाडौं
फोन. 8१५३०२१, 5१५३०२२
आन्तरिक : २००२, २००३
इमेल : pro@nea.org.np

राजल ढकाल बेल प्रसाद शर्मा बलराम सिलवाल शिव कुमार अधिकारी
बि. उपकार्यकारी निर्देशक निर्देशक निर्देशक निर्देशक
प्रसारण निर्देशनालय अपर अरुण हाईड्रो ईतेक्ट्रिकत कम्पनी लिमिटेड जनसाधन विभाग पदपूर्ति विभाग

मुद्रण/डिजाड्न:
IR भैरव इन्टरप्राइजेज
काठमाडौं
फोन : 0१-५४८२३८८२
इमेल : raashushrestha@gmail.com

अच्युत बाबु घिमिरे शित प्रसाद आचार्य राजा भाई सिल्पकार सर्वजित कुमार चौधरी
निर्देशक निर्देशक निर्देशक प्रमुख
योजना तथा प्राविधिक सेवा विभाग सामान्य सेवा विभाग कार्यकारी निर्देशकको सचिवालय जनसम्पर्क तथा गुनासो व्यवस्थापन
कार्यकारी सम्पादक शाखा

यस पत्रिकामा छापिएका लेख, रचना लेखकका निजी विचार हुनु। यसमा सम्पादन समिति जिम्मेवार हुने छैन।

शव
peer नागा

eee एमा 400 जज 7

आवरण तस्विर: निर्माणाधीन मध्य भोटेकोशी जलविद्युत कम्पनीको ड्याम साइट

आवरण अन्तिम तस्विर: Completion of New Modi 132kV Bay Expansion Work

लेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण

i ee ee त aye]

Vela कार्यालय. दरतारमार्ण काठमाडौँ

शुभकामना

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरणको नियमित अर्धवार्षिक प्रकाशन "विद्युत" वर्ष ३६, अंक १ प्रकाशन हुन लागेकोमा खुशी लागेको छ।

कूल ७५३ पालिका मध्ये ७३५ पालिका, ६७४३ वडा मध्ये ६४१८ वडामा भरपर्दो विद्युत सेवा पुन्याउन सफल रहेको प्राधिकरणले
कर्णाली र सुदूरपश्चिम प्रदेशका बाँकी क्षेत्रमा समेत विद्युतीकरणको कार्यलाई प्राथमकताका साथ अगाडि वढाएको छ। प्राधिकरणले आफूनो
नीतिगत, संरचनागत, प्रक्रियागत र व्यवहारगत कार्यप्रणालीमा रचनात्मक सुधार गर्दै मुलुकलाई उर्जा क्षेत्रमा आत्मनिर्भर र सुरक्षित बनाउन
तथा सेवा प्रवाहलाई थप गुणस्तरीय, विश्वसनीय, सरल, सुलभ, जनमैत्री तथा प्रविधिमैत्री बनाउन कियाशील रही आएको छ।

मुलुकमा उत्पादित विद्युत स्वदेशमै खपत गर्ने व्यवस्था मिलाई सामाजिक, आर्थिक रुपान्तरण तथा हरित अर्थतन्त्र प्रवर्धन अभियानमा
जुटेको प्राधिकरणले स्वदेशमा खपत हुन नसकेको अतिरिक्त उर्जा मित्रराष्ट्र भारत र बङ्गलादेशमा निर्यात सुनिश्चित गरी जलविद्युतलाई
मुलुकको अर्थतन्त्रको महत्वपूर्ण मेरुदण्डको रुपमा विकास गर्न समेत प्राधिकरण सफल भएको छ।

नियमित, गुणस्तरीय र भरपर्दो विद्युत आपूर्तिलाई सुनिश्चित गर्दै अन्तरदेशीय विद्युत व्यापारबाट राष्ट्रको अर्थतन्त्रलाई टेवा FAST
दूधकोशी जलाशययुक्त, माथिल्लो अरुण, तामाकोशी-५,चैनपुर-सेती जस्ता जलविद्युत आयोजनाहरूको निर्माण कार्य अगाडि बढाइएको
छ भने उर्जा सम्मिश्रण कार्यक्रम अन्तर्गत सौर्य उर्जालाई प्राथमिकतामा राखिएको छ। कुलेखानी-सिस्नेरी, हुलिङटार एवम् स्याफुदह जस्ता
पम्पस्टोरेज आयोजना निर्माणका लागि लाइसेन्स प्राप्तिको प्रकिया अगाडि बढाइएको छ। उर्जा आयात निर्यातका लागि अन्तरदेशिय प्रसारण
लाइनहरूको विकास, विस्तार एवं स्तरोन्नतिमा विशेष जोड दिनु आवश्यक देखिएको छ। यसका साथै निजी क्षेत्रलाई उल्लेख्य प्रोत्साहन
हुने गरी उर्जा विकासमा लगानी गर्ने वातावरण सृजना गर्नु पनि उत्तिकै आवश्यक देखिन्छ।

प्राधिकरणले आफ्नो लगानीसँगै नेपाल सरकार र विभिन्न दातृ निकायहरूको आर्थिक सहयोगमा १४० मेगावाटको तनहुँ, vo
मेगावाटको राहुघाट, ३७ मेगावाटको माथिल्लो त्रिशुली ३ बी, ४६ मेगावाटको अपर मोदी लगायतका विभिन्न आयोजनाहरू तथा नयाँ
प्रसारण लाइन र सवस्टेशन निर्माणको कार्यहरू दुत गतिमा अगाडि बढाई सम्पन्न हुने चरणमा छ।

प्राधिकरणको सेवालाई अझ प्रभावकारी बनाउन, प्रणालीलाई स्वचालित बनाई भरपर्दा र गुणस्तरीय विद्युत आपूर्ति सुनिश्चित गर्न,
कर्मचारीलाई तालिम र संस्थालाई डिजिटाइजेसन गर्ने कार्यलाई उच्च प्राथमिकतामा राखी आधुनिक डिजिटल प्रविधि र कृत्रिम बौद्धिक
प्रविधि समेत प्रयोग गर्दै हेक कियाकलापलाई डिजिटल प्रविधिमा रूपान्तरण गर्न शुरु गरिएको छ। प्रसारण लाइन तथा वितरण प्रणालीको
सुदृढीकरणको लागि ठूलो परिमाणमा लगानी गर्नुपर्ने अवस्था रहेको र प्राधिकरणको श्रोत साधनबाट मात्र उक्त लगानी सम्भव नरहेको कारण
वित्तीय व्यवस्थापनमा चुनौती रहेको छ।

विद्युत प्राधिकरणको ४०औँ वार्षिकोत्सवको अवसरमा प्राधिकरणलाई एक विशिष्ट र सफल व्यावसायिक संस्थाको रूपमा स्थापित
गराउन सदैव सहयोग र मार्गनिर्देश गर्ने नेपाल सरकार,उर्जा,जलस्रोत तथा सिँचाई मन्त्रालय,दातृ निकाय,कार्यरत कर्मचारी,कियाशील ts
युनियन, पूर्व कर्मचारी, आम उपभोक्तालगायत सम्बद्ध सबैप्रति हार्दिक आभार प्रकट गर्दै आगामी दिनमा समेत निरन्तर सहयोगको अपेक्षा गर्दछु।

अन्त्यमा, विद्युत पत्रिकाको यस अंकलाई पूर्णता दिनका लागि स्तरीय लेख रचना उपलब्ध गराउनु हुने सर्जकहरू, सम्पादक मण्डल
एवं प्रकाशन व्यवस्थापनमा संलग्न सबैलाई हार्दिक धन्यवाद ज्ञापन गर्दै प्राधिकरणको सिर्जनात्मक कियाकलापहरूको निरन्तरताको लागि
शुभकामना व्यक्त गर्दछु।

हितेन्द्र देव शाक्य
कार्यकारी निर्देशक

१ भदौ,२०८२

सम्बर्क फोन OTe WRG, 015193015. CUE WAITS, De WIoS Ha: Oe 30d

Toomiadh Term were Carey) mapa, WBE Wawa ibaa

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरणको नियमित अर्धवार्षिक प्रकाशन "विद्युत" को वर्ष ३९ अंक १ प्रकाशन गर्न पाउँदा सम्पादन
समिति हर्षित भएको छ। विद्युत राष्ट्रिय अर्थतन्त्र एवं आम जनताको जनजीविकासँग जसरी जोडिदै गएको छ त्यसरी
नै यस क्षेत्रसँग चासो राख्ने व्यक्ति, संस्था र समुदायको दायरा फराकिलो बन्दै गएको छ। त्यसैले विद्युत र विद्युत
प्राधिकरणसँग चासो राख्ने सम्पूर्ण सरोकारवाला पक्षहरूको लागि मूलत: विद्युत सम्बन्धी जानकारी उपलब्ध गराउनका
लागि समसामयिक विषयमा लेखिएका लेखहरूको सँग्रहको रूपमा यो अंक प्रकाशन गरिएको छ।

हरित उर्जाको विकास र विस्तारबाट वातावरण संरक्षण गर्दै जनजीविकामा सहजता ल्याउने, देश भित्र औद्योगिक विकास
गर्ने र क्रमशः: पेट्रोलियम पदार्थको आयात प्रतिस्थापन गरी आत्मनिर्भर अर्थतन्त्रको बाटोमा मुलुकलाई अगाडि बढाउन
विद्युत प्राधिकरण क्रियाशील रहेको छ। निकट भविष्यमा नै सारभूत रूपमा देशभर राष्ट्रिय ग्रिड मार्फत विद्युत सेवा
पु-याउने गरी प्राधिकरण क्रियाशील रहेको छ।

विद्युत सेवाको पहुँच विस्तार मात्र होइन अविच्छिन्न र गुणस्तरीय विद्युत सेवा सुलभ मूल्यमा उपलब्ध गराउन पनि
विद्युत प्राधिकरणले पूर्वाधार विकासलाई ध्यानमा राख्दै ठूलो लगानी गर्दै आएको छ। विद्युत क्षेत्रको समग्र सुधार एवं
विकासको लागि प्राधिकरणको लगानी मात्र पर्याप्त नहुने भएकाले नेपाल सरकार तथा निजी क्षेत्रबाट समेत थप पूँजीगत
लगानी गर्नु आवश्यक देखिएको छ। गुणस्तरीय विद्युतको राष्ट्रिय अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय माग पूर्ति गर्दै समृद्धिको महाअभियानमा
उर्जा क्षेत्रलाई संवाहक बनाउनु आजको आबश्यकता हो।

ग्राहक सेवालाई थप प्रभावकारी बनाउन कल सेन्टरहरूको विस्तार तथा विद्युत सेवालाई प्रविधि मैत्री बनाउन अनलाइन
दरखास्त लिने, स्मार्ट मिटरिङ्ग लागू गर्ने, अनलाइन पेमेन्ट सेवा विस्तार गर्दै जाने कार्यलाई पनि प्राथमिकता दिँदै आएको
प्राधिकरणले अबका दिनमा कर्मचारीहरूलाई तालिम तथा विकासको अवसर दिने, कर्मचारीहरूलाई योग्यता तथा अन्भव
समेतका आधारमा सही जिम्मेवारी प्रदान गर्ने, निर्णय प्रक्रियामा Artificial Intelligence को प्रयोग बढाउँदै लैजानु
आबश्यक देखिन्छ।

अन्त्यमा, विद्युत avait पत्रिकाको यस अंकलाई पठनयोग्य एवं उपयोगी बनाउनका लागि लेख रचनाहरू उपलब्ध
गराउनुहुने संस्था भित्र तथा बाहिरका सम्पूर्ण सर्जकहरू एवं यस अंकको प्रकाशनमा प्रत्यक्ष परोक्ष सल्लाह सुझाव दिनुहुने
महानुभावहरू प्रति हार्दिक आभार प्रकट गर्दछौं। विद्युतको आगामी अंकहरूलाई पनि सदा झैं समसामयिक, ज्ञानवर््धक
एवं उत्कृष्ट लेख रचनाहरू उपलब्ध गराइ सहयोग Garg दिनुहुन सबैलाई आग्रह गर्दै हार्दिक धन्यवाद ज्ञापन गर्दछौं।

सम्पादन समिति

स्वनाञ्म

० प्रसारण लाइन निर्माणका चुनौती र समाधानका उपायहरु
राज कुमार पोखरेल १

= लेपालको अर्थतन्त्रमा अपरिवर्त विनिमय दरका फाइदा तथा बेफाइदाहरू

राम बहादुर के.सी ६
० उज्यालो नेपाल : AAT प्रयास र समृद्ध भविष्यको यात्रा: एक समग्र दृष्टि

नारायण ज्ञवाली १३

" जलवायु परिवर्तनको विश्व परिदृष्य र नेपालको जलविद्युत क्षेत्रमा यसको प्रभाव
रमेश कुमार पाण्डे १५

" विद्युत सुरक्षा प्रणालीको प्रभावकारी व्यवस्थापन

आनन्द मण्डल R22
= 5७ र डिजिटल नेपालको यात्रा

यादव नेपाल २७
= Electricity Futures and Derivatives: Tools for Hedging Energy Prices

Dwaipayan Regmi 38
= Uniting Nepal through federalism: A SWOT Analysis of Constitution of Nepal

Bhim Prasad Subedi 38
= Electricity Development in Nepal : Laws & Reforms

Sunil Subedi ५८
= Green Bonds in Nepal: Unlocking Sustainable Finance for a Greener Future

Kul Chandra Rijal &Y
= Private Sector in Nepal's Hydro Power System

Narendra Malla ६२
= Amicable Resolution of Constitution: Dispute in Nepal

Abhushan Neupane ७२
" Condition Monitoring of Nepalese Hydropower Plant

Prakash Dahal ७६
= Hydropower to Hydrogen: Unlocking Nepal's Energy Transition

Sundar Neupane ९२
= Nepal's Transition From Load Shedding To Energy Export

Abhishek Chauhan १००
= Architects as a Strategic Pillar for an Energy-Sustainable Nation

Avisha Paudel १०९

= Electrifying Nepal's Transportation Sector:
Legal Infrastructure for EV Charging Networks

Prabin Kumar Yadav ११२

= Securing NEA's Digital Infrastructure with Cybersecurity
Aaisha Dhungana 929

Me

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प्रसारण लाड्न निर्माणका चुनौती

र समाधानका उपायहरू

हाम्रो संवाधानिक विकास क्रम र प्रचलित कानूनी व्यवस्था
हेर्दा नेपालको संविधान २०१९ मा सम्पत्तिको हकलाई
मौलिक हकमा राखी सम्पत्तिको हक सम्वन्धि धारा १५ को
कानून बमोजिम बाहेक कुनै पनि व्यक्तिको सम्पत्ति अपहरण
हुनै छैन भनी उल्लेख गरेको छ भने नेपाल अधिराज्यको
संविधान २०४७ को मौलिक हक अन्तर्गत धारा १७ मा
सार्वजनिक हितको लागि बाहेक राज्यले कुनै व्यक्तिको
सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहण वा प्राप्त गर्ने वा त्यस्तो सम्पत्ति उपर
अरु कुनै अधिकारको सृजना गर्ने छैन। सार्वजनिक हितको
लागि राज्यले कुनै व्यक्तिको सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहण गर्दा दिनुपर्ने
क्षतिपूर्ति कानूनद्वारा निर्धारित भए बमोजिम हुने छ भन्ने
व्यवस्था रहेको छ। नेपालको संविधान २०७२ को धारा २५
मा प्रत्येक नागरिकलाई कानूनको अधीनमा रही सम्पत्ति
आर्जन गर्ने, भोग गर्ने, बेचविखन गर्ने, व्यावसायिक लाभ
घाप्त गर्ने र सम्पत्तिको अन्य करोबार गर्ने हक हुनेछ भने ऐ
उपधारा (२) मा प्रयुक्त "क्षतिपूर्ति" भन्ने शब्दावलीको उचित
र पर्याप्त (just and fair compensation) क्षतिपूर्तिलाई
इंगित गरेको मान्नु पर्ने हुन्छ। क्षतिपूर्ति बिना व्यक्तिको
सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहण हुन नसक्ने अवस्थालाई मौलिक हकको
रूपमा संविधानमा नै सुनिश्चित गरेको हुँदा मुआब्जा
निर्धारण गर्दा उचित र पर्याप्त क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारण नभएमा
व्यक्तिको सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहणको नाममा हरण र जफत
हुन गई उल्लिखित संवैधानिक प्रावधान केवल सजावटी
(ornament) व्यवस्थामा परिणत हुन जाने भएकाले राज्यका
सम्बन्धित निकायले संवेदनशील हुनु पर्दछ।

राज कुमार पोखरेल
उप निर्देशक, ने.वि.प्रा.
कानून विभाग

माथि उल्लेखित संवैधानिक व्यवस्थाले सार्वजनिक हितको
प्रयोजनका लागि भने राज्यले व्यक्तिको सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहण
गर्न सक्ने राज्यको अन्तरनिहित प्रथमाधिकार (Eminent
domain) लाई भने अन्यथा भन्न सक्ने अवस्था छैन।

सम्पत्तिको अधिकारसम्बन्धी विधिशास्त्रीय मान्यतामा
सार्वजनिक हितका लागि राष्ट्रिय सम्पत्ति उपर राज्यको
पहिलो हक (Eminent domain) राज्यका अन्तरनिहित रहने
र सम्पत्ति प्राप्त गर्ने ACHAT राज्यलाई उक्त सिद्धान्त
अन्तर्गत व्यक्तिको सम्पत्ति वृहत्तर राष्ट्रिय हितका लागि
राज्यले नियन्त्रण, नियमन र अंकृश लगाउन सक्ने।

जग्गा प्राप्त गर्दा विचारणीय विषय :-

मुलुकको सर्वाञ्ीण विकासको निम्ति जलविद्युत,
जलाशाययुक्त आयोजना, नहर, रेल, सडक, खानेपानी,
औधोगिक क्षेत्र लगायतको सार्वजनिक हितको क्षेत्रमा निर्माण
र विस्तार आवश्यक हुन्छ। तर विकास निर्माणको कार्य
गर्दा नागरिकको सम्पत्ति सम्बन्धी हकलाई कानून बमोजिम
वृहत्तर राष्ट्रिय हितका लागि राज्यले नियन्त्रण नियमन र
अंकृश लगाउदा कानूनका कार्यविधिगत कुराहरूलाई मिहिन
ढंगले हेर्नु पर्ने हुन्छ।

राज्यले व्यक्तिको सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहण गर्दा क्षतिपूर्तिको आधार
र कार्यप्रणाली ऐन बमोजिम हुनेछ भन्ने व्यवस्था रहेको
देखिँदा व्यक्तिको सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहण गरी मुआब्जा निर्धारण
गर्दा होस् वा क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारण गर्दा कानून बमोजिमको
प्रक्रिया ( Due process of law) अवलम्बन गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ।

भवर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT aa

सार्वजनिक हितको लागि जग्गा प्राप्त गर्दाको स्थितिमा
क्षतिपूर्तिको आधार के हुने, जग्गा प्राप्त गर्ने निर्णय गर्दाको
अवस्थाको मूल्य हुने, क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारण गर्दा घर वा जग्गाको
कं कति हिस्सा वा प्रतिशत प्राप्त हुन गएको छ, जग्गा प्राप्त
गरेको कारणबाट व्यक्तिको बसोबास र सम्पत्तिको आर्थिक
मूल्य (economic value) बढ्ने वा घट्ने स्थिति के रहेको
छ। पूर्वाधारको निर्माणबाट त्यस्तो व्यक्तिलाई फाइदा वा
नोक्सान के हुने स्थिति छ, सरकारबाट हस्तान्तरण भएका
र समुदायको अधुरो हक (inchoat Right) भएका श्रोतहरू
Wee भएको अवस्थामा जग्गा प्राप्ति ऐन २०३४ को कानूनी
प्राववान आकषित हुने नहुने सम्बन्धमा जग्गा अधिग्रहण वा
क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारण गर्ने निकायले मनन गरी कार्य गर्नुपर्ने
हुन्छ।

प्राधिकरणले प्रसारण लाइनको लागि नागरिकको सम्पत्ति
आवश्यक परी अधिग्रहण गर्नुपर्ने भएमा कानूनले निर्धारण
गरेको प्रक्रिया (Due process of law) Tuer मात्रै
अधिग्रहण गर्न सकिने।

विद्युत प्रसारण लाइनको अवस्था :-

विद्युतको उत्पादन केन्द्रबाट उत्पादित विद्युत शक्तिलाई
सवस्टेशनसम्म पु-याउने संरचनालाई प्रसारण लाइन
भनिन्छ। अर्को शब्दमा भन्दा विद्युत उर्जालाई उत्पादन
स्थलबाट उपभोक्ता सम्म पु-याउने तार, खम्बा, टावर,
र अन्य उपकरणको प्रणाली नै प्रसारण लाइन हो। यो
प्रणालीले विद्युत उर्जालाई लामो दूरी सम्म पु-याउने कार्य
गर्छ।

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरणको विद्युत प्रणालीमा ३३ के.भी.,६६
के.भी.,१२२ के.भी.,२२० के. भि.र Yoo के.भी. भोल्टेज
स्तरमा विद्युत प्रसारण भइरहेका छन्। नेपाल विद्युत
प्राधिकरणले वा कुनै निकायले सवस्टेशन मात्र निर्माण
गर्दा कुनै एक स्थानमा मात्र जग्गा अधिग्रहण गर्दछ भने
प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्दा टावर प्याडको लागि विभिन्न
स्थानमा अवश्यक जग्गाको क्षेत्रफल जति जग्गा अधिग्रहण
गर्ने गर्छ। प्रसारण लाइन मुनिको जग्गा अर्थात् Right
of way भित्रको जग्गा, बालीनाली, घरगोठ भौतिक
वस्तुको क्षतिपूर्ति दिइन्छ। प्रसारण लाइन मुनि पर्ने जग्गा
प्राधिकरणले प्राप्त गर्दैन। उक्त जग्गाको स्वामित्व यथावत
जग्गाधनीमा रहन्छ। प्रसारण लाइनको मुनि पर्ने जग्गामा
कानूनले नै आवासीय घर निर्माण गर्न र रुख लगाउन
प्रतिबन्ध लगाएको छ।

विद्युत प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्दाका चुनौती :-

जुन काम गर्न कठिन वा समस्या हुन्छ, त्यसलाई समाधान
गर्न प्रयास गर्नुलाई चुनौती भनिन्छ। कुनै पनि कार्यको
लक्ष्यसम्म आइपुग्ने परिस्थितिहरू, कठिनाइहरू नै चुनौती
हुनु। यहाँ प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्दाको चुनौतीलाई
हेरिएको छ।

कार्यविधिगत प्रक्रियाका चुनौती :-

उत्पादित विद्युत शक्तिलाई एक निश्चित गन्तव्यमा पृ-्याउने
विद्युतीय संरचना निर्माण गर्न आवश्यकता महसुस भएपछि
श्रोत जुटाउनु पहिलो समस्याको रूपमा देखिन्छ। बोलपत्रको
तयारी, मूल्याङ्गन प्रक्रियाहरू, ठेकंदारका व्यवस्थापकीय
कमजोरी र कार्य सम्पादनले समेत निर्माण कार्य
समयमा सम्पन्न गर्न सकिदैन भने Initial Enviromental
(IEE),
Assessment (EIA), Enviromental Management Plan
(EMP) स्वीकृत गर्न लाग्ने समय, Drawing Design, तयारी
तथा स्वीकृति DPR निर्माण Detal Survey, check survey
र रुख कटान गर्दा आउने समस्या, मुआब्जा र क्षतिपूर्तिको
समस्या, प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्ने स्थान, भौगोलिक
अवस्था, प्राकृतिक प्रकोप र महामारी आदि प्रसारण लाइन
निर्माणका प्रक्रियागत चुनौतीको रूपमा देखा पर्छन्।

सरकारी निकायसँगको चुनौती

जग्गा प्राप्त गर्दा शुरुको प्रक्रिया गर्ने व्यक्ति प्रारम्भिक
अधिकृत हो। अहिले प्रारम्भिक अधिकृत मन्त्रिपरिषद्बाट
निर्णय गर्नुपर्ने व्यवस्थाले प्रक्रिया लम्विन गई कार्यान्वयनमा
चुनौती थपेको देखिन्छ। प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्दा स्थायी
बसोबास, शहरी क्षेत्र छली जंगल, वन खोलानालाबाट टावर
निर्माण गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ, जुन कुरा व्यवहारिक र उचित पनि
हो तर वनजंगलबाट प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्दा वन ऐन,
कानून र वन कार्यालयको प्रक्रियागत कार्यले समयमा कार्य
नहुँदा विकास निर्माणमा थप चुनौतीको सामना गर्नुपरेको
छ। स्थानीय बासिन्दाको दबाब, राजनीतिक नेतृत्वले
कर्मचारी प्रति गर्ने व्यवहारले प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारीबाट
समयमै मुआब्जा तथा क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारण हुन नसक्दा
तोकिएको समयमा कार्य हुन सकेको देखिदैन।

Examination Environmental Impact

E> faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

स्थानीय जनतासँगको चुनौती :-

नेपाली जनतालाई घरमा बिजुली(उज्यालो) चाहिने तर
आफ्नो घर जग्गाको छेउछाउ बिजुलीका खम्बा वा टावर
हुनुहुँदैन भन्ने स्थानीयको भावनाले गर्दा अहिले Rout
re-aligment गर्न स्थानीय जनताले दबाब दिने गरेका
छन्। जसले गर्दा DPR (Detail Project Report), detail
survey, check survey, EIA, IEE भइसकेको अवस्थामा
नयाँ Alignment प्राविधिक, आर्थिक र वातावरणीय
दृष्टिकोणले समेत न्यून सम्भावना देखिए पनि कार्यस्थलमा
स्थानीयको नाजायज मागले प्रसारण लाइनमा एक थप
चुनौती देखापरेको छ।

मुद्दा मामिलाको चुनौती :-

संविधानले दिएको सम्पत्ति सम्वन्धी मौलिक हक अन्तर्गत
कुनैपनि प्रसारण लाइनमा टावर निर्माण गर्दा होस वा
क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारण गरी कार्यान्वयन गर्दा मुद्दा नपरेको छैन।
२२० के.भी कोशी कोरिडोर, २२० S.A कालिगण्डकी
कोरिडोर, १३२ के.भी मध्यमर्स्याङ्गदी कोरिडोर, Yoo के.भी
ढल्केवर -इनरुवा- हेटौडा प्रसारण लाइन लगायत अन्य
प्रसारण लाइनको आयोजनाहरूमा मुआब्जा, क्षतिपूर्ति र
Rout re-aligment का विवाद अदालतसम्म पुगेर न्यायिक
प्रक्रियामा लामो समय लाग्ने भएकोले आयोजना समयमा
सम्पन्न भएका छैनन्। जनताको मौलिक हकको आधारमा
अदालत प्रवेश गर्ने बाटो न्यायको रोहमा हेर्दा उचित भए
पनि विकास निर्माणको कार्य नै रोकावट हुने गरी Hel पर्नु
प्रसारण लाइन निर्माणको अर्को चुनौतीको रूपमा आएको
छ।

उर्जा उत्पादक कम्पनीाई तिर्नुपर्ने हर्जानाको चुनौती :-

नेपाल विद्युत प्रधिकरणले उर्जा उत्पादक कम्पनीसँग विद्युत
खरिद बिक्री सम्झौता (PPA) र ग्रिड कनेक्सन सम्झौता
गरेको हुन्छ। सम्झौता अनुसार ग्रिड कनेक्सन गर्ने स्थानमा
समयमा सव स्टेशन र प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण भएन तर
सोही समयमा निजी उत्पादकको विद्युत उत्पादन भएमा
ग्रिडमा विद्युत connection नभए पनि ने.वि.प्रा.ले सम्झौता
बमोजिम हर्जाना तिर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ। उक्त रकम प्राधिकरणलाई
महँगो सावित हुन्छ। जुन प्रसारण लाइन समयमा निर्माण
नहुँदा हर्जना तिर्नुपर्ने चुनौतीको रूपमा देखिन्छ।

असन्तृष्टि मानवीय स्वभाव नै हो। परियोजना भन्ने बित्तिकै
पैसाको विटो बोकेको हुन्छ जुन हाम्रो लागि आएको हो
भन्ने जनतामा भ्रम फैलाउने एउटा समूह नै संस्थागत
रूपमा लागेको हुन्छ। जसले गर्दा जग्गाको न्यायोचित
मूल्य भन्दा बढीको आकांक्षा नागरिकको हुन्छ। मुआब्जा
निर्धारणको निर्णयमा चित्त नबुझेर प्रसारण लाइनको कार्य
सम्पन्न नगर्दासम्म स्थानीयको अवरोध हुन्छ। त्यस्तै ऐलानी
जग्गाको हकमा लामो समयदेखि भोग चलन गरी रहेको,
लालपूर्जा (जग्गाधनी प्रमाण पूर्जा) तथा फिल्डबुकमा समेत
नाम नभएको व्याक्तिहरूको हकमा मन्त्रिपरिषद्बाट निर्णय
भै मुआब्जा निर्धारण समितिसम्म आउँदा कार्यविधिगत
प्रक्रियाले समय लाग्ने भै समयमा नै आयोजना सम्पन्न
गर्न चुनौती देखिन्छ।

जनतालाई घरमा बिजुली (उज्यालो) चाहिने तर आपनो घर
जग्गाको छेउछाउ बिजुलीका खम्बा वा टावर हुनुहुँदैन भन्ने
स्थानीयको भावनाले गर्दा अहिले Rout re-aligment गर्न
स्थानीय जनताले दबाब दिने गरेका छन्।

समाधानका उपयहरू :-

प्रसारण लाइनको निर्माण गर्दा आउने चूुनौतीहरूलाई
प्रशासनिक, कानूनी र प्राविधिक उपायहरूद्वारा निराकरण
गर्ने कार्यलाई नै प्रसारण लाइनको समाधान भन्न सकिन्छ।
प्रसारण लाइनका समाधानहरू यिनै हुनु भनी यकिन गर्न
गाह्रो हुन्छ। आयोजना निर्माण गर्ने स्थान, भौगोलिक अवस्था,
जनताको चेतनाको स्तर, ठेकेदारको कार्यशैलि, आयोजनामा
कार्यरत कर्मचारीको भूमिका लगायत विविध क्षेत्रले फरक
पार्न सक्छ। प्रसारण लाइनका केही साझा चुनौतीहरूलाई
निम्न कार्यहरू गरेमा समाधान गर्न सकिन्छ।

विकासको अधिकार व्यक्तिको सामूहिक अधिकार भएकाले
कुनै एक दुई व्यक्तिको मात्र अधिकार नभई ठूलो समुदायको
अधिकारको रूपमा रहेको हुन्छ। नागरिकको व्यक्तिक
अधिकारको संरक्षणको विषय जति महत्वपूर्ण हुन्छ।
विकासका कार्यहरू निर्बाध रूपमा सम्पन्न भइ विकासले
पूर्णता पाएमा आम नागरिकको विकासको अधिकारको
प्रत्याभृतिको विषय उतिकै महत्वपूर्ण रहने छ।

७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /॥0/0] Gi

जग्गा प्राप्ति ऐनमा समय सापेक्ष सुधार गरेर :-

कुनै पनि कानून आफैमा पूर्ण हुँदैन, समय सापेक्ष सुधारको
आवश्यकता पर्दछ। लगानी सहजीकरण सम्बन्धी केही
नेपाल ऐनलाई संशोधन गर्ने अध्यादेश, २०८१ को दफा ४
मा जग्गा प्रीप्त ऐन २०३४ मा संशोधन गरी जग्गा प्राप्ति
ऐन २०३४ को दफा १६ को उपदफा २ पछि देहायको
उपदफा २ थपिएको छ जसमा "मुआब्जा निर्धारण गर्दा
रजिष्ट्ेशनको प्रयोजनको लागि निर्धारण गरिएको न्यूनतम
मूल्याङ्कनको तीन गुणा भन्दा बढी मुआब्जा रकम निर्धारण
गरिने छैन।" भन्ने राखिएको व्यवस्थाले जग्गाको मुआब्जा
निधारण गर्ने कार्यमा एकरूपता ल्याई विवाद कम गर्नेछ
भन्न सकिन्छ। सो व्यवस्था विधेयकको रूपमा ल्याउने र
सोही किसिमको कानूनको व्यवस्था क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारणमा
पनि राखिएमा विबादले स्थान पाउन सक्ने थिएन। जुन
कानूनमा सुधार गरी समाधान गर्न सकिने छ।

जग्गा प्राप्तिको लागि स्पष्ट कार्यविधि बनाइ लागू

प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्दा जग्गा अधिग्रहण गर्न, जग्गाको
Hae र क्षतिपूर्तिको निर्णय गर्नु पर्ने प्रावधान छ। जग्गा
अधिग्रहण गर्दा जग्गा प्राप्ति ऐन छ भने क्षतिपूर्ति निर्धारण
र कार्यान्वयन सम्बन्धमा विद्युत ऐन २०४९ मा केही
कानूनी व्यवस्था भए पनि पर्याप्त छैन। प्रसारण लाइन
मुनि परेका जग्गाको क्षतिपूर्ति कति प्रतिशत निर्धारण गर्ने,
के को आधारमा दिने स्पष्ट व्यवस्था नभएकाले आयोजना
अनुसार फरक फरक किसिमको विधि र प्रक्रिया अपनाएर
क्षतिपूर्तिको निर्णय भएका छन्। जग्गाधनी प्रमाणपूर्जा भएका
जग्गाधनीको हकमा प्रसारण लाइनको जग्गाको मुआब्जा
निर्धारणको मूल्यलाई आधार मानेर १० देखि २० प्रतिशत
सम्म तार मुनिको Riht of way को जग्गाको क्षतिपूर्ति दिने
गरेको देखियो। जग्गाधनी प्रमाणपूर्जा नभएका जग्गाधनी
जो लामो समयदेखि भोगचलन गरिरहेका फिल्डबुकमा
समेत नाम नभएका ऐलानी जग्गाको हकमा दिने क्षतिपूर्ति
को सम्बन्धमा कानूनमा स्पष्ट व्यवस्था नभएकोले समेत
कार्यविधि निर्माण गरेर क्षतिपूर्ति दिने कार्य गर्दा समस्या
समाधान हुने देखिन्छ।

विस्थापित हुने घर परिवारको व्यवस्थापन गरेर :-

संविधानले दिएको आवासको हक अन्तर्गत कसैलाई पनि
आवासको सुविधाबाट बञ्चित गर्नुहुँदैन। तसर्थ जग्गा
प्राप्त गर्दा परापूर्व कालदेखि स्थायी बसोबास गरी आएका
स्थानीय जनताको थातथलो नै उठने भएमा निजको निवास
निर्माण नहुन्जेलसम्म बस्ने व्यवस्था र यातायात खर्च समेत
प्रदान गर्ने गरी कार्यविधि बनाई एकरूपता कायम गर्न
सकिन्छ। जसले विस्थापित हुने परिवारको समस्या समाधन
भई जग्गा प्राप्तिमा सहजता कायम हुने गर्छ।

प्रसारण लाइनको शेयर जनतालाई दिने व्यवस्था
गरेर :-

विद्युतको क्षेत्रमा कम्पनी बनाइ आयोजना निर्माण गर्दा
सफलता मिलेको कैयौं उदाहरण छन्। नेपालमा जलविधुतको
क्षेत्रमा चिलिमे जलविधुत कम्पनी पहिलो नामको रूपमा
आउँछ। प्रसारण लाइन निर्माणको मोडालिटी पनि
सोही अनुसारको भएमा कम्पनीको शेयरहरू केही प्रतिशत
जनतालाई दिने गरी कार्य गर्दा जनताको अपनत्व हुने गरी
आयोजना निर्माणमा सहजता हुने गर्दछ। जसले गर्दा
प्रभावित पर्ने स्थानीय जनतालाई क्षतिपूर्तिको साथसाथै
शेयरको केही अंशले प्रसारण लाइन निर्माणमा अपनत्व
जगाई स्थानीय जनताको विरोध कम गर्न सकिने देखिन्छ।

अस्थायी रोजगारीको व्यवस्था गरेर .-- मूल आयोजना
सँगसँगै सामाजिक उत्तरदायित्व अन्तर्गत बाटो, खानेपानी,

स्वास्थ, शिक्षा, मठ मन्दिर लगायतका कार्यका लागि केही
बजेटको व्यवस्था गरेको हुन्छ। सामाजिक उत्तरदायित्व
अन्तर्गतका कार्य स्थानीयबाट उपभोक्ता समिति मार्फत्
रराउने अनिवार्य व्यवस्था गर्नु पर्छ। स्थानीय जनताका
लागि विकास भएको हो भन्ने अनुभूति गराउनको
लागि परियोजना कालमा अदक्ष, दक्ष केही कामदारहरू
स्थानीयबाट नै लिई विकास निर्माण गराउँदा स्थानीय
जनतालाई रोजगारी पाएको अनुभूति भै प्रसारण लाइन
निर्माण कार्यमा अवरोध कम हुन्छ।। ४ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Right of Way को जग्गामा अन्य विकल्प प्रयोग
गरेर :-

प्रसारण लाइन निर्माण गर्दा तार मुनिको जग्गामा क्षतिपूर्ति
दिए पनि उक्त जग्गामा जग्गाधनीले भवन निर्माण र रुख
रोप्न नपाउने गरी कानूनले नै बन्देज लगाएको हुन्छ।
त्यस्ता जग्गाको उपयोग गर्न सामूहिक तरकारी खेतीको
लागि कृषि कार्य लगायत वैकल्पिक उर्जा (सौर्य उर्जा)
उत्पादन गर्नका लागि सोलार प्यानलको व्यवस्था सरकारी
अनुदानबाट गराइएमा त्यस्ता उत्पादनमूलक कार्यले पनि
प्रसारण लाइन आयोजना निर्माण गर्दा जनताको अवरोध
कम हुने देखिन्छ।

निष्कर्ष :-

विकासको अधिकार व्यक्तिको सामूहिक अधिकार भएकाले
कुनै एक दुई व्यक्तिको मात्र अधिकार नभई ठूलो समुदायको
अधिकारको रूपमा रहेको हुन्छ। प्रसारण लाइनको अभावमा
वा पूरानो जीर्ण लाइनको भरमा संचालित विद्युतीय

प्रणालीबाट धेरै कम भोल्टेज प्रवाह हुने, सानो हावा हुरीले
पनि घण्टौसम्म लाइन प्रभावित हुने लगायत कारणले
त्यहाँका जनताको जनजीवन अत्यन्त कष्टपूर्ण रहन्छ।
उद्योग कलकारखाना चलाउन कठिन भइ अनेक समस्या
भोग्नुपर्ने बाध्यता हुन्छ। नागरिकको वैयक्तिक अधिकारको
संरक्षणको विषय जति महत्वपूर्ण हुन्छ। विकासका कार्यहरू
निर्बाध रूपमा सम्पन्त भई विकासले पूर्णता पाएमा आम
नागरिकको विकासको अधिकारको प्रत्याभृतिको विषय
उतिकै महत्वपूर्ण हुने भएकाले सार्वजनिक हितका लागि
मध्यनजर गरी विकासका कार्यलाई असर पर्ने गरी जनताले
प्रत्यक्ष हस्तक्षेप गर्नु उपयुक्त हुँदैन।

सन्दर्भ सूची :-

१ नेपालको संविधान

२ सर्वोच्च अदालतबाट प्रतिपादित सिद्धान्तहरू
३ जग्गा प्राप्ति ऐन २०३४

४ विद्युत ऐन २०४९

Under Construction Khudi Substation in Lamjung District

लेपालको अर्थतल्त्रमा अपरिवर्तर्य

विलिमरा दरका फाइदा तथा राम बहादुर के.सी.
बेफाडदाहरु उप सचिव
अर्थ मन्त्रालय, नेपाल सरकार

लेखसार: विषय प्रवेश:

केन्द्रीय बैंकले आधिकारिक विनिमय दरको रूपमा सेट र
कायम राखेको दर अपरिवर्त्य (पेग्ड) दर हो। मुद्रा पेग
गर्ने कारणहरू मौद्रिक तथा विनिमय स्थिरतासँग जोडिएका
छन्। नेपाल राष्ट्र बैंक ऐन, २०५८ले नेपाल राष्ट्र बैंकलाई
विदेशी विनिमय सम्बन्धी नीति, कानून तथा कार्यविधि
बनाउने, विदेशी विनिमय कारोबारको व्यवस्थापन गर्ने,
विदेशी विनिमय पद्धति निर्धारण गर्ने तथा विदेशी विनिमय
सञ्चितिको व्यवस्थापन गर्ने अधिकार दिएको छ। सोही
अनुरूप सो बैंकले नेपाली रूपैयाँको विनिमय दर पद्धति
तोक्ने तथा विदेशी मुद्राहरूको खरिद-बिक्री दर कायम
गरी कारोबार गर्ने जस्ता काम गर्दै आएको छ। यस
व्यवस्थाले मौद्रिक अर्थतन्त्रमा योजनाको लागि स्थिर आधार
(Stable Basis for Planning, विश्वसनीय र अनुशासित
मौद्रिक नीति (Credible And Disciplined Monetary
Policy) र अस्थिरता न्यूनीकरण (Reduced Volatility)
जस्ता फाइदाहरू पुगेको छ भने बढ्दो विदेशी प्रभाव
(Increased Foreign Influence), स्वचालित समायोजनमा
कठिनाइ (Difficulty in Automatic Adjustment) सट्टेबाजी
आक्रमणहरू (Speculative Attacks) जस्ता बेफाइदाहरू
समेत ब्यहोर्नुपरेको छ। हालका दिनमा नेपालको मौद्रिक
अर्थतन्त्रमा आन्तरिक उत्पादन तथा उत्पादकत्वमा वृद्धि,
निर्यात क्षमतामा अभिवृद्धि गरी विदेशी मुद्राको दिगो
व्यवस्थापन सहित परिवर्तन विनिमयदरमा रूपान्तरण गर्ने
सोंच १६औं योजनाले लिएको छ। यो सोंचलाई कार्यान्वयन
गर्न पृंजीखातामा आंशिक परिवर्त्यता प्रदान गर्न आवश्यक
पर्ने नीति, ऐन, विनियम, निर्देशिका सहित कानूनी तथा
संस्थागत संरचना तयार गर्न आवश्यक छ।

परोक्ष/ अषत्यक्ष विधि अनुसार विदेशी विनिमय दर भन्नाले
एक विदेशी मुद्रा किन्नलाई तिर्नुपर्ने कूल नेपाली रूपैयाँलाई
जनाउँछ। प्रत्यक्ष विधि भनेको एक नेपाली खूपैयाँले आउने
अन्य विदेशी मुद्रालाई जनाउँछ। नेपालमा परोक्ष विधिअनुसार
विनिमय दर प्रकाशित हुने गर्दछ। हिजोको तुलनामा आज
थोरै नेपाली रूपैयाँमा एक विदेशी मुद्रा किन्न सकिन्छ
भने यसलाई नेपाली मुद्रा अधिमूल्यन (Overvaluation)
भएको मानिन्छ। त्यसै गरी, त्यही विदेशी मुद्रा किन्न
बढी नेपाली ख्पैयाँ तिर्न परेमा नेपाली Stat अवमूल्यन
(Undervaluation) भएको मानिन्छ। एउटा Hal व्यवस्था,
जसमा एक देशको मुद्रा अर्को देशको मुद्रासँग सामान्यतया
संगति कायम गरिएको अवस्था तथा विनिमयदर स्थिरता
राख्ने कार्य पेग्ड विनिमय दर हो। परिवर्तित विदेशी मुद्रासँग
स्वदेशी मुद्राको मूल्य स्थिर राख्नु नै विनिमय स्थिरता हो।
पेग्ड दरहरूले कहिलेकाहीँ उच्च दीर्घकालीन मुद्रास्फीतिको
नेतृत्व गर्न सक्छ। पेग्ड गरिएको विनिमय दर कायम
राख्न सामान्यतया ठूलो मात्रामा विदेशी मुद्रा भण्डारण
(Foreign Currency Stock) चाहिन्छ। नेपालमा विदेशी
विनिमय व्यवस्थापनको सम्पूर्ण अधिकार नेपाल राष्ट्र
बैंकमा निहित छ। विनिमय दरमा स्थायित्व अथवा अर्थतन्त्र
अनुकूल राख्न राज्यले आफ्ना मौद्रिक, वित्तीय, पूँजी खाता
परिवर्त तथा संरचनात्मक परिवर्तन नीति अन्तर्गतका
विभिन्न उपकरणको निरन्तर प्रयोग गरिराखेका हुन्छन्।
नेपाल राष्ट्र बैंकको स्थापना हुनुपूर्व नेपाल सरकारले विदेशी
मुद्रा भारतीय रिजर्भ बैंकमा राख्ने व्यवस्था रहेको थियो।
नेपालले वि.सं. २०४९ देखि भारतीय रूपैंयाँसँग अपरिवर्त्य
(पेग्ड) विनिमयदर कायम गरेको छ। अपरिवर्तय विनिमयदर। ६ बै fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३५ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

कायम राख्ने नीतिगत व्यवस्थाका कारण नेपालको मौद्रिक
अर्थतन्त्रमा केही फाइदा तथा वेफाइदाहरू रहेका छन्।

अपरिवर्त्य (पेग्ड) विनिमय दरका प्रकारहरू:

मौद्रिक अर्थशास्त्र (Monetary Economics) मा देहायका
प्रकारहरू छन् :

(क) फ्लोटिङ्ग विनिमय दर (Floating Exchange Rate):
एक नीति जसले विदेशी विनिमय बजारलाई विनिमय
दरहरू सेट गर्न अनुमति दिन्छ। फ्लोटङ्ग विनिमय
दरको रूपमा सन्दर्भित रहन्छ। यसको मतलब
विनिमय दर लगातार बजार शर्तहरूमा (माग र
आपूर्तिमा) आधारित रहन्छ।

नरम अपरिवर्त विनिमय दर (Soft Exchange Rate
Pegs): नरम पेग्ड भनेको विनिमय दर नीतिको नाम
हो जहाँ सरकारले सामान्यतया विनिमय दरलाई
बजारले सेट गर्न अनुमति दिन्छ तर केही कंसहरूमा
विशेष गरी यदि विनिमय दर एक दिशामा Fa गतिमा
अघि बढीरहेको देखिन्छ भने केन्द्रीय बैंकले बजारमा
हस्तक्षेप गर्नेछ। यसबाट मौद्रिक नीतिमा स्थिरता
कायम हुन सहयोग हुन्छ।

कडा अपरिवर्त विनिमय दर (Hard Exchange Rate
Pegs): कडा पेग्ड विनिमय दर नीतिको साथ केन्द्रीय
बैंकले विनिमय दरको लागि निश्चित र अपरिवर्तित
मूल्य सेट गर्दछ,

(ग)

मर्जिङ्ग विनिमयदर (Merging Currencies): विनिमय
दर नीतिमा अन्तिम दृष्टिकोण भनेको एक राष्ट्रले
एक वा बढी राष्ट्रहरूसँग साझा मुद्रा छनौट गर्नलाई
मर्ज गरिएको मुद्रा पनि भनिन्छ दुई वा सोभन्दा बढी
देशहरूसँग मुद्रालाई साझा बनाईएको हुन्छ। युनियन
मुलुकहरूमा प्रायशः: यस अवधारणाको प्रयोग हुन्छ।

भारतीय मुद्रासँग अपरिवर्त विनिमयदर (Pegging) गर्नुका
कारणहरू:

नेपालले लामो समयदेखि भारतीय Agra 'पेग्ड' विनिमय
दर प्रणाली अन्तर्गत कारोबार गर्दै आएको छ। यस अन्तर्गत
भारतीय मुद्रासँगको विनिमयदर स्थिर रहने तथा अन्य
मुलुकका मुद्रासँग भने भारतीय मुद्राको ती मुद्रासँगको
दरका आधारमा परिवर्तन हुने प्रणाली कायम गरिएको छ।

यस्तो पद्धति अवलम्बन गर्नुका पछाडि नेपालको भौगोलिक,
आर्थिक, साँस्कृतिक कूटनीतिक, भारतसँगको अधिक
व्यापार निर्भरता, निर्यात क्षमता, नेपालको विदेशी विनिमय
प्राप्तिको दिगो आधारको कमी जस्ता आधारहरू रहेका
छन्। अपेक्षाकृत Stable Currency सँग Pegging गर्दा
व्यापार सहजीकरण हुने हुन्छ। यसबाट मुद्रा SHIA, व्यापार
अनिश्चितताको भयबाट ढुक्क बनाउँछ। We विनिमयदरले
व्यापारी तथा लगानीकर्ताको हित संरक्षण गर्न सघाउने
हुन्छ। नेपाल र भारत बीच करिब १८०० किलोमिटरको
खुला सिमाना रहेको छ। Pegging नगरेमा मुद्रा मध्यस्थता
(Currency Arbitation) हुन सक्ने सम्भावना रहन्छ। जस्तो
कि युएस डलर र युरो मुद्रा बीचमा खरिद तथा बिक्री गर्दा
मूल्य निर्धारणमा विसंगति आउन सक्छ। यस्तो अवस्थामा
भारतीय रूपैयाँको विनिमयदरलाई खुला बजारमा छाड्दा
नेपाली र भारतीय दुवै लगानी निरुत्साहित हुन सक्ने
देखिन्छ। Pegging गर्दा पेगिङ्ग गरिएको देशको आर्थिक
वर्चस्व (Economic Hegemony) भित्र फस्नबाट रोक्न
सकिन्छ। जस्तै भारतले आफ्नो मौद्रिक नीति परिवर्तन गर्दा
बजारमा देखिने प्रभावहरू जस्तै मुद्रा स्फीति, माग-आपूर्ति
सन्तुलन, साटफेर आदिबाट नेपालको अर्थतन्त्रलाई सुरक्षित
गर्न सकिन्छ। मुद्रासफीतिलाई असर पार्ने तत्व उस्तै रहेको
अवस्थामा भारतले मुद्रास्फीति नियन्त्रण तथा विनिमय दर
स्थायित्व प्राप्त गर्न परिचालन गर्ने मौद्रिक तथा विदेशी
विनिमय नीति र नेपालले अवलम्बन गर्नुपर्ने उक्त नीति
उस्तै रहन सक्ने अवस्थालाई ध्यानमा राखी भारतीय
Agra स्थिर विनिमय दर प्रणालीलाई कायम गरिएको हो।
नेपालको भारतसँग कूल वैदेशिक व्यापारमा वस्तु व्यापारको
अंश ६७ प्रतिशत, सेवा व्यापार तफ पर्यटन, शिक्षा, स्वास्थ्य
लगायतका सेवा अन्य राष्ट्रको तुलनामा अत्यधिक छ।
खुला सिमाना तथा प्रवेशाज्ञा नचाहिने हुँदा भारतीय श्रमिक
नेपालमा र नेपाली श्रमिक पनि भारतमा धेरै रहेकाले श्रम
बजार लचिलो छ। पछिल्लो वैदेशिक लगानी सर्वेक्षणअनुसार
कूल लगानीको २० प्रतिशत र औद्योगिक क्षेत्रको अंश मात्र
हेर्ने हो भने करिब vo प्रतिशत भारतीय लगानी छ। दुवै
देशका नागरिक, व्यावसायिक फर्म, प्रतिष्ठान, निकाय र
लगानीकर्ताले निर्बाध रूपमा वस्तु तथा सेवाको प्रवाह गर्ने
हुँदा नेपालले यो नीति अवलम्बन गरेको देखिन्छ। यसका
फाइदा र बेफाइदाहरू निम्न बमोजिम रहेका छन् :

७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /॥0/0] aa

अपरिवर्त विनिमय दरका फाइदाहरू:

पेग्ड विनिमय दरले एक देशबाट अर्को देशमा पैसा / मुद्राको
सहज प्रवाह सुनिश्चित गर्न महत गर्छ। यसले साना र
कम विकसित देशहरूलाई विदेशी लगानी आकर्षित गर्न
महत गर्छ। यसले साना देशहरूलाई उनीहरूको मुद्राको
अवमूल्यनबाट बच्न र मुद्रास्फीति स्थिर राख्न महत गर्दछ।
हाल भारतसँग कायम रहेको विदेशी विनिमय दर पद्धतिका
कारण विनिमय दरमा हुन सक्ने परिवर्तनबाट सृजना
हुन सक्ने अनिश्चितता न्यून छ भने नेपालमा भारतीय
लगानीको AGE उल्लेख्य छ।यसका साथै भारतीय
अर्थतन्त्रको उच्च आर्थिक वृद्धि तथा न्यून मुद्रास्फीतिको
लाभ नेपाललाई प्राप्त हुने गरेको छ। साथै, अन्य फाइदाहरू
देहाय अनुसार रहेका छन् :

(क) नेपाली रूपैयाँको विश्वसनियता अभिवृद्धि हन सघाउ
पुग्ने।

मुद्राको सट्टेबाजी निरुत्साहित भई पूर्वानुमानयोग्य र
स्थिर विनिमयदर हुँदा विनिमयदर जोखिम न्यून हँदा
व्यापार र लगानी सहजीकरणमा सहयोग पुग्ने,

(ख)

लागत अनुमान कम हुन्छ, व्यापार गर्न सहज हुन्छ र
आयको वितरणमा समस्या रहँदैन।

(ग)

विदेशी लगानी आकर्षण गर्न सघाउ पुग्ने हुन्छ।

(ङ) मौद्रिक अर्थतन्त्र निर्माणको आधार र गति प्रदान गर्न

सहयोग भइरहेको छ Wed:- मुद्रा स्फीति सीमाभित्र

राख्ने र विदेशी विनिमय सञ्चितिको निश्चित जोहो

गर्न सहज हुने।

मौद्रिक स्थिरताको वातावरण कायम गर्न सहयोग हुने

जस्तै:- बजारमा साटफेर, कालोबजारी नियन्त्रण, माग

र आपूर्ति बीच सन्तुलन कायम गर्न सहयोग पुग्ने।

(छ) मूल्य स्थिरता कायम गर्न सहयोग

(ज) नेपालमा गरीबी न्यूनीकरण गर्नमा सहयोग

(झ) भारतको न्यून मुद्रासफीतिको लाभ नेपाल सरकारले
प्राप्त गर्न

(a) विदेशी विनिमयदर नीतिलाई मौद्रिक नीतिसँग संगति
(Link Up) गरी मौद्रिक अंकृशको भूमिका निर्वाह गर्न
सघाउ पुग्ने जस्तै:- नेपालको रिजर्भ भारतीय बैंकमा
निश्चित दरमा सञ्चित गरी राख्ने।

(ट) आर्थिक स्थायित्व कायम गर्न मद्दत पुग्ने

(ठ) मौद्रिक तथा कर्जा योगांकहरूलाई वाञ्छित सीमामा
राखी वित्तीय क्षेत्रको स्थायित्व कायम गर्ने जस्तै
निजी क्षेत्र र सरकारी क्षेत्रमा प्रवाह हुने क्रण बीचमा
सन्तुलन कायम गर्ने,

(ड) शोधानान्तर स्थितिलाई अनुकूल बनाइराख्न सहयोग
पुग्ने।

अपरिवर्त विनिमय दरका बेफाइदाहरू:

We Age घाटाहरूको लागि खातामा स्वचालित
सुधारहरूको लागि अनुमति दिँदैन। घरेलु र विदेशी
राष्ट्रहरूको लागि पूँजी खाताहरूमा BA वास्तविक-समय
परिवर्तनहरू नभएकाले यसले असन्तुलनलाई बढावा दिन्छ।
यदि यो निश्चित विनिमय दरको मूल्यबाट विचलित भयो
भने यसले मुद्राको मूल्यमा सट्टा आक्रमण गर्न सक्छ।
विद्यमान विनिमय पद्धतिका कारण नेपालले bel लागत
समेत बेहोर्नुपरेको छ।भारतीय अर्थतन्त्र भन्दा नेपालको
अर्थतन्त्रमा मुद्रास्फीति बढी रहने गरेका कारण नेपाली मुद्रा
यथार्थ रूपमा अधिमूल्यन हुन गई नेपालको निर्यात क्षमता
खस्किँदै गएको छ भने भारतीय अर्थतन्त्रमा बाह्य क्षेत्रबाट
सिर्जित समस्याहरूको असर नेपालले समेत बेहोर्नुपरेको
Bl साथै अन्य बेफाइदाहरू देहाय अनुसार रहेका छन् :

(क) आयात दुई तिहाइ भारतबाट हुने जसले भारतीय मुद्रा
अवमूल्यन (Devaluation) हँदाको लागत (Cost) पनि
नेपाली अर्थतन्त्रले ब्यहोर्नु पर्दछ।

भारतीय मुद्रास्फीति पनि नेपालले ब्यहोर्नु पर्दछ।
Pegging भएको अवस्थामा बढेको मूल्य नेपालले
तिर्नुपर्छ। स्वदेशी मुद्राको Revaluation/Devaluation
बाक्लो अन्तरालमा गरिदैन।

(ग) Indian Currency Devaluation हँदा तेस्रो देश
(Third Country) बाट आयात हुने सबै वस्तु स्वत:
महँगो हुन जाने।

भारुको अन्य मुद्रासँगको विनिमय दरका आधारमा
नेपाली रूपैयाँको अन्य मुद्रासँगको विनिमय दर तोकिने
र भारुसँगै परिवर्तन हुने अन्य मुद्रासँग भने परिवर्त्य
विनिमय दर प्रणाली कायम हुन जान्छ। सानो अर्थतन्त्र
त्यसमा पनि सीमित देशसँग ठूलो हिस्सामा कारोबार
रहँदा, उक्त देशमा हुने उतारचढावले नेपाली मुद्राको
विनिमय दरमा ठलो प्रभाव पर्छ।

Pa बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

LN 2

(3) स्थिर विनिमयदर अपसरिखित (Misaligned) हुने हुँदा

नेपालको मुद्रा स्फीति केही उच्च रहेकोले यथार्थ

प्रभावी विनिमयदर (Real Effective Exchange

Rate) अधिमूल्यन रहन सक्ने हुन्छ किनकि भारतको

मुद्रास्फीतिका साथ साथै नेपालको आफ्नो मुद्रास्फीति

पनि बहन गर्नु पर्दछ।

नेपालको निर्यात अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय बजारमा प्रतिष्पर्धी हुन

नसकेको र आयात सस्तो हुन गई व्यापार घाटा उच्च,

फराकिलो हुँदै गएको,

अर्थतन्त्रलाई गतिशील बनाउन र उत्पादकत्व बढाउन

उत्प्रेरणा दिन नसकेको

भारतले ब्यहोर्नुपर्ने मौद्रिक धक्का (Monetary Shock)

नेपालले पनि ब्यहोर्नुपर्ने जस्तै:-- Interest rate

परिवर्तन, Money Supply Policy जस्ता धक्काले

नेपालको अर्थतन्त्रमा सम्पत्तिको मूल्य, पूँजी पलायन,

मुद्रास्फीति जस्ता पक्षमा प्रभाव पर्दछ।

(झ) व्याजदर तथा कर्जा नीति स्वतन्त्रतापूर्वक अवलम्बन

गर्न नसकिएको,

मौद्रिक र वित्त नीतिलाई स्वतन्त्रतापूर्वक आर्थिक

विकासका लागि प्रयोग गर्न नसकिएको

(ट) भारतीय रूपैयाँ र अमेरिकी डलर बीचको
विनिमयदरमा उतारचढाव आउँदा नेपाली रूपैंयाँ
र अमेरिकी डलरबीचको विनिमयदरमा आउने
उतारचढावको कारण नेपाली अर्थतन्त्रमा प्रतिकूल
परिस्थिति उत्पन्न हुनसक्ने,

अपरिवर्त्य (पेग्ड) विनिमय दरको नेपालमा रहेको मुख्य
चुनौतीहरू:

(क) नेपालको मौद्रिक अर्थतन्त्रमा भारतीय मुद्राको माग
कति छ भनी यकीन गर्नु,

(ख) दुवै देशका मुद्रा एक आपसमा सजिलै जनस्तरमा
विनिमय (Exchange) हुने हुँदा अर्थतन्त्रमा अनौपचारिक
कारोबारको नियन्त्रण गर्नु,

(ग) विप्रेषण आयको मुद्राको सट्टामा आन्तरिक उपभोग्य
सामान र तुलनात्मक लाभका वस्तु तथा सेवाको
उत्पादन र निर्यात वृद्धि गरी दिगो विदेशी मुद्राको
ait सुनिश्चतता हासिल गर्नु,

(घ) मुलुकको साख मूल्याङ्गन (Country Credit Rating)
गरिएको विषयमा बाह्य मुलुकमा नेपालको आर्थिक
तथा मौद्रिक व्यवस्थाको जानकारी प्रदान गर्नु
चुनौतीपूर्ण रहन्छ। किनकि यसले देशको AT बहन
दक्षता, क्रणको लागत र लगानीको प्रवाह बारे यथार्थ
जानकारी गराउन सक्छ।

(ङ) अमेरिकी डलर बिक्री गरी भारतीय रूपैयाँ खरिद गरी
नेपाल-भारतको मौद्रिक भुक्तानी सेटलमेन्ट गर्नु,

बैश्विक(010081) रूपमा पेग्ड विनिमय दरको विवरण:

अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय मुद्राकोष (IMF) को सन् २०१६ को प्रतिवेदन
अनुसार विश्वका १३ प्रतिशत देशहरूले हार्ड पेग, २९.६
प्रतिशत देशहरूले सफ्टपेग, ३७ प्रतिशत देशहरूले परिवर्त्य
विनिमय दर प्रणाली र १०.४ प्रतिशत देशहरूले अन्य
विनिमय प्रणालीमा रहेको देखाएको छ। नेपालले अवलम्बन
गरेको प्रणाली सफ्ट पेग अन्तर्गत पर्छ। २०१३ सम्म चीन,
थाइल्यान्ड, मलेसिया जस्ता ठुला अर्थतन्त्रले अमेरिकी
डलरसँग स्थिर विनिमय दर प्रणाली अवलम्बन गरेका थिए।
अर्थशास्त्रीहरू Aashish R. Ghosh, Ann—Marrie Gulde,
Jonathan, Ostry, Holger Wolf को IMF सँग सम्बन्धित
साझा प्रतिवेदन Does The Exchange Rate Regime
Matter for Inflation and Growth मा We विनिमयदरले
मुलुकमा मुद्रास्फीति र आर्थिक वृद्धिमा सकारात्मक प्रभाव
पार्ने उल्लेख गरेका छन्। अर्थशास्त्रीहरू प्रतिवेदनको
सारमा लेख्छन् Although the theoretical relationships
are ambiguous, evidence suggests a strong link
between the choice of the exchange rate regime and
macroeconomic performance= Adopting a pegged
exchange rate can lead to lower inflation, but also
to slower productivity growth= The exchange rate
regime can influence economic growth through
investment or increased productivity= Pegged
regimes have higher investment floating regimes
have faster productivity growth= On net, per capita
GDP growth was slightly faster under floating
regimes. उल्लिखित अर्थशास्त्रीहरूको प्रतिवेदनको
आधारमा नेपालले हालको आर्थिक, मौद्रिक र वित्तीय
अवस्था अनुसार अवलम्बन गरेको अपरिवर्त्य विदेशी मुद्राले
नेपालको अर्थतन्त्रमा सकारात्मक प्रभाव नै परेको देखिन्छ।

७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /॥0/0] ४ ९

नेपालको मौद्रिक अर्थतन्त्रमा विनिमय दर निर्धारणको
तरिका:

आज मिति २०८२/०१/३० को विनिमय दर भारुसँग 4.40,
डलरसँग १३२.९४ र भारुको डलरसँग ८३.३१ रहेको F।
भारुसँगको दर १.७० राखियो र अन्य दर यथावत् रह्यो
भने बजारले पहिला एक डलरलाई 53.3] भारु बनाउँछ,
53.39 भारुलाई नेपाली १३३.२९ बनाउँछ। सट्टेबाजहरूबाट
हुनसक्ने यस्ता व्यापारले गर्दा विदेशी विनिमय दरको
निर्धारण सामान्य वस्तुको जस्तो छुट्टाछुटै नभई समग्र
राष्ट्रको मुद्राको अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय विनिमय दर एकैपटक निर्धारण
हुन्छ। तसर्थ अहिलेको स्थिर विनिमय दरबाट परिवर्त्य
विनिमय दर अवलम्बन गरियो भने भारुसँग नेपाली मुद्रा
अवमूल्यन हुन्छ भन्ने आम मान्यता सही नहुन सक्छ।
अवमूल्यन भएको अवस्थामा भारुसँग मात्र नभई अन्य
HTT पनि अवमूल्यन हुने र अधिमूल्यन हुँदा पनि सोही
अनुसार हुन्छ।

मुलुकको आर्थिक क्रियाकलापको आकार तथा संरचनामा हुने
परिवर्तन सँगै नीतिगत व्यवस्थाहरूमा समेत समयानुकूल
परिवर्तन गर्दै लगिएको हुन्छ। यसै अनुरूप नेपालको
विनिमयदर प्रणाली तथा वर्तमान भारतीय मुद्रासँगको 'AT'
दरमा समेत परिवर्तन गर्नुपर्ने आवाज बेलाबेला उठ्ने गरेको
Bl हालको विनिमयदर पद्धतिकै कारण नेपालको यथार्थ
विनिमयदर अधिमूल्यन भई निर्यात क्षमता खस्किँदै गएको
आवाज अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय मुद्रा कोष लगायतका संस्थाहरूले
उठाउँदै आएका छन्। तथापि विदेशी विनिमयदर निकै
संवेदनशील पक्ष भएकाले समग्र स्थिरतामा खलल नपुगोस्
भन्नका लागि पर्याप्त अध्ययन बिना यो परिवर्तन गर्ने
विषय भने होइन।

अपरिवर्त विनिमय दरबाट परिवर्तय विनिमय दरमा परिवर्तन
गर्न नहुनुका सम्बन्धमा रहेका आधारहरू:

(क) नेपालको अर्थतन्त्रमा मौद्रिक विषयमा सकारात्मक
पक्षहरू भन्दा नकारात्मक पक्षहरू धेरै रहन् जस्तै
अर्थतन्त्रमा आर्थिक वृद्धि, मुद्रास्फीति नियन्त्रण, उच्च
व्यापार घाटा लगायतमा पेग्ड विनिमय दरले हालसम्म
सहयोग गर्न सकेन कि भन्ने धारणा,

भारत नेपालको सबैभन्दा ठूलो व्यापार साझेदार
मुलुक रहनु, करिब अठारसय कि.मि.को खुला सिमाना,

भारतसँग नेपालको विशेष कूटनीतिक र आर्थिक

सम्बन्ध रहनु,
(ग) व्यापार तथा लगानीलाई नराम्रोसँग प्रभाव पार्न सक्ने,
आयात झनै महँगो पर्न सक्छ, उच्च मुद्रास्फीति
सृजना गर्ने तथा प्रतिस्पर्धात्मक क्षमता कमजोर
बनाउने सम्भावना,
कच्चा पदार्थ आयात गर्दा उत्पादन लागत बढ्न जाने
र यसले समग्र मूल्य स्तरमै बढोत्तरी ल्याई मूल्य
वृद्धिमा चाप पर्ने,
मार्शल Ade शर्त सिद्धान्त- The Marshall-Lerner
condition Principle) को आधारमा लाभ प्राप्त गर्न
सक्ने अवस्था नरहेको किनकि भारतसँग नेपालको
व्यापार सन्तुलन हुन सक्ने अवस्था तुलनात्मक लाभका
वस्तु तथा सेवा निर्यात नभएसम्म हुने देखिएन।
पूँजी खाता समेत बिस्तारै खुला गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ तर
भारतीय रूपैयाँ तथा अन्य विदेशी मुद्रा प्राप्तिको दिगो
आधार नहुन्जेल पूँजी खातालाई पूर्ण परिवर्त बनाउन
नसकिने,
अल्पकालमा भारतीय Ast सञ्चिति गर्ने प्रवृत्ति बढ्न
सक्ने, यसबाट भारतीय मुद्राको मागमा थप विस्तार
भई नेपाली मुद्रा अझै अवमूल्यन हुँदै जाने तथा
नेपालबाट अवैध रूपमा पूँजी बहिर्गमन हुने सम्भावना
छ।
(झ) नोवेल पुरस्कार बिजेता क्यानेडियन अर्थशास्त्री
Robert Alexander Mundell ले आफ्नो पुस्तक
Analysis of Monetary and Fiscal Policy under
different Exchange Rate Regime and Optimum
Currency Areas तथा International Monetary
Fund (IMF) समेतले विद्यमान स्थिर विनिमयदर
(Pegged Exchange Rate) नै नेपाल राष्ट्रको
मौद्रिक हितमा रहेको तर्क पेश गरेका छन्।
नेपालमा मुद्रा बजार, पूँजी बजार तथा विदेशी
विनिमय बजार ash पनि पूर्ण रूपमा विकसित भइ
नसकेकाले बजारले निर्धारण गर्ने विनिमय दर यथार्थ
स्तरमा नहुने सम्भावना हुन्छ, जसबाट व्यापार तथा
लगानीमा नकारात्मक असर पर्न सक्छ।

[१० __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

waa Ars) विनिमय दरबाट परिवर्त विनिमयदरमा
परिवर्तनको लागि सुझावहरू:

वर्तमान समयमा नेपालको अर्थतन्त्रको परिदृष्य हेर्दा
भारतसँगको व्यापार घाटा अत्यधिक रहेको, आन्तरिक
उत्पादन र उत्पादकत्वको अवस्था न्यून रहेको, निर्यात
व्यापारको क्षमता कमजोर रहेको अवस्थामा विदेशी मुद्रा
प्राप्तिको दिगो व्यवस्थापन अत्यन्त चुनौतीपूर्ण रहेको
अवस्थामा विप्रेषण आयबाट बाह्य क्षेत्र सन्तुलन कायम
गरिएको छ। यस अवस्थामा स्पष्ट रूपमा अपरिवर्त्य
विनिमयदरबाट परिवर्तन विनिमय दरमा तत्काल रुपान्तरण
गर्ने कार्य निकै नै चुनौतीपूर्ण भए तापनि राज्य/सरकारले
पन्धौं योजनाबाट यसको सोच रूपान्तरण तर्फ रहेकाले
देहायका सुझावहरू परिवर्तनको लागि उपयुक्त हुने देखिन्छ:

(क) वित्त र मौद्रिक अधिकारी अपरिवर्त विनिमयदरबाट
परिवर्त विनिमय दरमा रुपान्तरणका लागि मानसिक
रुपमा तयार हुने,आउन सक्ने जोखिमको पूर्वानुमान
गर्ने, विकल्पहरूको विकास गर्ने,

(ख) विनिमय दर प्रणाली परिवर्तन गर्दा बजारलाई
आफ्नो मुद्राको मूल्य स्थिर रहने विश्वास दिलाउन
सक्ने प्रशस्त आधार तयार गर्नु जरुरी हुन्छ जस्तै
आन्तरिक उत्पादन वृद्धि, निर्यात व्यापारमा बढोत्तरी,
Foreign Direct Investment, Trade, Tourism and
Information Technology र अन्य संभावित क्षेत्रबाट
विदेशी मुद्राको दिगो सुनिश्चितता भएको वातावरण
तयार गर्ने,

(ग) स्थिर विनिमयदर प्रणालीलाई यथावत कायम राष्दै
नेपालको वित्तीय क्षेत्रलाई विश्व वित्तीय र मौद्रिक
क्षेत्रसँग सँगति कायम गर्न आवश्यक क्लिनिकल
FAME (Clinical Economics) को रूपमा विज्ञ
मौद्रिक अर्थशास्त्री (४0) हरूबाट प्राविधिक
पक्षमा जाँच गर्दै यसका लागि आवश्यक ऐन, विनियम,
निर्देशिका, परिपत्र तथा कानूनहरूको संशोधन तथा
तर्जुमा प्रक्रिया अगाडि बढाउने,

(घ) पूँजी खातालाई क्रमशः आंशिक खुकुलो बनाउँदै
विद्यमान विनिमयदर प्रणालीको संक्रमणकालीन
व्यवस्थापन (Transitional Period Management)
को लागि क्रमश: परीक्षणको रूपमा देहायका
तरिकालाई Pilot Project को अवधारणा अवलम्बन
गर्ने :

(अ) मुद्रा डालो वा क्षितीजीय व्यान्ड वा व्यवस्थित
परिवर्त्य (Exchange Rate or Horizontal
Band or Currency Basket or Managed
Float Rate) : यो विनिमय दर प्रणाली त्यस्तो
हो जसमा विनिमय दर न त पूर्ण रूपमा स्वतन्त्र
हुन्छ (वा फ्लोटिंग) न त स्थिर हुन्छ। मुद्राको
मूल्य केन्द्रीय बैंकको हस्तक्षेपद्वारा अर्को मुद्राको
विरूद्ध एक दायरामा राखिएको छ।

(आ) क्रवलिङ्ग पेग (Crawling Peg Rate): यो विनिमय
दर एक प्रणाली हो जहाँ एक मुद्राको मान
विस्तारै समय सँगै समायोजन (Adjustment)
हुन्छ। सामान्यतया पूर्व निर्धारित व्यान्ड भित्र,
प्रतिस्पर्धा र आर्थिक स्थिरता कायम गर्न यसले
सहयोग गर्दछ।

(3) विनिमय दर करिडोर
Corridor) यो एक प्रणाली हो जहाँ
केन्द्रीय बैंकले यसको मुद्राको विनिमय
दरलाई एक विशिष्ट दायरा वा व्यान्डभित्र राखेर
अर्को मुद्रामा ठीक नभई एक विशिष्ट दायरा
वा व्यान्डमा राख्दछ। यो दृष्टिकोणले विनिमय
दरमा केही लचिलोपनका लागि अनुमति दिन्छ
जब ash स्थिरता र पूर्वानुमानताको डिग्री प्रदान
Tee। केन्द्रीय बैंकले विदेशी एक्सचेन्ज बजारमा
हस्तक्षेप गर्दछ र विनिमय दरलाई परिभाषित
सिमाना बाहिर AAT लागि सहयोग गर्दछ।

(ङ) उल्लिखित विनिमयदर सफल भएमा मौद्रिक
स्थायित्वको सुनिश्चित गरेर पूँजी खाता खुल्ला गरी
परिवर्तय विनिमयदर (Flexible Exchange Rate) मा
रुपान्तरण हुने।

(Exchange Rate

निष्कर्ष:

कुनै पनि मुलुकको बाह्य क्षेत्रलाई सन्तुलनमा राख्दै समग्र
आर्थिक स्थायित्व कायम गर्नका लागि विनिमय दरको
महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका हुने गर्छ। विनिमयदरलाई उचित स्तरमा
राख्न सकिएन भने निर्यातमा प्रतिस्पर्धात्मक क्षमता ह्वास
हुन गई बाह्य क्षेत्र नै अस्थिर रहने सम्भावना हुन्छ। तसर्थ
सबै मुलुकले आफूलाई उपयुक्त हुने विनिमय दर पद्धति
अवलम्बन गरेका हुन्छन्। विनिमय दर प्रणाली परिवर्तन
गर्दा बजारलाई आफ्नो मुद्राको मूल्य स्थिर रहने विश्वास

७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /॥0/0] ४ ११

दिलाउन सक्ने प्रशस्त आधार तयार गर्नु जरुरी हुन्छ।
नेपालमा पूँजी खाता (Capital Account) परिवर्तय नरहेकाले
व्याजदरबाट हुने पूँजी कारोबार न्यून रहन्छ। हाल भारतसँग
अत्यधिक व्यापार घाटा रहेकाले भारतीय मुद्राको तुलनामा
नेपाली SUA अवमूल्यन हुनुपर्ने र अन्य मुद्रामा खर्चको
तुलनामा आम्दानी बढीरहेको हुँदा अन्य मुद्राको तुलनामा
अधिमूल्यन हुनुपर्ने देखिन्छ। समग्रमा, नेपालको वर्तमान
अवस्था हेर्दा विदेशी मुद्रा अघिमूल्यन अथवा अवमूल्यन
भए पनि राज्यलाई वैदेशिक दायित्व भुक्तान गर्न समस्या
छैन, यद्यपि नाफा गर्ने र घाटा बेहोर्ने पक्ष भने फरक
छन्। हालको भारतसँगको अपरिवर्त्य पेग्ड' विनिमय दर
प्रणालीको अल्पकालीन विकल्प नभए पनि पेगको दरमा
भने केही परिवर्तन गर्दा उपयुक्त हुने देखिन्छ। अन्तर
ष्ट्रिय मुद्राकोष, विश्व बैंक तथा एशियाली विकास बैंक
लगायतका वैश्विक संस्थाहरूले नेपालको यथार्थ विनिमय
दर अधिमूल्यन भएकाले निर्यात व्यापारमा नकारात्मक
प्रभाव परेको निष्कर्ष निकालेका छन्। यस्तो अवस्थामा भार
तसँगको विनिमय दरलाई हालको एक भारतीय SAAT बराबर
एकसय साठी रूपैयाँबाट केही वृद्धि गर्दा नेपाललाई थोरै
लाभ हुने देखिन्छ। तर यस्तो निर्णय उत्पादन/उत्पादकत्व
तथा निर्यात क्षमतामा कुनै वृद्धि नगरी गरिएमा यो झन्
प्रत्युत्पादक हुने जोखिम पनि त्यत्तिकै रहने भएकाले पूर्व
वृहत तयारी बिना भारतसँगको पेग्ड दरमा परिवर्तन गरेमा
त्यसले अपेक्षित लाभ दिने भन्दा मुद्रा स्फीतिमा दबाब
सिर्जना गरी समग्र आर्थिक स्थिरतामा खलल Wares
सक्ने जोखिम छ। पर्याप्त मौद्रिक अर्थतन्त्रको अध्ययन,
अनुसन्धान तथा विश्लेषण बिना विनिमयदर पद्धति परिवर्तन
गर्ने गल्ती गरिएमा नेपालले बाह्यक्षेत्र अस्थिरताको दबाब
सामना गर्नुपर्ने अवस्था आउन सक्छ। यसका लागि वित्त र
मौद्रिक अधिकारी एवं नीतिहरू बीचमा चुस्त समन्वयको

आवश्यकता देखिन्छ। मौद्रिक नीति शिल्पीहरूले फाइदा
तथा बेफाइदाहरू तथा समग्र चुनौतीहरूको विश्लेषण गरी
आगामी दिनमा उपयुक्त कदम चाल्नु ग्राह्य हुनेछ।

सन्दर्भ सामग्री:

नेपालको संविधान, कानून किताव व्यवस्था समिति,
सिंहदरबार।

सोह्रौं योजना, राष्ट्रिय योजना आयोग, सिंहदरबार।

आर्थिक वर्ष २०८२०८३ को बजेट वक्तव्य र आर्थिक
सर्वेक्षण, अर्थ मन्त्रालय, सिंहदरबार।

विदेशी विनिमय दर निर्धारण प्रणाली, अध्ययन प्रतिवेदन,
राष्ट्रिय योजना आयोग, सिंहदरबार।

Mohan, Rakesh, Growth with Financial Stability,
Central Bank in an Emerging Market, Oxford
collected essays,

Salvatore, Dominik (2003), Microeconomics, Theory
and Applications, New York, Oxford University
Press,

Musgrave, Richard, Public Finance in Theory and
Practice, MC Graw-Hill, Kogakusa.

Mundell,Robert Alexander, Analysis of Monetary
and Fiscal Policy under different Exchange Rate
Regime and Optimum Currency Areas, United
State Press,

Bhatta, S.R., Areference Course of Microeconomics
Analysis, New Hira Books Enterprises, Kirtipur,

Paul, R.R., Monetary Economics, Kalyani Publishers,

Ludhiana, New Delhi,

कर्मचारी दुर्घटनामा परी औषधि उपचार गराएको अवस्थामा वीमा दावीका
लागि आवश्यक पर्ने कागजात

आवश्यक विवरण भरिएको वीमा दावी फाराम

औषधि उपचारका सम्पूर्ण सक्कल कागजात तथा बिल

कार्यालयले तयार पारेको दुर्घटना प्रतिवेदन (कार्यालयको कामको शिलशिलामा दुर्घटनामा परेको अवस्थामा मात्र)
दुर्घटनाको प्रहरी प्रतिवेदन (कार्यालयको कामको सिलसिलामा दुर्घटनामा परेको अवस्थामा मात्र)

[१२ faa svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६५ ७ अङ्क १ ७ ME २०८२

उज्यालो नेपाल : साझा प्रयास

र समृद्ध भविष्यको यात्रा

सामुदायिक विद्युत उपभोक्ता राष्ट्रिय महासंघ

नेपाल पहाड, तराई र हिमालको सुन्दर संयोजन मात्र होइन,
सम्भावनाको भूमि पनि हो। यो सम्भावनालाई यथार्थमा
रूपान्तरण गर्न आधारभूत पूर्वाधार, विशेषत: उर्जा क्षेत्रको
विकास अत्यन्त महत्वपूर्ण छ। "उज्यालो नेपाल" भन्नाले
केवल बत्ती बाल्ने कुरा मात्र होइन, जनताको जीवनशैली,
शिक्षा, स्वास्थ्य, रोजगारी, तथा उद्यमशीलता प्रवर्हन गर्ने
शक्तिशाली माध्यम हो। यस अभियानको मूलधारमा रहेका
छन् - नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण, सामुदायिक विद्युतीकरण,
वैकल्पिक उर्जा प्रवर्धन केन्द्र, स्वतन्त्र विद्युत उत्पादक
कम्पनीहरू, बुटवल पावर कम्पनी, दातृ निकायहरू र
तिनको साझा संकल्पवाट मात्र उज्यालो नेपाल बनाउन र
भन्न हामी सक्ने अवस्थामा आएका छौँ।

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण (Nepal Electricity Authority-
NEA): समर्पण र सेवा

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण (ने.वि प्रा) देशकै सबैभन्दा ठूलो
सार्वजनिक संस्था हो, जसले उत्पादन, प्रसारण र वितरणका
माध्यमबाट देशलाई उज्यालो बनाउन नेतृत्वदायी भूमिका
निर्वाह गर्दै आएको छ। पछिल्लो दशकमा आयोजना
निर्माणमा तीब्रता, लोडसेडिङ अन्त्य, Hot व्यापार बिस्तार,
स्मार्ट मिटर प्रणालीको शुरुवात र ग्रामीण क्षेत्रमा सेवा
बिस्तार जस्ता महत्वपूर्ण कार्यहरू सम्पन्न गर्दै, यो संस्था
अब केवल सरकारी मात्र नभई जन-विश्वासको केन्द्र बन्न
सफल भएको छ।

सामुदायिक विद्युतीकरणः जनताको नेतृत्व, जनताको
स्वामित्व

ने.वि.प्रा. को सहकार्यमा स्थानीय समुदाय आफैले निर्माण
र व्यवस्थापन गर्ने जनसहभागितामा आधारित सामुदायिक

लारायण जवाली
अध्यक्ष

विद्युतीकरण कार्यक्रम नेपालको ग्रामीण विकासको मेरुदण्ड
बन्न पुगेको छ। जनताको श्रमदान, स्वामित्व, भावना र
सेवा मनोवृत्तिले देशका विकट भूगोलसम्म विद्युत पु-्याएको
छ। यसले न hat उज्यालो ल्यायो, स्थानीय रोजगारी
सिर्जना, उद्यम विकास र शिक्षा प्रवर्द्धनमा समेत योगदान
पुन्याएको छ। विद्युतीय चुल्हो प्रवर्द्धन, ई-रिक्सा जस्ता
नविनतम प्रविधि पनि प्रवर्धन गरि रहेको छ।

वैकल्पिक उर्जा प्रवर्धन केन्द्र (AEPC): सुदूरका लागि
सहारा

जहाँ राष्ट्रिय प्रसारण लाइन पुग्न सकेको छैन, त्यहाँ सौर्य,
जल, बायोग्यास वैकल्पिक उर्जाका माध्यमद्वारा उज्यालो
फैलाउने कार्य वैकल्पिक उर्जा प्रवर्धन केन्द्रले गर्दै आएको
छ। ग्रामीण तथा दुर्गम क्षेत्रका हजारौं घरहरूमा विद्युतीकरण,
स्वच्छ चुलो प्रवर्दन र नवीकरणीय उर्जा प्रविधिको बिस्तार
यस संस्थाको सफलता हो। महिलाको सशक्तीकरण र
जलवायु न्यायमा पनि यसको भूमिका उल्लेखनीय छ।

बुटवल पावर कम्पनी र स्वतन्त्र विचुत उत्पादक संस्था
(IPPAN) निजी क्षेत्रको योगदान

नेपालमा जलविद्युत् सम्भावनाको भरपूर उपयोगका
लागि निजी क्षेत्रको लगानी अपरिहार्य छ। बुटवल पावर
कम्पनी जस्ता अग्रणी निजी कम्पनीहरूले ठुला आयोजना
निर्माणमा अग्रसरता लिएका छन्। स्वदेशी लगानी, प्रविधि
र व्यवस्थापनद्वारा आज नेपालले उर्जा निर्यात गर्न सक्ने
स्थितिमा पुग्नुमा स्वतन्त्र विद्युत उत्पादक संघ (IPPAN)
अन्तर्गतका संस्थाहरूको योगदान बिर्सन मिल्दैन। बुटवल
पावर कम्पनीले पनि विद्युत उत्पादनका अतिरिक्त ग्रामीण
विद्युतीकरण सेवा विस्तार गर्दै हजारौं ग्राहकहरूलाई सेवा

@ Ty 3g ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT ४ १३

~~

दिई उज्यालो नेपाल बनाउन सहयोगी भूमिका खेलेको छ।
Ad संस्था र अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय साझेदारको साथ

नेपालको उर्जा विकासमा दातृ निकायहरूको भूमिकालाई
पनि स्मरण गर्नैपर्छ। विश्व बैंक, एशियाली विकास बैंक,
qa, कोरियालगायत अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय सहयोगी संस्थाहरूको
प्रावधिक तथा आर्थिक सहयोगले आयोजना निर्माण,
नवीकरणीय उर्जा बिस्तार र संस्थागत सुधारहरू सम्भव
भएका छन्।

अबको आवश्यकता: उज्यालो मात्र होइन, मन-मनमा
उज्यालो

हामीले उज्यालो नेपाल बनाइसकेका छौँ तर अबको
आवश्यकता केवल बत्ती बाल्नु मात्र होइन, जन-जनको
मनमा विश्वास, अवसर, समानता र समृद्धिको उज्यालो

फैलाउनु हो। यसको लागि चाहिन्छ गुणस्तरीय विद्युत
सेवा, पारदर्शी सुशासन, उपभोक्ता-मैत्री प्रविधि र सबै
नागरिकसम्म सरल पहुँच।

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण जस्ता संस्थाहरूको प्रभावकारिता,
निजी क्षेत्रको सक्रियता, समुदायको सहभागिता र दातृ
सहयोगको समन्वयले मात्र यो सम्भव छ।

साझा प्रयासले मात्रै सम्भव छ 'समृद्ध नेपाल

"उज्यालो नेपाल" कुनै व्यक्तिको सपना होइन, यो त सम्पूर्ण
नेपालीको साझा आकाङ्क्षा हो। यो आकाङ्क्षा प्रा गर्न
सबै पक्षले आ-आफ्नो भूमिकामा ईमानदार र सक्रिय बन्नु
पर्दछ। बत्ती मात्र होइन, विचार, व्यवहार र नेतृत्व उज्यालो
बन्यो भने, मात्र हामी साँचो अर्थमा "उज्यालो नेपाल" को
यात्रामा सफल हुनेछौं। यो सबै पक्षको अग्रणी नेतृत्व नेपाल
विद्युत प्राधिकरणले लिनु पर्छ।

निर्माणाधीन मध्य भोटेकोशी जलविद्युत आयोजनाको पावर हाउस

[१४ बै fears vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३5 ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

etal परिवर्तनको विश्व

परिँदृष्या र लेपालको जलविद्युत रमेश कुमार पाण्डै
क्षेत्रमा यसको प्रभाव सहायक निर्देशक
उत्पादन निर्देशनालय

विषय प्रवेश :

विश्वव्यापी रूपमा तापमान र मौसमको स्वरूपमा लामो
अन्तरालमा आउने परिवर्तन नै जलवायु परिवर्तन हो।
प्रकृति माथि मानवीय क्रियाकलापले गरेको अतिक्रमणको
परिणामका रुपमा समेत यसलाई बुझने गरिन्छ। जलवायु
प्राकृतिक रुपमा नै परिवर्तनशील छ तर हालको वैश्विक
जलवायु परिवर्तन भने जिवास्म इन्धनको अधिक प्रयोग तथा
वातावरण विरुद्ध भैरहेका मानवीय क्रियाकलापका कारण
विश्वव्यापी तापमानमा भएको वृद्धिको उपज हो। पछिल्ला
वर्षहरूमा मिथेन, नाइट्स अक्साइड, कार्बनडाइअक्साइड,
FARIA कार्बन जस्ता विषाक्त ग्यासको उत्सर्जन दिन
प्रतिदिन वायुमण्डलमा बढ्दै गइरहेको छ जसले गर्दा
सूर्यको प्रकाश पृथ्वीमा आउने तर परावर्तित विकिरणहरू
वायुमण्डलमा रोकिनाले पृथ्वीको तापक्रम वृद्धि हुँदै छ।
सन् १९६० को दशकपछि पृथ्वीमा भएको द्रुत औधोगिक
विकास, जनसङ्ख्या वृद्धि, जिवास्म इन्धनको अत्यधिक
प्रयोग र तिनबाट उत्सर्जित हरितगृह ग्यास, वनजंगलको
विनाश भई त्यस्ता ग्यास अवशोषण गर्ने "सिङ्क" को
कमी साथै yer तथा खेतीपाती देखि चिस्यान प्रविधि
रिफिजेरेसन) का गतिविधिबाट हरितगृह ग्यास सिर्जना भई
विश्वमा जलवायु परिवर्तन भईरहेको छ।

जलवायु परिवर्तनको विश्व परिदृष्यः

विश्व मौसम संगठन (WMO) का अनुसार पृथ्वीको औसत
तापक्रम सन् १८५०-१९०० को तुलनामा हाल १.५ डिग्री
सेल्सियस बढेको छ। त्यसै गरी कोप २१ (पेरिस सम्झौता)

ले सन् २१०० सम्म विश्व तापमान वृद्धिलाई १.५ डिग्रीकै
सीमाभित्र राख्न सम्झौता गरेको छ। अन्तरसरकारी
प्यानलका अनुसार शताव्दीको अन्त्यमा २.५ डिग्री देखि
२.९ डिग्री सेल्सियस पुग्ने अनुमान गरेको छ। संकटासन्नता
तथा जोखिम विश्लेषण प्रतिवेदन, २०२१ अनुसार करिब
९८ प्रतिशत बालीनालीको नोक्सानी जलवायु परिवर्तनजन्य
घटनाका कारण हुने गरेको छ। साथै यस्ता कारणले
गर्दा कृषि उत्पादन, पशुपालन र मत्स्यपालनमा १०-३०
प्रतिशतसम्म हास आएको छ।

विश्वका हरितगृह ग्यास उत्सर्जन गर्ने देशहरूमध्ये सन्
२०२२ मा चीनको हिस्सा सवैभन्दा बढी २५.८१ प्रतिशत
त्यसपछि क्रमश अमेरिका, भारत, युरोपियन युनियन रहेका
छन्। विश्वका बढी कार्बन उत्सर्जन गर्ने १० राष्ट्रले कूल
कार्बन उत्सर्जनको ६० प्रतिशत उत्सर्जन गर्ने गरेका छन्
जबकी नेपाल जस्ता कम कार्बन उत्सर्जन गर्ने १००
राष्ट्रहरूले जम्मा २ प्रतिशत मात्र कार्बन उत्सर्जन गर्ने
तथ्याङ्ग रहेको छ।

विश्वमा बढी कार्बन उत्सर्जन गर्ने Use कम कार्बन
उत्सर्जन गर्ने राष्ट्रलाई वनजंगल संरक्षण गरेवापत
क्षतिपूर्ति स्वरूप रकम प्रदान गर्न सन् १९९७ को क्योटो
सम्मेलनबाट विश्वमा कार्बन व्यापार (Carbon Trade) को
अवधारण आएको छ भने जलवायु परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरण
सम्बन्धमा Investment / Loan वातावरणमैत्री क्षेत्रमा प्रदान
गर्नका लागि BIT १७ बाट विश्वमा हरित वित्त (Green
Financing) को अवधारणा समेत ल्याइएको छ।

भवर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT aa

COP 29 (2024 Nov 11 to Nov 22) Te घोषणपत्र
र प्रावधानहरू

जलवायु वित्त १.३ ट्रिलियन आवश्यकता बोध गरिएको
साथै सन् २०२५ देखि सन् २०३५ सम्म वार्षिक ३००
विलियन दिने प्रतिबद्धता गरिएको छ। जुन रकम कोप
२८ सम्म १०० विलियन थियो। उक्त कोषमा रकम दिने
नदिने विषयमा अमेरिकाषति शंका, चीनलाई सहयोग
प्रदान गराउन नसकिने होकि भन्ने देखिन्छ भने भारतले यो
सम्मेलनमा विकासशील राष्ट्रको पक्षमा गंभीर विषय उठान
गरेको छ। साथै Peris Agreement a लिएको विश्वको
तापक्रम १.५ डिग्री सेल्सियस कायम राख्ने लक्ष्य पूरा गर्न
Nationally Determined Contribution(NDCs) प्रत्येक ४
वर्षमा गर्नुपर्ने प्रावधान बमोजिम सबै राष्ट्रले सन् २०२५
मा NDCs Report पेश गर्ने भनिएको थियो। Small Island
Developing State (SIDS) को पक्षमा यो सम्मेलनले जोड
दिएको छ। साथै पेरिस सम्झौताको Article & (कार्बन
बजारसँग सम्बन्धित) को पुर्नव्याख्या गरियो। Mitigation
& Adaptation र जैविक विविधता सम्बन्धी जोड दिइयो।
पेट्रोलियम पदार्थ उत्पादन गर्ने र बिक्रीमा आश्चित देशहरूको
भूमिका भने यस सम्मेलनमा असहयोगी देखिन गयो।
यस अघि कोप २८ को पूर्वसन्ध्यामा संयुक्त राष्ट्रसंघका
महासचिव एन्टोनियो गुटरेसले नेपाल भ्रमण गरी नेपालका
केही हिमालहरूको अवलोकन गरे पश्चात् नेपालका
हिमालहरू रोइरहेको अभिव्यक्ति दिनुका साथै नेपालको
हिमाली अर्थतन्त्र जलवायु परिवर्तनको असरले आक्रान्त
भएको विचार व्यक्त गर्नुभएको थियो। साथै उहाँले जलवायु
परिवर्तनबाट सबैभन्दा बढी प्रभाव नेपाल र अन्टार्कटकामा
परेको विषय समेत व्यक्त गर्नु भएको थियो। उहाँको
भ्रमण पूर्व हिमताल Gen, हिमाल पगिलने समस्याले उक्त
समयमा मेलम्चीको बाढीले पीडा निम्तिएको थियो। प्रत्येक
कोप सम्मेलनहरूमा नेपालले आफ्नो समूहमा जलवायु
परिवर्तनका असरबाट भएको हानी नोक्सानीको क्षतिपूर्ति,
जलवायु वित्तमा सहज पहुँच लगायतका मुद्धाको नेतृत्व गर्दै
आएको तथा अतिकम विकसित राष्ट्र तथा हिमाली राष्ट्रको
आवाज भने उठाउदै आएको छ। अब हुने कोप सम्मेलनमा
सहयोग होइन अधिकार खोजिनु जरुरी देखिन्छ।

कार्बन व्यापार (Carbon Trade) को अवधारणा तथा
प्राधिकरणका जलविद्युत आयोजना र Charging Station
को कार्बन व्यापारमा भूमिका :_

जलवायु परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरणमा सघाउन तथा वन जंगल
संरक्षणका लागि विश्वका राष्ट्रहरूलाई प्रोत्साहन गर्नका
लागि सन् १९९७ को क्योटो सम्मेलनबाट कार्बन व्यापारको
अवधारणा ल्याईएको छ भने यसको लागू भने सन् २००५
बाट भएको छ। कार्बन व्यापारको मुख्य LIF Polluter Pay
Principle हो अर्थात् बढी कार्बन उत्सर्जन गर्ने देशले बढी
क्षतिपूर्ति तिर्नुपर्छ भन्ने रहेको छ। लक्षभन्दा बढी कार्बन
कटौती गरेमा Carbon Credit भनिन्छ। त्यसैगरी Global
Environmental Facility (GEF) अतिकम विकसित
राष्ट्रलाई अनुकूल कार्यक्रम सञ्चालनका लागि खर्च जुटाउन
बनाइएको कोष हो। कार्बन व्यापारका लागि Verified
Carbon Standard, Clean Development Mechanism
& Gold Standard जस्ता मापदण्ड भने कार्यान्वयनमा
रहेका छन्। साथै नेपालको १२ जिल्लामा सञ्चिति हुने
कार्बन खरिदका लागि विश्वबैंकले प्रतिवद्धता जनाईसकेको
छु।

आ.व. २०८०/८१ को तथ्याङ्ग अनुसार नेपाल विद्युत
प्राधिकरण उत्पादन निर्देशनालय अन्तर्गत रहेका करिब
२० वटा जलविद्युत केन्द्रबाट ५८२३ मे.वा, प्राधिकरणका
सहायक कम्पनीबाट उत्पादन भएको ४९३ Har र
प्राधिकरणको सोलार प्यानलबाट उत्पादित २४ मै.वा. गरी
करिब ११०० मे.वा. उर्जा प्राधिकरणकै प्रयत्नमा उत्पादन
भएको छ। त्यसै गरी आर्थिक सर्वेक्षण २०८१/०८२
अनुसार नेपालमा प्राधिकरण तथा निजी क्षेत्र समेतको गरी
३६०२ मेगावाट विद्युत उत्पादन भएको तथ्याङ्ग छ। यसरी
नेपालमा जलविद्युतको विकास मार्फत् वनजंगल संरक्षण
र जिवास्म इन्धनको प्रयोग घटाउन प्राधिकरणले अहम
भूमिका खेलेको छ। साथै नेपालले सन् २०४४ सम्म कार्बन
उत्सर्जन शून्यमा झार्ने गरी संयुक्त राष्ट्रसंघमा प्रतिबद्धता
समेत जनाइसकेकोले सरकारद्वारा विद्युतीय सवारीसाधनको
प्रवर्धन गरिएको परिपेक्ष्यमा ने.वि.प्रा. आफैले ६० भन्दा
बढी स्थानमा विद्युतीय चार्जिङ स्टेशन जडान गरेको साथै
४४० भन्दा बढी स्थानमा विद्युतीय चार्जिङ स्टेशन जडान
गर्न निजी क्षेत्रलाई सहयोग गरी विद्युतीय ङर्जाको प्रयोग
बढाउन जोड दिएकोले समग्रमा प्राधिकरणको भूमिका
कार्बन व्यापारसँग समेत जोडिएको छ।

[१९ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

जलवायु परिवर्तन र नेपाल:

विश्वमा जलवायु परिवर्तनको असरको दृष्टिले नेपालको
स्थान चौथो नम्बरमा रहेको छ। नेपालको भौगोलिक
संरचना समुन्द्र सतहदेखि ५९ मिटरको उचाइदेखि विश्वको
सवैभन्दा अग्लो शिखर सगरमाथा (cava मि.) सम्म
रहेको साथै हिमाली तथा पर्वतीय भूभाग धेरै रहेको कारण
जलवायु परिवर्ततको असर नेपालमा बढी देखिएको छ।
नेपालको कूल क्षेत्रफल मध्ये करिब ४५.३१ प्रतिशत क्षेत्र
वनजंगलले ओगटेको छ। जुन विश्वका अन्य राष्ट्रको
तुलनामा औसतमा धेरै बढी हो तर नेपालले नै जलवायु
परिवर्तनको महासंकट भोगिरहेको छ। नेपालले सन् १९९४
मा जलवायु परिवर्तन सम्बन्धी संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघीय संरचना
महासन्धि (United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change-UNFCCC) को पक्ष राष्ट्र भएदेखि नै
जलवायु परिवर्तन व्यवस्थापनसंग सम्बन्धित कार्यक्रमहरू
सक्रियतापूर्वक सम्पादन गर्दै आएको छ। यस क्रममा
वि.स. २०६५ मा राष्ट्रिय अनुकूल कार्यक्रम (National
Adaptation तयार
गरी उक्त कार्यक्रमले पहिचान गरेका जलवायु अनुकूल
परियोजनाहरू सञ्चालन गरिएको छ। पर्वतीय मुद्दालाई
स्थापित गराउन सन् २०२४ मे १६ देखि १८ सम्म सगरमाथा
सम्वाद सम्पन्न भएको साथै वि.स. २०६६ मंसिर १९ मा
नेपाल सरकार मन्त्रिपरिषदको बैठक कालापत्थरमा सम्पन्न
भएको थियो। नेपालले विश्वमा नै पहिलो पटक जलवायु
बजेट कोड शुरु गरी अन्य मुलुकका लागि समेत प्रदर्शन
प्रभाव पारेको छ। जलवायु वित्त र प्रविधि ल्याउनका लागि
गाउँगाउँसम्म विस्तार भएका सामुदायिक संस्था परिचालन
गरी समुदायमा आधारित अनुकूलन कार्यक्रम गर्न सकिन्छ
भनी पहल गरिएको छ। योजना डिजाइनका विधि, सूचक
र मापदण्डहरूका साथै निर्माणका तौरतरिकालाई पुन:
मूल्याङ्गन गरी आवश्यकता बमोजिम परिमार्जन गर्नका
लागि पहल शुरु गरिएको छ। नेपालमा जलवायु परिवर्तनले
जलविद्युत क्षेत्रमा पारेको प्रभावलाई तोकेर भन्नको लागि
आवश्यक अध्ययन नपुगेको तर क्षति भने अपुरणीय नै
देखिन्छ। वन तथा वातावरण मन्त्रालयको तथ्याङ्ग अनुसार
नेपालमा करिब २० लाख भन्दा बढी मानिस जलवायु
परिवर्तनको उच्च जोखिममा रहेका छन्। जबकि नेपालले
विश्वको ०.०२७ प्रतिशत मात्र हरितगृह ग्यास उत्सर्जन
गर्ने गरेको छ भने बाँकी विकसित र विकासोन्मुख राष्ट्रबाट

Programme of Action-NAPA)

उत्सर्जन हुने गरेको देखिन्छ। मानव सिर्जित क्रियापलापबाट
जलवायु परिवर्तनजन्य विपद् बढ्दै गएका छन्। बाढी
पहिरो, हिमआँधी जस्ता जलवायुजन्य प्रकोपका कारण
नेपालको पर्यटन क्षेत्रमा मात्र वार्षिक करिब २५ अर्बको
क्षति हुने अनुमान छ। विश्वका ठूला अर्थतन्त्र भएका
मुलुकको बीचमा हुनु, विश्वमै जलवायु परिवर्तनको असर
हिमाली तथा सामुद्रिक राष्ट्रमा बढी पर्नु जस्ता विविध
कारण नेपाल एक्लैले चाहेर जलवायु परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरण
गर्न संभव छैन तर अनुकूलन र न्यूनीकरण तथा क्षति कम
गर्न भने सकिन्छ।

जलवायु परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरणमा नेपालले गरेका विभिन्न
महत्वपूर्ण व्यवस्थाहरू

राष्ट्रिय जलवायु परिवर्तन नीति, २०७६

वि.स. २०६७ मा जलवायु परिवर्तन नीति लागू गरिए
पश्चात् जलवायु परिवर्तन व्यवस्थापनको क्षेत्रमा राष्ट्रिय
एवम् अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय आयामहरूमा आएको परिवर्तनलाई
प्रभावकारी रुपमा सम्बोधन गर्न उक्त नीतिको
कार्यान्वयनबाट प्राप्त सिकाई समेतको आधारमा नयाँ नीति
तर्जुमा गर्नुपर्ने आवश्यकता महसुस भएकोले सरकारले यो
नीति तर्जुमा गरेको हो। मूलत: नेपालको संविधानले प्रत्येक
नागरिकलाई स्वच्छ र स्वस्थ्य वातावरणमा बाँच्न पाउने
मौलिक हकको प्रत्याभूति गर्दै दिगो र वातावरण अनुकूल
विकास, नविकरणीय उर्जाको प्रवर्धन, औधोगिक तथा
भौतिक विकासबाट वातावरणमा पर्ने जोखिमको न्यूनीकरण,
यातायात क्षेत्रमा वातावरण अनुकूल प्रविधिलाई प्राथामिकता
एवम् पर्यावरण अनुकूल पर्यटनको विकास जस्ता जलवायु
परिवर्तन व्यवस्थापनसँग सम्बन्धित अवधारणाहरूलाई
राज्यका नीतिको रुपमा स्वीकार गरेको छ। मुलुक संघीय
संरचनामा गएको र सो अनुरूप जलवायु परिवर्तनका
मुद्दाहरूलाई तीनै तहका नीति तथा कार्यक्रमहरूमा
एकीकृत गर्दै जलवायु परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरण अनुकूलनसँग
सम्बन्धित कार्यक्रमहरू प्रभावकारी रुपमा सञ्चालन गर्न
एवम् जलवायुमैत्री विकासद्वारा नेपाल सरकारले लिएको
"समृद्ध नेपाल सुखी नेपाली" को अवधारणालाई टेवा
पु-्याउन यो नीति ल्याइएको पाइन्छ।

७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /॥0/0] ४ १७

जलवायु परिवर्तन न्युनीकरण तथा अनुकूलन राष्ट्रिय
कार्यान्वयन योजना (वि.स. २०८०-२०८७)

विश्वव्यापी चुनौतीको रूपमा रहेको जलवायु परिवर्तनलाई
सम्बोधन गर्नका लागि जलवायु परिवर्तन सम्बन्धी महासन्धि,
क्योटो अभिसन्धि र पेरिस सम्झौता कार्यान्वयनमा रहेका
छन्। यी कानूनी संयन्त्रको नेपाल पक्ष राष्ट्र भएकाले
पेरिस सम्झौताको प्राववान बमोजिम हरितगृह ग्यासका
उत्सर्जन न्यूनीकरण गर्न तथा जलवायु अनुकूलन सम्बन्धी
परिमाणात्मक र नीतिगत लक्षहरू रहेको राष्ट्रिय निर्धारित
यौगदान (NDC) नेपाल सरकारले वि.स. २०७७ मंसिरमा
उक्त महासन्धिको सचिवालयमा पेश गरेको थियो साथै
यसलाई कार्यान्वयन गर्नका लागि तर्जुमा गरिएको जलवायु
परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरण तथा अनुकूलन राष्ट्रिय कार्यान्वयन
योजनालाई नेपाल सरकारले वि.स. २०८० श्रावण १६ मा
स्वीकृत गरिसकेको हुँदा राष्ट्रिय आवश्यकता र अन्तराष्ट्रिय
प्रतिबद्धतालाई ध्यान दिई तयार भएको एन.डी.सी.
कार्यान्वयन योजनाको प्रभावकारी कार्यान्वयन गरी जलवायु
परिवर्तनको कारण संकटासन्न अवस्थामा रहेका र जलवायु
तथा जलजन्य विपत्॒बाट पीडित जनसमुदायमा परेको
प्रतिकूल प्रभावलाई न्यून गरी सहज जीविकोपार्जनमा
सहयोग पु-याउने उद्देश्यले यो कार्यान्वयन कार्ययोजना
ल्याइएको हो।

कालापत्यर बैठक र सगरमाथा संवाद

वि.स. २०६६ मंसिर १९ गते सगरमाथाको आधारशिविर
कालापत्थरमा नेपाल सरकार मन्त्रीपरिषद्को बैठक बस्यो।
उक्त बैठकले वातावरणीय/जलवायु परिवर्तनले सवैभन्दा
धेरै प्रभाव हिमालय पर्वतलाई पारेको निष्कर्ष निकालेको
थियो। डेनमार्कको कोपनहेगनमा हुन लागेको संयुक्त
राष्ट्रसंघीय वातावरणीय शिखर सम्मेलनको १ हप्ता अघि
भएको उक्त बैठकले १० बुँदे "सगरमाथा घोषणापत्र" जारी
गर्दै विश्वको ध्यानाकर्षण गराएको थियो।

साथै "पृथ्वीको भविष्य सुनिश्चित होस्, मानव जातिको
भविष्य सुनिश्चित होस्" यसका लागि नेपाल सरकारको
पहलमा सन् २०२५ मे १६ देखि Io सम्म काठमाण्डौमा
सगरमाथा संवाद आयोजना भयो। २४५ बुँदे घोषणापत्र जारी
गर्दै समापन भएको सगरमाथा संवादमा जलवाय् परिवर्तन
र हिमाली क्षेत्रको संरक्षणका विषयहरू समावेश छन्।

"सगरमाथा कल फर एक्सन" घोषणापत्रमा पेरिस सम्झौता
बमोजिमको विश्वको तापक्रम १.५ डिग्री सेल्सियस सीमाभित्र
कायम राख्न आवश्यक उपायहरू प्रस्तुत गरियो। जलवायू
परिवर्तन, पर्वत र मानव भविष्यबारे गरिएको छलफल
ऐतिहासिक रहेको छ। जसमा हिमाल बचाउने प्रतिबद्धता,
हरित प्रविधिको प्रवर्धन, विकासशील राष्ट्हरूलाई सहलियत,
वित्तीय सहयोग तथा जलवायु न्याय (Climate Justice) का
पक्षमा ठोस मागहरू राखिएका छन्। सगरमाथा संवादको
यस संस्करणले नेपाललाई अन्तराष्ट्रिय मञ्चमा जलवायु
नेतृत्वदायी राष्ट्रको रुपमा स्थापित गरेको पाइएको छ।

तीनै तहका सरकारबाट जलवायु परिवर्तन न्युनीकरणका
लागि भएका सकारात्मक प्रयासहरू :_

पछिल्लो तथ्याङ्ग अनुसार नेपालका ८ स्थानीय तहमा
जलवायु नमूना कार्यक्रम सञ्चालन भैरहेको छ। कर्णाली
प्रदेशका 84 स्थानीय तहमा नेपाल जलवायु परिवर्तन
सहयोग कार्यक्रम कार्यान्वयनमा छ। बागमती, कर्णाली
र सुदूरपश्चिम प्रदेशका १० स्थानीय तहमा इकोसिस्टममा
आधारित अनुकूलन कार्यक्रम सञ्चालनमा रहेको, वि.स.
२०७९ चैत्रसम्म २४१ स्थानीय अनुकूलन तथा जलवायु
उत्थानशील विकास योजना कार्यान्वयनमा रहेका छन्।
तराईका १३ जिल्लाको कार्बन उत्सर्जन न्यूनीकरण कार्यक्रम
दस्तावेज स्वीकृत भई सन् २०१८ देखि कार्यान्वयनमा
रहेको छ। वि.स. २०७९ चैत्रसम्म मुलुकभर २९ वायु
गुणस्तर मापन केन्द्रहरू सञ्चालनमा रहेका छन्। स्थानीय
अनुकूलन योजना (Local Adaptation Plans for Action-
LAPA) तर्जुमा पालिका संख्या वि.स. २०८० सम्म ३५०
रहेका। त्यसै गरी नेपाल सरकारले मध्यमकालीन खर्च
संरचना (MTEF) मा जलवायु बजेट कोडको व्यवस्था
गर्नुका साथै तीनै तहले जलवायु बजेटको प्रबन्ध गरेका
छन्।

त्यसै गरी Reducing Emission From Deforestation
& Forest Degradation (REDD) अवधारणा समेत
कार्यान्वयनमा आएको छ। संघीय वनमन्त्रीको अध्यक्षतामा
Apex Body, वन मन्त्रालयका सचिवको अध्यक्षतामा REDD
Working Group साथै वन मन्त्रालयका सहसचिवको
अध्यक्षतामा REDD Cell समेत क्रियाशिल रहेका छन्।
नेपालमा ANSAB, ICIMOD र FECOFUN ले संयुक्त
रुपमा REDD नमूना कार्यक्रम कार्यान्वयनमा ल्याएका

[१८ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

छन्। NORAD को आर्थिक सहयोगमा प्रथम चरणमा
कयरखोला (चितवन), चुर्नावती (दोलखा) र लुदीखोला
(गोरखा) मा यो कार्यक्रम सञ्चालनमा रहेको छ।

नेपालको जलविद्युत क्षेत्रमा जलवायु परिवर्तनको असर तथा
रोकथाम सन्दर्भमा :

नेपालका अधिकांश जलविद्युत केन्द्रहरू प्रथम स्तरका
नदीहरू (हिँउ पगिलई बन्ने नदीहरू) को जलस्रोतमा निर्भर
रहेका छन् (जस्तै : गण्डकी, भोटेकोशी, खिम्ती आदि)।
हिँउ पर्ने चरित्रमा race, हिँउको कमी र हिमतालको
संख्यामा वृद्धि यी नदीका उपल्लो जलाधारमा देखिएका
परिवर्तनहरू हुनु। जसका कारण ड्याम, पावर हाउस,
ट्रान्समिसनलाइन जस्ता संरचनामा क्षति पुग्ने गरेको साथै
सेडिमेन्टेसन (गाद जम्ने) का कारण टर्वाईनमा असर पार्ने
र क्षमता घटाउने गरेको पाईन्छ। साथै सुख्खा मौसममा
पानीको सतह अधिक कम भई उत्पादन समेत घट्ने
गरेको पाईएको छ। जलवायुजन्य क्षतिको कारण मर्मत र
पुनर्निर्माण लागत समेत बढेको छ।

यही मिति २०८२ असार २४ गते चीनको सीमावर्ती क्षेत्रमा
अत्यधिक वर्षाको कारण हिमताल विस्फोट भई नेपालको
रसुवा जिल्लामा बाढी आउँदा उक्त क्षेत्रमा पर्ने रसुवागढी,
साञ्जेन, त्रिशुली जलविद्युत केन्द्र, माथिल्लो त्रिशुली
३ ए जलविद्युत केन्द्र लगायतमा धेरै क्षति पुगेको छ।
त्यसै गरी वि.स. २०७८ को बाढीका कारण माथिल्लो
तामाकोशी जलविद्युत आयोजनाको लागि भण्डार गरिएका
केही पार्टपूर्जा लगायतका सामग्रीहरू बाढीले बगाएको,
मेलम्ची बाढीका कारण इन्द्रावती ३ लगायतका साना
जलविद्युत केन्द्रहरूमा क्षति पु-्यायो। त्यसै गरी विभिन्न
समयमा आएका बाढीका कारण मध्य मोदी जलविद्युत
आयोजना, मादी जलविद्युत, अरुण र तमोर नदीमा निर्माण
भएका आयोजनाहरूमा धेरै क्षति पुगेको पाईन्छ। त्यसैगरी
अन्नपूर्ण बेसक्याम्प हिमपहिरो, मनाङ र मुस्ताङमा गएका
हिमपहिरो, थोराङलापास हिमपहिरो, खुम्ब् हिमपहिरो,
लाङटाङ हिमपहिरोका कारण नेपालका नदीहरूमा बाढी
आई विभिन्न जलविद्युत आयोजनालाई क्षति पु-्याएका
उदाहरणहरू प्रसस्त रहेका छन्।

पानी पर्ने चरित्र २०/ २४५ वर्ष अघिको जस्तो नभई आँकलन
गर्नै नसकिने गरी परिवर्तन भएको, हिउँ पगिलिई आउने

नदीका उपल्ला एवम् तिनका मध्यपहाडी जलाधार र
वर्षाले सिञ्चित गर्ने नदीका जलाधारमा पोखरी, सिमसार
र वनजंगलको विनाश, जथाभावी सडक निर्माण, कंक्रिट
सतहमा बढोत्तरी, खेती प्रणालीमा आएको परिवर्तन तथा
नदीका fa र किनारामा अन्धाधुन्द उत्खनन जस्ता
कारणले पनि पानीको बहावमा प्रभाव परेको छ। जसले
Tal विद्युत उत्पादनको संरचना निर्माणमा विगतमा गरिने
जलवायु परिवर्ततको असर प्रक्षेपण २५/३० वर्षसम्म
गर्ने परम्परागत प्रणालीमै आमुल परिवर्तन गर्नुपर्ने
आवश्यकता देखिएको छ। नेपालको एकमात्र जलाशययुक्त
आयोजना sea पछिल्ला वर्ष जलसतह घट्दै
गएको, जलाधारमा पानी कम परेर Seg सरोवर नभरिएका
दृष्टान्तहरू छन्। विगतमा कुलेखानी जलविद्युत केन्द्रलाई
पिक आवरमा नभई बेस ASAT चलाइएको पनि पाइन्छ।
वर्षाको परिणाम, जलाशयको आयतन र बिजुली युनिट
उत्पादनको अन्तरसम्बन्धले जलवायु परिवर्तनको प्रभाव
आँकलन गर्न उपयोगी हुने देखिन्छ। प्रसारण र वितरण
प्रणलीमा विगतमा बाढीपहिरोले स्विचयार्ड, प्रसारण लाइन
र वितरण प्रणालीलाई नोक्सान गरेका थुप्रै अनुभव रहेका
छन्। प्रसारण लाइनका टावरहरूमा क्षतिभई पुननिर्माण
नयाँ ठाँउमा गर्नुपर्ने हुँदा स्थानीयस्तरका विवादले पुननिर्माण
समयमा हुन नसकेका र विजुली आपूर्तिमा समस्या सिर्जना
भएका दृष्टान्त समेत छन्।

नेपालमा निर्माण भइसकेका, हुँदै गरेका र प्रस्तावित
जलविद्युत् प्रणालीहरूलाई जलवायु परिवर्तनले पार्ने असर र
जोखिमको गहन अध्ययन अनुसन्धान थाल्नु जरुरी भैसकेको
छ। जलवायुको असर, वर्षा र हिउँ पर्ने तौरतरिका र
चरित्रमा भरपर्ने हुँदा तिनको अनुगमनका लागि जल तथा
मौसम विज्ञान विभागले मापन गर्ने यन्त्रको सङ्ख्या वृद्धि
गर्नुपर्ने तथा जलवायु परिवर्तनको विज्ञान र जोखिमबारे
अनुसन्धान गर्ने निकायले बौद्धिक र संस्थागत लगानी एवम्
जनशक्ति विकास गर्नु आवश्यक छ। क्लाइमेट मोडलहरूको
स्थानीयकरण गरी जलवायु परिवर्तनले पार्ने जोखिम
आँकलन गर्ने विधिको विकास र तथ्याङ्गको अभावले आउने
अनिश्चिततालाई उचित तरिकाले सम्बोधन गर्नुपर्नेछ।
जसका लागि जल तथा मौसम विज्ञान विभाग, जलस्रोत
तथा सिँचाइ मन्त्रालय, विद्युत विकास विभाग, नेपाल विद्युत
प्राधिकरण, जल तथा उर्जा आयोग, लगानी वोर्ड, बिमा
समिति, स्थानीय सरकार र समुदायका प्रतिनिधि र स्वतन्त्र

७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /॥0/0] ४ १९

विद्युत उत्पादकहरूका बीचको सहकार्यले यो प्रयास सार्थक
बन्न सक्छ। विद्युत विकासका बहुराष्ट्रिय बैंकहरू र दातृ
निकायहरूको संलग्नता पनि उपयोगी हुनेछ। जलवायु
अनुकूलन र डिजाईनलाई पनि समयसान्दर्भिक गराउँदै
लैजानुपर्ने बेला आईसकेको Bl अव लोड व्यवस्थापन पनि
जलवायु परिवर्तन अनुसार परिमार्जन गर्दै लैजान आवश्यक
छ। जलस्रोतका वैकल्पिक खोतको पनि व्यवस्थापन गरेर
परिपुरण गर्दै लैजानुपर्छ। जलविद्युत उत्पादनमा पर्ने जलवायु
परिवर्तनको असर न्यूनीकरण गर्न जलाशय, अर्ध जलाशय
र नदी प्रवाही आयोजनाको PABA उत्पादनमा जानुपर्ने
देखिन्छ। साथै जलवायु अनुकूलन (Climate Resilient)
डिजाइन अपनाउने, जल तथा मौसम पूर्वानुमान प्रणाली
सुधार गर्ने, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF)
र पहिरोको जोखिम Hearse गर्ने, वैकल्पिक उर्जाको
विकासलाई प्रवर्द्धन गर्नुपर्ने आवश्यकता छ।

सरकारले नेपालको स्वच्छ उर्जालाई प्रसारण लाइन माफत्
ग्राहकसम्म पु-याउने कार्यमा मात्र ध्यान नदिई हरित
हाइड्रोजनको विकासका लागि पाइलट प्रोजेक्ट थालनी गर्ने
तयारीमा छ जसका लागि ग्रीन हाइड्रोजन नीति, २०८०
समेत ल्याइएको छ। विद्युत उपयोग गरी हरित हाईड्रोजन,
एमोनिया र मल कारखाना लगायत सञ्चालन गर्ने उह्देश्य
रहेको छ। विश्व नै हरित पूर्वाधारतर्फ गईरहेकोले जलवायु
परिवर्तनको संभावित असर लगायतलाई विश्लेषण गरेर
हाइड्रोजनको विकास र विस्तारमा अघि बढ्नु आजको
आवश्यकता हो। यसका लागि काठमाण्डौ विश्वविद्यालयले
अग्रसरता समेत लिएको पाईन्छ। नेपाल आयल निगमले
काठमाण्डौ विश्वविद्यालयसँग हाईड्रोजन उत्पादन सम्बन्धी
एक परियोजनामा सहकार्य गरेको छ साथै काठमाण्डौ
विश्वविद्यालयले Green Hydrogen Lab संग आर्थिक
सहयोगको सहकार्य गरेको छ।

जलवायु परिवर्तनबाट जलविद्युतगुह संरक्षण गर्न बनेका
राष्ट्रिय तथा अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय कानूनहरू :
राष्ट्रिय कानून तथा नीतिहरू :

१) जलवायु परिवर्तन नीति, २०७६ : जलविद्युत र
उर्जा क्षेत्रमा जलवायु उत्थानशील योजना र प्रविधि
अपनाउने व्यवस्था।

२) राष्ट्रिय जलस्रोत नीति, २०७७ : पानीको बहुउपयोग
र स्रोत संरक्षणमा जोड दिने साथै जलाशय / जलविद्युत
आयोजना वातावरणमैत्री बनाउने।

३) वातावरण संरक्षण ऐन, २०७६. कुनैपनि जलविद्युत
आयोजना निर्माण अघि €1//1£/£ गर्नुपर्ने बाध्यकारी
व्यवस्था।

४) विपत् जोखिम न्यूनीकरण तथा व्यवस्थापन ऐन,
२०७४ : पूर्वसूचना प्रणाली, विपद् व्यवस्थापन संरचना
सुदृढ गर्ने।

अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय कानून तथा मापदण्डहरू

१) पेरिस सम्झौता, २०१५ :

जलवायु परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरणका लागि राष्ट्रिय योगदान
(NDC) को प्रतिबद्धता। नेपालले NDC अन्तर्गत दिगो
उर्जा उत्पादन प्रवर्धन, जलवायु अनुकूल संरचना
निर्माण गर्ने योजना अगाडि सारेको छ।

२) विश्व बैंक/एडिबी का मापदण्डहरू : जलविद्युत
आयोजना संचालनमा वातावरणीय र सामाजिक
सुरक्षा उपायहरू अवलम्बन गर्नुपर्ने।

२) सेन्डाई GAAS (सन् २०१५-२०३०) : जलविद्युत
संरचनामा पूर्व सतर्कता प्रणाली, जोखिम नक्साङ्गन
अनिवार्य बनाउने।

प्राविधिक मापदण्ड तथा दिशानिर्देशहरू:

१) Climate Resilient Hydropower Guideline (World
Bank, ADB, ICIMOD आदि)

२) Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol
(HSAP) : जलवायु जोखिम मूल्याङ्गन समावेश।

3) Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
Guidelines : (Nepal/ADB/IFC)

अन्त्यमा, जलवायु परिवर्तन समकालीन विश्वको साझा
समस्या भएको छ। जलवायु परिवर्तनमा नेपाल जस्ता
अल्पविकसित मुलुकको कुनै पनि हात नरहेको भएता पनि
यसको दुस्प्रभावबाट सवैभन्दा बढी प्रभावित भने नेपालजस्ता
अल्पविकसित मुलुकहरू भएका छन्। जलवायु परिवर्तलाई
रोक्न सक्ने अवस्थामा हाम्रो जस्तो मुलुकको क्षमता नरहेको

E> faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

हुँदा अनुकूलनका उपायहरू अवलम्बन माफत् यसको असर
न्यूनीकरणमा अग्रसर हुनु हाम्रो निर्विकल्प बाध्यता हो।
Climate Justice कायम गर्नका लागि विश्व एकै धुवमा
रहनु आजको आवश्यकता हो। साथै नेपालको जलविद्युत
क्षेत्रले स्वच्छ उर्जा माफत् नेपालको पर्यावरणीय सन्तुलन
कायम गर्न तथा जिवास्म इन्धनको प्रयोगमा कटौती गरी
जलवायु परिवर्तन न्यूनीकरणमा गुणात्मक सहयोग पु-याउन
सक्छ।

सन्दर्भ सामग्री

१) विकिपिडिया : जलवायु परिवर्तन शीर्षक

२) नेपाल पूर्वाधार अनलाइनमा मिति २०७९ चैत्र २०
मा प्रकाशित लेख तथा विज्ञहरूको टिप्पणी

३) कान्तिपुर दैनिकमा मिति २०७८ पौष ६ मा
प्रकाशित अजय दीक्षितको आलेख

४) वन तथा वातावरण मन्त्रालयबाट विभिन्न समयमा
प्रकाशित प्रतिवेदनहरू

१०)
११)
११)
१२)

१३)

नेपालको संविधान, २०७२

राष्ट्रिय योजना आयोग तथा राष्ट्रिय प्राकृतिक स्रोत
तथा वित्त आयोगबाट प्रकाशित प्रतिवेदनहरू
आर्थिक सर्वेक्षण २०८१/८२

आ.व. २०८२/८३ को नेपाल सरकारको बजेट
वक्तव्य

हालसम्मका कोप सम्मेलनहरूका प्रतिवेदन तथा
घोषणापत्रहरू

राष्ट्रिय जलवायु परिवर्तन नीति, २०७६

"सगरमाथा कल फर एक्सन" घोषणापत्र, LORY
UNFCCC का वार्षिक प्रतिवेदनहरू

नेपाल सरकारको वार्षिक बजेट तथा Medium Term
Expenditure Framework -MTEF

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
(2015-2030)

निर्माणाधीन अपर अरुण जलविद्युत आयोजनाको कर्मचारी आवास

विद्युत सुरक्षा प्रणालीको
प्रभावकारी व्यवस्थापन

220 kV Transmission Line Project

१) पृष्ठभूमि

स्वस्थ विद्युत प्रणाली कुनै पनि देशको सशक्त अर्थतन्त्रको
मेरुदण्डको रूपमा मानिन्छ, किनभने यसले विद्युत
प्रयोगकर्ताहरूलाई अविच्छिन्न विद्युत आपूर्तिको wea
सुनिश्चित गर्छ, जसले गर्दा उद्योगहरू र ग्राहस्थ
ग्राहकवर्ग आवासीय घरपरिवारहरूले बिना रोकटोक आफ्ना
गतिविधिहरू निरन्तर सञ्चालन गर्न सक्छन्। विद्युत
प्रणालीका घटकहरूको (Power System Components)
सुरक्षा यस सन्दर्भमा अत्यन्त महत्त्वपूर्ण हुन्छ, ताकि
विश्वसनीय विद्युत आपूर्ति कायम रहोस् र विद्युत प्रणालीका
संयन्त्रहरूलाई थप क्षतिबाट जोगाउन सकियोस्। यसले
रोकथामात्मक मर्मत (Preventive Maintenance) गर्न
सक्ने अवस्था बनाउँछ, जसले अन्तत: विद्युत प्रणालीका
घटकहरूको आयु (Equipment Lifespan) लम्ब्याउन
महत गर्दछ। यसै सन्दर्भमा यस लेखमा, उच्च भोल्टेज
प्रसारण सवस्टेशन (High-voltage Substation) का प्रमुख
घटकहरू खास गरी Line Bay र Transformer Bay
मा प्रयोग गरिने उपकरणहरूको सही Placement र
Orientation को बारेमा चर्चा गरिनुको साथै सुरक्षा प्रणाली
(Protection System) हेरू जडान गर्ने क्रममा अवलम्बन
गर्नुपर्ने कार्यहरूको बारेमा पनि संक्षिप्त चर्चा गरिएको छ।

आनन्द मण्डल
ईन्जिनियर

Borang-Naubise (Ratmate)

२) विद्युत सवस्टेशन

विद्युत सवस्टेशन विद्युत प्रणालीको एक अभिन्न प्राविधिक
संरचना हो, जहाँ भोन्टेज, करेन्ट लगायत विद्युतका
विभिन्न परिमाण (Electrical Parameters) हरूको
रूपान्तरण, नियन्त्रण, प्रसारण, र वितरण प्रक्रिया उचित
तरिकाले सम्पन्न गरिन्छ। यस लेखमा मुख्य रुपमा उच्च
भोल्टेज प्रसारण सबस्टेसनको सम्बन्धमा केन्द्रित गरिएको
छ, किनभने यसले विद्युत प्रणालीको संरचनामा सबैभन्दा
ठूलो हिस्सा ओगटेको हुन्छ। तसर्थ, प्रसारण सवस्टेशनको
स्वस्थता (Healthiness) अत्यन्त आवश्यक हुन्छ, जसले
सम्पूर्ण ग्रिडको स्थायित्व (Stability) र विश्वसनीयता
(Reliability) सुनिश्चित गर्दछ।

सामान्यतया तथा प्रसारण सवस्टेशन त्यहाँ अवस्थित बसबार
(Busbar) संरचनाको स्वरूप (Orientation) को आधारमा
वर्गीकृत गरिन्छ, जुन निम्न प्रकारहरूमा विभाजित हुन्छन्।

क) Single Bus System

ख) Single Bus with Bus Sectionalizer System
रा) Main and Transfer Bus System

4) Double Breaker Bus System

ङ) Double Breaker Bus with
System

Bus Sectionalizer

E> faa svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३५ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

च) One and Half Breaker Bus System

छ) Double Bus System with Bypass Isolators

ज) Ring Main Bus System

Mesh Bus System यस लेखमा विशेष रूपमा लाइन
तथा ट्रान्सफरमर बै (Line and Transformer Bay)
मा प्रयोग गरिने सुरक्षा FAA (Protection Setup),
साथै तिनीहरूमा प्रयोग गरिने उपकरणहरूको सही
स्थान निर्धारण (Placement) र स्वरूप (Orientation)
को बारेमा चर्चा गरिएको छ।

२) प्रसारण सवस्टेशनको Line Bay

सामान्यत सवस्टेशनको Line Bay मा Incoming अथवा
Outgoing लाइनबाट Bus तर्फ हेर्दा Fig. 1 मा देखाइए
अनुसार सबभन्दा पहिला Lightning Arrester (LA),
Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT), Line Isolator,
Current Transformer (CT), Circuit Breaker (CB), Bus
lsolator 24 सवस्टेशनको Bus सँग जोडिन्छ।

I32 KY Tus -1

ला TO kW lta - Il
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न उ

1117८2-1: €71.: PS

Lfore-ll: ४... a2

Core-Ill: CL: PS
ore -P- पा लि।

Clore-W tT: R20

Fig. 1: SLD of 132 kV Line Bay.

प्रसारण लाइनमा कतै Lightning Strike भएको छ भने
त्यसलाई Line Conductor मार्फत सवस्टेशन प्रवेशमा
निषेध गर्न सर्वप्रथम Lightning ता Surge Arrester को
प्रबन्ध गरिएको हुन्छ।

Fig. 2: SLD and Layout for the Placement of CT
and CB in Line Bay.

CVT तथा CT को प्रयोग सवस्टेशनमा Measurement,
Metering तथा Protection कार्यहरूको लागि गरिन्छ,
जसको बारेमा विस्तृत चर्चा पछि गरिएको छ। Line
Isolator AT Earth Switch को जडान अत्यन्तै महत्त्वपूर्ण
हुन्छ, किनभने यसले लाइनमा रहेको Charging current
दबाउन वा Earth तफ पठाउन महत गर्दछ। सवस्टेशनको
Line Bay मा जडान हुनै Protection Setup को बारेमा
चर्चा गर्नुपूर्व टार CB को सही Placement को बारेमा
थप प्रस्ट हुनुपर्छ, जुन Fig. 2 मार्फत बुझाउन खोजिएको
छ। पहिलो SLD र Layout ले देखाउँछ कि CT र CB
बीचमा Line 1500 राखिएको छ, जबकि दोस्रो SLD
र Layout मा CB र CT एउटै स्थानमा अवस्थित छन्।
मैले यी दुवै प्रकारका संरचनाहरू उच्च भोल्टेज प्रसारण
सवस्टेशनहरूमा देखेको छु, तर कुन संरचना उपयुक्त हो?

यस सन्दर्भमा Line Protection Relay र Busbar
Protection Relay हरूको Detection Zone, CT बाट शुरू
हुने भएकोले, CT लाई 08 को नजिकै, विशेष गरी लाइन
साइडमा Wel राम्रो हुन्छ। त्यसैले यी दुई उपकरणहरू
नजिकै हुनु फाइदाजनक हुन्छ।

CVT को कुरा गर्दा, यसलाई लाइनको प्रवेश विन्दु (06
Entry Point) मा राखिनु उपयुक्त हुन्छ, किनभने यसले

वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विदयुत/॥0/0] Gi

लाइनको अर्को पट्टिबाट लाइन Energized भएको अवस्था
जनाउने संकेत दिन सहयोग पु-्याउँछ।

त्यसै गरी, CT को Primary side मा रहेको 01 terminal
सवस्टेशनको Busbar तर्फ राख्नु र 22 terminal, Bus
बाट टाढा (लाइन तर्फ) राख्नु राम्रो अभ्यास मानिन्छ।
CT मा आवश्यकता बमोजिम Metering तथा Protection
core हरूको व्यवस्था गर्न सकिन्छ, र यी CT का Core
हरूको Accuracy Class अनुसार यसको उपयोग विभिन्न
Protection Functions को लागि गरिन्छ (विस्तृत
अध्ययनको लागि 1£0-61869)।

यस सन्दर्भमा अर्को महत्त्वपूर्ण कुरा & पनि हो भन्दा
Power System सुरक्षित गर्ने प्रयासमा हामी प्राय: CT
हरूको संरक्षणलाई नजरअन्दाज गर्छौ (जसरी बत्तीको मुनि
अँध्यारो हुने गर्छ)। यहाँ लेखकका केही अन्भव व्यक्त गर्न
खोजिएको छ।

धेरै जसो Protection SLD मा CT core को छनोट
Randomly गरेको देखिन्छ जहाँ तोकिएको Protection
Function को लागि केवल Accuracy Class लाई मात्र
ध्यान दिइन्छ तर Core को Correct Position लाई
नजरअन्दाज गरिन्छ। उदाहरणको लागि, Fig. 3 मा १३२
के.भी. लाइनको सामान्य चित्र देखाइएको छ, जहाँ दुवै
संरचनाले लाइनको लागि उस्तै स्तरको सुरक्षा प्रदान गर्छन्,
तर तीमध्ये चित्र (B) CT को Core हरूको सुरक्षा पनि
ध्यानमा राखेको छ।

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Fig. 3: Illustration of Unprotected Zone in CT.

तसर्थ यहाँ के भन्न खोजिएको हो भने, लाइनको विपरीत
दिशामा रहेका Component हरूको सुरक्षा (जस्तै 878

- Busbar Differential Protection) को लागि लाइन
तर्फको CT Core (Core l) प्रयोग गर्नुहोस् र लाइनको
सुरक्षा (जस्तै 21-Distance Protection, 59- Overvoltage
Protection, 27-Undervoltage Protection, 67-Direction
Overcurrent Protection, 67N-Directional Earthfault
Protection, इत्यादि) को लागि सवस्टेशन तर्फको CT
Core (Core ४) प्रयोग गर्नुहोस्, जसले गर्दा CT Core
हरूको बीचमा कुनै पनि Unprotected Zone नहोस्।

Fig. 3 को बायाँ भागमा देखाइए अनुसार CT core हरू
सही तरिकाले चयन नगर्दा CT को Core हरू बीचमा
Unprotected Zone रहन जान्छ, जसले गर्दा CT Failure
पनि हुन सक्छ। तसर्थ, Protection System को Basic
Philosophy सम्बोधन हुने गरी Overlapping Zone को
सुनिश्चितता गरी दायाँ भागमा देखाइए अनुसार CT core
हरूको सही चयन गर्न सके राम्रो अभ्यास मानिन्छ।

अझ, यो पनि राम्रो अभ्यास et fe CT को Star Point
त्यो Zone तर्फ राख्नु जुन तर्फ Protection System प्रयोग
गरिएको छ। उदाहरणको लागि, Distance Protection (21)
लाइनको लागि हो, त्यसैले यसको लागि प्रयोग भएको CT
Core को Star Point लाइन तर्फ राख्नुपर्छ, भने Busbar
Differential Protection (878) सवस्टेशनमा रहेको Bus
को लागि हो, त्यसैले यसको लागि प्रयोग भएको CT Core
को Star Point सवस्टेशनको Bus तर्फ राख्नुपर्छ।

प्रसारण सवस्टेशनमा उच्च भोल्टेज (High Voltage) का
लाइन तथा ट्ान्सफर्मरहरू बाहेक Local Supply को लागि
मध्यम भोल्टेज (Medium Voltage) लेभलका विभिन्न
लाइन तथा ट्रान्सफर्मर फिडरहरू रहेका हुन्छन्, जसमा
सामान्यता प्रयोग हुने Protection तथा Metering Setup
Fig. 4 मा देखाइएको छ।

rs ला Tan oe
छ ae
: a।
11'। cu
arn:
Leen हु WWAd पक] Scalia ] १ '

ब1.-02 पू;

tor दा 11 0 बा
Wu ee

rel
गै awh
Lege ना .।- '।
1 १7 1
1! ha VT 7]. म

PUM OM ARS i
[शब 7»
he। अल्प

दा नक CERF

Fig. 4: SLD of 33 kV Line and Transformer Feeder.

E> faa svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३५ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

२) प्रसारण सवस्टेशनको Transformer Bay रा) Magnetizing inrush proof feature achieved

through intentional time delay.
Power Transformer विद्युत प्रयोगकर्ता (End Users) को

नजरबाट सबभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण तथा सवस्टेशनमा उपलब्ध
हुने उपकरणहरू मध्ये सबैभन्दा महंगो उपकरण हो।
यसले भोल्टेजलाई Step-up र Step-down गर्ने दुवै कार्य
गर्छ भन्ने कुरा सर्वविदितै छ। तसर्थ यसको सुरक्षा पनि यो
हिसाबले एकदम महत्त्वपूर्ण हुन जान्छ। Fig. 5 मा देखाइए

ad) Have an adjustable or multi-bias setting and
adjustable operating current.
ङ) Operating time not greater than 30 milli seconds

at 5 times of setting.

a4) Facility for ratio and phase angle correction.

अनुसार 132/33 kV, 30 MVA Power Transformer यसै गरी ५ type winding मा लागु हुने, Restricted Earth
को Primary Protection को लागि 87T-Transformer Fault Protection का मुख्य आवश्यकताहरू निम्नानुसार
Differential Protection को प्रयोग गरिन्छ भने Backup रहेका छन्।

Protection को लागि सामान्यतया Over-current तथा

ia ~ क
Earth-fault Protection को प्रयोग गरिन्छ।

ख

—

Single pole type.

—

Operating sensitivity of at least 10% of nominal

बाहेक,,, का current.
यस, Differential Protection का मुख्य

TT) Provision of suitable non-linear resistor to limit
आवश्यकताहरू निम्नानुसार रहेका छन।

the peak voltage during in-zone faults in case
क) Triple pole with individual phase indication. of high impedance type.

ख) Unrestrained instantaneous high-set over © Shall be high or low impedance principle type.

current units, not operating during inrush.

a2 bY ED त -॥

VOLTAGE [.
SELECTION।

॥ 9 1100 2 दि। न -॥॥

kW ALS ATL £°NT

1

PAT EY SRG CH, LO TP लिला, लि।

TOME - be WAR ee 1] A जति

ods ey पा T
--- न — _— छ सि छ
कत पप कित पछा] SPP"

छ बि, - Ch eae वाल] a। जा यले

ति 1 लिक का

fea
CHR - 111; cere Te.। टा। AL [छि th)
1 4101. - 17! Glee tee] 0. 7]
CCW = का eden. डा। पा, छि कट hs TEE) Pkt RW OULD YI
Peck. PCR, DIR A poet P en er
The a ee -५ — RTA Cds मागि ;
PER RIE TR AFW we "wal। ५ Sk RY TQ ge a a "
1811 : : cay
I
॥. -3उि 1]: AIK 4
Dea, SRR RA, On ee
(अति EA Apel .. . n
COREL दाबिन्लादा Laue UM Ma) ATMS AHIR oe
a
=:

ae Le ei cL
ee माल मा]। [जि 1,

355 BLS EI
प०ाहा..]] ॥
a
=

Fig. 5: SLD for Protection of Power Transformer.

कतिपय ठाउँमा Power Transformer को Primary
Protection लाई Duplication पनि गरिएको पाइन्छ,
सामान्यतया यो गर्न जरुरी छैन तर ४०० के.भी. भोल्टेज
लेभलमा जडान हुने ट्रान्सफरमरको हकमा Protection
and Monitoring लाई दुई वटा Group मा विभाजन
गर्न सकिन्छ। २२० के.भी. भोल्टेज लेभलको हकमा भने
यो सवस्टेशनको महत्व अनुसार गर्न सकिन्छ। Group
Protection जडान भएका ट्रान्सफरमरमा भने अलग्गै DC
source को व्यवस्था गर्नुपर्छ।

References:

[1] A. Mandal et al., "A Substation Automation

System Architecture for Migrating from
Protection
IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 61,

no. 3, pp. 5173-5186, May-June 2025.

Decentralized to Centralized

and Control in Smart Substations,"

[2] A. Mandal, K. M. Muttagi, M. रि. Islam and
D. Sutanto, "Solid-State Power Substations for

Future Power Grids," in /EEE Transactions on

Industry Applications, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 1055-
1067, Jan.-Feb. 2025.

see Pe ae ei

O. Yilmaz, O. Vaze,

"Smart Substation

[3] A. Rahman, and
A. Mandal,

Protection

Control and
Facilitating the Virtualization of

2023
Energy
Technologies for Future Grids (ETFG), 3-6 Dec.
2023, pp. 1-6.

Multiple Protection and Control," in

IEEE International Conference on

[4] "IEEE Standard for Electrical Power System

Device Function Numbers, Acronyms, and
Contact Designations," /EEE Std C37.2-2022
(Revision of IEEE Std C37.2-2008), pp. 1-63,

2022.

[5] "Instrument Transformers — Part 2: Additional
Requirements for Current Transformers",
IEC 61869-2, Edition 1.0.

Electrotechnical Commission, pp. 1-144, 2012.

International

[6] "IEEE Guide for Protecting Power Transformers,"
IEEE Std C37.91-2008 (Revision of IEEE Std
C37.91-2000), pp. 1-139, 2008.

धादिङ्ग जिल्ला स्थित रूबी उपत्यकामा गरिएको विद्युतीकरण

E> fg; vipyuT खु ५ ्वर्ष३६ ७अङ्क१ ७भाद २०८२।

5G र डिजिटल नेपालको यात्रा

सूचना प्रविधिको विकासले आज मानव जीवन धेरै सहज
भएको छ। यस क्षेत्रमा आउने नयाँ नयाँ प्रविधिको प्रयोगले
तथा मानिसहरूबीच सम्पकको सहजताले संसार एउटा
गाउँको रूपमा रूपान्तरण हुँदै गएजस्तो हामीले अनुभूति
गर्दै गएका छौं। यस सन्दर्भमा तिनै विकसित सूचना तथा
सञ्चारको प्रविधि मध्ये 59 प्रविधिको सामान्य परिचय
तथा नेपाल सरकारले ल्याएको डिजिटल नेपाल फ्रेमवक
सम्बन्धमा यसले पार्ने प्रभावको बारेमा चर्चा गर्न लागिएको
छ।

हामी आजभोलि बजारमा मोवाइल खरिद गर्न गर्यौं भने
5G Compatible लिने हो/होइन भनेर सोध्ने गरिन्छ। 5G
Compatible उपकरणहरू केही अन्यको तुलनामा महँगा
पनि पर्ने गर्छन्। के हो त यो 5G प्रविधि ? नेपालको
सन्दर्भमा कुरा गर्ने हो भने मोवाइल नेटवर्कमा 4G प्रविधि
प्रचलनमा रहेको छ। केही वर्षअघि नेपाल 3G बाट 4G
प्रविधिमा गएको हो। तर अहिले आउन लागेको 5G प्रविधि
के मोवाइल नेटवर्कमा मात्रै यीमित छ त ? / को क्षेत्रमा
यसले के कस्तो प्रभाव पार्ला ? त्यस्तै नेपाल सरकारले
सूचना प्रविधिको उच्चतम प्रयोग गरी देशको आर्थिक तथा
सामाजिक समृद्धिमा सहयोग पु-याउन ल्याएको कार्यकम
डिजिटल नेपाल फ्रेमवक २०७६ को विकासमा यसले
Gast सक्ने योगदान बारेमा यस लेखमा सामान्य चर्चा
गरिने छ।

5G प्रविधि भन्दा हामी सामान्य रूपमा AG को विकसित रूप
भनेर nN बब FT nN गर्छौं hn Aj N एक

भनेर बुझ्ने गर्छौ। तर यो यतिमा मात्र सीमित छैन। यो एक
क्रान्तिकारी प्रविधि हो जसले हाम्रो डिजिटल संसारसँगको

यादव लेपाल
सहायक कम्प्युटर अधिकृत
कानून विभाग, ने.वि.प्रा.

अन्तरक्रियालाई पूर्ण रुपमा बदल्ने क्षमता राख्छ। अथवा यो
केवल गतिको सामान्य वृद्धि मात्र होइन, यो एक इन्टरनेट
प्रयोग गर्ने तरिकालाई मात्र नभै यसले हाम्रो प्रै समाज,
उद्योग र जीवन शैलीलाई नै बदल्ने क्षमता राख्छ।

यहाँ एउटा जिज्ञासा उठ्न सक्छ, के 506 प्रविधि मोवाइलहरूको
लागि मात्र हो त ? यसको उत्तर विल्कूल होइन। मोवाइल
फोन यस प्रविधिको फाइदा लिने र सबैभन्दा देखिने
उपकरण मात्र हो। जसरी एउटा राजमार्ग केवल एउटा
कुनै सवारी साधनको लागि मात्र बनाएको होइन त्यहाँ
त बस, ट्क, जीप, कार सबै प्रकारका सवारी चल्छन्,
त्यस्तै गरी 59 प्रविधि केवल स्मार्ट फोनलाई छिटो बनाउन
मात्र आएको होइन, यो त एउटा आधारभूत पूर्वाधार हो
जसमाथि भविष्यका अनगिन्ती प्रविधि र उद्योगहरू निर्माण
हुनेछन्। मोवाइल फोन त त्यो इकोसिस्टमको एउटा सानौ
हिस्सा मात्र हो।

5७ प्रविधि के हो भन्ने सम्बन्धमा केही परिभाषाहरू यस्ता
छन्।

5G मोवाइल चिपसेट तथा सपोर्टिङ समान बनाउने
क्वालकम कम्पनीले यस प्रविधिको बारेमा यस्तो परिभाषा
दिएको छ।

"5G is more than just the next generation of wireless;
it is a unified platform that is more capable than
4G. It will elevate the mobile experience to new
levels, but its true potential is in its ability to connect
virtually everyone and everything together, including
machines, objects, and devices, with extreme speed,
low latency, and high reliability."

@ Ty 3g ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT 4a

टेलिकम्युनिकेशन सम्बन्धी अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय युनियनले 5G
प्रविधि हुनका लागि निम्नलिखित शर्तहरू तोकेको छ।

ITU's definition is not a sentence but a set of
technical specifications, including:

e Peak Data Rate: Up to 20 Gbps downlink and
10 Gbps uplink.

e User Experienced Data Rate: 100 Mbps
downlink and 50 Mbps uplink everywhere.

e Latency: As low as 1 millisecond (ms) for
critical communications.

e Connection Density: Ability to support 1
million devices per square kilometer.

e Mobility: Maintaining seamless connections
at speeds up to 500 km/h (e.g., on high-speed
trains).

e Energy Efficiency: A significant reduction in

network energy consumption.

Why it's famous: This is the ultimate benchmark. Ifa
technology doesn't meet the IMT-2020 requirements,
it cannot technically be called 5G.

~

माथिका परिभाषाहरू अध्ययन गर्दा के थाहा हुन्छ भने
उल्लिखित शर्तहरू पूरा भए मात्र यो प्रविधिलाई 50
भनिन्छ। यसले प्रविधिको प्रयोगको नया उचाइबाट अनुभव
गराउँछ। यसले मानिस मानिस बीचको सम्बन्धलाई मात्र
नभई, मानिस र मेशिन तथा मेशिन र मेशिन बीचको
सम्बन्धलाई अभूतपूर्व गति, विश्वसनीयता र क्षमताका
साथ प्रस्तुत गर्दछ।

56 प्रविधिका तीन महत्त्वपूर्ण र मुख्य विशेषता निम्नानुसार
छन्।

क. अत्यन्त तीव्र गति

Broadband)

(eMBB-Enhanced Mobile

यसको गतिको eT गर्ने हो भने ठाउँ परिस्थिति
हेरी यो 4G भन्दा करिब qo देखि १०० गुणासम्म
छिटो हुन सक्छ। जस्तै केही सेकेण्डमै (HD- High
Definition) पूरा चलचित्र डाउनलोड गर्न सक्नु, बिना
कुनै बफरिङ (Buffering) 4k/8k भिडियोको आनन्द
लिन सक्नु, क्लाउड Wes तथा VRZAR जस्ता
उच्च ब्याण्डविथ चाहिने एप्लिकेशनहरू सहज रुपमा
चलाउन सकिने आदि।

ख. न्यूनतम ढिलाई (URLLC - Ultra Reliable Low-

Latency Communication)

ल्याटेन्सी भनेको तपाईंले कुनै डिभाइसलाई आदेश
दिएपछि त्यसले प्रतिक्रिया दिन लगाउने समय हो।
जस्तै तपाईंले 4७ नेटवर्कमा कुरा गर्दा तपाईंले गरेको
ee अर्को व्यक्तिसम्म पुग्न ४०-५० मिलिसेकेण्ड
लाग्छ भने 59 मा यो समय करिब १ मिलिसेकेण्ड वा
त्योभन्दा कम हुन सक्छ। यो भनेको रियल टाइम वा
तत्काल प्रतिक्रिया जस्तै हो। यस्ता विशेषताको कारण
स्वचालित कार, जसले कहीं तुरुन्त ब्रेक लगाउनु पर्ने
अवस्थामा अथवा एउटा डक्टरले रिमोट सर्जरी गरेको
बेला आदि अवस्थामा धेरै महत्त्वपूर्ण हुन्छ।

ग. एकै पटक धेरै उपकरणहरू जोड्ने क्षमता (mMTC-

Massive Machine Type Communication)

5G ले एकै पटक हजारौं, लाखौं मेशिनहरूलाई
जोड्ने क्षमता राख्छ। अथवा यस नेटवर्कले प्रति
वर्गकिलोमिटरमा १० लाखभन्दा बढी उपकरणहरूलाई
एकैसाथ जोडेर सूचना आदान-प्रदान गर्ने क्षमता राख्न
सक्छ। 5G को यो विशेषताले इन्टरनेट अफ थिङ्स
(loT) को अवधारणलाई वास्तविकतामा बदल्नलाई
वरदान सावित हुनेछ।

यहाँनेर इन्टरनेट अफ थिङ्स (01) भनेको केहो
भन्ने प्रश्न उब्जिन सन्छ। (01) भनेको हाम्रा दैनिक
जीवनका हरेक वस्तुहरू जस्तै:-- घरका बत्ती, फ्रिज,
टि.भी., गाडी उद्योगका मेशिनहरू, खेतका सेन्सरहरू
फ्याक्टीका रोबोटहरू, बिना तार नै एक आपसमा
जोडिएर काम गर्न सक्छन्, यी उपकरणले निरन्तर डाटा
संकलन, आदान प्रदान गरी प्रणालीलाई स्वचालित,
बौद्धिक र प्रभावकारी बनाउन सक्छन्। स्मार्ट शहर,
स्मार्ट घर, स्मार्ट कृषि जस्ता अवधारणहरू यही
विशेषतामा आधारित छन्।

50 ले कम्प्युटर नेटवर्क र प्रविधिलाई पार्न सक्ने प्रभाव

१. क्लाउड कम्प्युटिङ् : क्लाउडमा आधारित Application
हरूलाई अझ प्रभावकारी बनाउँछ। डिभाइस र क्लाउड
सर्भरवीच डेटा आदान प्रदान तुरुन्तै र प्रभावकारी
रुपमा हुन्छ।

E> fear vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

२. एज कम्प्युटिङ :
क्लाउडमा डेटा पठाउनुको सट्टा डेटा उत्पन्न हुनै
श्रोतको नजिकै डाटा प्रोसेस गर्ने विधि हो। 5G
को प्रयोगले डिभाइस र नजिकको सर्भरवीच तत्काल
भरपर्दो सञ्चार सम्भव गराउँछ। यसले गर्दा स्वचालित
PRES, स्मार्ट फ्याक्टीहरू प्रभावकारी रूपमा चल्छन्।

३. कृत्रिम बुद्धिमत्ता Al र ARM लर्निङ् ML: यसले
£। र ML का लागि आवश्यक पर्ने ठुलो मात्रामा
डेटालाई छिटो र प्रभावकारी रूपमा स्थानान्तरण गर्न
Hed गर्छ। अन्य सम्बन्धित र प्राविधिक शब्दहरू
आवश्यकतानुसार चर्चा गरिदैं जानेछन्।

5G को उत्पत्ति र विकास

सन् १९८० को दशकमा पहिलो पुस्ता 1७ बाट शुरु
भएको मोवाइल प्रविधिको विकासको क्रममा तत्कालीन
अवस्थामा आवाजलाई मात्र यसले समर्थन गर्दथ्यो। १९९०
को दशकमा आएको दोख्रो पुस्ता 2G मा SMS, MMS
जस्ता सुविधाहरू थपिँदै आए। तेस्रो पुस्ता सन् २०००
को दशकको शुरुवातमा आएको 3G प्रविधिले मोबाइलमा
इन्टरनेटको ढोका खोल्यो। चौथो पुस्ता 4G, सन् २०१०
को दशकमा यो प्रविधि प्रचलनमा आयो जसमा Set
केन्द्रित एप्सहरू प्रचलनमा आए 1 3G को तुलनामा यसको
डेटा ट्रान्समिसन राम्रो रहेको पाइन्छ जुन हालसम्म हाम्रो
देशमा प्रचलनमा छ। 50 प्रविधि कतिपय देश जस्तै दक्षिण
कोरियामा सन् २०१९ देखि र अमेरिका अष्ट्रेलिया र केही
युरोपियन देशमा त्ससपछि प्रचलनमा छन्। छिमेकी मुलुक
भारत र भुटानमा समेत यो प्रचलनमा आइसकेको छ भने
नेपालमा परीक्षणको क्रममा छ।

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरणमा 5८ प्रविधिको प्रयोग

देशको उर्जा क्षेत्रको मेरुदण्डको रूपमा रहेको ने.वि.प्रा.
को कार्यकुशलता र विश्वसनीयताले समग्र औद्योगिक र
आर्थिक विकासमा प्रत्यक्ष प्रभाव पर्छ। यस्तो महत्वपूर्ण
निकायलाई आधुनिकीकरण गर्न 5G प्रविधि शक्तिशाली
औजार हुन सक्छ। ने.वि.प्रा. मा यस प्रविधिबाट हुनसक्ने
सहयोगहरूमा -

एज कम्प्युटिङ भनेको केन्द्रीय १.

स्मार्टग्रिडको स्थापना र सञ्चालन

स्मार्टग्रिड एउटा स्वचालित एवं बौद्धिक (Intellectual)
उर्जा सञ्जाल हो जसले विद्युत उत्पादन देखि
उपभोक्ताको घर सम्मको सम्पूर्ण प्रणालीलाई वास्तविक
समयमा निगरानी र नियन्त्रण गर्दछ। 5७ को न्यून
ढिलासुस्ती (Low Latency) ले ग्रिडमा जडित हजारौं
सेन्सर र उपकरणबाट प्राप्त डेटालाई Al को मद्दतले
तुरुन्तै विश्लेषण गर्ने, फल्ट स्वचालित रूपमा पत्ता
लगाउने र बिजुलीलाई वैकल्पिक मार्गबाट पठाएर
विद्युत अवरुद्ध हुनबाट जोगाउने काम गर्छ।

स्वचालित मिटर Rise

50७ ले स्मार्ट मिटरिङ प्रणालीलाई व्यापक र प्रभावकारी
बनाउन महत गर्दछ। यस प्रविधिबाट लाखौं घर
तथा उद्योगमा जडित स्मार्ट मिटरहरूलाई एकैसाथ
नेटवर्कमा जोडिन्छ तथा ग्राहकले आफ्नो मोबाइलबाटै
वास्तविक समयमा विद्युत खपत हेर्न र बिल भुक्तानी
गर्न सक्ने मात्र होइन, कुनै मिटरमा छेडखानी भएमा
वा विद्युत चोरीको प्रयास भएमा प्रणालीले तुरुन्तै पत्ता
लगाउँछ। मिटर रिडिङ गर्न रिडर घर घरमा जानु
नपर्ने अवस्था हाल महाराजगंज तथा रत्नपाक वितरण
केन्द्रमा पनि प्रयोगमा आइसकेको छ।

प्रभावकारी मर्मतसंभार र सुरक्षा

नेपाल जस्तो विकट भौगोलिक अवस्था भएको, उच्च
पहाडी क्षेत्रमा लाइन मर्मत गर्न वा सवस्टेशन निर्माण
गर्नुपर्दा 5७ सक्षम ड्रोनहरू प्रयोग गरेर नियमित
निगरानी र सुरक्षित मर्मतसंभार गर्न सकिन्छ।
ड्रोनहरूबाट लिइएको उच्च गुणस्तरको भिडियो र
डेटा विश्लेषण गरेर संभावित समस्याहरू पहिचान
गर्न तथा प्राविधिकहरूले AR को सहायताले टाढाबाटै
विशेषज्ञहरूसँग सल्लाह लिई मर्मतका कामहरू गर्न
सक्छन्।

विद्युत चुहावट नियन्त्रण

वास्तविक समयमा डेटा विश्लेषण गरेर कन क्षेत्र
वा कुन मिटरमा अस्वभाविक रूपमा विद्युत खपत
भैरहेको छ वा चोरी भैरहेको छ भन्ने भइरहेको कुरा
सजिलै पत्ता लगाउन सकिन्छ। यसबाट विद्युत चुहावट
नियन्त्रण गर्न महत हुन्छ।

७वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT Ea

५. उपभोक्ता सेवामा सुधार

हाल भै रहेको डिजिटल सेवा, अनलाइन पेमेन्ट
सेवामा सुधार, तत्काल उपभोक्ता गुनासो समाधान,
चार्जिङ स्टेशनको उचित व्यवस्थापन, सुदृढ सञ्चार,
प्रभावकारी HRIS प्रणाली आदि विभिन्न क्षेत्रमा 5G
प्रविधिको प्रयोगले प्राधिकरणको कार्यक्षमताको वृद्धि
गर्न, सेवा प्रवाहलाई अझ प्रभावकारी बनाउन र समग्र
उर्जा व्यवस्थापनलाई सुदृढ गर्न महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका
खेल्न सक्छ। व्यवस्थापनले पनि यस्ता विषयमा उचित
र प्रशिक्षित जनशक्तिको समय सापेक्ष व्यवस्थापन गर्नु
पर्छ।

डिजिटल नेपाल फ्रेमवर्क र 5८ सम्बन्ध

नेपाल सरकारले वि.स. २०७६ मा सार्वजनिक गरेको
डिजिटल नेपाल फ्रेमवक एक महत्त्वकाङ्क्षी राष्ट्रिय योजना
हो। कार्यान्वयन पक्ष एकदम फितलो रहे पनि यसको मूल
उद्देश्य डिजिटल प्रविधिको अधिकतम उपयोग गरी विकास
र समृद्धिका लक्ष्यहरू हासिल गर्ने, सार्वजनिक सेवा प्रवाहमा
सुधार ल्याई सरल र सहज बनाउने, आर्थिक वृद्धिदर हासिल
गरी नागरिकको जीवनस्तरमा गुणात्मक परिवर्तन ल्याउने
हो। यसले उर्जा, स्वास्थ्य, शिक्षा, कृषि, पर्यटन, वित्त,
शहरी पूर्वाधार आदि o वटा प्रमुख क्षेत्रहरूमा डिजिटल
प्रविधि प्रयोग गरेर समुन्नत अर्थतन्त्र निर्माण गरी समृद्ध
नेपाल र सखी नेपाली बनाउने सोच लिएको छ।

यसले डिजिटल पूर्वाधारको निर्माण तथा प्रभावकारी
सार्वजनिक सेवा प्रवाहको लागि उच्च गतिको इन्टरनेट
कनेक्टिभिटी त भनेको छ तर त्यस्तो पूर्वाधार निर्माण गर्न
एउटा बलियो, र भरपर्दो सूचनाको द्रुत राजमार्ग जहाँ
सूचना रुपी गाडीहरू बिना अवरोध, बिना जाम अत्यन्तै द्रुत
गतिमा दौडन सक्छन्। 4G प्रविधिले डिजिटल सेवाहरूको
ढोका त खोल्यो तर परिकल्पना गरिएका अधिकांश स्मार्ट
सेवाहरू जस्तै:- उच्च स्तरको टेलिमेडिसन, स्मार्ट सिटी,
स्मार्ट फ्याक्टी, CATE कृषि, स्मार्ट यातायातको व्यवस्थापन
आदिको प्रभावकारी उपयोग गर्नका लागि हाल नेपालमा
प्रयोगमा रहेको AG को गति अत्यन्तै कम हुन्छ। यस्ता
सेवाहरूलाई वास्तविकतामा बदल्न 5७ को उच्च गति,
न्यून विलम्बता र बृहत कनेक्टिभिटी आवश्यक हुन्छ।
डिजिटल नेपालको जग भनेकै देशव्यापी, भरपर्दो र तीव्र

गतिको इन्टरनेट हो। 59 यही जगलाई सुदृढ बनाउने
प्रविधि हो। डिजिटल नेपाल फ्रेमवक २०७६ मा पनि
5G नेतवक विस्तार गर्ने भनेर चर्चा गरिएको भए पनि
व्यवहारिक रुपमा चाँडो कार्यान्वयनमा ल्याउन् जरुरी छ।

56 को प्रयोगले नेपालमा क्षेत्रगत रुपमा हुनसक्ने
संभावनाहरू

स्वास्थ्य क्षेत्र : नेपालको भौगोलिक विकटताका
कारण ग्रामीण क्षेत्रमा विशेषज्ञ र स्वास्थ्य सेवाको
पहुँच अत्यन्त कमजोर छ। 5G प्रविधिको प्रयोगले
उच्च गुणस्तरको टेलिमेडिसन सेवा सम्भव बनाउँछ
यसमा दुर्गम क्षेत्रमा भएका स्वास्थ्यकर्मीहरूले शहरका
विशेषज्ञ डाक्टरहरूसँग सजिलै वास्तविक समयमा
भिडियो परामर्श गर्न सक्छन्। भविष्यमा Al को समेत
प्रयोगले रिमोट मनिटरिङ र रोबोटिक सर्जरी जस्ता
उन्नत प्रविधिहरू समेत सम्भव हुन सक्छन्।

२. शिक्षा क्षेत्र : कोभिड १९ को बेलामा शुरु भएको
अनलाइन शिक्षा प्रणालीलाई अझ प्रभावकारी बनाउन
सक्छ। विद्यार्थीले बिना कुनै अवरोध लाइभ कक्षामा
भाग लिन सक्छन्। विद्यार्थीहरूले कक्षा कोठामै
बसेर AR/VR को माध्यमबाट जटिल वैज्ञानिक
अवधारणहरूलाई जीवन्त रुपमा बुझ्न सक्छन् अथवा
बुझाउन सकिन्छ। भर्चअल ल्याबमा प्रयोगहरू हेर्न,
विशेष ठाउँहरूको भर्चुअल भ्रमण गर्न सकिन्छ।
5७ को पहुँचले दुर्गम क्षेत्रका विद्यार्थीहरूलाई पनि
शहरका उत्कृष्ट शिक्षकहरूसँग अनलाइन कक्षा लिन
र विश्वस्तरीय शैक्षिक सामग्रीमा पहुँच राख्न सक्षम
बनाउँछ,।

यहाँ AR भन्नाले अग्मेन्टेड रियलिटी (Augmented
Reality) र VR भन्नाले भर्चुअल रियलिटी (Virtual
Reality) बुझाउँछ। ARS महतबाट कुनै क्रालाई
मोडल बनाएर हेर्न सकिन्छ, रसायन शास्त्रका विद्यार्थीले
AR को प्रयोगबाट विभिन्न रसायनहरू मिसाउँदा के
हुन्छ भनेर वास्तविक जोखिमबिना प्रयोग गर्न सक्छन्।
त्यस्तै सिकाइलाई खेल जस्तो बनाएर विद्यार्थीको रुचि
बढाउन सकिन्छ। /॥२ ले वास्तविक संसारमा डिजिटल
जानकारी थपेर हाम्रो अनुभवलाई अन्तरक्रियात्मक
बनाउँछ। यसको प्रयोगले अनलाइन किनमेल गर्दा,

E> faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

फर्निचर वा लुगा घरमै कस्तो देखिन्छ भनेर जाँच्न
सकिन्छ साथै शिक्षा, स्वास्थ्य क्षेत्रमा जानकारीलाई
जीवन्त बनाएर सिक्न र काम गर्न सजिलो बनाउँछ।

VR: यो यस्तो प्रविधि हो जसले तपाईंलाई पूर्ण
रुपमा एक डिजिटल संसारमा SASS। यसको लागि
एक विशेष हेडसेट लगाउनु पर्छ जसले तपाईंको पूरै
आँखालाई BSG। हेडसेट भित्रको स्क्रीनले तपाईंलाई
२६० डिग्रीको भर्चुअल संसार देखाउँछ। यसको
महतले घरमै अथवा एकठाउँमा बसेर संसारका
पर्यटकीय स्थलहरूको अवलोकन गर्न, पाइलटहरूको
प्लेन उडाउने ट्रेनिङ, डाक्टरहरूको अपरेशन आदिको
ट्रेनिङ, अथवा दुर्गममा बसेर पनि त्यस्ता तालिम लिन
सकिन्छ। यसमा ४२ लाई उच्च गुणस्तरको ग्राफिक्स
र भिडियो चाहिन्छ र यसमा उच्च गतिको नेट 5G
भएमात्र यो प्रभावकारी हुन सक्छ।

VIRTUAL
REALITY

पर्यटन : उच्च गतिको इन्टरनेटले पर्यटकलाई सजिलो
सुरक्षित र प्रविधियुक्त अनुभव दिन सक्छ। 5G को
माध्यमबाट Virtual Reality VR Augmented Reality
AR प्रविधि प्रयोग गरेर पर्यटकले ऐतिहासिक स्थलहरू,
हिमाल आदिको अवलोकन गर्न सक्छन्। डिजिटल
भुक्तानी, स्मार्ट सूचना बोर्ड लाइभ स्ट्रिमि ङ सेवाहरू
सहज हुन्छन्। यसरी 5७ ले नेपालको पर्यटन क्षे
त्रलाई स्मार्ट, सुरक्षित र अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय स्तरमा प्रतिस्पर्धी
बनाउन महत गर्छ।

४, कृषि : खेतबारीमा जडान गरिएका सेन्सरहरूले माटोको

4.

चिस्यान, तापक्रम र षोषक AeaAHl वास्तविक समयमा
जानकारी दिन्छन्। ड्रोनमाफत बालीको स्वास्थ्य
निगरानी गर्न, सटीक रुपमा मल र कीटनाशक औषधि
छकिन सकिन्छ, जसले उत्पादन बढाउँछ र लागत
घटाउँछ। किसानहरूले बजारको यथार्थ जानकारी
तत्काल पाउन सक्छन् र उचित निर्णय गर्न सक्छन्।
यसले परम्परागत कृषि प्रणलीलाई आधुनिकीकरण गर्न
ठूलो मद्दत गर्छ।

वित्तीय aa: यसले डिजिटल भुक्तानीलाई अत्यन्त
छिटो बनाउने, मोवाइल बैंकिङ् TMT कोड भुक्तानी,
अनलाइन कारोबारहरू तुरुन्तै सम्पन्न हुने, दुर्गम
क्षेत्रका ग्राहकहरूको लागि वित्तीय सेवा सुलभ हुने
हुन्छ अथवा वित्तिय सेवालाई आधुनिकीकरण गर्ने,
सञ्चालन लागत घटाउन र देशका हरेक कुनामा
वित्तीय सेवा पु-याउन महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका हुनेछ।

AUGMENTED
REALITY

यस्तै सार्वजनिक सेवा छिटो छरितो बनाउने, नागरिकता,
राहदानी र अन्य सरकारी काम अनलाइनबाटै छिटो र
भझन्झटमुक्त बनाउन, स्मार्ट शहर अवधारण अन्तर्गत
स्वचालित ट्राफिक व्यवस्थापन, सुरक्षा निगरानी र प्रकोप
व्यवस्थापन जस्ता कुराहरूलाई सहज तरिकाले छिटो गर्न
योगदान पु-याउन सक्छ।

यसरी डिजिटल नेपाल फ्रेमवकको सफलताको लागि सूचना
तथा सञ्चारको क्षेत्रमा आउन लागेका प्रविधि 59 र Aw
Al समेतको संयोजनबाट एउटा शक्तिशाली आधार बन्न
सक्छ। 5७ ले तीब्र गतिको इन्टरनेट प्रणाली जसलाई हाम्रो
शरीरसँग तुलना गर्दा स्नायु प्रणाली TAL ले त्यसबाट प्राप्त
डेटालाई विश्लेषण गर्ने मस्तिष्कको रूपमा काम गर्दछ।

चुनौतीहरू

यी प्रविधिहरू राम्रोसँग स्थापना गर्न सकिए त सोच
अनुसारको उपलब्धि पनि होला तर कार्यान्वयनमा ठूला
चुनौतीहरू BH

१. ठूलो लगानीको आवश्यकता पर्छ जस्तै अप्टिकल
फाइवर, टावर तथा उपकरणहरू धेरै महँगा हुन्छन्।

२. नेपालको विकट धरातलीय स्वरूप भएको हुँदा सघन
नेटवर्क र टावरहरू स्थापना गर्नु जटिल र खर्चिलो।

३. दक्ष जनशक्तिको अभाव 5७ जस्तो जटिल प्रविधि
जडान र मर्मतसंभार गर्न आवश्यक इन्जिनियर र
प्राविधिकहरूको अभाव

४ यस प्रविधिबारे सरकारको स्पष्ट नीतिको अभाव

Y 56७ सक्षम उपकरणको अभाव र पाइहाले पनि महँगो।

६. साइबर सुरक्षा र गोपनीयताको चिन्ता : 59 प्रविधिमा

धेरै उपकरणहरू जोडिने हँदा डेटा चोरी र साइवर
आक्रमणको चिन्ता भइरहने।

७ डिजिटल साक्षरता र जनचेतनाको कमी।

समाधानका सम्भावित उपायहरू

१. सरकारले लगानी मैत्री वातावरणको सिर्जना गर्नुपर्छ।
सार्वजनिक निजी साझेदारीको रणनीति अपनाउन
सकिन्छ।

२. पूर्वाधारको साझा प्रयोग गर्ने वातावरण बनाइयो भने
लागत घटाई विस्तार छिटो हुन्छ।

३. सरकारबाट फ्रिक्वेन्सीको बाँडफाँड, मूल्य निर्धारण र
इजाजत प्रक्रियाबारे स्पष्ट सरकारी नीति आउनु पर्छ।

४. विश्वविद्यालयका पाठ्यक्रमहरूमा नयाँ प्रविधिहरूबारे
सैद्धान्तिक बढी र व्यावहारिक कम होइन कि, सम्भव
भएसम्म व्यावहारिक रूपमा पनि उपयुक्त प्रशिक्षणको
व्यवस्था गर्ने।

५ Ub पटक सबै ठाउँमा नयाँ प्रविधिको प्रयोग सम्भव
नभए चरणबद्ध रूपमा जस्तै:- पहिले केही प्रमुख
शहरहरूमा लागू गर्ने र परिणाम हेरी विस्तार अन्यत्र
लागू गर्दै जाने।

६ 5G चल्ने उपकरणहरूको आयातमा सहजता कायम
गर्ने।

७. बलियो साइबर सुरक्षा नीति बनाउने।
८. डेटा संरक्षण ऐनको प्रभावकारी कार्यान्वयन गर्ने
९ अन्य निकायसँग आवश्यक समन्वय गर्ने।

१०. व्यापक जनचेतना र डिजिटल साक्षरताका कार्यक्रममा
जोड दिने।
उपसंहार

देशमा विकास तथा आर्थिक समृद्धि आफैं आउने करा
होइन। यसको लागि सुझबुझ साथ गरिएको लगानी,
त्यो देशमा दक्ष जनशक्ति र प्रविधिको विकास अत्यन्त
महत्त्वपूर्ण कुरा हुनु। नेपालले पनि सूचना तथा प्रविधिको
क्षेत्रमा आएको क्रान्तिकारी परिवर्तनलाई आत्मसात गरेर,
प्रविधिको यथा सम्भव प्रयोग गरी आफूलाई विकासको
बाटोमा अग्रसर गराउन सक्छ। विश्वका प्रमुख विकसित
देशहरूले प्रयोगमा ल्याइसकेको र नेपालमा पनि प्रयोगमा
आउन लागेको सूचना तथा सञ्चारको क्षेत्रमा विकास
भएको प्रविधि हो 5G।

5G सञ्चार प्रविधिको एउटा नयाँ पुस्ता मात्र होइन,
नेपालका लागि विकासको परम्परागत मोडललाई पछि पार्दै
डिजिटल राजमार्गमा फड्को मार्ने एक ऐतिहासिक अवसर
हो। यसबाट उर्जा क्षेत्रमा ग्रिडको कृशल व्यवस्थापन,
प्रभावकारी स्मार्ट मिटरिङ, प्रभावकारी मर्मतसंभार, चुहावट
नियन्त्रणमा ठूलो सहयोग पुग्छ। यसले सरकारको डिजिटल
नेपाल फ्रेमवकको सपनालाई यथार्थमा परिणत गर्नै क्षमता
त राख्छ नै, अझ त्यो भन्दा प्रविधिमा अगाडि बढेर स्मार्ट
स्वास्थ्य, शिक्षा, कृषि, उद्योग, पर्यटनदेखि सुशासन सम्मका
हरेक क्षेत्रमा यसले सकारात्मक र क्रान्तिकारी परिवर्तन
ल्याउने अपार सम्भावना बोकेको छ। यसलाई Al सँग
जोडेर हेर्ने हो भने 5७ ले /॥ को लागि आवश्यक डेटाको
विशाल र तीब्र प्रवाह सुनिश्चित गर्दछ भने Ala 5G
नेटवर्कलाई बुद्धिमान स्वचालित र कृशल बनाउँछ।

E> fear vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

यस्ता प्रविधि नेपाल जस्तो विकासोन्मुख देशमा प्रयोगमा
ल्याउनु अत्यन्त चुनौतीपूर्ण त छ नै, यस्ता चुनौतीहरूको
सामना गर्नलाई एक दूरदर्शी नीति, बलियो सार्वजनिक
निजी साझेदारी, रणनीतिक र चरणबद्ध कार्यान्वयन तथा
नागरिकको सहभागिता अनिवार्य छ। यदी दृढ इच्छाशक्तिका
साथ समन्वयात्मक रूपले सही योजना सहित अघि बढ्ने
हो भने एक्काइसौं शताब्दीको डिजिटल दौडमा नेपाललाई
एक सक्षम राष्ट्रको रुपमा उभ्याउन सकिन्छ र समृद्ध नेपाल
बन्ने सपना साकार हुन सक्छ।

सन्दर्भ श्रोतहरू

mocit.gov.np

npc.gov.np
onlinekhabar.com
techpana.com,

ntc.net.np
ictsamachar.com
nepaleconomicforum.com

qualcomm.com

6 ON 6 छा प्रे WN =

nepaldatabase.com आदि

Electricity Futures and Derivatives:
Tools for Hedging Energy Prices

Introduction

Naturally endowed with a potential of over
83,000 MW, out of which 42,000 MW is
considered to be economically feasible,
Hydropower does have massive potential in
the Nepalese context. The whole installed
capacity of around 3600MW holds the
major generational approach, dominated
by hydropower. The major shift from their
power-deficient country would look into the
major approach where it is a net electricity
exporter during the wet seasons. This
exports the approach aspect for electricity
for India and aims to expand its regional
market to Bangladesh and beyond. There,
rapid electrification is also on the way, and
over 95% of households have electricity
access. Their demand is expected to grow
due to an increase in urbanization and the
adoption of electrical appliances.

Hydropower Increased the Nepalese
context is often regarded as 'White Gold',
which is a key driver for revenue generation,
energy security, and industrial growth.
On being able to develop it sustainably, it
does hold huge prospects and potential for
Nepal's Economy.

Derivatives in the Nepalese context are
simply financial contracts whose value is
determined through underlying assets like
stocks, bonds, currencies, commodities,
interest rates, or market indexes. Generally,
they are used for hedging risk for speculative

Dwaipayan Regmi
Deputy Manager
Rastriya Banijya Bank Limited

purposes, seeking profit from the whole set
of price movements (Branger., et al, 2010).
They are generally considered to be futures,
options, forwards, and swaps. The whole
context of derivatives inthe Nepalese context
looks into the aspect because Nepal's entire
financial market is still developing, and the
market is not yet formally structured like that
of advanced economies. Although NEPSE
has been dealing with cash and spot-based
transactions, there are informal derivatives
practices that take place in commodity
trading or for hedging through banks
anywhere. They are a powerful financial
tool for covering up risk and for managing
risk. Also, they are powerful enough for
market-based growth. They do represent a
strong opportunity for modernizing the set
of financial systems with careful planning,
education, and regulation practices as well.

An important reason why diversification is
important in the Nepalese context is that
Nepali businesses can protect themselves
from any form of fluctuations in foreign
exchange rates, interest rates, or commodity
prices. It equally helps in determining future
price trends of commodities like oil, gold,
or agricultural products, too. Introducing
derivatives hereby can work for creating a
deep financial market approach, through
which foreign investors get attracted, and
there can be an improvement in liquidity as
well.

[३४ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Electricity Derivatives

Electricity cannot be stored easily like other
commodities. It must be produced and then
should be consumed almost instantly. This
creates price volatility because of demand
and supply. Here, derivatives therefore help
market participants to manage risk in their
way. To overcome this, electricity derivatives
can be a new concept. They are just the
financial contracts whose values are based
on the price of electricity because they allow
suppliers, producers, and large consumers
to hedge the risk of fluctuating prices
(Barone-Adesi and Gigli, 2002). Since
derivatives are contracts whose values
derive from underlying assets, in this case
of Electricity Derivatives, Electricity turns
out to be the underlying asset. So, simply
understanding, electricity derivatives are
financial contracts whose prices are based
on the price of electricity in the market.

Example: A factory would require electricity
every day. If the price suddenly jumps for
them, during winter, and electricity has to be
consumed through fuels, their cost would
increase, and profits might fall. In such a
case, electricity derivatives would help to
lock the price today to be sold in the future.

Understanding the work practices

Electricity derivative is not about delivering
electricity physically, but about settling
price differences. Primarily, the power
producer signs a future contract for selling
10 megawait hours of electricity at Rs 5000
MWh for next month. So if the actual market
price moves to Rs 6000, they would miss
out on extra profit, but upon protection,
the price drops to Rs 4000. The financial
contract hereby pays the differences,
ensuring a stable amount of revenue, which
would stabilize the prices.

Types
Electricity Forward Contracts

A forward contract can be referred to as
a custom agreement between two parties

for buying or selling some specific amount
of electricity on a future date. This form
of contract is private and can be flexible
enough, as it is not traded on the exchange
market. They can also be tailored or
customized as per the requirements of both
sides regarding volume, delivery time, and
price (Kholodny, 2000). Apart, they are used
mostly by power producers, large industrial
consumers, or utilities for hedging price
risks. It benefits both buyer and seller in its
way.

Example: A metal factory can realize that
they would require 1000 MWh next month.
So, they can simply sign a contract with
the hydro plant to buy electricity at NPR 20
per unit beforehand. So, whether there is a
shortage of electricity (increased price) or
an overflow of electricity (decreased price),
they both would stick to this price as it brings
certainty among them.

Electricity Futures Contracts

A futures contract can simply be regarded as
that form of forward which is a standardized
agreement and is traded on an organized
exchange for the buying or selling of
electricity, setting a price for a specific
future period. They are traded on different
power exchanges like Nord Pool in Europe,
NYMEX in the United States, or even Indian
Energy Exchange futures in India. They
are standard contracts by nature and have
fixed dates. They are settled in a financial
manner with participants who would rarely
exchange any differences regarding actual
electricity there.

Example: If a trader buys an electricity
future contract for next month at $50 per
MWh, the real spot price would rise to $55,
where the trader's profit would be the whole
set of differences.

Electricity Options

Option provides the right, but not any sort
of obligation, for buying or selling electricity
at some agreed price before the specified

@ gy 36 ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT र ३५

date. They are used more for a flexible set
of hedging. Here, they make payment for
the premium, seeking upfront for their right.
It is preferred if someone wants to benefit
while the price moves in a favorable manner.
They are suitable for risk managers and
traders. They are flexible by nature, as per
the requirement.

Example: If a factory buys a call option to
make a purchase of electricity at Rs 9 per
unit, and if the price increases to Rs 12,
they can make use of this option and save
money. But if the price falls to Rs 7 per unit,
they can allow the option contract to expire.

Electricity Swaps

Electricity swap simply can be understood
as the agreement in which two parties
manage to exchange cash flows. Here, if
one party pays a fixed price, the other would
be paying a floating price for electricity,
seeking an agreed volume and time. The
common aspect here is regarding OTC
(Over the counter) power markets. And, it
allows companies to switch between fixed
and floating price-based exposures. They
are useful for renewable energy producers
seeking variable output. They can be
customized as per the requirement, and
it is generally used by producers or large
buyers. There won't be any form of cash
settlement here.

Example: A wind farm would agree to swap
with a whole industrial buyer where the wind
farm would get paid a fixed price with stable
revenue. An _ industrial buyer would be
paying market price and would also receive
payments from the swap if market prices go
up, for stabilizing their cost as well.

In Nepal's Context

Nepal is immature regarding derivative
markets. Nepal also lags in terms of a
powerful exchange market with real-time
spot price discovery. Further, it is dominated
largely by long-term PPAs, and there is no
daily price volatility for trading electricity.

Futures and Options require strict regulation
and would require strong, clear houses. So,
in the absence of a time pricing mechanism
and pricing standards, futures and options
might not be suitable at this point in the
Nepalese market. Swaps do have potential,
but because Forwards are simple bilateral
contracts and are highly flexible, Electricity
forwards are more practical in Nepalese
contexts. This could be a practical starting
point in the Nepalese context from its layer
(Pandey, 2024).

Forward does not require any complex
exchange-based platform at first. They can
turn out to be bilateral agreements between
the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) and
independent power producers here. They
are already similar, and Nepal's making
long-term Power Purchase Agreements is
just a replication of forward contracts for 15
to 30 years, signifying that they are equally
meaningful here. Apart from considering
Nepal's plan to export more hydropower
to India and Bangladesh, forward contract
helps buyers and sellers lock in prices and
manage currency market risks as well. And,
in all, Forwards are rather easier to introduce
in comparison to the future or options,
making it more feasible and practical from
Nepal's perspective.

Benefits
Nepal's' electricity supply is highly
dependent upon hydropower, which

fluctuates with seasons. There is excess
electricity in wet times where the prices are
low, and during the dry season, there come
around shortages with high prices and a set
of load shedding risks. Considering them,
the following are the major benefits that can
be extracted from it:

e Price Risk Management: All the
parties who are involved - producers,
distributors, and large consumers can
work for hedging against unexpected
price spikes here.

e Revenue Stability: Small or medium
independent power producers (IPPs)

E> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

can manage to secure a stable revenue
by selling future production at their pre-
agreed prices, which clearly reduces
the impact of price drops during surplus
time.

e Encourages Long Term Investment:
There will be more predictable cash
flows, making hydropower and
transmission projects more bankable.

e Supports Cross-Border Trade: Aiming
to export electricity to India and
Bangladesh, their strength can also be
standardized electricity futures or swaps
there.

e Enhances Market Efficiency: The
derivative market hereby intends to
encourage better pricing discovery for
signaling future supply-based demand
expectations.

e Protects Customers: There will be large
industrial and commercial consumers
who can protect themselves from
sudden tariff hikes. Predictable energy
costs would all help the process,
allowing them to make it easier to plan
operational budgets.

Be it by facilitating renewable integration
or seeking variable renewable energy like
solar, which would be added, the derivatives
would help balance supply-based demand
mismatches. The grid operators would
allow for hedging against their unexpected
generation shortfalls there. Electricity
derivatives would add depth for Nepal's
nascent commodities and seek out their
financial markets here. Energy Exchange
can also gain traction there. So, if the
hydropower company were to seek a certain
portion of its expected monsoon surplus, the
whole fixed price through a forward contract
would be with a power-based trader as well.

Challenges and Problems

There certainly lies a different set of
challenges that would bring ease to the
process. There is also a lack of a mature
power market as Nepal is operating bilateral
Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs),
and there is no fully functional day-ahead
spot market or real-time electricity trading

platform. A small number of active power
producers and buyers all intend to limit
market-based participation as well, and in
the absence of enough buyers or sellers, the
derivative instruments will not have sufficient
trading volume for functioning in an efficient
way. There is an absence of awareness and
expertise as well, and there are also lagging
aspects regarding financial literacy. Apart
from Nepal, it lacks a dedicated regulatory
framework for electricity derivatives. There
is no centralized energy exchange that is
fully operational either. At one end, there is
currency and settlement risk, and seasonal
volatility of supply is another issue that
brings uncertainty into the picture.

Conclusion

The whole set of development of electricity
derivatives in Nepal possesses a huge
potential for transforming the whole
nation's energy-based sector. Considering
the seasonal variation in electricity supply,
considering their price volatility and risks
of shortages, these form of derivatives.
They would all ensure stability of income
for hydropower producers, around the
price of production there. Considering
such seasonal variation in whole electricity
supply, their price volatility and risk-based
shortages, derivatives would offer a
powerful tool for managing the whole set of
uncertainty as well. There certainly lie huge
challenges as Nepal turns out to be an
underdeveloped power market that lacks
regulatory frameworks and limited financial
and technical literacy (Lucia and Schwartz,
2000). There lies weak infrastructure and
poor coordination among the stakeholders.
So, unless Nepal establishes a_ clear
legal and regulatory foundation, develops
technical infrastructure, and works _ for
building institutional capacity, the whole
market-based liquidity seeks ways for the
implementation of electricity derivatives,
which turns out to be difficult enough. So,
for enjoying the full benefit of electricity
derivatives, Nepal needs to work from a
very foundational stage itself.

@ gy 36 ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT y 20।

References

Barone-Adesi, G., & Gigli, A. (2002). Electricity
derivatives. SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.310819

Branger, N., Reichmann, O., & Wobben, M.
(2010). Pricing electricity derivatives on
an hourly basis. The Journal of Energy
Markets, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.21314/
JEM.2010.044

Pandey, R. (2024). Glimpse on spot and
derivative market of electricity and
Nepal's hydropower. Journey for
Sustainable Development and Peace
Journal, 2(2), 132-145. https://doi.
org/10.3126/jsdpj.v2i2.69574

43)

Lucia, J., & Schwartz, E. (2000). Electricity
prices and power derivatives: Evidence
from the Nordic Power Exchange.

Kholodnyi, V. A. (2000, July). The stochastic
process for power prices with spikes
and valuation of European contingent
claims on power (Preprint TXU-
RAG-01/00).

[३८ बै fears vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३5 ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Uniting Nepal through federalism:
A SWOT Analysis of Constitution
of Nepal

Abstract

The Constitutional safeguards, in federal nation,
are only as strong as in their implementation
for protecting unity and integrity by means
of empowering inclusion, managing identity,
nationality, security and governing with
justice. The Constitution of Nepal strategically
balances federalism with unity, and diversity
with integrity. Nepal's Constitution offers robust
provisions to protect national unity, sovereignty,
and security, both in letter and spirit. However,
true protection of these ideals depends not just
on legal clauses, but on political will, inclusive
governance, institutional capability, and civic

engagement.

1. Conceptual Understanding:

The Constitution of Nepal was crafted after a
long political transition, including a decade-
long armed conflict, abolition of monarchy
and the establishment of a federal democratic
republic. One of its central aims is to safeguard

national unity, territorial integrity, sovereignty,

Bhim Prasad Subedi
Deputy Registrar
Supreme Court of Nepal

independence and national security. These
the

constitution, and multiple institutions, legal

principles are reflected throughout
provisions, and mechanisms are embedded to
defend them. However, the practical use and
effectiveness of these provisions remain subject
to interpretation, political will, institutional

capacity and evolving threats.

Federalism is a mode of government that
combines a general level of government with
provincial or local level of sub-unit government
while dividing the powers of governing between
the two or more levels of governments. In a
narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode
in which the polity of a state is organized
internally, while in broadest sense the political
scientists use this term federalism preferring to
a multi-layer or pluralistic concept of social and

political life.

According to Daniel Ziblatt! there are four
competing theoretical explanations for adopting
a federal system in a sovereign nation throughout
the world.

1 Ziblatt, Daniel (2008) Structuring the State: The Formation of Italy and Germany and the Puzzle of Federalism,

assessed on 4 April 2025.

@ Ty 3g ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT E34

a. Ideational theories: This theory dealt
that among subunit populations, a greater
ideological commitment to decentralist ideas
makes federalism more likely to be sought

and adopted.

b. Cultural-historical theories: This theory
talked that in societies with culturally or
ethnically fragmented populations,

federalized subunits are more likely to be

favored and adopted.

It dealt that

federalism emerges via a bargaining process

c. Social contract theories:

between the center and a periphery. Here, the
center 15 not powerful enough to dominate
the periphery, but the periphery is not

powerful enough to secede from the center.

d. Infrastructural power theories: It said
that federalism is likely to emerge for the
subunit population that already has highly
developed infrastructures. 1.6. they already
are a constitutional, parliamentary, and

administratively modernized state.

The Professor KC Wheare? has mentioned

following six factors in modern federations:

"* A sense of military insecurity & of the

consequent need for common defense,

"* A desire to be independent of foreign
power & a realization that only through

union could independence is secured,

४१ A hope of economic advantage from

union,

५१ Some political association from

communities concerned prior to their

federal union,

७.

४१ Geographical neighborhood &

७.

"* Similarity of political institutions.

He further asserted that the federal result is
only possible by these factors and federalism
sustained by blending these factors with
common language, race or religion or a sense
of common nationality. For instances, the post
1890's Australia is a campaign of people of the
colonies a feeling as all Australians as well as

Victorians or Queenslanders or like.

The constitution of Nepal clearly depicts the
criteria for allocating power? among three
tier of government exclusively in schedule 5,
6 and 8 while concurrently in schedule 7 and

9. Accordingly, the task that need national

integrity, currency and monetary policy,
national security and defense, regulation,
setting of standards, external relations,

interprovincial nature of work including project
and infrastructure, research and development
for federal government. The provincial level
government worked in the area of development
of infrastructure, execution of development
projects, and regulation of provincial level
function, coordination among local level with the
province, programs and project encompassing
more than one municipality and district. The
local level governments are assigned with such
task that delivers the services, execution of
local development works and regulation of local

services and activities.

The constitution of Nepal has well adopted
federalism from political side by dividing
sovereign power into three level of government.
The adoption of disintegration model of

federalism has challenged by administration

2  Wheare, K.C, Federal Government. (4th ed.). London : Oxford University Press.(1963)

3 Constitution of Nepal, art. 59(1).

oN faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

of federalism along with centralizing tendency
of few traditional political parties for being
expensive and giving the fear of seceding
the nationality into many separate and self
determined unit of government. The traditional
political parties demanding referendum in
against federalism by showing incompetency
of sub national federal governments. Such form
of challenging seems to be developed intensely
if not addressed soon through constitutional
amendment or political consensus by protecting

the value of federation in Nepal.
1.1 National Unity:

The concept of national unity in a federal setup
refers to the sense of collective identity, shared
purpose, and solidarity among the diverse
states or regions of a country, even while they
retain significant political and administrative
autonomy. It is about maintaining cohesion
and a unified national identity, despite the
decentralized distribution of powers that

characterizes federalism.

In a federal system, power is constitutionally
divided between a central (national) government
and regional (state/provincial) governments.
Each level of government has autonomy in
certain areas, which allows for local self-
governance while remaining part of a larger

political entity.

Federal setups often exist in diverse societies,
where differences in language, culture, ethnicity,
or religion are pronounced. The national unity is
both a goal and a challenge. Without a strong
sense of national unity the regions may push
for autonomy beyond federal limits national
identity diluted & political instability may
arise. National unity ensures that while regions

enjoy autonomy, they still feel part of a larger

nation, uphold shared values and institutions
& participate in collective goals. Many nations
has maintained their national unity in their own
ways like India, with its diverse population,
the federal system allows linguistic and cultural
autonomy while promoting unity through
common institutions and a shared constitution.
In United States of America, the states have
autonomy, but their identity and institutions
(e.g., presidency, federal courts) unify the
country and Canada applied balance between
Quebec's distinct identity and national unity has

been a defining feature of its federalism.

But, the challenges faced by nation while
implementing federalism may face ethnic
or linguistic nationalism in specific regions
or economic inequality among states or
political conflicts between central and regional
governments or Secessionist movements
by taking caste or racial groupings etc. For
solving such types of tensions many nations
has carefully practiced and preserved both
diversity and unity as per their need or organic
ways. So, national unity is not about uniformity;
it is about cohesion in diversity. It requires a
delicate balance between regional autonomy
and national integrity that is achieved through
mutual respect, constitutional commitment, and

inclusive governance.
1.2 Territorial Integrity:

Territorial integrity refers to the principle that
a state has the right to maintain its existing
borders and territory against external aggression
or internal division. It implies that no part
of a country can be separated or taken away
without its consent, and that the country's
physical boundaries are legally protected

and inviolable. The most remarkable reason

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for territorial integrity is for preservation of
national sovereignty, for ensuring political
stability, for protecting national resources and
identity, for promoting international peace &
order etc. The legal basis of territorial integrity
was explained in international law also. The
important international documents that dealt
about territorial integrity are United Nations
Charter, where the provisions that prohibit the
use of force against the territorial integrity or
political independence of any state and other
international treaties and conventions respect
These

through various

for territorial instruments
has

agreements, reinforcing non-intervention and

integrity.
recognized globally

peaceful coexistence. But, the issue of territorial
integrity in federal nation was challenged by
either external aggression (invasion or military
occupation by another country) or internal
separatism (ethnic, religious or regional groups
demanding independence) or border disputes
(conflicts with neighboring countries over
unclear or contested boundaries) or terrorism
and insurgency (armed groups seeking to

weaken national unity).
1.3 National Security:

Security is an imperative issue for the survival
of any state. Lack of security is a compromise
on the peace and well-being of state and its
inhabitants. At the macro-level, state security
must be geared towards ensuring territorial
integrity and sovereignty. The concept of
security is all-encompassing and is required for
combating food insecurity, lack of housing, poor
health and education system, natural disasters,

terrorism and extremism.

The Concept of Security in its traditional sense
represents as military security. But in modern
respect it referred to the threats against the
crucial values of states like territorial integrity
and political sovereignty through improved
national weapons and armament mechanisms,
strategic alliances, military deployment,
adversarial management, nuclear weapons, etc.
However, the widening of the concept of security
envelop political, economic, and environmental
and identity as contemporary determinants of
state security. The other dimension of security
accounts for human beings. The term human
security understands and analyses global
vulnerabilities along with challenging the
traditional determinants of national security,
especially military security, by arguing that
security must be assessed at human level instead
of national level. That is the human security
entails not just procurement and development
of arms but development of human beings, their

livelihood and community.

National security is a sensitive and a multifaceted
issue. Every country is built on its originality
and priorities. Security of a nation encompasses
sovereignty, national integrity, social, economic,
cultural, and humanitarian aspects. National
security is affected by the foreign policy of the
nation, policy on internal peace and order, ideas
on social security and implementation. National
security also covers issues like protecting
the citizens of one's country and maintaining
reasonable secrecy regarding national interests.
Wagle* opined that Nepal is now in the process
of transforming from a feudal and unitary state
into a plural, democratic, multi-ethnic, federal,

and secular one ... the definition of national unity

4 Wagle, G. S. (2009). "National Security Policy and Role of National Security Council", in Bhattarai, R. & Cave,
R. (eds.) Changing Security Dynamics in Nepal: A Collection of Essays, Kathmandu: Nepal Institute for Policy

Studies.

> faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

and security has widened (so) national security
policy needs to be refined in changed political
landscape, safeguarding Nepal's national values
and identity, based on national consensus
following comprehensive consultation with

various stakeholders in society.

2. SWOT Analysis of National Unity,
Territorial Integrity, and National

Security in Nepal
2.1 Strengths:

The Preamble of the Constitution® expressed
the commitment to safeguard the freedom,
sovereignty, territorial integrity, national
unity, independence and dignity of Nepal.

It sets a normative foundation for unity and
sovereignty as non-negotiable national values.

The Constitution® declares that Nepal as an
independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular,
inclusive, democratic, socialism-oriented,
federal democratic republican state." It also
emphasizes indivisibility and sovereignty as

foundational elements.

The Constitution' also specifies the territory
of Nepal that comprises the 125,000 square
kilometers existing before the promulgation of
this Constitution. It also provides a legal shield
for territorial integrity and basis for boundary
(e.g. The

Constitution *also talked about the Citizenship,

disputes Lipulekh, Kalapani).

National Flag, Anthem, Emblem and Language

5 Id at Preamble
6 Id at art.4

7 Id at art.5

8 Id at art. 6 to 9
9 Id at art.51(1)
10 Id at art.51(4)
11 Id at art.267

12 Td at art. 266

by establishing national symbols and identity
essential for unity in diversity and Promoting
Nepali as the official language but protects
linguistic pluralism. The constitution, in its
part five, has provisioned about the Directive
Principles, Policies, and Obligations of the State
to address the unity and security of Nepal.

National Unity' strengthened through protecting

sovereignty, integrity, independence, and
dignity and developing a harmonious society
The

political and governance policy was designed

through mutual respect of diversity.

by emphasizing the participatory democracy,
decentralization, and good governance as tools
for national cohesion. The defense and security
policy!' has mandated to maintain national unity
and integrity along with protection of borders,
ensure peace and order, and develop national
security forces under democratic control by

means of loyalty to the Constitution.

The Constitution has also made provision of
Nepal Army and National Security Bodies for
national unity, territorial integrity and national
security within the Nepal. Nepal Army', as a
security institution, worked as national army
under democratic civilian control, deployed only
as per council of ministers' recommendation and
committed to national independence, integrity,
and sovereignty of nation. Similarly, National

Security Council' working for advising
government on national security and army

deployment chaired by prime minister including

@ gy ३६ ७ SEP १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /॥0/0] Gai

key ministers and army chief of government
of Nepal. The national Security Council was
central to strategic security decisions but is often
politically influenced and lacks an independent
strategic doctrine.

The Constitution'' provisioned for constitutional
amendments and territorial Integrity. For
any change to territory of state have required
2/3rd_ majority in federal parliament and
consent of affected province. This provision
has provided strong constitutional safeguards
against arbitrary boundary changes in territory
of Nepal. Similarly, the judicial provision'*
has empowered court to strike down laws and
actions that threaten national unity or violate
constitutional principles and settle disputes

among different levels of government.
2.2 Weaknesses:

The most remarkable challenges faced by
federal Nepal is weak implementation of federal
constitution since its promulgation. Mostly such
challenges observed by delay implementation of
administrative federalism, centralized mindset,
sluggish bureaucracy, political meddling, and
reluctance of functioning of intergovernmental
institutions like inter provincial council, national
coordination council, provincial coordination
council etc. The major hurdles while maintaining

unity in diversity in federal Nepal observed are:

Centralization of Security: The provinces lack
control over security that weaken autonomy in

crisis of security issues.

Political Manipulation: The national symbols
and unity are politicized due to identity politics
and state restructuring debate or naming of

provinces

13 Id at art. 274
14 Id. at art. 133, 139 & 144.

Border Disputes: The article 5 of constitution
clearly mentioned the legality issues. But
due to weak diplomatic policies and strategic
infrastructure challenged the borders with
neighboring nations experienced in Kalapani

case.
Civil-Military Ambiguity: While
constitutionally under control, the army

has occasionally exerted informal political

influence, especially in post-conflict transitions.

of
recognized principle,

Implementation Inclusion: Though
but

the exclusion of marginalized groups and

constitutionally

domination of creamy layers in power structures

fuels discontent and threatens unity

National Security Policy: There lacks clear,
publicly debated strategic doctrine or long-term

planning on security policy.
2.3 Opportunities:

Nepal is a landlocked federal state and is often
regarded as a yam between two _ boulders.
Politically, it means that Nepal must strategize
itself in a way that prevents it from being
attacked by either of the two powerful states
by maintaining a positive attitude and foster
friendship and cooperation with its neighbors,
diplomatically balance them and grow with
their support. At a global arena, Nepal needs to
keep its doors open to the changing times for

security of nation.

The article 51 of the Constitution of Nepal
covers the policy of national unity and security.
As per the Constitution, Nepal shall pursue the
policies relating to national unity and national
sovereignty to keep the national unity intact,
while protecting the freedom, sovereignty,

[४४ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

territorial integrity and independence of Nepal.
It also aims to promote the national unity
while developing mutual cooperative relations
between the Federal Units by maintaining mutual
cohesion, harmony and solidarity between
different castes, religions, tribes, cultures and
communities. Apart from these, it also aims to
maintain law and order by developing a national
security system and guarantee the overall human
security system. Based on national security
policies, the security organs will be made which
would include the Nepal Army, Nepal Police
and Armed Police Force with competent and
strong professionals. The policy also aims to
make proper use of the knowledge, skills and
experience of former public employees in the
interest of the nation and keep the citizens ready
and competent to serve the nation as and when

necessary.

The Constitution of Nepal has made several
important provisions to maintain national unity,
ensure territorial integrity, and safeguard national
security. Nepal being a newly federalized and
multi-ethnic state, the Constitution aims to
balance ethnic and regional diversity with the

unity and sovereignty of the nation.
2.3.1 National Unity:

The preamble of the constitution expressed a
commitment to unity in diversity, embracing the
multi-ethnic, multilingual, multi-religious, and
multicultural nature of Nepali society. It also
declared Nepal as an independent, indivisible,
sovereign, secular, inclusive, and democratic

country.

All citizens are equal under the law, with
common Nepali citizenship. The Article 10 of
constitution expressed that No Nepali citizen
shall be denied the right to obtain citizenship.
Similarly, the national symbols (flag, anthem,

language) are emphasized to promote shared

identity among nationalities.

The article 6 & 7 of constitution of Nepal has
expressed official language and recognition of
diversity that Nepali, in Devanagari script, is the
official language of the federal government and
all languages spoken by the people of Nepal are
considered national languages. The constitution
also prohibits secession and declared that
Nepal as an indivisible, sovereign nation. No
provision allows for secession or division based

on ethnicity, region, or language.
2.3.2. Territorial Integrity:

The Constitution of Nepal has ensured the

territorial integrity through independent,
sovereign, indivisible nation along with federal
structure that does not permit any state or
province to secede or claim separate status.
The central federal government empowered to
hold the strong authority over matters related
to national borders, defense, and foreign policy,

ensuring full control over territorial integrity.

The article 4 of Constitution of Nepal has

described that Nepal as an _ independent,
sovereign, secular, inclusive, democratic,
socialism-oriented, federal democratic

republican state. It reaffirms the indivisibility of

the nation, regardless of federalism.

Nepal 8150 practiced federalism without
fragmentation 1.e. Nepal is divided into three tiers
of government (federal, provincial, and local).
The provinces cannot secede or act outside the
constitutional framework. The schedule 5 of
constitution provisioned power to control over
national boundaries by federal government. The
regulation of internal boundaries mentioned
in article 56-57 that has clearly defined the

jurisdiction between the federation, provinces,

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and local governments. It also clarified that
any changes to internal boundaries must follow
constitutional procedures and cannot threaten

national unity.
2.3.3. National Security:

The article 267 of Constitution of Nepal dealt
that the Nepali Army operates under the control
of the federal government. The President is
the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, ensuring
national unity in security matters. The National
Security Council has provisioned in article 266 of
constitution of Nepal with a structure, functions
and duty of it that advice the government on
national security and deployment of the army.
It was headed by the Prime Minister, including
key ministers and the Chief of Army Staff.

The emergency provisions was mentioned
in article 273 of constitution that provide the
ground for declaring state of emergency by the
President, on the recommendation of the federal
government, in case of war, external aggression,
armed rebellion, or extreme crisis. During the
time of an emergency, the federal government
can assume greater powers to ensure unity and

security.

The border security and foreign policy is under
the domain of federal government. The Schedule
5, List 1 of Constitution of Nepal has provisioned
that the central federal government control the
issues of foreign affairs, defense, immigration,
and border security. It also prevents provinces
or local units from entering into agreements that

could compromise sovereignty or security.
2.4 Threats:

Identity politics: It increases an identity politics

by dividing the national unity and integrity.

Minority Rights: Federalism protects the rights
of the minority through law of diversity by
hindering the majoritarian value in democratic

society.

The

government would be strong if cultural diversity

Cultural Diversity: federal form of
is defined and mutual tolerance was taken as
granted through ethnic, linguistic or religious

bases or geographical base.

Political Test: Federation let down the new
political and constitutional innovation as well as
test. The Innovation brought in one sovereign
nation may result different issues like the
European Union has tied 12 countries into one

and has been representing a special political test.

Economic Stress: The constraint on local
revenue generation and lack of sufficient support
from outside result economic problem to run the
multiple level governments. It increase stress on

limited resources.
3. Recommendations:

The effective and efficient functioning of
Nepalese federal constitution or federalism
is possible by strengthening national unity,
territorial integrity and national security that

may require following considerations:

Decentralize Security Mechanisms: The sub
national federal government i.e. provinces and
local levels must be empowered with adequate
policing, policy frameworks, predefined right
and duty, enhanced capabilities, utilization
of natural resources and _ disaster-response

capabilities.

Institutionalize National Security Strategy:
The National Security Council should develop
and periodically update a comprehensive
National Security Doctrine.। ४६ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

1116

promotion of inclusive nationalism rather than

Democratize Symbols and Identity:

a monolithic identity model is required to
democratize the identity and symbols embedded
in constitution of Nepal.

The

continuous and regular endeavor of diplomatic,

Improve Border Management:
infrastructural, and legal measures need to be
ensured for protecting the territorial claims and

border disputes issues.

Strengthen Judicial Oversight: The use
of constitutionally guaranteed litigation and
judicial review required to protect constitutional
principles actively for federalist provisions. The
access to justice and speedy case clearing system

should be adopted to give justice at large.

Address Internal Discontent: The promises

made on ethnic inclusion, equitable

development, and identity recognition under
federalism must be ensured by policy dialogue,

national consensus and political priority.

4. Conclusion:

The
balances federalism for unity, diversity with

Constitution of Nepal _ strategically
integrity. Through a strong central framework
on key matters like defense, citizenship, and
foreign policy, it protects territorial integrity
and national security. Simultaneously, it
acknowledges ethnic and regional identities to
foster inclusive national unity. The judiciary of
Nepal has also playing vital role for maintaining
unity in diversity by using lens of justice and
equality of treatment among diverse section
of Nepal. Nepal's Constitution offers robust
provisions to protect national unity, sovereignty,
and security, both in letter and spirit. However,
true protection of these ideals depends not just
on legal clauses, but on political will, inclusive
governance, institutional capability, and civic

engagement.

सुनकोशी जलविद्युत केन्द्रको पेनस्टक

Electricity Development in Nepal :
Laws & Reforms

History of Electricity Development

Nepal's history of electricity generation can
be traced back from 1911 A.D., with the
construction of Pharping Hydropower Station
(500 kW) located near Kathmandu Valley. The
second hydropower Sundariyal Hydropower
Station (640 kW) was constructed in 1939 after
28 years. Since then, hydropower projects in
Nepal have been constructed through bilateral
and multilateral support as the government
prioritized hydroelectricity infrastructure
development through its periodic development
plans and legislations. The Electricity Act, 2049
welcomed the private sector for construction of
hydropower, transmission and distribution of
electricity. As a result, many Independent Power

Producers (IPPs) came in the generation sector.

Present Status of Electricity Development

Nepal has been a power surplus country since
2021 during wet season and energy deficiency
in the dry season is increasing year by year as
most of the hydropower are of RoR type and
they generate full capacity in wet season and
produce almost one third of energy in the dry

months compared to wet months as the water

Sunil Subedi
Assistant Manager
Bagmati Provincial Office, NEA

flow in the river decreases. The surplus energy
in the wet season can be exported to India and it
could be imported back to Nepal in dry months
1.8. when we are energy deficient, using the

concept of energy banking.

Total hydropower installed capacity in the
world reached to 1412 GW in 2023 (HA,
2024). In South Asia region, Bangladesh India
and Pakistan fossil fuels are important energy
sources on the other hand Nepal and Bhutan
relay on hydropower (R Vaidhya et al, 2020).
The huge potential of hydropower in Nepal and
Bhutan can be used to meet growing electricity
need of South Asia. Water resources are one of
the most important natural resources of Nepal
and it is one of the richest countries in terms
of water resources availability in the world. In
the form of snow covers, rivers, springs and
lakes, water resources are abundant throughout
the country (WEPA). Though there is huge
potential of renewable energy worldwide only
27 % of world population obtains electricity
from renewable energy (Poudyal R, Loskot P et
al, 2019).

Nepal's estimated water resources is 225 billion

m3/km2/year. It is four times higher than

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world's average (World Bank, 2016). There are
altogether 6,000 rivers in Nepal with cumulative
length of 45,000 km. There are about 24 rivers
that are more than 100 km long and 1000 rivers
longer than 10 km in length. The major river
system of Nepal 1.6 Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali
and Mahakali and their tributaries are snow fed
and their flow regimes are governed by melting
of snow and glaciers (WEPA). As a result, river
flow is perennial and even in the dry season they

have sustained flow.

Nepal has huge potential of hydropower, but
about two percent of the 83,000 MW (technically
possible) of hydropower is currently harnessed.
42,000MW is feasible with no environmental
hazards (ICH, 2019). The available potential
could not be achieved due to political instability,
inability to attract FDIs and delay in project
execution in the last decades. Nepal's huge
potential in hydropower can be utilized to
enhance its economic growth not only increasing
internal consumption also fulfilling increasing

energy demand in South Asia.

The power system in Nepal is dominated by
Run-Of-River (ROR) hydropower plants. There
is a shortage of storage type hydropower plants.
The surplus energy available will increase from
month of April to November and thereafter
starts to decrease in each fiscal year. Nepal
became a power surplus country for the wet
season after the 456 MW Upper Tamakoshi
Hydropower Project, largest power plant, came
into operation in July 2021. Nepal has surplus
energy generation especially in the wet season
as other RoR plants are also being add up in the
system. In the wet season during 2022 Nepal's
spill energy reached up to 500 MW. On the other
hand, Nepal had to import about 2,826 GWh of

Energy in the dry season of 2021 (NEA, 2022).
This clearly shows that Nepal has imbalance
nature of demand and supply. To be specific
electrical demand seems to increase slightly in
the dry season on contrary generation seems to
be reduced almost by greater than one third of
installed generation capacity. Nepal's seasonal
surplus, daily surplus and peak shortage of
power/energy are expected to be balanced by
utilizing energy exchange and energy trading

with India and Bangladesh.

Legal Provisions

Constitution of Nepal, Article 51(f) Clause
3, mentions ensuring reliable and affordable
energy supply and proper utilization of energy
by generation and development of renewable
energy for the fulfillment of citizen's basic
needs. Nepal needs sufficient energy supply to

achieve this goal.

Nepal Electricity Authority Act 2041 was
formulated and Nepal electricity Authority was
established in 2042 withthe mainaim ofinvolving
in Generation, Transmission and Distribution
of electricity in reliable and adequate manner.
Electricity Act 2049 came in to existence after
feeling the need of private sectors involvement
11 the hydropower sector. Hydropower
Development Policy was published by the
government in 2058 which explains different
provisions related to hydropower development
and Distributions and Transmission of electricity
in effective and efficient manner. After feeling
the need of regulatory body in the electricity
sector Electricity Regulation Commission was
formed under the act of Electricity Regulation

Commission Act in 2074.

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Need of New Electricity Law

Previously, the electricity projects were either
owned by the unitary government or private
party (domestic or foreign investor), but with
the advent of the constitution that mandates
authority of the sub national governments to
administer their own electricity projects, a
wholesome electricity legislation that takes
on the spirit of sustainable federalism as well
as ensures the availability of affordable and

consistent energy was necessary.

It was essential to adopt a new legislation that
helped establish a structure where the sub
national governments could develop their own
energy projects as the present constitution of
Nepal states that Electricity is the concurrent
power of all government. In pursuit to achieve
such aspirations, the Ministry of Energy, Water
Resources and Irrigation has prepared the
Electricity Bill. The bill has been put forward
with the objective of distributing the rights and
responsibilities among the federal institutions
for developing and implementing electricity
development projects. Also, with the view of
making electricity accessible to every citizen
of the country, the Bill attempts to enhance
the electricity development projects through a
competitive model to fulfill the growing demand

for energy in the country.

Prospects of New Electricity Bill

Electricity Bill has been put forward with the
objective of making electricity accessible
for every citizen of the country. The Bill was
brought forward mainly with the objective of
fulfilling the need of a legislation that distributes
the rights and responsibilities among the federal
institutions and creates coordination among them

in regards to electricity development projects. As

Electricity Act 2049 was formed when country
was practicing central government system, this
Bill aims to decentralize licensing authority
among different layers of governments under
federal structure. The Electricity Bill holds great
prospects for electricity development in the
country however; it also misses out on certain
provisions that can be a challenge for electricity
development under the federal structure. Such
prospects and challenges for the bill are briefly

discussed in the sections below

As mentioned in Section 3 of the Bill, all three
tiers of governments can develop and operate
projects based on the production capacity of
the project. The local governments have been
provided authority to develop and operate
projects with capacity up to 3 Mega Watts,
the provincial governments with production
capacity ranging from 3 Mega Watt to 20 Mega
Watts while the authority lies with the federal
government regarding projects above 20 Mega
Watts. Likewise, Section 11 of the Bill provides
rights to grant license to each tier of government

based on the proposed capacity of hydro plant.

Production Capacity Authority to Grant License

Upto 3 MW Local Government
(Municipality/ Village Council)
3 MW to 20 MW
Upto 3 MW using
two or more rivers

Province Government

Province Government

or inter-provincial in

nature

Upto 20 MW using। Secretary of Ministry of
two or more rivers Energy, Water resources and
or inter provincial Irrigation

nature

More than 20 MW Secretary of Ministry of

and excluding above। Energy, Water resources and

provisions Irrigation
Table 1: Authority to grant license for different

capacity of hydropower

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The Electricity Bill has a separate section
(Section 5) for rural electrification and maintains
that rural electrification process can be initiated
with individual or coordinated action of all three
tiers of governments. By maintaining a sole
provision for rural electrification, the Bill has
granted authority to subnational governments
to initiate their own electricity development
projects as per their need. For this purpose, the
subnational governments can request technical
support from the federal government and are
even allowed to use the electricity royalty

received.

The Hydropower Development Policy, 2001
had maintained a provision of granting one
generation license term for hydropower projects
based on the nature of the projects. Projects
supplying for internal demand were granted
license for a term of 35 years while export
oriented projects were granted for 30 years.

The new Bill, however, prescribes a maximum

license period of 50 years. To that extent a
one-time 35-year license is granted in the first
instance which is then renewed for 15 years,
for projects generating electricity through dams
and 40 years for projects without the use of
dams. Similarly, the Bill ensures a competitive
model for granting licenses to all electricity
projects. However, according to the Directive,
related with the License of Electricity Projects,
provision for competitive bidding is limited to
projects included in the project bank.

Comparison of Electricity Bill with the
Electricity Act 1992

The electricity bill seems to be more progressive
than present electricity act prevailing in the
country. The present bill has addressed wider
perspectives of electricity sector and it has aimed
to make electricity sector more competitive
and efficient. Few comparisons among two are

presented in the table below.

Electricity Act 1992 Electricity Bill

Nepal Government
Granting License

hydropower developments

has
right to grant license of

All three level of government has right to
grant license

Rural Such provisions were not in। All three levels of governments can together
Electrification। the act or alone involve in rural electrification works
Rs 100/KW per annum and
2% of average tariff per unit - - - -
° छि pt Only written as specified in the bill (the
Royalty for 15 years from the date of
- i amounts shall be cleared in the Regulation
generation of electricity for
commercial purpose
Electricity generation through dams: 50 years
- Electricity generation without the use of
4: Survey of Electricity: 5 years गै छै
Validity of . dams: 40 years
. Generation, transmission or -_. .
License Other manners of electricity generation: 25

distribution: 50 years
years

Transmission, distribution and trade: 25 years

Competition on
Generation

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Hydropower Development shall be based on

No such provision .
competition

Subject Electricity Act 1992 Electricity Bill a

Any entity can be given, multiple licenses of - - -
License P No multiple licenses for same entity

generation, transmission and

distribution

Provisions on

Captive and No such provisions

No license is required for Captive and
cogeneration methods of production of

cogeneration electricity
- National Load Dispatch Center shall be
National Load . - -
- C No such provisions established for management of generation,
Dispatch Center . . ..
transmission and distribution of electricity
Challenges but the transfer of ownership to Nepal

Electricity Bull faces certain challenges for

implementation. Below are the identified

challenges in the proposed bill.

Challenges regarding inter-jurisdictional
water streams: The Proposed Bill gives
right to the province to solve the issues
related to water resources among
local government bodies. The concern
authority of province responsible for
such activity is not mentioned. However
the Bill gives authority to the Secretary
of Ministry of Energy, Water Resources
and Irrigation for solving issues related
to water resources sharing between

provinces.

Challenges Regarding Transfer of
Ownership: In Section 17 of Electricity
Bill, it is mentioned that after the end
of the license term of the project, the
ownership of electricity infrastructure
shall be transferred to Nepal
Government or any institution that will
be stated by the Nepal Government.
The local and provincial governments
are given authority to provide licenses

for development of hydro projects

Government will hamper the rights of
the subnational governments. Since
the subnational governments are given
the authority to provide licenses, the
ownership of the projects after license
expiration must also be transferred
to the respective governments as the
Constitution of Nepal in Schedule 6 and
8 grants power to provinces and local
level regarding province level electricity

and local level electricity respectively.

e Challenges of administration: The
Electricity Bill does not mention
whether the subnational governments are
provided the autonomy of determining
the fees and concessions for other
charges that may arrive or prevail for the

developers.

e The Bill focuses only on hydropower
and use of water resources. Bill is failing
to recognize the growing opportunities
present in the alternative energy sources.
The provinces which have less hydro
electricity generation capacity could
face it problematic. Provisions related to
other alternative energy sources need to
be added in the bill.

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e The Bill's lack of acknowledgement of
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
(AEPC) that promotes the use of
alternative energy technology for rural
electrification may bring about issues in
the development of alternative energy in

the country.

e The proposed Electricity Bill holds
provisions that provide the government
and any government chosen institution
a discretionary authority to award
projects to a foreign developer without
competition. This might lead to miss
management of the projects. Cheaper
projects may go to the hand of foreigners
and Nepalese developers may be forced

to choose more costly projects.

e The Electricity Bill also fails 10
incorporate projects that fall under
the jurisdiction of Investment Board
of Nepal. As per the Public Private
Partnership and Investment Act, 2019,
the projects having capacity of more
than 200 MW shall be implemented by
the Investment Board but the Bill fails to

incorporate such projects.

Reforms

Few reforms that could make the electricity bill
more competitive and result oriented and help
the electricity sector to foster in the country are

listed below.

e The provision regarding charging of
license fees by sub national government
should be stated in the bill.

e The concern authority of province

responsible for solving the issues

between the local bodies regarding the

use of water should be stated in the law.

As the local and provincial governments
are given authority to provide licenses
for development of hydro projects, the
provision of transfer of ownership to
these sub national government after
completion of license period should be

stated in the law.

The Bill should provide the provision
of other alternative energy resources
like solar, wind etc. regarding the study
of environmental impacts and other

technical standards.

The  Bill's should acknowledge
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
(AEPC) that promotes the use of
alternative energy technology for rural
electrification and make it more strong
institution for rural electrification

purpose.

The provisions of giving hydropower
project to foreign developer without
competition should be reconsidered
as this might de motivate domestic

hydropower developer.

The provision regarding land acquisition
especially for transmission 1116
construction and use of Right of Way

should be mentioned in the new law.

The use of government land and forest
land for construction of hydropower
and transmission line should be further
simplified. Tree cutting approval
procedure for construction of projects
should be simplified.

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e The provision regarding license holding the old acts and policies should be changed or
period of private hydropower should be modified as per the orientation of constitution.
clearly stated in the new act. The present Electricity Act was commenced

Th - तु, about 40 years ago so it needs modifications and
७ ९ rovision _regardin iving 4 - as
P 8 8 ४ it should be in line with the present Constitution

tion to th ll hyd are
compensation to the small Aycropower of Nepal. The present constitution of Nepal has

lant if th laced by bi ._.
plant 1 CY are Teplaced bY O1Sser kept the Electricity sector as concurrent power

t lant should be stated 1
StOTASe POWEE Plant SHOWED' २६६० Wn of all the levels of government and new act

th law. i
© new law should be formulated accordingly. The new act

Conclusion should be able to address the present problems।। f electricity sector and should play positi
As the formulation of new policy, rules and OF ९९८ एल» sector and 3006 play Positive

- - . role in the hydropower development of the
regulations are ongoing process, they obviously

- - - country which is the natural resources available
need correction and modifications as per the

. - abundance in the country and its effective use for
situation and changed circumstances. As the

- - - roduction of electricity could lead the country
country has adopted federalism since long time, P y y

in the path of development and prosperity.

References

1. THA, 2024, Hydropower Status Report, Retrieved from https://assets-global.website-files.
com/5£749e4b9399c80b5e42 1384/62c402eb2af8db8431332d62_ THA-2022-Hydropower-
Status-Report.pdf

2. The World Bank, 2016, Alternative energy promotion Centre. Renewable energy capacity
needs assessment — Nepal

3. रि Vaidya et al, 2021, "The Role of hydropower in south asia's energy future", /nternational
Journal of water Resource Development, Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
full/10.1080/07900627.2024

4. Poudyal R, Loskot P et al, 2019, "Mitigating the current energy crisis in Nepal with renewable
energy sources", Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 116, (https://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S 1364032119305969)

5. ICH, 2019, Energy Situation in Nepal, Retrieved from https://tekut.no/wp  content/
uploads/2019/09/Country-Presentation-Nepal-2019.pdf

6. WEPA, 2020, State of Water Resources Retrieved from http://www.wepadb -net/policies /state/
nepal /state.htm

7. Renewables 2021, Global status Report Retrieved from https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/
uploads/2019/05/GSR2021 Full_Report.pdf

8. NEA, 2022, A year in review fiscal year 2020/21, Retrieved from https://www.nea.org.np/
admin/assets/uploads/annual_publications/Annual_ book _2078.pdf

9. NEA, 2024, A year in review fiscal year 2023/24, Retrieved from https://www.nea.org.np/
admin/assets/uploads/annual_publications/NEA_ Annual Report 2081 New.pdf

> fear vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Green Bonds in Nepal:
Unlocking Sustainable Finance
for a Greener Future

Introduction

Nepal is highly vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change due to its diverse geography,
fragile ecosystems, and_ climate-sensitive
economy. The country is already experiencing
a range of climate-related challenges, including
Rising Temperatures, Glacial Melt, Glacial Lake
Outburst Floods (GLOFs),
Landslides and Floods, Heatwaves in the Terai
etc. These challenges are compounded by

limited infrastructure, low adaptive capacity,

Erratic Rainfall,

and a high dependence on natural resources.
Addressing them requires urgent investment
in climate-resilient development, early warning
systems, and sustainable financing mechanisms
like green bonds.

Nepal's journey toward — environmental
sustainability and climate resilience hinges
on its ability to mobilize sustainable financing.
As a country highly vulnerable to climate
change, Nepal requires substantial investment
in renewable _—— energy, climate-resilient
infrastructure projects, provisions for disaster

preparedness, and green innovation.

In June 2025, Nepal validated its Integrated
National Financing Framework (INFF) Financing
Strategy, a landmark initiative aimed at aligning
flows with national development
priorities. The strategy

covers three major transformative themes,

financial
and environmental

Pro-employment growth, Climate Resilience

Nepal Stock Exchange Limited

Kul Chandra Rijal
Senior Officer

(NEPSE)

and Alignment with Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). This framework encourages the
use of innovative financial instruments such
as green bonds, climate funds, and public-
private partnerships to bridge the financing
gap and accelerate progress toward Nepal's
2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
targets.

A major milestone was the $60 million green
bond issuance by NMB Bank, supported by
IFC, British International Investment (BII), and
MetLife. This investment is expected to create
around 8,000 jobs, support electric vehicle
adoption and solar energy development and
finally strengthen Nepal's domestic capital
markets. This investment was made possible by
the strong collaboration between International
Finance Corporation (IFC) and the Government
of Nepal, to enhance the country's capital
markets through strategic policy developments
and regulatory reforms. It marks two others first
in the history of the country's financial sector: the
first thematic bond issuance in Nepal's capital
markets, and the first private placement of a
local issuer's bond by international investors,
paving the way for future issuances.

Sustainable financing not only enables Nepal
to reduce its carbon footprint but also helps
build a resilient economy that can withstand
climate shocks. It ensures that environmental
goals are not sidelined but integrated into the
core of national development planning. Green

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Bonds are governed by frameworks such as
the Green Bond Principles (GBP) issued by the
International Capital Market Association (ICMA),
which ensure transparency, accountability,

and environmental integrity. Issuers must
clearly define eligible projects, track the use
of funds, and report on environmental impact.
Globally, Green Bonds have become a vital
tool for financing the transition to a low-carbon
economy. They attract a growing pool of
environmentally conscious investors, including
development banks, funds, and
Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG)

focused institutions.

pension

Bonds
offer a promising avenue to fund climate-

In the context of Nepal, Green
resilient infrastructure and renewable energy
projects, aligning with national goals under
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and the Nationally Determined Contributions

(NDCs) to the Paris Agreement.

What are Green Bonds?

Green Bonds are a type of fixed-income
instrument specifically designed to raise capital
for projects that deliver environmental benefits.
Like traditional bonds, they offer regular interest
payments and return the principal at maturity,
but the key distinction lies in their use of
proceeds, which are exclusively allocated to
green projects. Under Green Bonds projects
typically includes renewable energy (solar, wind,
hydro), energy efficiency, clean transportation,
sustainable water and waste management,
climate adaptation and resilience.

These bonds function like traditional bond
investors receive fixed returns over time—but
they are distinguished by their environmental
purpose and

Issuers must disclose how the funds are used

transparency requirements.

and report on the environmental impact of the
financed projects.

Global Context

Since the first Green Bond was issued by the
World Bank in 2008, the market has grown
exponentially. By 2024, the global Green Bond
market had surpassed $2 trillion in cumulative
contributions from
governments, corporations, and multilateral

issuance, with major
institutions. Key frameworks guiding Green
Bond issuance include Green Bond Principles
(GBP) by the International Capital Market
Association (ICMA), European Union Green
Bond Standard and Climate Bonds Standard by

the Climate Bonds Initiative

Countries like China, the United States, Japan
and members of the European Union are
leading issuers, using Green Bonds to fund
their transition to low-carbon economies. These
instruments are also increasingly popular
among Environmental, Social and Governance
(ESG) focused investors, who seek both

financial returns and environmental impact.

Japan has introduced the world's _ first
government-labeled transition bonds, known
as Japan Climate Transition Bonds of ¥20
trillion (approx. $144 billion USD) over the
next decade as part of its broader Green
Transformation (GX) strategy. These bonds
are designed to finance projects that support a
gradual and credible transition toward a carbon-
neutral society by 2050 including Hydrogen and
ammonia fuel infrastructure, energy efficiency
upgrades in heavy industry, carbon capture
and storage (CCS), fuel switching technologies
etc. The main purpose of this is to fund public-
private investments in sectors that are currently
carbon-intensive but are committed to long-
term decarbonization. For developing countries
like Nepal, Green Bonds offer a_ strategic
opportunity to mobilize climate finance, attract
international and accelerate
sustainable development.

investment,

E> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Key Features of Green Bonds

e Earmarked for Environmentally Friendly
Projects: The proceeds from Green Bonds
are exclusively used to finance or refinance
projects that deliver clear environmental
benefits. These may include renewable

(solar, hydro),

efficiency, clean transportation, sustainable

energy wind, energy
water and waste management, climate

change adaptation etc.

e =6Interest
Structure:

and __—~ Principal
Investors

Repayment
receive fixed or
floating interest payments (coupons) over
the life of the bond. The principal amount
is repaid at maturity. The financial risk and
return profile are like conventional bonds,
making them attractive to a broad range of
investors.

e Transparency and Reporting: Issuers are
expected to clearly define eligible green
projects, track and report on the use of
proceeds and provide regular updates
on the environmental impact of funded
projects.

e Third-Party Verification: Many Green
Bonds are reviewed by independent third
parties to ensure alignment with recognized
standards such as the ICMA Green Bond

Principles or the Climate Bonds Standard.

e Market Appeal: Green Bonds attract ESG-
focused investors and institutions seeking
to align their portfolios with sustainability
goals, often resulting in high demand and
competitive pricing.

e Alignment of Green Bonds with SDGs:
Green Bonds directly support SDG 7 by
financing: renewable energy projects such
as solar, wind, and hydropower, energy

buildings,

infrastructure

efficiency
industries,

improvements in

and public

and clean energy access in rural and
underserved communities. By channeling
capital into clean energy, Green Bonds help
reduce reliance on fossil fuels, lower energy
costs, and expand access to sustainable
power sources.

Green Bonds are a key tool for SDG 13 as
they fund climate change mitigation projects
that reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Support climate adaptation like
flood control, resilient agriculture, and

efforts

early warning systems. They also promote
accountability through impact reporting,
ensuring that financed projects contribute
measurable progress toward climate goals.

Green Bond Regulatory Framework in
Nepal

The Securities Board of Nepal (SEBON)
plays a central regulatory role in the issuance
and oversight of Green Bonds in Nepal. Its
responsibilities include:

Regulatory Approval

SEBON grants formal approval for the
issuance of Green Bonds under the Securities
Registration and Issuance Regulations, 2073. In
May 2025, SEBON approved Nepal's first-ever
Green Bond issuance worth NPR 5 billion with a
seven-year maturity to the Nepal Infrastructure
Bank Limited (NIFRA), marking a significant
milestone in the country's sustainable finance

journey

Ensuring Environmental Integrity

SEBON mandates that the proceeds from Green
Bonds be used exclusively for environmentally
friendly and sustainable development projects.
These must be aligned with The Nepal Green
Finance Taxonomy 2024 (issued by Nepal
Rastra Bank) and The Green Bond Principles
(GBP) of the International Capital Market
Association (ICMA)

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Transparency and Monitoring

Issuers are required to maintain transparency
in fund utilization and provide regular reporting
on the environmental impact of the financed
projects. SEBON ensures that these standards
are upheld to build investor confidence and
market credibility.

Market Development

By facilitating Green Bond issuance, SEBON is
helping to develop Nepal's capital market as a
platform for sustainable finance. This supports
national goals such as Net Zero Emissions and
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

The Government of Nepal has made
significant commitments to promote green and
sustainable finance in its FY 2082/83 budget.
Key provisions include:

Policy and Structural Arrangements

In line with the Nepal Green Finance Taxonomy
2024, the budget outlines the development of
necessary policy frameworks and institutional
structures to facilitate the issuance of Green
Bonds and Sustainable Development Bonds

Mobilization of Private Capital

The government aims to mobilize private
sector investment through Green Bonds,
encouraging environmentally friendly projects
in sectors such as renewable energy,

clean transportation, and climate-resilient
infrastructure

Local Currency-Linked Bonds

To attract international investors while
minimizing currency risk, the budget proposes
the issuance of local currency-linked bonds in
global markets. This is expected to enhance
Nepal's access to climate finance and foreign

capital

Nepal Green Finance Taxonomy 2024

Launched by Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) in
October 2024,
standardized classification system for green

this taxonomy provides a

investments across sectors such as energy,
transport, agriculture, forestry, and construction.
lts key objectives include:

e Climate Change Mitigation: Supporting
projects that reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, such as renewable energy and
energy efficiency.

e Climate Change Adaptation:
climate-resilient infrastructure and disaster

Financing

risk reduction.

e Natural Resource Conservation: Promoting
sustainable of forests,

biodiversity, and water resources.

managemen t

e Pollution Prevention and Control: Funding
initiatives that reduce air, water, and soil
pollution.

The taxonomy helps financial institutions,
investors, and regulators identify, assess, and
report green investments, ensuring that capital
flows toward projects thatcontribute meaningfully

to Nepal's climate and sustainability goals.

ICMA Green Bond Principles (GBP)

The International Capital Market Association
(ICMA) Green Bond Principles are globally
recognized voluntary guidelines that ensure
transparency and integrity in the Green Bond
market. They are structured around four core
components:

e Use of Proceeds: Funds must be allocated
to clearly defined green projects.

e Process for Project Evaluation and

Selection: Issuers must outline criteria and
decision-making processes.

[शूट बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

e Management of Proceeds: Proceeds should
be tracked and managed separately.

e Reporting: Regular updates on _ fund
allocation and environmental impact are
required.

Nepal's Green Bond frameworks, including
the one used for its first public Green Bond
issuance, are designed to align with both the
Nepal Green Finance Taxonomy 2024 and the
ICMA GBP, ensuring credibility and investor
confidence.

Nepal Rastra Bank's ESRM Guideline

Guideline on Environmental and Social Risk
Management (ESRM) for Banks and Financial
Institutions, 2022 issued by Nepal
Bank (NRB), provides a structured framework

Rastra

for Banks and Financial Institutions (9715) to
identify, assess, and manage environmental
and social (E&S) risks in their lending and
investment activities

Key Objectives
e Integrate E&S risk considerations into the
credit risk management process.

e Ensure _ that
informed by potential environmental and
social impacts.

financing decisions are

e Promote sustainable and _ responsible

banking practices in Nepal.

This guideline supports Nepal's broader goals

of green finance, climate resilience, and
sustainable development, and complements
instruments like Green Bonds by ensuring that
financed projects meet robust environmental

and social standards.

Recent Developments in Green Bonds in
Nepal

On June 1, 2025, Nepal Infrastructure
Bank Limited (NIFRA) issued Nepal's first

publicly listed Green Bond, totaling NPR 5
billion (approx. USD 36 million) with a 7-year
tenure and 6% annual interest rate. The bond
proceeds exclusively funded on renewable
energy projects. Approved by Nepal Rastra
Bank (NRB) and Securities Board of Nepal
(SEBON).

Landmark Private Green Bond by NMB Bank
In a groundbreaking milestone for sustainable

Nepal,
Corporation (IFC) as anchor investor, along

finance — in International Finance
with British International Investment (81) and
investment of $60

million in the country's first-ever green bond

MetLife announced an

issuance by NMB Bank. The investment is set
to drive significant economic growth by backing
initiatives like the adoption of Electric Vehicles
(EVs) and harnessing Nepal's potential to
develop solar energy, both supported by
favorable government policies.

These issuances, marking a major step in
expanding Nepal's capital market to include
climate-aligned financial instruments. These
developments Nepal's
commitment to green finance, climate resilience,

reflect growing

and sustainable development.

Role of Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) in
the Green Bond Ecosystem in Nepal

The Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA), as the
country's primary public utility
for electricity generation, transmission, and
distribution, plays a strategic role in Nepal's
emerging Green Bond ecosystem through the

responsible

following grounds.

e Project Pipeline for Green Financing:
NEA manages and develops large-scale
renewable energy projects, particularly

hydropower, solar PV, and smart grid

infrastructure, which are ideal candidates

for Green Bond financing. These projects

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT Ea

align with the environmental criteria set by
the Nepal Green Finance Taxonomy 2024
and the ICMA Green Bond Principles.

e Institutional Capacity and Credibility:
As a government-owned entity with strong
operational track records such as ending
nationwide load shedding and improving
financial
institutional credibility that can attract both
domestic and

performance—NEA offers

international investors to
Green Bonds.

e Grid Modernization and Smart Energy
Initiatives: NEA is actively implementing
smart meters, SCADA systems, and digital
billing, which contribute to energy efficiency
and reduced carbon emissions. These

initiatives can be financed through Green

Bonds, supporting Nepal's climate goals.

० Export-Oriented Renewable
With Nepal beginning to export surplus
electricity to India and Bangladesh during
monsoon months, NEA is positioned to
scale up cross-border clean energy trade,
which can be supported by Green Bond
investments in transmission infrastructure

Energy:

e Potential Issuer or Partner: While NEA
has not yet issued its own Green Bond, it
could act as a direct issuer of Green Bonds
for public infrastructure projects and partner
with institutions like Nepal Infrastructure
Bank Limited (NIFRA) or NMB Bank to
channel Green Bond proceeds into NEA-
led initiatives.

NEA's involvement is crucial for ensuring that
Green Bonds in Nepal are effectively deployed,
technically sound, and aligned with national
energy and climate strategies.

Challenges and Opportunities of Green
Bonds in Nepal

Nepal faces both challenges and opportunities

in promoting green bonds, particularly

considering its high climate vulnerability, vast
hydropower potential, and evolving sustainable
finance landscape.

Challenges

Limited Market Awareness: Many investors
and institutions in Nepal are still unfamiliar with
Green Bonds and their benefits, leading to low
initial demand and cautious participation.

Project Pipeline Readiness: Identifying and
preparing a robust pipeline of eligible green
projects that meet international standards (e.g.,
ICMA GBP) remains a challenge for issuers.

Regulatory and Technical Capacity: While
SEBON and NRB have made progress, Nepal's
financial institutions need to build more capacity
and enthusiasm to evaluate, monitor, and report
on environmental impacts effectively.

Currency and Investment Risks: Attracting
foreign investment in local currency bonds
mechanisms (0

requires mitigate foreign

exchange rate risks and ensure investor

confidence.

Verification and Reporting Standards:
Ensuring through _ third-party
verification and impact reporting is resource-

transparency

intensive and requires specialized expertise.
Opportunities

Strong Institutional Support: Regulatory
bodies like SEBON and NRB, along with
international partners such as GGGI, KOICA,
IFC, and BIl, are actively supporting Green
Bond development.

Successful Pilot Issuances: The issuance of
Nepal's first public Green Bond by NIFRA and
private Green Bond by NMB Bank in 2025 has
set a precedent and built market confidence

Alignment with Climate Goals: Green Bonds
help Nepal meet its Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) and SDG _ targets,
especially in clean energy and climate resilience.

E> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

International Investment Attraction: The
NMB Bank issuance attracted $60 million from
IFC, BIl, and MetLife, demonstrating Nepal's
potential to mobilize global capital for green
development

Public-Private Collaboration: Partnerships
between government agencies, banks, and
international organizations are creating a
supportive ecosystem for scaling up Green
Bond issuance.

Call to Action

To fully realize the potential of Green Bonds,
coordinated action is needed from हौ
stakeholders:

NEA (Nepal Electricity Authority) should
actively explore Green Bond financing for

hydropower, solar, and grid modernization
projects.
Government agencies must continue

strengthening regulatory frameworks and

incentivizing green investments.

Investors, both domestic and international, are
encouraged to support Nepal's green transition
by investing in credible, impact-driven bonds.

Financial institutions and other issuers
should build capacity for environmental and
social risk management and green project
evaluation.

Green Bonds offer more than just capital—they
offer a vision: a Nepal powered by clean energy,
protected from climate risks, and committed
to sustainable development. With the right
policies, partnerships, and public engagement,
Nepal can become a regional leader in green
finance, setting an example for other developing

nations.

Conclusion

Green Bonds have emerged as a transformative
financial tool that bridges the gap between
economic development and_ environmental
sustainability. In Nepal, their introduction
marks a pivotal shift toward climate-resilient
infrastructure, renewable energy expansion,

and inclusive green growth.

By aligning with global standards such as the
ICMA Green Bond Principles and _ national
frameworks like the Nepal Green Finance
Bonds
transparency, accountability, and measurable

Taxonomy 2024, Green ensure

environmental impact. The successful issuances
by NIFRA and NMB Bank in 2025 demonstrate
Nepal's readiness to engage with international
climate finance and deepen its domestic capital
market.

References

www.nepalstock.com.np
www.sebon.gov.np
www.nia.go v.np
www.sharesansar.com
www.nea.org.np
www.nmb.com.np
www.nifrabank.com
www.icmagroup.org

www.nrb.org.np
. Nepal Green Finance Taxonomy 2024

po oN DY FY bP

Re
oO

. NRB Guidelines on Environmental and
Social Risk Management (ESRM) for
Bank and Financial Institutions, 2022

eR
eR

12. Securities Registration and Issuance

Regulations, 2073

13. International Capital Market Association
Green Bond Principles (GBP)

14. www.ifc.org/en/pressroom/2025/nepal-
signs-landmark-green-bond-deal-to-
drive-sustainable-growth

15. https://www.japan.go.jp/kizuna/2024/09/
climate_transition_bonds.html

16. Nepal Budget FY 2025/26

17. https://grjapan.com/sites/default/
files/content/articles/files/gr_ japan_
overview_of_gx_plans_january_ 2023.
pdf

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT Ei

Private Sector in Nepal's
Hydro Power System

New Electricity Act-1992:

The new Electricity Act-1992 opened the
door to the private sector for their business
11 the hydroelectric power generation
system. It has ended the monopoly of NEA
in the electricity generation sector. The
hydropower developing company, domestic
or foreign or join venture can get license for
30 years. It has to prepare feasibility report,
Detail Project report & environmental
related reports & get approval from the
concerned authority prior to begin the

Narendra Malla
Engineer

construction. There are several agreements
that the developer should do, out of which
the PPA is the major one, which fixes the
rates of energy. NEA is the sole buyer of
the electricity from the private sector. The
government has fixed the rates for RoR &
PRoR plants for wet season & dry season.
The price for PRoR varies with the hours of
supply for peak hours.

Contributions of Pvt. Sector in Today's
Nepal:

a) Contribution in Electricity Supply:

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER FROM IPPS WITH TIME.

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md। in। rm rm m™ [8 Hi md md my md [हा। md। my a।
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Wy wo co br ut a [8 Hil Im wo r- oo un m2 — om my
oa o a =m = गा गा गा दा = 4 = 4 cy ml ml 7५
[सक ma a iz = = i = = m= m m m m mi mm
md mm md Poy Poy a my ia rd ra a। rd Lat ml od msl

Fig.1: Power development from IPPs.

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Many hydropower developing companies
got licenses & engaged in generation
business. With time, the generation had
increased & the supply situation had
improved a lot. The chart shows the
development of electric power from 148
MW to 1914 MW from the private sector in
the last 18 years.

b) Job Employments:

It has created thousands of new jobs for
consulting, construction & others relating
to hydropower projects every year. The
young engineers got the opportunities to
get experienced in hydropower related
jobs. With short-term skill development
training the jobless young people got

employed & secured their future in
hydropower construction works. The chart
attached shows the no. of jobs created in
IPPs projects for permanent & temporary
positions. The chart shows the jobs created
in the hydro power sector from the IPPs is
about 2,35,900 in a year. Fig. 2: Jobs in
Hydro Power in IPPs.

13 trillion
319
1144 छ114111 1171
हि 2111 छ
पाषाछा एताकााज पया Proj ect

PPOpe ls]

Fig.3: Investment from IPPs.

c)

१)

Investment Opportunities: Nepal
has entered the era of electricity
development with the participation of
private sector, which has created the
opportunities for the investment in hydro
power sector. Khimti Power Plant, 60
MW cap. with Norwegian investment
& Bhote Koshi Power Plant, 45 MW
cap. with investment from the USA
were regarded as the first hydropower
projects built with foreign investments.

Since then, more than NRS. 1400
Billlon has been invested in the
hydropower sector from the Nepali
Government side & the private sector
together, out of which the private sector
occupies more than 80 percent. The
Fig. attached shows the investment
from the IPPs amounts NRs. 13 Trillion
in 319 projects, out of which some
are already commissioning the power,
some are under construction & the
some are in preparatory stage.

Skilled Manpower: The development
of a hydro power project needs many
manpower belonging to the various
disciplines from the begin of project
planning to the plant operation.
The young people employed in the
project, get the opportunity to be
familiar, learn & practice the various
techniques particularly related to the
construction works like the tunnelling
under the supervision of the senior or
the supervisor, that make them skilled.
Similarly, for design people the project
gives the opportunities to see & learn
the site-specific conditions in project
design. Only the practice makes a man
perfect. It should be regarded as the big
achievement that the projects in Nepal
nowadays are executed independently
from the expatriates & foreign civil
contractors.

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e) Confidence Building: experienced with such challenges. This
is an important development for doing

The hydropower projects, like other still bigger projects.

infra-structure development projects
but due to the specific characteristics of f)
the construction are more complicated,
based on the specific conditions of
the site & have to be involved the
multi-contractors. The hydropower
constructions have underground works
liketunneling, underground powerhouse,
which are associated with uncertainties
due to mainly geological conditions &
may need the change of construction
methods in the middle of construction.
The Nepali contractors are getting

Infra-structure Building:

The projects are mostly in the remote
areas, which need to be connected to
the nearest road head by building the
roads in the very beginning to enable
the contractor to bring the materials &
machines to the site. Building access
roads increases the road connectivity
& helps to develop the local market for
the agricultural products & similar other
products.

g) Community Benefit Sharing:

IPRS' Comeribution in Sec) Dovel opment:

5111

HRT

ri

hn

a।_।।। = —।। __

Rta Tyr bey dei

[untied dna। 1011101-] 5 थि ति Ip lh In: na।। 1

ape

Festal 141. बताए [2] 1 Ha

Pre: pert 'Leaner 1१11-11-41 -१

Fig. 4: IPPs contribution in Social Development.

With the construction of access roads
in the project area the local people will
be benefitted to bring their agricultural
products to the market, to access the
necessary service centers like hospitals,
schools, administration offices etc. For
the construction, many people from
the various parts of the country come,
live & work in the project area, which
promotes the development of shops,
guesthouses, restaurants & the market.

h)

Besides, the project conducts several
short-term training programs for skill
development to the young people to
enable them employed in the project.

Revenue Increase:

Total contribution in the revenue
collection from the energy sector in the
economic production of the country is
estimated at NRs.91.43 Billion in the FY
2080/2081. Based on the Electricity Act-

[६४ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३५ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

1992, the companies pay the royalty
according to the installed capacity
& annual energy generation. The
following chart shows the growth of the

2). Upto 5 years of commercial

operation:

॥ भग
A Ananual (णूारा pouty: 1 ति Sas. UMW
2. पापा Ready. मि (गाए

छौ, After उ years of enmuercial
operation:

=

हात राग लगाए Lo Lakh ARs ली
४. कण Reynliyy: 1% Cit.

Royalties in 1175. Crores

F

1) Economic Empowerment of people:

1) Sharing of Royalty: 1016 royalty
paid by the hydropower companies is
distributed as follows:

= Federal Government:46 percent.
» Provincial Government:24 percent.

= Local Government:30 percent.

2) Equity Investment: According to Local
Government Act the project affected
local communities should be given 15
percent of the company equity share &
public should get 10 percent.

Emil SOU
Ae।।
ed '
AOC
2SQHt '
20 Cite
PSC:

Loony T3207

Se ' i

ik
2015

Power Purthase Cost io ना. ARs.

2016 2017

lili

I।।

2018 2010 २0२0 २021

royalty payment from the hydropower
companies from NRs. 110 Crores to
NRs.350 Crores in the last 10 years
period.

Royalty paid from Hydropower plants

1181
शि
'I

ia fe

173 गा ति डा जागा तल जति गि अकाल] Be।

Fiscal Year

g. 5: Royalty from IPPs.

3. Risks associated for the private sector:
a) Price Escalation:

The price escalation & the resulting
cost increases in the major construction
materials like cement & reinforcement
steel create problems 95 the
construction of the hydro power projects
take relatively long time. Most of the
hydro power projects are executed in
EPC-Model, in which the Cost & time
are already locked in the beginning
& the payments are done as per the
schedule.

b) NEA Payments:

Power Puochase Cost in वरण. ATiTDhon

f4144
23473
{0540
T2401

202) F023 F024

Lieto

Fig.6: Power purchase from IPPs.

९)

५)

९)

NEA is the only partner that buys the
IPPs production at the rate fixed by
the government, but the payments &
PPA closure are fully dependent on the
business of NEA. Any delay in 1785
payment may affect the schedule of
debt & interest payment for IPPs.

US$ Exchange Rates:

116 electrical installations & other
electro-mechanical & hydro-mechanical
installations for the project will come
from the foreign countries, which needs
the payment in US$. Any increase
in exchange rates of US$ will cause
additional financial burden for the
project.

Design & Construction associated
Risks:

The imperfection & inaccuracies in the
design & construction of the hydropower
project may affect the operation of
the plant if they are not treated with
proper methods. The project design
& construction are very site specific in
our Himalayan geology associated with
many certainties.

Hydrology:

The flows in the rivers vary with the
seasons. The hydro projects use the
flows for generation of the power, for
which the hydrological computations
are done using the data from Hydrology
& Metrological Dept. & data collected in
the site over a certain period. It is very
necessary to check the quality of data
& methods before the flow for design
purposes are recommended. It was
noticed in the past that the powerhouse
needed to shut down because of very
low flow in the river, which is not enough
to operate the plant.

f)

g)

h)

Geology:

The natural hazards caused by the
geological conditions like the landslides
& the rock falls in the area where the
project structures are located may
cause problems in the plant operation.
The best way is the identification of such
hazards & simply to avoid by selecting
the alternatives.

Flood Hazards:

Normally, the major & important
structures of the hydro power plant are
located near by the river, the safety of
which depends on the flows. It is not
to exclude that big floods may impact
their stabilities or may cause hazards
like slope failures, heavy scouring
or overflooding the structures. It was
observed in the past that floods of much
higher magnitudes had occurred &
damages were done in headworks area.

Earthquake Hazards:

Our Country, Nepal is prone to the
earthquakes with higher magnitudes
due to its geotechnical conditions.
Earthquakes being beyond _ the
earlier prediction or avoidance can
be only considered in engineering
& construction of the project. The
earthquake hazards like rock falls need
to be taken into consideration while
planning & engineering the project.

Political Instability associated Risks:

Above all, the political stability is the main
one that controls everything. Frequent
changes in government team may
develop the inconsistencies in policy &
practices, which may not be favorable
to IPPs. The political stability is the most
important & necessary for long-term
project with huge investments.

E> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

4. Enhancement of

the Operational

Environment:

(a) Financial Reforms:

(b)

Access to Low-Interest Financing:
The government should encourage
concessional loans and establish a
dedicated hydropower development
fund to provide low-interest financing
for IPPs.

Foreign Investment Incentives:
Policies should be streamlined to attract
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in
hydropower, including tax breaks and
repatriation of profits.

Risk-Sharing Mechanisms: Establish
risk-sharing mechanisms such as
guarantees or insurance to protect
investors from uncertainties like policy
changes or project delays.

Regulatory and Policy Reforms:

Stable and Transparent Policies:
Ensure consistency in hydropower
policies by minimizing frequent
regulatory changes and offering long-
term guarantees for investment security.

Simplified Licensing Process: Create
a single-window clearance system to
expedite approvals for power projects.

Flexible Power PurchaseAgreements:
Move towards market driven PPAs with
competitive pricing and indexation to
inflation for better investor confidence.

Tax Incentives and Duty Exemptions:
Reduce or exempt customs duties and
VAT on hydropower-related imports and
construction materials.

(c) Infrastructure Development:

Strengthening Transmission
Infrastructure: The government should
prioritize the construction of high-
capacity transmission lines to prevent
energy spillage and improve nationwide
distribution.

Regional Grid Connectivity:
Strengthen cross-border electricity trade
with India and Bangladesh to create a
larger market for Nepal's hydropower.

Public-Private Partnerships for
Infrastructure: Encourage PPP models
for developing transmission networks
and access roads to hydropower sites.

(d) Technical and Market Reforms:

Power Generation:
Promote a mix of reservoir-based,
run-of-river, and pumped — storage
hydropower projects to ensure year-
round electricity supply.

Diversifying

Grid Modernization: Implement smart
grid technologies and battery storage
systems to manage supply fluctuations
and enhance reliability.

Encouraging Private Power Trading:
Allow private sector participation in
electricity trading to create a competitive
market beyond NEA''s monopoly.

Regional Energy Cooperation:
Strengthen agreements with India and
Bangladesh to facilitate bulk electricity
exports and long-term power contracts.

Electricity Distribution: The
government should open door to the
private sector in electricity distribution
sector, so that a consumer has multiple
choices of electricity connection & can
have what it is preferred.

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT ४ ६७

e) Social and Environmental Reforms:

Community Benefit Sharing: Ensure
local communities receive a share of
project benefits, including employment
opportunities and infrastructure
development.

Sustainable Hydropower Practices:
Implement strict environmental
standards to minimize ecological
damage and ensure sustainable river
management.

5.

Improvement in

Resettlement and Compensation
Policies: Establish fair and transparent
compensation mechanisms for affected
communities to reduce conflicts.

Government's

Hydropower related Policies:

Nepal has huge hydropower potential over
83,000 MW but has only developed about
3,000 MW. While recent policies have
encouraged private investment and cross-
border electricity trade, several challenges

SN Subject

Strengthening
Private Sector
Participation.

Improving
Power
Transmission
Infrastructure.

Shifting Focus
to Reservoir-
Based
Hydropower.

. Limited

. Nepal

still hinder rapid hydropower development.
Here's how Nepal's hydropower policies
can be improved:

Issues

. Bureaucratic delays in licensing

and approvals.

. High upfront investment costs

and lack of financing options.

incentives for private
developers.

generates surplus
electricity during the Monsoon
but faces power shortages in
winter due to lack of reservoir-
based projects.

. Weak transmission infrastructure

causes power evacuation
issues—many projects produce
electricity that cannot be
transported.

. Limitedcross-bordertransmission

lines restrict exports.

. Nepal mostly develops run-of-

river (ROR) hydropower, which
depends on river flow and
generates excess __ electricity
in monsoon but fails to supply
enough in dry seasons.

. Lack of reservoir-based projects

causes seasonal energy deficits.

2. Establish

Suggest
1. Simplify approval processes' by
reducing bureaucratic red tape.

a one-window clearance
system for faster project approvals.

3. Offer tax incentives and subsidies for

private hydropower projects.

Encourage public-private partnerships
(PPP) and joint ventures' with
international investors.

. Invest in high-voltage transmission
lines to connect hydropower projects
with demand centers.

. Expand cross-border grid connections
with India, China, and Bangladesh to
enhance electricity trade.

3. Develop regional transmission hubs to

integrate with the South Asian energy
market.

. Prioritize storage and reservoir-based
hydropower to ensure year-round
electricity supply.

. Provide _ financial
developers investing — in
projects.

. Promote multi-purpose hydropower
projects that support irrigation, flood
control, and drinking water.

incentives for
storage

saga / VIDYUT NN ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

७०५४. 5 Plan to develop 28500-Megawatt
Cap. Hydropower Plants

The Government of Nepal declared an
ambitious plan to develop the hydropower
to 28500 MW to 2035 AD. According to
the studies, the total domestic demand
depending on the growth rate, may be
as high as 13500 MW. It is assumed that
the growth rate will not be less than 7.20
% in average. The power trade with our
neighboring country India will grow 15000
MW.

The present infra-structures in the power
transmission & distribution system will not
be enough to deliver the high power to the
consumption centers. Together with the
construction of new hydropower projects,
building new transmission lines, sub-
stations, distribution lines & strengthening
the existing structures will be needed to
increase the capacity of the system. The
preliminary estimate is that it will need
about US$ 46.50 Billion for its execution,
out which the amount US$ 40 Billion will
be needed for power generation projects
& US$ 5 Billion will be needed for building
new transmission lines, sub-stations &
distribution lines. The strengthening works
of the existing transmission lines, sub-
stations & distribution lines will be needed
other US$ 1.5 Billion.

For the programs of social & community
development in the project areas, the
budget to be spent is equal to about 4 pc
of the total project cost, which is equal to
1.86 Billion US Dollars approximately. Such
a huge amount will be spent for building the
infra-structures, road connectivity, buildings
for schools, health posts, providing skill
development trainings will contribute to
change the economy & lifestyle of the
people. Besides, it creates Thousands of
new job opportunities for the young people,

for which the people come from the various
parts of the country. This will promote the
small business-like shops, workshops,
guesthouses, shops, restaurants, lodges
& Hotels. It all will be very effective in
improving the economy of the people.

The project provides the opportunity for
equity investment in the company for
the local communities & public. Royalty
sharing to the units of local government
will promote the activities like river training,
flood protection, erosion control etc. This all
will be very effective to bring big changes
in the life of the people & conditions of the
area.

The development of the projects involves
huge construction activities, which need
construction materials like cement & steel.
It will boost up the industries producing
those materials, transportation companies,
project consulting services, workshops &
business enterprises.

Conclusion:

a) Commitment for timely completion of
TRL Construction: The government of
Nepal must concentrate to execute the
Construction of Transmission Line
Projects as per schedule, for which
the issues raised by the local people at
various times should be addressed in
time. It affects the mechanism the IPPs
production to get connected with the
grid after commissioning the power. It is
the NEA's responsibility to construct the
required transmission lines for the grid
connections to the IPPs power plants.

b) Frequent Changes in Policies: The
hydropower development is a long-term
business with a huge investment in the
very beginning. Frequent changes in
policies & procedures may distract the

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT Ea

investors. A stable policy is needed,
according to which the investors put the
money in hydropower. With the frequent
changes in the policies the investors will
be discouraged.

c) Multi-national investment friendly
atmosphere: It is obvious that only the
internal investment is not sufficient to
achieve the goals of making 28500 MW
hydropower development, the multi-
national investment is very required
& will boost up the development.
With the necessary amendment in
the existing policies & the working
procedures Government should make
the environment very friendly for the
multinational investment, which helps
to bring the foreign companies in
hydropower.

d) Market extension: The government

should secure & extend the market for
the growing electricity production. There
are many projects under construction
that are scheduled to commissioning
in couple of years. For IPPs, NEA is
the only buyer & had to depend on the
NEA's business.

More consumption of Electricity:
The exceptionally low value of per
capita consumption of _ electricity
should be increased by promoting
more consumption with applying new
tariff rates. This has become extremely
important, as the production from the
private sector will be increasing in the
coming days with the completion of the
projects, that are under construction.

Per Capila Consumplion of Rleelricily per yveur-persan -2022 /2023

1411

117 eT

15 211101

रि। 47.1(171
नि [71

Taciqycy

a
mi
&
गी
QO
ui
[
गी
a
नन
2
पप

4+ elgg

Metal

Fig.7: Per Capita Consumption of Electricity, Stand-2022/2023.

The government should be attentive to promote
the electricity consumption in the country by
adopting the various tariff rates depending on
the time. People will be benefitted with reducing
the tariff rates for the electricity uses in hospitals,
water supply, lift irrigation & possibly industrial
sectors during Monsoon time, when there is
over production & needs to export to India. It
will boost up the consumption in the country.

f)

Power Trade: Despite the will to develop
the X-border exchange of electric
power with both the neighbors China
& India, only the southern neighbor is
privileged with the power trade due to
its geographical position & is growing
every year but with China it is still limited
on the planning only. The required infra-
structures are already built in both the

[७0 बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

parts of India & Nepal at the required exchange of power with our northern
locations for X-border exchange of neighbor China, which is extremely
electricity. important to attract & promote their

investment in the hydropower sector.
The government of Nepal needs to

focus on how to enable the X-border

Import and Export with India (MU)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000

500

Export

Im port

Fig.8: Import & Export of Electricity.

8. References:
1. NEAAnnual Report
2. IPPAN Publications
3. Kantipur
4. The Kathmandu Post.
5. ICIMODE Publications

6. New Electricity Act-1992.

Amicable Resolution of
Constitution: Dispute in Nepal

What is an amicable settlement?

An amicable settlement is a process where
the parties to a dispute find ways to resolve
their differences in a friendly and non-
contentious way. To achieve an amicable
settlement, the parties need to be willing to
make concessions for the sake of reaching
an agreement. Without the desire to make
an effort to settle a legal case, it will be
nearly impossible to achieve an amicable
settlement. When parties reach an amicable
settlement, they will either do it based on
their desire to resolve their dispute or will
use the services of a mediator or a lawyer
to support them in the process. The Parties
shall use their best efforts to settle amicably
any dispute, controversy or claim arising
out of, or relating to this Purchase Order or
the breach, termination or invalidity thereof.

In one of the procedures of amicable
settlement of construction disputes an
independent third party (as 9 neutral
person), in strict confidentiality, conducts
a process to facilitate the parties in
settling an existing dispute. The role of
the independent third party is to remain
independent, to stay at "arms-length'", and
not to attempt to achieve the best outcome
for the one party over the other. Amicable
settlement is also a consensual process
and there must be a willingness and a
mandate by the participants to arrive at an
amicable setthement outcome. The parties
remain free to withdraw from the amicable
settlement procedure at any time and to
revert to adjudication, arbitration or litigation,
depending on the specific provisions of the
construction contract. (Saice, 2021)

Abhushan Neupane
Engineer
NEA Engineering Company

Methodological setup for amicable
settlement in large construction projects
in Nepal

In the large construction projects of Nepal,
which use FIDIC documents as_ their
contract administrative guide, the Claim
process is carried out following Clause
20 ( Fidic 99) or Clause 20 & 21 (Fidic
2017). The claim process commences with
clauses 20.1,20.2,20.3 and 20.4 of Fidic
1999 before the formal Amicable settlement
process mentioned in clause 20.5. A similar
approach has been prescribed for Fidic
2017 suites and is discussed in the following
paragraphs.

During the period specified in the Contract
after notice of dissatisfaction with the DAB
decision, amicable settlhement procedures
have been outlined and practised. However,
DAB members do not become involved in
the amicable settlement process. There is
no fixed procedure prescribed by FIDIC for
an amicable settlement, however, a neutral
facilitator who independent third party
generally assists in the amicable settlement
process. Other modes of Alternate Dispute
resolution like Conciliation, mediation,
and direct negotiation without a facilitator
may be the choice. A formal amicable
settlement board is not appropriate as
it is similar to DAB. The list of possible
amicable settlement facilitators could be
reached from boards like NEPCA or FIDIC.
If the amicable settlement procedure is
not successful the case goes to arbitration
as stipulated in Clause 20.5 (amicable
settlement of Fidic 1999)

> faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

3.

A.

However, in Fidic 2017 suites, after the
notice of dissatisfaction (NOD) ona Decision
is given, a 28-day cooling-off period is
mandatory before referring the Dispute to
Arbitration, during which the parties shall
attempt to settle the differences amicably
(Sub-Clause 21.5). However, FIDIC 2017
has been more proactive for Dispute
avoidance as DAB has changed to DAAB
( Dispute Avoidance and Adjudication
Board), which can assist the contracting
parties in Dispute avoidance from the
beginning, the procedures mentioned in SC
21.3 ( Avoidance of Disputes)

Public Procurement Regulation (PPR,
2064) approach for amicable settlement

PPR, 2064 has set the procedure for dispute
resolution in rule 129 and rule 135. Although
there is no provision of Adjudication in the
dispute resolution process, and amicable
settlement procedures as specified in FIDIC
suites of contract before formal arbitration
hearings. However, PPR 2064 has tried to
solve the disputes earlier to adjudication
and arbitration proceedings.

According to rule 129 (Dispute resolution)
of PPR 2064 : (1) The procurement contract
shall set forth, inter alia, the matters of
dispute to be resolved through mutual
consent, process for making application
for the settlement of a dispute, meeting to
be held for mutual consent and process of
making decisions, and such a dispute shall
be settled accordingly.

Additionally, according to rule 135
(Resolution of the dispute by arbitration):
If any dispute that has arisen between
the public entity and the construction
entrepreneur, consultant or service provider
concerning the implementation of the
procurement contract cannot be resolved
through the process referred to in Rule 129,
action shall be initiated for the resolution of
such a dispute by arbitration following the
prevailing law. (www.ppmo.gov.np)

Introduction to FIDIC Contract Suites &
Amicable Settlement Provisions

The FIDIC suite of construction contracts is
written and published by the International
Federation of Consulting Engineers. The

FIDIC acronym stands for the French version
of the Federation's name _ (Federation
Internationale des Ingenieurs-Conseil). The
best known of the FIDIC contracts are the
Red Book (building and engineering works
designed by the Employer) and the Yellow
Book (M&E, building and engineering works
designed by the Contractor). The original
edition of the Red Book dates back to
1957. In recent years FIDIC has published
many new contracts to complement the
suite. The first of the new contracts was the
Orange Book for design, build and turnkey
works published in 1995. In 1999 FIDIC
published a revised suite of contracts with
updated versions of the Red and Yellow
books together with a Green Book as the
short form of contract and a Silver Book for
turnkey contracts. (www.fidic.org)

In December 2017 FIDIC released its
second edition of the Conditions of
Contracts for Plant and Design Build ("the
2017 Yellow Book"), the Conditions of
Contract for Construction (the "2017 Red
Book") and the Conditions of Contract for
EPC/Turnkey (the "Silver Book"), together
the "2017 Contracts". As expected, FIDIC
has made substantial amendments to the
dispute resolution provisions from the 1999
Red, Yellow, and Silver Books (together
with the "1999 Contracts"), and it has
addressed the provisions relating to the
"binding but not-final" Dispute Adjudication
Board ("DAB") decisions which have been
the cause of persistent dispute since the
1999 Contracts were released. (https://
www.fenwickelliott.com/)

i. Amicable settlement in FIDIC 1999

Amicable settlement is a non-
adversarial approach to dispute
resolution. In FIDIC 1999, once a
notice of dissatisfaction has been given
under Sub-clause 20.4, both parties
shall attempt to settle the dispute
amicably before the commencement of
arbitration. Sub-Clause 20.5 requires
an attempt at an amicable settlement,
not less than 56 days after the date of
the notice of dissatisfaction.

@ gy 36 ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT &i

Amicable settlement in FIDIC 2017

According to Fidic 2017 (Red, Yellow
and Silver book), the
amicable settlement period has been
reduced from 56 days to 28 days under
the 2017 Contracts. Furthermore,
where either party fails to comply with

mandatory

a DAB decision, that failure may be
referred directly to arbitration and the
amicable settlement period will not
apply. This clarifies that the parties'
obligation to "promptly" comply with
a DAB decision means in less than

28 days. (httos://www.fenwickelliott.
com/)

Cases of Amicable settlement in
Nepal using CIAA rules

In Nepal, the Supreme Court has
underscored in landmark rulings (e.g.
Devendra Pradhan on behalf of Hanil
Engineering & Construction Co. v.
Appellate Court, Patan decided in
2075 BS) that:

Where a dispute resolution clause
requires an attempt at amicable
settlement, this step is contractually
binding. directly ०
arbitration without engaging in the
settlement stage can
process contrary to the contract's
intent and potentially invalidate the
award, Pioneer Law.

Proceeding

render the

Therefore, parties using CIAA rules
within contracts must be aware that
an omission to negotiate could lead
to constitutional or enforceability
challenges in Nepali courts if the
contract prescribes such a step.

5.

Merits of Amicable Settlement Process

Amicable settlement is part of the interest-
based approach to the process of resolving
the dispute. The interests of the parties
are addressed in such a manner that they
have a better understanding of their rights
and obligations regarding the dispute
so that they can explore many different
potential solutions, and understand each
other's perspective towards a_ win-win
solution. The Parties could then take the
necessary decisions and actions in their
best interest (as well as for the project) so
that the construction works could proceed
without unnecessary costs and delays,
including alterations to the works, an
extension of time for completion, mitigating
measures regarding the works, suspension
or cancellation of the works, if necessary.
It could also act as a filter to prevent a
dispute from escalating further to the more
comprehensive procedures. The outcome
is usually determined with the Amicable
Settlement Facilitator's knowledge and
experience in a relatively cheap, fast and
robust manner over a short period, and
addresses two critical issues:।. Whether monetary relief is due to the
contractor if he is entitled to that (as
positive cash flow is the lifeblood of the
construction industry); and

Il. It allows the parties to take mitigating
measures if conditions, circumstances
and situations are experienced which
are not favourable to the project and
their interest. (Saice,2021)

Ethical concerns of amicable settlement

The proceedings in Amicable Settlement
are confidential with the _ facilitator
(independent third party) unless otherwise
required by law. The respective parties
may in private sessions with the Amicable
Settlement Facilitator disclose information
to the Amicable Settlement Facilitator that
must remain confidential. The disclosure
of such information to the Amicable
Settlement Facilitator may be to justify a
party's bargaining position or to request
the Amicable Settlement Facilitator to raise
certain questions to the other party. To
achieve common ground, the parties must

[७४ बै fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

be free to make admissions and concessions
which, if the amicable settlement fails, will
not be used against them to their prejudice
in the subsequent adjudication, arbitration
or litigation proceedings.

Cost of Amicable settlement in FIDIC
Contract suite

In the context of FIDIC contracts, the
independent third party typically involved in
an amicable settlement phase is either:

० A Dispute Adjudication/Avoidance
Board (DAB or DAAB), or

e A mediator/arbitrator is involved after
DAB decisions are rendered but before
formal arbitration.

FIDIC contracts (like Red, Yellow, or Silver
Book) often require parties to attempt
amicable settlement before proceeding to
arbitration (see Clause 20.5 in FIDIC 1999
& Sub-Clause 21.5 in newer editions of
FIDIC ).

The typical cost varies according to project
size and complexity, Project location,
Number of Parties involved in dispute
resolution. If there is already involvement of
the DAB panel, and their further involvement
in Dispute avoidance further reduces the
cost of the amicable settlement procedure.
The flat fee for amicable settlement (
although it depends upon case to case)
is generally $10,000 to $ 50,000 for large
infrastructure contracts.

Nonetheless, under FIDIC, costs for
amicable settlement efforts (including
mediators or DAAB members) are typically
shared equally between the parties,
unless otherwise agreed.

Emergence of new _ contracting
approaches for dispute resolution

The Harmonised FIDIC Book (MDB version)
is widely used in donor-funded projects
like Tanahu Hydropower (THL). THL has
used the Harmonised FIDIC Book of Red
& Yellow for Multi Donor requirements (eg
ADB in case of Tanahun Hydro). It provides
a balanced, MDB-compliant framework.

Amicable settlement and DAB mechanisms
are preferred tools to resolve disputes
before escalating to arbitration. More
projects now adopt FIDIC 2017 Editions,
and other speciality books (e.g. FIDIC
Emerald 2019) are in the market, which are
to be used based on the project's nature.

Conclusion

Construction disputes are inevitable in
large construction projects in Nepal.
Thus, the proper procedural approach
to minimise or resolve the construction
claims is essential. As mandated by both
the FIDIC suites of contract and the Public
Procurement Monitoring Office of Nepal, itis
recommended to apply amicable settlement
or mutual consent procedures. Even the
Dispute boards or neutral facilitators shall
be extensively used to resolve the disputes
( as prescribed in FIDIC suite 2017
(SC21.3 (avoidance of disputes)) so that
the construction activities go smoothly with
proper handling of construction claims and
disputes. Overall, it will assist proactively in
completing any engineering project within
Time, Cost and desired quality.

References:

1. Website of Public Procurement

Monitoring Office, www.ppmo.gov.np,
online retrieved 20/12/2023

2. Website of FIDIC, www.fidic.org, online
retrieved 20/12/2023

3. Website of https://www.fenwickelliott.
com/ online retrieved 20/12/2023

4. Corporate website of SAICE (Home -
SAICE) online retrieved 20/10/2023

5. FIDIC Contracts Guide 2000, Published
by FIDIC

6. FIDIC Contracts Guide,2017 published
by FIDIC for newer Fidic suites

7. Corporate website of Tanahun
Hydropower Limited (https://thl.com.
np/), online retrieved dated 20/07/2025

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT E43

Condition Monitoring of Nepalese

Hydropower Plant
Prakash Dahal
Electrical Engineer
NEA Generation Directorate
Abstract rainfall make it
Hydropower constitutes over 90% _ of

Nepal's_ electricity generation, serving as
the cornerstone of the nation's energy
infrastructure. However, maintaining reliable and
efficient hydropower operations faces mounting
challenges from aging equipment, constrained
maintenance capabilities, and extreme
environmental factors. Condition Monitoring
(CM) offers a proactive, data-driven approach to
equipment management, reducing unplanned
outages and extending asset lifespan. This
paper examines the critical need for CM
implementation in Nepal's hydropower sector,
analyzing technical requirements, institutional
frameworks, and policy recommendations
to facilitate adoption. The study highlights
how CM can enhance operational reliability as
Nepal expands its power generation capacity
and regional energy exports.

Keywords: Hydropower, Condition Monitoring,
Predictive Maintenance, Nepal Energy Sector,
Equipment Reliability

1 Introduction
1.1 Background

Nepal has a vast hydropower potential,
with a_ theoretical capacity exceeding
83,000 MW, making it one of the highest
untapped countries globally. The country's
topography, steep gradients, and high

1.2

ideal for hydropower
generation. Major river basins like Koshi,
Gandaki, and Karnali offer numerous
sites for run-of-river and reservoir-based
hydropower projects. However, only 3% of
this potential has been utilized, with around
2,500 MW of installed capacity. This
underdevelopment is due to infrastructural
limitations and operational inefficiencies in
existing plants. Infrastructural challenges
include inadequate transmission networks,
limited access to remote project sites, and
logistical constraints due to mountainous
terrain. Financing remains a bottleneck,
as large-scale hydropower projects require
significant capital investment and often
face political and environmental scrutiny.
Many hydropower plants in Nepal are
aging, relying on reactive maintenance
rather than preventive strategies, leading
to frequent forced outages and reduced
availability. Systemic inefficiencies reduce
energy output and increase O&M costs,
discouraging sector investment.

Current Challenges

Most Nepalese hydropower facilities face
the following challenges:

1. Aging Infrastructure

A significant portion of Nepal's
hydropower plants were commissioned

c> faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

over two decades ago, with many
facilities surpassing 20 १865 in
service life. Over time, mechanical
components such as turbines runner
bearings and water submerged
turbine parts undergo wear and tear,
while electrical components _ like
generators, control systems, and
insulation materials degrade. The lack
of periodic refurbishment exacerbates
deterioration. Older systems often lack
the digital instrumentation required for
modern condition monitoring, making it
difficult to assess real-time performance
and predict failures. This aging
infrastructure is especially vulnerable
in remote areas where maintenance
access is limited and replacement parts
are scarce or outdated.

Reactive Maintenance Practices

In many plants, maintenance is still
largely reactive—that is, repairs are
carried out only after a failure has
occurred (Also known as Breakdown
maintenance) This approach leads
to unplanned outages, higher repair
costs, and reduced equipment
lifespan. Preventive and predictive
maintenance strategies, which are
standard in advanced hydropower
systems globally, remain underutilized
due to limited technical capacity and
financial constraints. The absence
of systematic data collection further
weakens the ability to anticipate
component wear, schedule _ timely
interventions, or conduct root-cause
failure analysis.

High Forced Outage Rates (Averaging
15-20%)

Forced outages, or unexpected
shutdowns due to equipment failure
or safety concerns, 816 prevalent

in Nepalese hydropower stations.
According to NEA reports and IPP logs,
forced outage rates typically range
between 15% and 20% annually, which
is significantly higher than global best
practices (often below 5%). These
outages not only disrupt power supply
but also lead to financial losses, reduced
water-use efficiency, and increased
wear on remaining operational units.
Factors contributing to forced outages
include turbine cavitation, generator
overheating, relay malfunctions, and
debris damage from unfiltered water
inlets.

4. Environmental Stresses

Nepal's unique geography and
environment introduce _ additional
operational challenges. Rivers feeding
hydropower plants often carry high
sediment loads, especially during
the monsoon' season. Abrasive
sediments cause rapid erosion of
turbine blades and wear on control
gates घात penstocks, reducing
efficiency and necessitating frequent
repairs. Additionally, Nepal lies in a
seismically active zone; earthquakes
can damage civil structures, misalign
rotating equipment, and_ impair
instrumentation. Seasonal flooding,
landslides, and glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOFs) further threaten plant
infrastructure, particularly intake
weirs and transmission lines. Without
robust monitoring systems, these
environmental stresses can severely
impact plant reliability and safety.

1.2 The Case for Condition Monitoring

Globally, Condition Monitoring (CM) has
proven effective in achieving several
benefits:

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT ४ ७७.

Condition Monitoring has been
widely adopted across 106 global
hydropower industry as a
strategic tool for enhancing operational
efficiency, minimizing risks, and
improving asset Management.
When implemented — effectively, CM
systems enable plant operators
to continuously track the health and
performance of critical components such as
turbines, generators, transformers, and
bearings. This real-time insight allows for
early detection of anomalies—
such as excessive vibration, temperature
spikes, oil contamination, 800 electrical
insulation breakdown—well before they
escalate into critical failures.

Studies from established hydropower
markets in Europe, North America, and
parts of Asia have demonstrated
that CM can yield substantial operational
benefits:

* Reducing Maintenance Costs by
25-30%: By shifting from time-based
to condition-based maintenance,
utilities avoid unnecessary inspections
and component replacements.
Maintenance is per- formed only when
data indicates an emerging issue,
optimizing labor and material use.

¢« Decreasing Unplanned Outages by
40-50%: Continuous monitoring helps
detect faults at an incipient stage,
allowing timely intervention before
failure. This significantly lowers the
frequency and duration of unplanned
shutdowns, which are often costlier
than scheduled downtimes.

* Extending Equipment Life by 3-5
Years: Operating machinery under
optimal conditions, combined with early
interventions, reduces cumulative

stress on equipment. As a result,
the service life of components is
prolonged, deferring the need for costly
replacements and improving return on
investment.

These outcomes are not only desirable
but essential for developing economies
where investment capital is limited, and
operational reliability is critical.

Despite these benefits, CM adoption in
Nepal remains limited due to technical,
financial, and institutional barriers.

In Nepal, the adoption of Condition
Monitoring remains sparse and fragmented.
Several hydropower plants—particularly
those operated by Independent Power
Producers (IPPs) and smaller facilities—
continue to rely on traditional maintenance
approaches. The barriers are multi-
faceted:

० Technical Barriers: Many older

plants were not designed' with
CM infrastructure in mind, making
retrofitting difficult. In addition, there
is a shortage of specialized personnel
trained in data interpretation, vibration
diagnostics, and CM system integration.

० Financial Constraints: The upfront

cost of implementing CM systems,
including sensors, data acquisition
systems, software, and training, can
be prohibitive—especially for smaller
plants or those operating on_ tight
margins.

e Institutional Challenges: There is

currently no nationwide regulatory
framework or policy mandating
0 incentivizing CM practices.
Furthermore, coordination among
the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA),
IPPs, and regulatory agencies remains

=> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

2.1

limited, resulting in inconsistent
practices across the sector.

As aresult, while the benefits of CM are well
recognized globally, Nepal's hydropower
sector has yet to fully capitalize on
its potential. Addressing these barriers
through policy reform, capacity building,
and public-private collaboration is essential
to unlocking the full value of condition
monitoring in the country.

Critical Hydropower Components and
Failure Modes

Turbines

Turbines are the heart of hydropower
plants, and their operational health directly
affects overall plant performance and
energy output. These rotating components
convert the kinetic and potential
energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy, which is then transformed into
electricity by the generator. Because of
their central role, even minor turbine issues
can lead to efficiency losses, increased
wear on associated systems, or unplanned
outages.

Common failure modes in turbines, along
with appropriate condition monitoring
(CM) techniques, include:

० Cavitation: This occurs when
localized low-pressure zones within
the turbine cause water to vaporize,
forming bubbles that collapse violently
upon entering higher pressure regions.
This phenomenon results in_ pitting,
vibration, and long-term damage
to runner blades. It 5 effectively
monitored using vibration analysis and
acoustic emission sensors, which can
detect early-stage bubble formation
and structural stress.

० Sediment Erosion: Himalayan Rivers,
which feed most of Nepal's hydropower
plants, carry high sediment loads,
especially during the monsoon season.
These abrasive particles wear down
turbine surfaces, reducing efficiency
and increasing maintenance frequency.
Thickness gauging and_ efficiency
tracking are employed to measure
material loss and identify performance
degradation over time.

० Runner' Imbalance: Over _ time,
uneven wear, sediment accumulation,
or manufacturing defects can lead to
mass imbalance in the runner. This
causes unsteady rotation, elevated
vibration, and stress on bearings and
shafts. Vibration spectrum analysis is
used to detect imbalances by analyzing
frequency signatures indicative of rotor
instability.

2.2 Generators

Generators in hydropower plants are critical
components that convert mechanical
energy from the turbine into electrical
energy. They operate under continuous
electrical and mechanical stress, often in
harsh environmental conditions, making
them susceptible to various modes of
failure. Ensuring the reliability of generators
is essential for maintaining uninterrupted
power generation and preventing costly
downtimes. Condition monitoring (CM)
provides early detection of anomalies,
allowing for predictive maintenance and
optimized performance.

Common generator issues and associated
CM techniques include:

० Stator Winding Faults: These faults
typically occur due 10 insulation
breakdown, thermal aging, moisture
ingress, or electrical surges. They

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can lead to short circuits or grounding
faults, posing serious risks to generator
integrity. Partial discharge (PD)
monitoring is a proven method for
detecting early insulation failures. PD
sensors measure minute electrical
discharges within the stator windings,
allowing for timely intervention before
catastrophic damage occurs.

० RotorEccentricity: Rotormisalignment
or mechanical deformation can lead to
uneven air gaps between the rotor and
stator, causing magnetic imbalances,
vibrations, and efficiency losses. Pro-
longed eccentricity can result in severe
rotor-stator rubs. Air gap monitoring
systems continuously measure the
uniformity of the air gap, providing
insight into mechanical alignment and
rotor stability.

e Bearing Degradation: Bearings
support the rotating shaft and are
essential for smooth operation. Over
time, they can degrade due to poor
lubrication, contamination, or fatigue,
leading to increased friction, vibration,
and eventual failure. Temperature
sensors and vibration trend analysis
tools are used to monitor bearing
health. Gradual changes in temperature
profiles and vibration patterns can
signal early wear, allowing operators
to schedule timely replacements and
prevent secondary damage.

2.3 Auxiliary Systems

Auxiliary systems play a vital role in ensuring
the smooth, efficient, and safe operation of
the main hydropower plant components—
namely turbines and generators. Although
often less prominent than the primary
equipment, these systems are essential
for maintaining operational stability and

e Lubrication

preventing mechanical and thermal stress.
Effective condition monitoring (CM) of
auxiliary systems can significantly enhance
overall plant reliability, reduce wear on core
machinery, and improve response to load
variations.

Key auxiliary components and associated
CM parameters include:

¢ Cooling Systems: These systems are

responsible for dissipating the heat
generated by both mechanical and
electrical components, particularly
generator windings and bearings. A
malfunction in the cooling system can
lead to overheating, insulation failure,
or thermal deformation. CM techniques
include monitoring flow rates to
detect blockages or pump issues and
measuring temperature differentials
across cooling circuits to ensure heat
is being adequately transferred and
removed.

Systems: Proper
lubrication minimizes friction and wear
in bearings, shafts, and other moving
parts. Degraded or contaminated oil
can cause premature equipment failure.
Condition monitoring involves oil quality
analysis to detect oxidation, moisture
content, and additive depletion, along
with particulate content checks to
identify metallic or abrasive particles
indicating wear. Online oil sensors and
periodic lab analyses are commonly
used for this purpose.

० Governor Systems: The governor

regulates turbine speed and output
by adjusting water flow, ensuring that
generation remains synchronized with
grid demand. Faults in the governor
system can lead to slow response
times, frequency instability, or even

E> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

3.1

unit trips. CM _ techniques involve
monitoring response time to load
changes and analyzing hydraulic
pressure fluctuations within the
governor mechanism to detect valve
sticking, actuator faults, or control loop
anomalies.

Technical Implementation Framework
Sensor Deployment Strategy

A structured and well-planned deployment
of sensors is fundamental to establishing
an effective condition monitoring (CM)
framework in hydropower plants. Accurate
and timely data acquisition from both
mechanical and electrical systems is
essential for detecting early signs of
equipment deterioration,।= diagnosing
potential faults, and enabling predictive
maintenance strategies. The selection and
placement of sensors must be based on
a clear understanding of the operational
behavior and failure modes of individual
components.

Mechanical Systems:

e Accelerometers: These — sensors
are typically mounted 01 bearing
housings and other rotating elements
to measure vibration levels and
frequency spectra. Abnormal
vibrations often indicate issues such as
misalignment, imbalance, looseness,
or bearing degradation. High-sensitivity
accelerometers enable early detection
of mechanical faults, thereby reducing
the risk of catastrophic failure.

० Proximity Probes: Installed along
shaft lines, proximity probes measure
shaft displacement and_ detect
phenomena like shaft whip, run-out, or
misalignment. These measurements
are particularly important for assessing

० Temperature Sensors:

० Power Quality Analyzers:

the health of rotating assemblies and
ensuring that dynamic behavior stays
within safe operational limits.

० Strain Gauges: These are affixed to

structural components such as turbine
housings, support frames, or draft tubes
to measure stress and deformation
under load. Strain data is crucial for
identifying fatigue-prone areas and for
validating structural integrity during
high-load or transient conditions.

Electrical Systems:

Placed on
stator windings, generator bushings,
and transformer cores, these sensors
help monitor thermal behavior under
varying electrical loads. Overheating
is a leading cause of insulation failure
and electrical breakdown, so real-time
temperature monitoring is vital for
preventive maintenance.

० Partial Discharge Sensors: These

sensors detect minute — electrical
discharges caused by _ insulation
degradation within generators,

transformers, or switchgear. They are
key tools for assessing incipient faults
in high-voltage components, providing
an early warning well before visible
damage occurs.

These
devices monitor voltage and current
harmonics, transients, and imbalances
that may arise from grid disturbances
or equipment anomalies. Poor
power quality can accelerate wear
on electrical equipment and affect
synchronization, especially in grid-
connected hydropower plants.

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3.2 Data Infrastructure

A robust and scalable data infrastructure
is critical to the success of a condition
monitoring (CM) system in hydropower
plants. CM relies on the continuous
collection, transmission, storage, and
analysis ofhigh-resolution data from a wide
array of sensors deployed throughout the
plant. Without a reliable data backbone,
even the most advanced monitoring
tools cannot deliver actionable insights.
Therefore, technical specifications must
be aligned with the operational demands
of hydropower assets, particularly in
geographically challenging regions like
Nepal.

Key components of a CM _ data
infrastructure include:

¢ Sampling Rate: For accurate vibration
diagnostics and fault detection in high-
speed rotating machinery such as
turbines and generators, sensor data
must be sampled at high frequencies.
A minimum sampling rate of 10 kHz
is recommended to capture critical
frequency components, _ transient
events, and subtle anomalies that
lower sampling rates might miss. This
ensures that early warning signs—like
bearing fault harmonics or cavitation
signatures—are properly detected and
interpreted.

० Data Storage: Given the volume
and velocity of sensor data, storage
solutions must be both high-capacity
and long-term. Cloud-based storage
systems offer scalability, centralized
access, and integration with machine
learning analytics platforms. To support
trend analysis, forensic diagnostics,
and compliance auditing, a minimum
retention period of five years is

¢ Communication:

advisable. This allows operators to track
long-term performance degradation
and correlate historical data with major
events or maintenance records.

Effective data
transmission from sensors to processing
units is essential, especially in real-
time or near-real-time applications.
Fiber-optic communication is preferred
due to its high bandwidth, low latency,
and resistance to electromagnetic
interference. However,given theremote
locations of many hydropower plants
in Nepal, 9 satellite communication
backup is recommended to ensure
uninterrupted data flow in areas where
terrestrial infrastructure is limited or
vulnerable to natural disruptions such
as landslides or floods.

3.3 Analytics Architecture

The analytics layer is the core intelligence
of a condition monitoring (CM) system,
transformingraw sensordataintoactionable
insights. It serves as the interface between
data acquisition and operational decision-
making, and its effectiveness determines
the success of predictive maintenance
strategies. To manage the complexity and
scale of hydropower operations, a hybrid
approach using both edge and cloud
computing technologies is recommended.

« Edge Computing: 15 involves

processing data locally at or near the
point of collection—such as within the
power plant control room or embedded
processing units in field devices. Edge
analytics enable real-time anomaly
detection, low-latency alerts, and
reduced bandwidth requirements
for remote sites. This is particularly
valuable for critical systems like turbines
and generators, where immediate

> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

responses to vibration or temperature
spikes can prevent damage.

Cloud Computing: Cloud platforms
provide the scalability and computing
power necessary for long-term data
storage, model training, and complex
analytics. In the cloud, large volumes of
historical and live data can be processed
using machine learning algorithms and
rule-based engines to detect patterns,
predict failures, and classify faults
across multiple plants. These models
continuously improve through data
feedback loops, enhancing diagnostic
accuracy over time.

Predictive Algorithms: Advanced
analytics use techniques such as
anomaly detection, time-series
forecasting, and supervised learning
to identify deviations from normal
operating behavior. These models
can trigger maintenance planning
alerts, prioritize tasks based on risk,
and support inventory and workforce
optimization.

Integration with SCADA Systems:
Seamless integration with existing
Supervisory Control and _ Data
Acquisition (SCADA) systems ensures
that condition monitoring outputs
are accessible to operators in real-
time. This enables automated alerts,
dashboards for visualizing equipment
health, and linkage to historical
operational data for deeper analysis.
SCADA-CM integration is_ critical
for enabling informed operational
decisions and closing the loop between
monitoring and maintenance action.

Together, this multi-layered analytics
architecture enables a shift
from reactive 1० predictive asset

4.1

management, increasing equipment
reliability and reducing lifecycle costs.

Institutional Roadmap for Nepal
Policy Recommendations

To facilitate the widespread adoption
of condition monitoring (CM) in Nepal's
hydropower sector, a comprehensive set
of policy actions is essential. These
actions should' address _ regulatory
frameworks, financial incentives, and
capacity-building initiatives to create a
supportive ecosystem for CM deployment
and ensure its sustainability in the long
run.

Regulatory Mandates:

न" Require CM Implementation for
All Hydropower Plants Exceeding
5 MW Capacity: To standardize
the adoption of CM across the sector,
it is recommended that hydropower
plants with a capacity greater than
5 MW be mandated to implement
CM systems. This threshold targets
both small and medium-sized plants
that may otherwise overlook CM due
to cost concerns, while still offering the
potential for significant improvements
in efficiency and reliability. Mandating
CM at this scale will ensure that the
majority of operational plants contribute
to reducing forced outages and
enhancing the stability of the national
grid.

० Conduct Annual CM Compliance
Audits: To ensure that CM systems are
being used effectively and consistently,
the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA)
should implement annual compliance
audits for all plants required to adopt
CM. These audits would assess the
quality and functionality of monitoring

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systems, data integrity, and
maintenance practices. By holding
operators accountable and establishing
performance benchmarks, compliance
audits would drive — continuous
improvement in plant operations and
ensure that the system delivers its
intended benefits in terms of reliability
and cost-effectiveness.

Financial Mechanisms:

Provide Tax Credits for CM-Related
Investments: The _ initial costs
associated with installing CMsystems—
such as purchasing sensors, setting
up data infrastructure, and integrating
analytics tools—can be prohibitive for
many plant operators. To reduce this
financial barrier, the government could
introduce tax credits or rebates for CM-
related investments. These incentives
would make the transition to CM
more attractive, especially for smaller
operators who might hesitate due to
upfront costs. A tax credit program
could reduce the financial burden and
encourage wider adoption of modern
monitoring practices.

Offer Low-Interest Financing
Options for CM Equipment
Procurement: In addition totaxcredits,
low-interest financing options should be
provided specifically for CM equipment
procurement. This would enable
hydropower companies to spread the
cost of these investments over time
without incurring high borrowing costs.
Financial support could be provided
through partnerships between the
government, development banks, and
private financial institutions, ensuring
that access to affordable capital is
available for operators in remote or
underdeveloped regions.

Capacity Building:

Establish Certification Programs
for CM at Institutions like CTEVT:
To ensure that Nepal has a skilled
workforce capable of managing and
maintaining advanced CM systems,
certification programs focused on CM
should be introduced at vocational
and technical institutions such as the
Council for Technical Education and
Vocational Training (CTEVT). These
programs would provide _ technical
training on sensor installation, data
analysis, predictive maintenance
practices, and troubleshooting. By
developing local expertise, Nepal can
create a_ self-sustaining ecosystem
that reduces dependency on foreign
consultants and improves long-term
operational knowledge.

Initiate Technician Exchange
Programs through the NEA for
Hands-on Training: Practical, hands-
on experience is critical for technicians
to fully grasp the intricacies of CM
systems. The Nepal Electricity Authority
(NEA) could spearhead technician
exchange programs that allow local
personnel to receive on-the-job training
at hydropower plants with advanced CM
systems in operation. These exchange
programs could involve partnerships
with international hydropower operators
or private firms, offering exposure to best
practices, cutting-edge technology, and
troubleshooting techniques. By building
practical knowledge and _ expertise,
Nepal can ensure that CM systems are
effectively utilized and maintained.

4.1 Implementation Phases

A phased implementation strategy for the
adoption of condition monitoring (CM) in

> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Nepal's hydropower sector ensures that
the deployment of new technologies is both
scalable and manageable. This
approach allows for lessons to be learned in
each phase, with adjustments m ade
to overcome challenges as the program
progresses. The phased _ strategy
is designed to gradually integrate
CM systems into the national hydropower
network, starting with pilot projects
and moving toward full sector-wide
implementation.

Phase 1: Pilot (2024—2025)

e Launch 3-5 Demonstration
Projects in Diverse Geographic
and Operational Settings: The
first phase of implementation focuses
on pilot projects to showcase the
benefits and feasibility of CM _ in
various operational contexts. These
demonstration projects will be
strategically selected to represent a
range of geographical, environmental,
and operational challenges faced by
hydropower plants in Nepal. The aim is
to identify site-specific issues—such as
sediment erosion in Himalayan plants
or extreme weather conditions in the
Mid-Hills—and tailor CM _ solutions
accordingly. By running these pilots,
the government and_ stakeholders
can gain valuable insights into the
technical, financial, and operational
aspects of CM deployment, allowing
for refinements before broader roll-
out. Furthermore, these demonstration
projects will serve as educational tools
for industry players, providing tangible
evidence of CM's effectiveness.

Phase 2: Expansion (2026-2028)

e Extend CM Systems to Cover 50%
of Nepal's Installed Hydropower

Capacity: Following successful
demonstration projects, the second
phase involves scaling the adoption of
CM to cover 50% of Nepal's installed
hydropower capacity. This phase
will focus on plants that have shown
the greatest potential for improved
operational efficiency and reduced
downtime through CM. The strategy will
prioritize plants with aging infrastructure
and high forced outage rates, as
these will benefit most from predictive
maintenance 8160 condition-based
monitoring. The expansion phase will
require significant coordination between
plant operators, regulatory bodies,
and financial institutions to ensure
that sufficient funding and resources
are allocated for system deployment
across a larger number of plants.
Training programs for technicians and
plant personnel will be scaled up, and
operational guidelines will be refined
based on the experiences gained in the
pilot phase.

Phase 3: Maturation (2029 and Beyond)

० Full Integration of CM Technologies
Across the Sector, Including Legacy
Plants: The final phase will focus on
the full integration of CM technologies
across the entire hydropower sector,
including legacy plants that may not yet
have the latest monitoring technologies.
This phase aims to establish CM as the
standard practice for plant operation
and maintenance in Nepal. By 2029
and beyond, it is expected that all
hydropower plants, regardless of size
or age, will implement some form of
condition monitoring. This universal
adoption will improve 106 overall
reliability, efficiency, and sustainability
of Nepal's energy infrastructure. Efforts

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5.1

will include retrofitting older plants with
modern sensors, software, and data
systems. In addition, further integration
with grid management systems and
SCADA platforms will enable more
intelligent, responsive management
of energy production, leading to
more stable power generation and
better alignment with national energy
demands.

Economic Justification
Cost-Benefit Analysis

An economic assessment provides a
compelling justification for the adoption
of condition monitoring (CM) systems in
Nepal's hydropower sector, highlighting
both cost efficiency and long-term returns.
The initial investment in CM systems is
a key consideration, but it is important
to recognize that these systems will not
only enhance the reliability and lifespan
of critical equipment but also generate
substantial savings in maintenance and
downtime costs over time. A careful
cost-benefit analysis reveals that the
financial returns from adopting CM can
be significant, making it a worthwhile
investment for hydropower operators.

Investment Basic CM

System

Component:

० Estimated Cost: USD 15-20 per kW

- The basic CM _ system includes
fundamental monitoring technologies,
such as vibration sensors,
temperature monitoring, and basic
data logging. This cost covers sensor
deployment, basic data collection
infrastructure, and essential analytics
tools for early fault detection and
performance optimization.

० Payback Period: 2-3 years

— The payback period for a basic CM
system is relatively short, ranging
from 2 to 3 years. This quick return
is due to the significant reduction
in unplanned outages, improved
operational efficiency, and extended
asset lifespan that the system
enables. By identifying issues early,
plants can avoid costly breakdowns
and reduce unscheduled downtime.
Furthermore, operators can optimize
their maintenance schedules, thereby
reducing the frequency and cost of
reactive repairs. In many cases,
these cost savings will quickly offset
the initial investment.

Investment Component: Advanced CM
System

० Estimated Cost: USD 30-40 per kW

— The advanced CM system builds
upon the basic setup by incorporating

more sophisticated technologies,
such as machine learning-based
predictive maintenance, advanced

vibration and strain monitoring, and
real-time cloud-based analytics. It
also includes integrations with other
plant management systems like
SCADA, allowing for comprehensive
monitoring of all critical assets and
facilitating data-driven decision-
making at a larger scale.

० Payback Period: 4—5 years

— The payback period for advanced CM
systems is slightly longer, ranging from
4 to 5 years, but the value proposition
remains compelling. The key benefit
of advanced systems is their ability to
forecast potential failures with greater
accuracy, allowing for more precise

E> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

5.2

maintenance planning and minimizing
catastrophic failures. As the system

matures, predictive algorithms
improve, which further enhances
operational optimization, reducing

maintenance costs and downtime.
Additionally, advanced CM systems
enable hydropower plants to run at
their maximum potential, improving
generation efficiency and reducing
overall operating costs.

Value Proposition

The value proposition of condition
monitoring (CM) adoption is multifaceted,
offering significant benefits across multiple
stakeholders, including utilities, the
national grid, and the broader economy. By
enhancing the reliability and efficiency of
hydropower plants, CM systems contribute
to cost savings, operational optimization,
and sustainable growth in the energy
sector. The following outlines the key
advantages for each stakeholder:

For Utilities:

"० Achieve a 20-30% Reduction in
Operations and Maintenance (O&M)
Costs:

— Condition monitoring plays a crucial
role in reducing operations and
maintenance (O&M) costs by shifting
the maintenance strategy from
reactive to proactive. By continuously
monitoring the condition of critical
assets such as turbines, generators,
and auxiliary systems, CM systems
enable utilities to detect faults early
and schedule maintenance activities
only when necessary. This results in
fewer emergency repairs, lower labor
costs, and a reduction in the need for
expensive replacement parts.

— Additionally, CM helps optimize the
lifecycle of equipment, delaying costly
replacements and improving plant
efficiency. By enabling smarter
maintenance schedules, utilities can
avoid costly downtime, minimize the
impact of unplanned outages, and
extend the operational life of their
assets. The combination of reduced
downtime, less frequent repairs, and
optimized resource allocation can
lead to a 20-30% reduction in O&M
costs over time.

For the Grid:

० Enhance System Reliability and
Reduce SAIDI (System Average
Interruption Duration Index):

— System reliability is crucial for any
national or regional power grid.
CM _ systems not only enhance
the health of individual assets but
also provide a comprehensive view
of plant performance, enabling
operators to identify potential risks
that could disrupt power supply.
By detecting issues before they
lead to catastrophic failures, CM
minimizes forced outages, ensuring
that hydropower plants maintain a
steady output to the grid.

— One key metric for grid reliability
is the System Average Interruption
Duration Index (SAIDI), which
measures the average duration of
power outages. With CM systems in
place, utilities can significantly reduce
SAIDI by preventing unscheduled
outages, minimizing the duration of
planned maintenance, and ensuring
that plants are operating at optimal
capacity. Enhanced reliability from
CM adoption leads to a more stable

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and predictable power supply, which
is especially vital as Nepal expands
its energy exports to neighboring
countries like India and China.

For the National Economy:

¢ Boost Revenue Through Increased
Energy Exports, Particularly to India
and China:

— As Nepal continues to expand its
hydropower generation capacity,
energy exports—especially to
neighboring countries—become
an increasingly important source of
revenue. By improving the efficiency
and reliability of hydropower plants,
CM systems enable plants to operate
at peak capacity and maximize power
generation. This increased output
can directly contribute to the nation's
ability to meet growing domestic
demand and enhance its export
capacity.

-— In particular, Nepal has established
ambitious goals for energy export to
countries like India and China, which
are rapidly increasing their demand
for renewable energy sources. By
improving the operational efficiency
of hydropower plants, CM systems
can play a pivotal role in boosting
Nepal's exportable surplus. This, in
turn, generates increased revenue for
the country, contributing to economic
growth, infrastructure development,
and the creation of new jobs in the
energy sector. Additionally, a reliable,
well-maintained hydropower sector
can position Nepal as a key regional
player in the renewable energy
market.

6

6.1

Conclusion and Recommendations
Key Findings

This paper underscores the critical role
of condition monitoring (CM) in improving
the reliability and sustainability of Nepal's
hydropower sector. With hydropower
being the backbone of the country's
energy infrastructure, ensuring the efficient
operation of its plants is crucial for both
domestic power generation and energy
exports. After evaluating the potential
benefits and challenges, several key
findings have emerged from this analysis:

1. CM Significantly Improves
Equipment Performance and
Lifespan:

" One of the most compelling reasons
to adopt CM in Nepal's hydropower
plants is its proven ability to enhance
equipment performance and extend
the lifespan of critical assets.
Through real-time monitoring
and predictive maintenance, CM
systems can detect faults early,
allowing for timely interventions
before equipment failure occurs.
This approach not only prevents
catastrophic breakdowns but also
optimizes the overall operational
efficiency of plants, leading to better
power generation and _ reduced
downtime.

¢ Additionally, CM helps extend the
lifespan of turbines, generators,
and other vital components, which
are often subjected to harsh
environmental — conditions. By
identifying wear and tear patterns
and addressing them proactively,
CM reduces the need for expensive
replacements and lowers the long-
term capital expenditure required for

> faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

2. A Combination = of

maintaining and upgrading the fleet
of hydropower plants.

Regulatory,

Technical, and Financial Measures is
Needed for Effective Implementation:

The successful implementation of
CM in Nepal's hydropower sector
requires a holistic approach involving
a combination of — regulatory,
technical, and financial measures.
On the regulatory side, it is important
for the Nepal Electricity Authority
(NEA) and other stakeholders
to establish clear standards and
mandates that ensure CM is adopted
across 118 sector. Regulatory
frameworks should define the
minimum requirements for CM in
hydropower plants, with periodic
audits to ensure compliance.

From a technical standpoint, the
deployment of CM systems must
be supported by the installation of
suitable sensors, data infrastructure,
and analytics tools. The technical
expertise required to install, operate,
and maintain these systems must
be developed through focused
capacity-building initiatives, such as
certification programs and technician
exchange schemes.

Financially, it is critical to introduce
incentives and financing options to
alleviate the initial costs associated
with CM _ adoption. This could
include offering tax credits, low-
interest loans, and other financial
mechanisms to make CM systems
more affordable, especially
for smaller and medium-sized
hydropower plants.

Economic

Analysis Supports

CM as a Cost-Effective Strategy,
Especially for Larger Facilities:

The economic analysis of CM
adoption reveals that it is a cost-
effective strategy, particularly
for larger hydropower facilities.
By reducing operations and
maintenance (O&M) costs and
preventing costly unscheduled
downtimes, CM offers a strong return
on investment (ROI). The payback
periods for basic and advanced CM
systems are relatively short, ranging
from 2 to 5 years, and the long-
term savings far outweigh the initial
investment.

Moreover, the value proposition
of CM extends beyond individual
plants. The improved reliability of
plants with CM systems contributes
to greater grid stability, reduces
the risk of power interruptions,
and enhances' Nepal's _ ability
to meet domestic demand and
export electricity to neighboring
countries. This results in substantial
economic benefits for the country,
especially as hydropower becomes
an increasingly important source of
revenue through energy exports.

Actionable Recommendations:

immediate Steps: Establish
national CM _ standards, develop
training programs for technicians,
and initiate pilot projects to showcase
the benefits of CM.

Medium-term Actions: Roll out CM
across 50% of Nepal's hydropower
Capacity, ensuring that both financial
and technical support are available
for the adoption process.

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" Long-term Vision: Achieve full
sector-wide integration of CM,
including legacy plants, by 2030,
with ongoing improvements in
technology and policy.

The — sustainable development
of Nepal's hydropower _ sector
hinges on the adoption of modern
maintenance approaches like CM.
As Nepal expands its hydropower
generation capacity and_ looks
to increase energy exports, CM
will be a key enabler of reliable,
efficient, and cost-effective power
production, ultimately strengthening
the country's energy infrastructure
and economic prospects.

6.2 Actionable Steps

To actualize the benefits of Condition
Monitoring (CM) in Nepal's hydropower
sector, the following key steps are
recommended:

1. Immediate Formulation of CM
Standards by the Nepal Electricity
Regulatory Com- mission (NERC):

न" Action Plan: The Nepal
Electricity Regulatory Commission
(NERC) should take the lead in
formulating clear CM standards for
the country's hydropower plants.
These standards would outline
the minimum requirements for CM
implementation, covering aspects
like sensor installation, data
collection protocols, and periodic
condition assessments.

"० Rationale: With well-defined
regulatory standards, hydropower
operators will be provided with
a structured framework for CM
adoption. This would = ensure

uniformity across the sector and
increase compliance with CM best
practices. Standards will also
help align government initiatives,
international funding, and _ local
incentives to promote CM across
plants of all sizes. Furthermore,
regulatory mandates can act as a
strong foundation for the success
of CM in Nepal's hydropower sector,
fostering an environment where
technology is leveraged to optimize
plant performance.

Establishment of a National CM
Training Center in Collaboration
with CTEVT:

Action Plan: Collaborating with
the Council for Technical Education
and Vocational Training (CTEVT),
Nepal should establish a national
CM training center aimed at building
the technical capacity required for
the widespread adoption of CM. This
training center could offer certification
programs that equip engineers,
technicians, and operators with the
necessary skills to install, maintain,
and analyze CM systems.

Rationale: The technical
expertise required for the proper
implementation of CM systems is
essential for long-term sustainability.
By establishing a dedicated training
infrastructure, Nepal can build a
skilled workforce capable of handling
the complexity of CM technologies.
These programs will ensure that
the future workforce is adequately
trained to monitor, troubleshoot,
and maintain condition monitoring
equipment. Moreover, technician
exchange programs, in collaboration
with the Nepal Electricity Authority

[९० __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

(NEA), ८80 provide hands-on
experience in CM system operations
and foster knowledge exchange.

3. Execution of Pilot CM Projects
Using Climate Finance and Donor
Support:

Action Plan: Pilot projects should
be launched 1 collaboration
with international climate finance
initiatives and donor agencies to
demonstrate the benefits of CM
in the hydropower sector. These
projects should target a diverse set
of hydropower plants across the
country, including small, medium,
and _ large-scale facilities, and
should focus on demonstrating
the practicality of CM systems in
Nepal's unique environmental and
operational context.

Rationale: Pilot projects will act
as real-world case studies for the
effectiveness of CM, showing
both the technical feasibility and

the economic advantages of such
systems. They will also serve as
models for future CM implementation
and help in identifying potential
challenges, such as financing gaps,
technology adaptation issues, and
regulatory hurdles. By _ tapping
into climate finance and donor
funding, Nepal can alleviate the
upfront costs associated with the
adoption of CM and encourage
private sector participation in energy
sector improvements. Successful
pilot projects can build momentum
for broader adoption and _ attract
investment into the sector.

References

1.

Nepal Electricity Authority Annual Report,
2023

International Hydropower Association
CM Guidelines

World Bank Nepal Energy Sector
Assessment

रसुवा जिल्ला स्थित साञ्जेन जलविद्युत केन्द्र

Hydropower to Hydrogen:

Unlocking Nepal's Energy Transition

Abstract: By the utmost utilization of it abundant
hydroelectricity, Nepal holds the capability to
be a global hub of green hydrogen. By driving
policies, building essential infrastructure and
facilitating with its surplus electricity, Nepal
is undoubtedly a key asset for unlocking
the Nepal's energy transition. Collaborative
approach of government, NEA's central role
and active participation of private sector will
be instrumental for shaping fortunes of Nepal
in Green Hydrogen Energy and realizing the
Nepal's vision of Energy Independence and
de-carbonization goal.

Background

s per the data given by the International
Aen Agency, the decade since 2013
has seen that the proportion of non-
renewal source of energy in the energy mix

of the world, has shown a gradual decline to
80 % in 2023 from 82% in 2013. Also till 2035

[९२ बै __  चविद्युत/५0/0ा खु

Sunder Nyaupane
Administratrive Officer
Gorkha Distribution Centre

the growth rate in the demand of clean energy
is expected to overcome the rate at which the
demand total energy mix rises globally [1]. In the
year 2024, the contribution of renewal energy
to the global energy consumption sits around
14.6% and this marks a humble improvement
from previous year as it was at 13% in 2023 [2].

In the meantime, clean hydrogen is enjoying
its Political and Business momentum as the
severity of discussion going on, policies that
are being drafted and the rapid expanding
nature of investments around the world seems
to lay the strong foundation for the future.
The earliest demonstration of hydrogen fuel
dates back around 1800s whereby the water
electrolysis and the fuel cell have captured the
imagination of engineers. In the 18" and 19"
century hydrogen used to fuel the combustion
engines, balloons and air ships along with lifting
the human race to the moon in 1960s [3]. There
seems to be an opportunity for Nepal to become
an early mover in developing hydrogen fuel as
one of the leading asset of nation's economy
mainly due to its hydroelectricity production and
recurring energy surplus during the wet season

[4].
Introduction

Known for being a lightest, Hydrogen is also
the most abundant element in the universe. The
utilization of this as a source of energy do not
leave any carbon footprint instead, water vapour
is the byproduct of combustion of hydrogen
fuel. The applicability in electricity generation,

egy 3§ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

industrial usage along with feedstock for
synthetic fuels, hydrogen provides enhanced
scope of application [5].

The process of splitting water into two hydrogen
and oxygen is known as Electrolysis. This
splitting action is conducted in an electrolyzer
containing two electrodes namely anode and
cathode which are separated by an electrolyte.

After the application of electric field;

- Theoxidization of water at anode produces
oxygen gas along with hydrogen ions

- Hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode,
where they go through the reduction
process to produce the hydrogen gas.

The key reaction involved in this process is
given as

2H,0 (lI) + Electricity (237.2kJ mol') + Heat
(48.6 kJ mol') ———» 0O,(g)+2H,(g)

Assuming that the above reaction is taking
place at room temperature 1.23V theoretical
thermodynamic cell is required for the
electrochemical water splitting technique to
split water into hydrogen and oxygen. However,
experimental setup requires 1.48V of cell
voltage for efficient splitting of water and the
additional voltage is required to overcome the
kinetic ohmic resistance of the electrolyte and
the cell component of the electrolyzer. [6]

This whole proceeding requires highly purified
water and sufficient amount of electricity. The
efficiency of the chemical reaction sighting
the amount of hydrogen fuel generated by
the reactor ranges in-between sixty percent
to eighty percent, and this depends upon the
type of electrolyzer used. Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM) and Alkaline Electrolyzers are
the common types of electrolyzers employed in
green hydrogen system. [7]

Pa Se

11 ता 1 ba। १

Hipalar Plare GOT- न। न Bigador Place
Foulolyst FE grgivst

Laide जा [ट181177:2, एट Baraca

Figure 1: PEM Water Electrolysis Method [9]
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)

Water is electrochemically separated into
hydrogen and oxygen at the appropriate
electrodes in PEM water electrolysis, with
hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen at the
anode. Pumping water into the anode, where
it splits into Oxygen (O,), proton (नि), and
electrons (6), results in PEM water electrolysis.
Then after, these protons are transported to the
cathode side via a proton conducting membrane.
The external power circuit, which supplies the
reactions driving force (cell voltage), allows the
electron to leave the anode. After the completion
of transportation of protons from anode, the
recombination of protons and electrons occurs
at cathode yielding the creation of Hydrogen at
gaseous state. [8]

Alkaline Water Electrolysis

At the cathode of the alkaline water electrolysis
process, two molecules of alkaline solution
(KOH/NaQOH#) go through the reduction process
to get one Hydrogen molecule (H,) and one
Hydroxyl ion (OH). The Hydroxyl ion (OH
) is then moved to anode through the porous
diaphragm under the influence of electric field
between the anode and cathode, where they
are discharged to one molecule of water (H,O)
and '2 molecule of Oxygen (O,). The generated
H, is then removed from cathode surface to
recombine in a gaseous state. According to
the mechanism depicted in Figure 2, the O,

@ TF 3g ७ SEP १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT ४ ९३

recombined at electrode surface and escaped
as Hydrogen. Lower temperatures, such as 30
to 80°C, are used for alkaline electrolysis and
the electrolyte is an aqueous solution of KOH
or NaOH and the electrolyte concentration is
approximately about 20% to 30%. [10, 11]

Cathode
2H .Ih+ e+ H,4 20H

Anode
शा + H.0 उ शु 0, 52९

SL RA 4)

r . [।
OL Taphrag पि Cs
2 * पाली teparator ples
Antde Electrode (Xi)

ही
11 Feed 40 1711) 011
Calbde Bectrode [']

Figure 2: Alkaline Water Electrolysis Method [12]

Other than mentioned two methods Steam
Methane Reforming (SMR), Coal Gasification,
SMR or Gasification with Carbon capture,
Biomass Gasification and other are some other
processes with which Hydrogen Fuel can be
generated.

Types of Hydrogen

There are several types of hydrogen that have
been classified by their production method and
source of energy used. They can be listed as:

e Grey Hydrogen: Produced from fossil
fuels, emitting CO,

Fete *
Fae ae तिजमा

roe

॥ a

छ
ee

Seurat Bano

e Blue Hydrogen: Produced from
Fossil fuels but uses carbon capture
technology to reduce carbon emission.

e Green Hydrogen: Produced by using
renewal source of energy such as
Hydroelectricity, Solar Energy, and Wind
Energy to split water into Hydrogen
and Oxygen through the electrolysis
process.

Among all green Hydrogen is gaining global
attention due to its environmental benefits and
potential to store renewal energy for use during
peak demand or dry season. [13]

Nepal's Hydropower Advantage

With the capacity of around 83000MW of
hydroelectricity generation and among which
about 42000 MW could be harnessed sighting
the feasibility in terms of economic and
technical aspects, Nepal is recognized as the
most profound place for the production of green
hydrogen [14]. According to reports, Nepal will
have at least 10,000 megawatts of hydropower
by 2030, with a demand of approximately 7,000
megawatts. The total capacity is expected to be
39,000 megawatts by 2040[15]. It is anticipated
that the cost of producing green hydrogen
will be below 1 USD per kg by 2050 which
approximately sits around 3.01 USD per Kg at
2024 [16].

Application scope of Green Hydrogen

Consisting wide variety of utilization area
green hydrogen's scope of application could be
illustrated by following picture.

Feedsiock Tor

Figure 3: Usage of Green Hydrogen [17]

[९४ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३५ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Development in Nepal

In the fiscal year 2082/83 Nepal has aimed to
conduct feasibility study of green hydrogen
production in association with universities
and private sector. Along with this National
and foreign investor will be encouraged to
invest in Nepal in the field of Green Hydrogen
production. Also there is a provision to provide
tax exemption for the green hydrogen producing
industries [18]. Along with this some of the
major development steps in regard to the green
hydrogen could be listed as follow:

७.

४ Policy Level awareness:
e Green Hydrogen Policy, 2080
५ Research and Development

e Possibility of Hydrogen Energy in Nepal,
2065: A research report prepared by the
integrated team of Tribhuvan University,
Nepal and Western Michigan University,
USA.

e A study conducted' by _ Asian
Development Bank regarding Hydrogen
generation using hydroelectricity in
Nepal, 2077.

e Possibility of production and usage
of Green Hydrogen in Nepal, 2078, a
research reported submitted to Cabinet
by Water and Energy Commission.

e Ateam of experts of Ministry of Energy,
Water Resources and Irrigation studied
on use of Green Hydrogen for the

production of chemical fertilizer in
Nepal. [19]
४ Structural Development
e Green Hydrogen Lab, Kathmandu
University, established at 2020 this

laboratory has been instrumental for the
research aspirants to study the vibrant
dimensions of Green Hydrogen

७ HFP Nepal: a _ collaborative project
between Kathmandu University and

Nepal Oil Corporation. This project
aims to identify the feasibility scenario
for technology transfer and adaptation
for the production of green hydrogen
as a commercial fuel from hydropower
plants.

e Nepal Hydrogen Initiative: a project
for carbon neutrality and energy
independent Nepal running under
Kathmandu University.

** Programmatic Initiations

e 16" Periodic plan (2024/25-2028/29)
has included green hydrogen as a
possible source of alternative energy
in the provision of Major Programs and
Transformative strategies.

e Unveiling of green hydrogen fueled car
numbered Ba 1 Jha 111 by the Prime
Minister of Nepal in 2024.

e Commencement of Green Hydrogen
refueling station at Kathmandu
University.

e Nepal Has engaged in some informal
conversation with International agencies
likes UNDP and ADB in regard to the
technical assistance for the possible
pilot projects for the development of
Hydrogen in Nepal.

e Green Hydrogen and Green Ammonia
Plant Project under Investment Board
Nepal at an estimated cost of 1100
million USD to be commenced under
Public Private Partnership Model.

Where does Nepal
stands in the Picture

Electricity Authority

Nepal Electricity Authority being a supreme
leader of the electricity generation, transmission
and distribution, is expected to play as a frontier
for the development of overall aspects of Green
Hydrogen in Nepal. Some of the major initiations
taken by the authority could be listed as follow:

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT Ea

= Conduction of feasibility study by
creating an alliance with Global Green
Growth and Kathmandu University
for Green Hydrogen targeting for the
commencement of Green Hydrogen
Plant in Nepal.

= Looking for the regional cooperation for
the development of Green Hydrogen as
a way forward strategy for the years to
come.

० Sighting Green Hydrogen technologies
contributing to the domestic economy
with better utilization of Hydropower
electricity, NEA has signed a MOU with
School of Engineering, Kathmandu
University.

» Business Promotion Division has opted
for the studying, executing, monitoring
and evaluating hydrogen development
as one of its major focal point. [20]

Challenges and Aspects to be considered

= Meetthe need of extensive infrastructure
development

» Acquiring significant financial investment

» Development of efficient and cost
effective electrolysis technology that
best fits modality of Green Hydrogen
Production Mechanism opted by Nepal

० As the policy formulated till date in Nepal
are in its preliminary state, there seems
to make legal enhancement to nurture
the Green Hydrogen development in
Nepal

» Establishment of। Comprehensive
Regulatory Framework so that the whole
proceeding of the Green Hydrogen
research and development, investment,
planning, production, storage, usage
(Selling and Buying) is carried out under
the specific regulatory umbrella of the
state.

= As there is a significant drawback of
seasonal hydropower fluctuation, role
of Nepal Electricity authority to stabilize
the power supply to the Green Hydrogen
Industry seems to vital.

Way Forward

The process turning Green  Hydrogen's
theoretical sculpture to practical realization is a
long term process. The achievement of being
one of hub in Green Hydrogen producer nation
along with the enhancement of the country's
economy below mentioned approaches seems
to instrumental for the Nepal's fate:

«+ Infrastructure Development
० Creation of specialized wing for Green
Hydrogen under Ministry of Energy,
Water Resources and Irrigation which
will act as a top level representative of

the government of Nepal.

» Restructuring Alternative Energy
Enhancement Centre so that Green
Hydrogen Gets top level priority as an
alternative source of energy to reduce
carbon footprint.

० Establishment of a Regulatory body
under Federal Government which will
ensure that the strategy of government
and ground realization do not have gaps
and holes.

४ Resource allocation
» Strategic financial interventions by the
government by laying foundation for
Green Hydrogen Transition via Budget,
period plan and strategies.

=» Fund allocation from all three levels of
governments sighting the practicality
of the circumstances in the respective
work scope.

» Direct Financial Incentives for
Electrolyzer manufacturers and Green
Hydrogen Producers

> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

७.

४ Research and Development

Investment in research and
development by the Federal and state
level governments

Promotion of research activities through
the research aspirants of top universities
of Nepal under the supervision of
subject experts

Activating scientific research wings of
Nepal likes of NAST, NAARC, National
Innovation Centre, Nepal Physical
Society and other research agencies of
Nepal.

४ Regulations and standards

७.

Formulation of acts from Legislation and
specific regulations from the relevant
ministry to complete the legal pathways
for Green Hydrogen Transition

Setup Safety regulations for Producers
(both electrolyzer as well as Green
Hydrogen), Transporters and Users so
that everything runs under the controlled
and safe environment.

Formulation of specific legal provision
for importing electrolyzer, equipment
and other necessary stuffs.

¢<- Investment Invitation

Utilization of Public Private Partnership
modality to ensure the sufficiency of
capital for the purpose.

Improvement in Doing Business
Environment Index and call for global
Investors via Foreign Direct Investment
and Create a capital market for Green
Hydrogen Development so that foreign
investor may have the luxury to invest
in the portfolio market.

Promotion of Non-Resident Nepali
Community to invest in Green Hydrogen
pilot projects of Nepal.

"+ Demand Creation

Exploration of National and Global
market through Consulate General in
International Stations, global economic
forums and relevant global stakeholders.

Development of chemical fertilizer
industry so that green hydrogen could
be utilized for the production Ammonium
based fertilizers.

Transformation of domestic
transportation industry from fossil fuel to
Green hydrogen with special incentives
provided by the government.

Participation of Nepal Electricity Authority

Primarily sitting at the central composition of
the country's power sector, Nepal Electricity
Authority have to play a pivotal role in the

multidimensional

development of Green

Hydrogen in Nepal. Here are the best fitting
responsibilities and contributions that NEA is
expected to act upon:

Provide enhanced facilitation to the
Green Hydrogen industry through the
utilization of surplus hydroelectricity,
economically viable and appropriate
PPA framework implementation

Grid integration, optimization of dispatch
strategy to electrolyzer manufacturer
and assurance of adequate and stable
power supply to Green Hydrogen power
plant

Develop infrastructure such = as
transmission lines, designated power
plants, specialized distribution wing

Collaboration with Government of Nepal,
research institutions, and corporate
sector to enhance the efficiency of
infrastructure development

Run research & development, capacity
building and knowledge — sharing
programs so the best brains could

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT 4a

be developed inside NEA which will Standing at the cusp of green hydrogen
ultimately foster the Green Hydrogen revolution, Nepal seems to be at the energy
as a possible source of revenue for the transition phase with its remarkable energy
organization. potential and recurring energy surplus. In
the meantime, Nepal Electricity Authority is
undeniably instrumental player in this endeavor
which is designated to assist in multidimensional
approach from providing surplus hydropower at
the economically viable charges to developing
vital infrastructure along with nurturing
research and development. Acting as a central
stakeholder in the power industry, NEA holds the
capability to transform Nepal into a leader in the
production and utilization of Green Hydrogen
ultimately fostering the national economy and
green revolution.

Conclusion

To recapitulate, Nepal's journey from
Hydropower to Hydrogen is in nascent stage.
Careful planning, adequate investment and
collaborative integration of Government
of Nepal, all the state level governments,
corporate sector, private sector, and global
players of the industry is expected to provide
synergetic effective for the Green Hydrogen to
be staged as a strategic tool for energy security,
sustainability and a subject of regional and
international trade.

References:
[1] World energy outlook 2024, IEA. CC BY 4.0.

[2] Ken Silverstein(2025), Green Energy's Role In A World Where Al Data Centers Are Power
Hungry, forbes.com

[3] The Future of Hydrogen Seizing today's opportunities Report prepared by the IEA for the
G20, Japan, Ch 1, 2019

[4]  NEAAnnual Report (2022). https://nea.org.np

[5] IRENA (2019). Hydrogen: A Renewable Energy Perspective. https://www.irena.org/
publications/2019/Sep/Hydrogen-A-renewable-energy-perspective

[6] 9. Shiva Kumar, ४. Himabindu, (2019), Hydrogen production by PEM water electrolysis —
A review, Materials Science for Energy Technologies, Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages 442-454,
ISSN 2589-2991,

[7] IEA (2021). Global Hydrogen Review. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-
review-2021

[8] 5. Shiva Kumar, V. Himabindu, (2019) Hydrogen production by PEM water electrolysis — A
review, Materials Science for Energy Technologies, Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages 442-454,
ISSN 2589-2991,

[9] Toghyani et. al. (2019), Optimization of operating parameters of a polymer exchange
membrane electrolyzer. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 44

[10] S. Seetharamana, et. al. (2013), Graphene oxide modified non-noble metal electrode for
alkaline anion exchange membrane water electrolyzers, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 38pp. 14934-
14942

[९८ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]
[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]
[19]

[20]

P.H. Vermeiren, W. Adriansens, J.P. Moreels, R. Leysen, (1998), Evaluation of the Zirfon®
separator for use in alkaline water electrolysis and Ni-H, batteries,।Int. J. Hydrogen
Energy, 23 pp. 321-324

S. Shiva Kumar, Hankwon Lim, (2022), An overview of water electrolysis technologies for
green hydrogen production, Energy Reports, Volume 8, Pages 13793-13813, ISSN 2352-
4847

Ansari et. al. (2025). Sustainable Hydrogen Production, a Review of Methods, Types,
Applications, Challenges, and Future Perspectives. Global Challenges, 10.1002/
gch2.202500086.

Hydropower development Policy, 2058

MICHAEL KOBINA KANE, STEPHANIE GIL, Green Hydrogen: A key investment for the
energy transition, World Bank Blogs, JUNE 23, 2022

Baral S, Sebo J. (2024), Techno-economic assessment of green hydrogen production
integrated with hybrid and organic Rankine cycle (ORC) systems, 10(4):e25742. doi:10.1016/j.
heliyon.2024.e25742

BNEF-Hydrogen-Economy-Outlook-Key-Messages-30-Mar-2020
Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2082/83, 222, 392

Green Hydrogen Policy, 2080

Nepal Electricity Authority, A Year in Review, Fiscal Year 2023/24

Nepal's Transition from
Load Shedding to Energy Export

Introduction: A Nation Reborn in Light

Nepal's energy landscape has
a metamorphosis that defies

development timelines. A country once crippled

undergone
conventional

by 18-hour daily blackouts (once upon a
time), now commands regional attention as an
electricity exporter, earning Rs 15 billion from
cross-border sales in FY 2023/24. This radical
pivot from load-shedding pariah to clean energy
innovator reflects strategic infrastructure bets,
diplomatic ingenuity, and visionary leadership.
Yet beneath the triumph lies a complex tapestry:
climate vulnerabilities, policy instability, and
the audacious dream of harnessing 28,500 MW
by 2035. As Nepal balances domestic security
against export ambitions, its journey illuminates
a path for energy-poor nations worldwide.

The Darkness Era of Nepal's Electricity
Sector (2008-2016): A Critical Overview

Between 2008 and 2016, Nepal experienced
daily power cuts ranging from 8 to 18 hours,
especially during the dry season (winter). The
Darkness Era (2008-2016) was a period of
major crisis in Nepal's power sector. It was
caused by poor planning, seasonal hydropower
dependency, and lack of investment. However,
the end of the era began with reforms in NEA,
improved imports from India, and better grid
management.

Abhishek Chauhan
Electrical Supervisor
Kathmandu Grid Division

Turnaround गा Electricity Generation:
Engineering Revolution & Government
Policies (2016—2024)

From Power Crisis to Power Surplus

Before 2015, Nepal faced severe load shedding,
weak generation capacity (~850 MW), and
dependency on imports. After 2016, with
focused government policy and new action plan
Nepal revolutionized electricity generation by:

e Accelerating hydropower development
e Bringing in engineering innovations
e Reforming electricity policies

e Promoting investment & exports
Between 2016 and 2024, Nepal proved that:

When politics supports policy and execution,
even a power-starved nation can become an
emerging energy exporter.

Nepal's transformation in generation wasn't
accidental it was the result of bold political
decisions, timely engineering action, and strong
policy direction.

Now, with surplus generation in the wet season
and growing export channels, Nepal stands
ready to become a regional green energy hub in
South Asia.

१०० __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Helped Remove Load Shedding
1. Increased Generation Capacity

e Before 2016: ~850 MW (insufficient to
meet demand)

e After 2021: >2,800 MW (surplus during
wet season)

e Projects like Upper Tamakoshi (456
MW) and several IPP-based RoR
projects helped close the supply-demand

gap
2. Private Sector (IPP) Involvement
e Over 60% of new capacity added after

2016 came from Independent Power
Producers

e NEA signed PPAs with dozens of IPPs,
accelerating project execution

3. Transmission Expansion

e NEA 220 kV and 400 kV lines are
completed (Dhalkebar—Hetauda—
Inaruwa corridor)

e Allowed reliable evacuation of generated
power to load centers

4. Dry Season Management

e Though hydro 15 seasonal, import
through Dhalkebar—Muzaffarpur line
helped manage dry season shortages

e This bought time for Nepal to complete
large hydropower projects
5. System Planning and Policy Reform
e Government declared energy emergency
in 2016

e Accelerated licensing, construction, and
grid development

e NEA improved load management and
reduced technical losses

6. 99-action plan for the national electrical

development decade (2015/2016)
1. Legal & Policy Reforms

¢ Implement "take-or-pay" Power
Purchase Agreements (PPA) for
new projects

०" PPAs to be denominated in US
dollars for 10-year duration to hedge
currency risk

¢ Introduce VAT subsidy of NPR
50 lakh perMW for projects
commissioned by 2025/26 fiscal
year

"०" Extend deadlines (RCOD) by up
to one year for earthquake-affected
projects

० Allow conversion of resettlement
cost into equity to engage local
communities as stakeholders

2. Administrative & Institutional

Measures

¢ Establish single-window systems
and streamline approval procedures

० Form multiple coordination
committees to oversee PPAs,
transmission line planning, laws,
and project management

¢ Invite the private sector participation
in building transmission lines via a
build-and-transfer model

०" Strengthen the Nepal Electricity
Authority's institutional capacity
and legal clarity

3. Structural/Technical Interventions

"० Ramp up hydropower
development—run-of-river,
reservoir-based, and large projects

@ TF 3g ७ SEP १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT १०१

¢ Promote solar and wind, targeting

Political & Strategic Decisions Supporting

renewable share up to 10% of This Innovation

generation capacity

¢ Import short-term electricity from
India to ease shortages during
implementation phase

¢ Prioritize completion of major
projects such as Kulekhani I &
11, Budhigandaki, Naumure, and
Nalsinghgarh

4. Incentives & Project Facilitation

¢ Provide security deployment at
project sites (developer funded)
when necessary

"० Offer
operation deadlines for disaster-

extended commercial

impacted projects

"० Equity-based community
participation to reduce conflict and

increase local benefit-sharing

¢ Tax relief and structured incentive
packages to encourage private and
foreign investment

Market Innovation: Nepal-India Electricity
Exchange (Since 2021)

Harnessing Surplus through Competitive Power
Trade

Starting in 2021, Nepal entered a new energy
market phase by participating in India's
competitive electricity exchange system (IEX).
This marked a major shift in how electricity was
traded from rigid government-to-government
imports to a dynamic, market-based export

model.

Core Concept: Use surplus electricity during
wet seasons to generate revenue via export
through energy markets, and manage imports
smartly during dry seasons through bilateral and
open access agreements.

e 2021: India allows Nepal to participate
in JEX after trust-building and grid
synchronization.

e Gov & NEA: Regular submission of
project-wise export requests to Indian
Central Electricity Authority (CEA)

e Cross-border trade policy: Evolved to
support non-Government PPAs and

third-party trade.

e Bangladesh Export Agreement (via
India): First regional trilateral energy
trade pilot launched.

From 2021 onward, Nepal's engagement in
the Indian Energy Exchange (IEX) marked a
historic market innovation:

It transformed Nepal from a passive power
importer into an active energy trader, leveraging
surplus to generate revenue and integrating into
South Asia's emerging power market. This shift,
backed by policy reform, regional cooperation,
like the Dhalkebar—
Muzaffarpur line, positions Nepal as a regional

and infrastructure
energy player with long-term growth potential.
Nepal's hydropower development played a
direct and essential role in ending load shedding.
By expanding generation capacity through
NEA and IPPs, supported by strong policy and
transmission infrastructure, Nepal not only met
its domestic demand but also became a power
exporter.

Compparisan of Exported Energy to India in
different F¥

SERB ES

"me

> fear vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Comparison of exported Energy to India in different FY

FY Shrawan Bhadra_ Ashwin kartik

Mangshir

Poush Falgun  Chaitra  Baishakh  Jestha Ashadh

26 305। 48 [30 14 [ 0०। 0 Ta

22 256 [। का 202 88 [0। 0 [0 ० 2 २230

2078/79

240

Nepal-India Electricity Exchange Overview
with Seasonal Insights

The graph illustrates Nepal's monthly electricity
export to India over three fiscal years (2078/79,
2079/80, 2080/81):

e High Export Months (Shrawan 10
Kartik): Exports peak in the monsoon
season, especially in Ashwin and Kartik,
when generation is at its highest due to
abundant water flow in rivers feeding
Nepal's run-of-river hydropower plants.

e Export drops sharply from Mangsir
onward, almost to zero from Poush to
Baishakh, across all three fiscal years.

e Export rises again in Jestha and Ashadh,
when pre-monsoon rainfall begins to
increase river flow.

Poush to Baishakh: Low Generation, Zero
Export

This period corresponds to Nepal's dry season
(winter to early spring). Here's what happens:

Low Hydropower Generation:

e The run-of-river hydropower plants face
significantly reduced river flow, leading
to sharp declines in energy generation.

e As seen in earlier monthly generation
data (image you provided earlier),
generation during Poush to Chaitra
in 2080/81 dropped to around 24,570
MWh to 25,030 MWh — the lowest of
the year.

Imported Energy From difernt lines in
FY 2078/79, FY 2079/80 and 2080/81

450

400

350

300

250

GWh

200

150

100

Ls नि
\ १

50 —
सालमा या

ofa [a

०। 26। २63। 324
2। a। 6। a1। a9। 203। aaa 318। 336। 396। aga। ३5
०। at। 83। 281

2।

No Export to India:

e Due to low domestic generation and
rising internal demand (especially in
cold months), Nepal stops exporting to
India during this time.

e Instead, as shown in the load curve chart,
Nepal imports electricity from India
during peak demand hours, especially in
the evening (e.g., Jestha 16, 2081 system
peak load of 2408 MW at 19:30).

From Poush to Baishakh, the graph shows that
Nepal's electricity export to India drops to
nearly zero in all three fiscal years (2078/79,
2079/80, 2080/81).

e There is very minimal or no export
recorded, indicating Nepal is not in a
surplus generation condition.

Nepal, during Poush, Magh, Falgun, Chaitra,
and up to early Jestha, becomes a net importer
of electricity, especially during:

e Morning and evening peak demand
periods

e Cold winter months, when electricity
demand increases due to heating needs

e Times of low water flow, reducing
hydropower generation

This conclusion is supporte त by the system load curve of Jestha 16, 2081 (May 29, 2024),

which clearly shows:

System Load Curve (Maximum Demand}
Ashad 31, 2081 (July 15, 2024) Monday। Aad सग सा मका Led Sn का डा

Aer Tote Patel [नमन a ee

—_ _ ——

TOA, EXPAT

He

Based on the Annual System Peak Load Curve
of Jestha 16, 2081 (May 29, 2024) from the
Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA), we can draw
the Nepal's
electricity import and export patterns with India

following conclusion about

throughout the day:

Conclusion on Nepal—India Power Import and
Export (Jestha 16, 2081)

The system load curve clearly reflects Nepal's
dynamic role as both an importer and exporter
of electricity depending on the time of day:

१०४ S fears vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३5 ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

During Off-Peak Hours (Night to Early
Morning & Afternoon):

Nepal exports electricity to India, as
seen in the green shaded area labeled
"TOTAL EXPORT".

This reflects surplus generation from
domestic especially from
Independent Power Producers (IPPs)
and NEA's run-of-river plants, when

internal demand is low.

sources,

Export generally happens from around
midnight to 6 AM, and again in the
early afternoon (around 1-4 PM).

. During Peak Hours (Evening):

Nepal's domestic demand rises sharply,
peaking at 2408.62 MW at 19:30.

To meet this surge in demand, Nepal
relies on electricity import from
India, seen in the red shaded "TOTAL
IMPORT" portion.

This indicates that Nepal currently lacks
adequate dispatch able power, such as
from storage hydro or flexible thermal
units, to meet evening peaks without
support from India.

3. Internal Power Mix:

The base of the curve is covered largely
by Independent Power Producers
(IPPs) and NEA run-of-river/pro-rated
(ROR+PROR) generation.

Storage-based generation contributes
more prominently during peak demand
hours but is still insufficient alone.

AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY {13,966 MU)

* NES Hydro Generation

- Purchese WES Subsidaries

क purchase lPP Nepal 7 Purchese India

ENERGY CONSUPTION & SYSTEM LOSS (13966 MU)

छ Internal sales &sation Utilized
B Export

System Loss

Chart Represent: statics and schematics data (MU= Million Units)

Monsoon Dry Season
(Jun-Sep) (Dec-Apr)

3,300 MW 1,000 MW

2, 300 MW 2,300 MW
1,200 MW surplus। >50% deficit

What Happens If This Line Gets Disconnected
or Cut from Dhalkebar- Muzaffarpur

1. during Dry Season (Nov—Apr)

Nepal imports up to 600 MW from India via
Dhalkebar to meet demand.

Impact:
e Severe power shortage across Nepal.

e Load-shedding may be reintroduced
temporarily in industrial areas or cities.

७ NEAmayration power supply (especially
to large consumers and industries).

e Domestic generation (mostly run-of-
river) won't be enough to meet peak
load.

e Emergency diesel generation (expensive)
may be considered.

e Imports via other smaller 132 kV
lines (like Katatya—Kushaha, Raxaul—
Parwanipur) may help, but their capacity
is limited (below 100 MW).

2. during Monsoon (May—Oct)

Nepal exports electricity to India using the same
line.

Impact:

e Loss of a major export route — revenue
loss for NEA and IPPs.

e Potential grid overloading inside Nepal
if export is blocked (surplus energy
stays unused).

e IPPs may be asked to reduce generation
("spilling water" = economic loss).

e NEA may try to divert export via
Tanakpur, Mahendranagar (132 kV
lines), but these can't handle bulk
exports.

e Internal consumption may be boosted

temporarily (e.g. cheap tariffs 10

industrial zones).
For all time self dependent

Nepal has made remarkable progress in

hydropower generation, enabling seasonal
electricity exports to India and Bangladesh
during the monsoon. However, the country still
faces significant challenges in the dry season
due to reduced river flow and over-dependence

on run-of-river projects.

To achieve full-year energy self-reliance,
Nepal must now diversify its generation mix.
Integrating solar power, establishing battery
storage systems, and investing in pumped
storage and reservoir hydropower are essential
next steps. These technologies will help balance
seasonal fluctuations, reduce dry-season
imports, and ensure stable electricity supply for

national growth.

Only by combining hydropower with solar and
energy storage, can Nepal become truly energy
independent, resilient, and a green energy leader
in South Asia.

To achieve self-dependence in electricity supply,
the Government of Nepal needs to focus on the
following key areas:

1. Maximize Hydropower Development

Nepal has an estimated hydropower potential
of over 80,000 MW, but less than 10% of it
has been developed so far. To achieve energy
independence:

१०६ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

e Prioritize the development of strategic
large, medium, and small hydropower
projects.

e Streamline project approvals and reduce
bureaucratic delays.

e Ensure timely completion of projects
through better project management and
accountability.

e Encourage public-private partnerships
(PPP) and provide access to finance for
developers.

e Integrate climate-resilient infrastructure
planning, especially for projects
vulnerable to glacial lake outbursts or
flooding.

2. Diversify Renewable Energy Sources

Hydropower alone cannot ensure reliable
supply, especially during the dry season (winter
months), when river flows are low. To balance
the energy mix:

e Invest in solar energy—ideal for Nepal's
high-altitude, sunny regions.

e Promote wind energy projects in suitable
areas like Mustang and Palpa.

e Support biomass and biogas technologies
in rural and agricultural areas.

e Implement hybrid systems (e.g., solar
+ battery + micro-hydro) for off-grid or
remote regions

3. Improve Transmission and Distribution
Infrastructure

A major bottleneck in Nepal's power sector is
the weak and outdated transmission network. To
solve this:

e Expand the national transmission grid
and ensure connectivity to all provinces.

e Upgrade existing lines to reduce
transmission and distribution losses
(currently around 15—20%).

Build cross-border transmission lines
to enhance power trade with India and
China.

Invest in smart grid technologies to
improve real-time monitoring and load
management.

4. Encourage Private Sector and Foreign
Investment

Private developers have played a crucial role in

energy production. To enhance this further:

Simplify and streamline the licensing
and approval process.

Ensure predictable and stable regulatory
frameworks for return on investment.

Provide tax incentives, subsidies, or
risk-sharing mechanisms.

Establish a one-window policy for
energy investors to reduce delays.

Strengthen public-private partnership
(PPP) models for large-scale
infrastructure.

5. Promote Energy Efficiency and
Conservation

To reduce energy demand and maximize the use

of available electricity:

Launch nationwide campaigns for
energy-saving practices in households,
industries, and public buildings.

Mandate energy-efficient appliances
and equipment, including labeling and
standards.

Provide incentives for industries to adopt
energy-efficient technologies.

Promote demand-side management
(DSM) © strategies through — utility
companies.

@ TF 3g ७ SEP १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT १०७

6. Enhance Regional Energy Trade and
Storage Solutions

Nepal can benefit from power export during
surplus seasons and import during shortages:

e Expand bilateral and multilateral energy
trade agreements, especially with India
and Bangladesh.

e Join regional power markets like the
South Asia Regional Energy Cooperation
(SAREC).

e Invest in energy storage solutions such
as:

e Pumped storage hydropower (to store
excess power during low demand).

e Battery storage systems for grid stability
and rural electrification.

e Develop a seasonal storage strategy to
tackle the dry season's low generation.

7. Strengthen Policy, Institutional Capacity,
and Governance

A strong legal and institutional framework 15
vital for sustained energy sector growth:

e Update and align national energy policies
and strategies with long-term goals (e.g.,
SDG 7 and net-zero goals).

e Ensure effective coordination among
entities like NEA, AEPC, DoED, and
ERC.

e Strengthen regulatory bodies to ensure
fair pricing, transparency, and quality
standards.

of
energy governance to empower local

e Encourage decentralization

governments and communities.

Conclusion

Nepal has successfully transitioned from an
era of prolonged load shedding (2008-2016) to
becoming a seasonal electricity exporter by 2024.
With major hydropower projects completed
and regional trade through the Indian Energy
Exchange (IEX) and bilateral agreements, Nepal
now exports hundreds of megawatts of surplus
power during the wet season.

However, due to the seasonal nature of run-
still
on electricity imports from India during the

of-river hydropower, Nepal depends
dry season. This shows that while Nepal has
achieved significant progress, it 15 not yet fully

energy self-reliant year-round.

To ensure full energy independence, Nepal
must now focus on developing reservoir-based
hydropower, solar power, and energy storage
systems to bridge the seasonal gap and stabilize

supply.

The country has not only become self-sufficient
in power production to a certain extent but it has
also turned from an energy importing country to
an energy exporting country conclusion.

To become self-reliant in electricity, Nepal
must leverage its natural resources wisely,
diversify its energy mix, invest in infrastructure
and technology, and create a supportive
environment for investment and innovation.
A balanced approach combining hydropower
dominance with renewable diversification,
smart grid systems, regional cooperation, and
energy efficiency will ensure not only energy
independence but also economic growth,
sustainability, and improved quality of life for

all.
Reference:

This article data collection from NEA A year in
review - Fiscal Year 2023-2024 Annual Report

१०८ S faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Architects as a Strategic Pillar for an

Energy-Sustainable Nation

Nepal's rapid urbanisation, with millions of
homes constructed and damaged over the past
decade, has placed unprecedented demands
on its energy resources. The nation is moving
forward with ambitious targets to achieve
negative carbon emissions by 2050 and net zero
by 2045. In this context, engineering branches,
predominantly architectural engineering, could
provide a robust framework to surpass global
expectations. Now, the question remains, how?

The Building Energy Efficiency in Nepal
(BEEN) report suggests that in FY 2078/79, the
building sector, primarily residential buildings,
accounted for 60.59% of the total energy
consumption in Nepal. Interestingly, designing
impactful residential areas is a fundamental
yet crucial part of architectural practice.
Additionally, by integrating climate-responsive
design, low-embodied-energy materials, and
controlled energy consumption — systems,
architects can transform models into buildings
and bring the dreams of an energy-efficient

Nepal into reality.

NEA's FY 2023/24 report stated that the total
domestic electricity consumption was 10,243
GWh, while the total available energy in the
system was 13,966 GWh. It is almost 73% of the
total available energy. Residential consumption

has the largest share of domestic consumption.

Kathmandu Engineering College

Avisha Paudel
Architecture Student

Kalimati

That the

infrastructure can lower energy consumption

being

well-designed

case, a

by almost 30% compared to a conventional
structure. Nepal's urban population is expected
to exceed 50% by 2035, with the construction of
millions of new buildings. This trend increases
the demand on the national grid, especially
during harsh seasons, for cooling in summer
and heating in winter. Research on constructing
energy-efficient buildings has discovered that
more than 40% of the energy is used for heating
and cooling in new residential structures.
with

brilliance, redesigning Nepal shall no longer

Furthermore, sufficient architectural

remain just on paper.

11 Architectural Engineering, designing
structures is not just about making them visually
pleasing; it is also about how the building
breathes and how efficiently it consumes energy.
Architects design structures staying within the
basics of engineering. Although most designs
are tailored to meet clients' requirements,
governmental schemes can _ significantly
influence the choice of energy-efficient designs.
Furthermore, with a proper understanding of
local climate, practical constraints, and energy-
related challenges, a system of legal code could

be introduced before the construction design.

@ TF 3g ७ SEP १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT १०९

In the context of Nepal, we have Traditional
Buildings and Modern Residential Houses as
existing structures, with a minor percentage of
high-rise buildings currently under construction.
The concept of passive housing, environmentally
and energy-friendly buildings is not new in
Nepal, yet it is not widely practised. While 40%
of energy is consumed in heating and cooling
houses in our country, the introduction of the

Passive Housing concept into the system allows

continuous insulation
rn

aright envelope

solar maria Qe eT

high-jer formance
windows and daors

heat recovery ventilation

buildings to achieve an average energy saving
of 75%.

Passive houses reduce energy consumption
by almost 90% during the summer season for
cooling and a similar amount during the winter
season for heating. Introducing solar heating
and natural ventilation makes heating and
cooling simpler, reducing a significant chunk of
electricity consumption throughout the year.

Fig: Illustration of key passive housing features.

The underlying fundamental of these residential
houses is the orientation and direction of the
structure. Nepal is divided into three geographical
regions and five climatic zones influenced by
its varying terrains and altitudinal features.
Climate-responsive building orientation
involves positioning a building to align with the
sun's light path and prevailing wind direction,
thereby maximising airy features. The heat and
wind that enter the structure determine whether
or not it is energy efficient in a broader context.
If the building's walls, windows, ventilation,
openings, and other considerable passive design

components are properly organised, then the

requirement for an artificial cooling system is

minimised.

For climate-responsive orientation, natural
ventilation and cross-airflow designs are more
preferable. Strategic zoning and design allow
air to move and buildings to accept maximum
daylight with controlled glare. It further reduces
the dependence on artificial lighting during the

day, which is common in traditional houses.

Architectural designs are not always uniform
and often vary significantly, depending on the
region of construction. This factor dictates the

distinction of construction materials. After

११० § fear vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

orientation, the concept of thermal mass must
be utilised efficiently in designs to achieve an
optimal energy outcome. Essentially, thermal
mass refers to a material's ability to absorb,
store, and release heat as needed, and it should
be incorporated variably based on diverse
geographical regions. Materials like concrete,
brick, stone, and adobe are widely accepted and
effective in controlling thermal mass.

Thermal mass control constitutes another
fundamental concept of insulation. It is yet
another fundamental requirement in a passive
housing system. It allows the building to remain
cool, maximising heat loss during summer and
minimising heat loss in the winter. Materials
such as EPS, glass wool, cotton, and cellulose

are primarily used for insulation in buildings.

Furthermore, comparing Traditional (Old) and
Modern Houses with the Passive House System,
the understanding of the fundamentals of
redefining Nepal as an energy-efficient nation is
further clarified. For an architect in the modern
world, imagining a nation with optimised
electricity consumption 15 all about introducing
passive housing to the general public. Educating
undergraduates on this particular trend, running
campaigns and notably considering this idea of
housing in national law makes it more reachable.

Besides architectural designs integrated with
Passive Housing Concepts, investing in green

infrastructures would be crucial for building an
energy-efficient Nepal. The integration of this
concept during the construction of modern houses
enables nature-friendly solutions to the country's
energy crisis. The fundamental principle behind
green infrastructure in optimising energy
consumption is the introduction of sustainable
design principles, as previously implemented in

China.

The Chinese initiative to include the "Green
building Action Plan" (2020) within the major
timeline has enabled them to grow rapidly
in green technology, minimising energy
consumption to a greater extent. Allowing such
plans to flourish helps Nepal achieve its dream

of becoming an energy-efficient nation.

In closing, while Nepal is in the early stages of
development, there is an undeniable contribution
of architectural engineers, particularly in
preparing the framework for the future. The
dream of millions of Nepalese for an energy-
sustainable nation, despite rapid urbanisation and
climatic challenges, has brought accountability
and answerability to the engineers. With proper
planning and execution of passive strategies, as
well as the introduction of green infrastructure,
Nepal's excess energy consumption is expected
to reach zero within a couple of decades. This
is not just about reducing energy bills; it is
about redefining a nation's identity, and we, as
architects, have to plan the path to sustainability.

कर्मचारी तथा आधित पारिवारिक औषधी उपचार वीमा दावीका लागि आवश्यक कागजात

भर्ना हुनु पूर्व गरिएका उपचारका कागजात।
भर्ना भइसकेपछि डाक्टरले लेखिएको Prescription।
औषधी खरिद गर्दाको सक्कल विलहरु Hospital का Invoice Bill।

विभिन्न परीक्षणका All Requisition तथा All Report हरू।
डिस्चार्ज परीक्षण। डिस्चार्ज समरी fre तर आकस्मिक उपचार सेवाको कागजात।

वीमा दावी फारम।

आश्रित परिवारको हकमा नाता खुल्ने आधिकारिक कुनै कागजात।

Electrifying Nepal's Transportation
Sector: Legal Infrastructure for EV

Charging Networks

Abstract

Nepal, with major hydropower potential,
faces critical challenges in the paradigm
shift from fossil fuel-based transportation
to a cleaner alternative. Electric vehicles
have gained popularity, indicative of rising
environmental concern and the economic
burden posed by fuel imports. However,
the legal and policy framework on EV
infrastructure development, mainly on
charging networks, is still in its infancy.
The paper covers energy and transport
blocks in Nepal, the rise of EVs itself, and
other national legal instruments in their
promotion of clean mobility, such as the
National Transport Policy, Electricity Act,
and Environment Protection Act. It then
describes the roles of the key players
such as Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA),
the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
(AEPC), and the Department of Transport
Management (DoTM). 106 study also
makes an analysis of licensing, safety
Standards, tariff regulations, investment
incentives, and the impact of urban planning
regulations. Legal loopholes, inadequate
infrastructure, and perception building are
some of the constraints in harnessing the
EV potential of the country, and reforms
must tackle these.

Prabin Kumar Yadav
4th Year B.A.LL.B student
Kathmandu School of Law

Keywords: Electric Vehicles (EVs),
Charging Infrastructure, Legal Framework,
Hydropower Energy, Sustainable Transport

1. Background on Nepal's Energy and
Transport Landscape

Nepal is a beautiful, small, and sublime
country in South Asia, endowed by
nature with rivers and mountains.
Behind the idyllic beauty, the country
faces major challenges in energy and
transportation sector. Transport sector
in Nepal is largely dependent upon
imported petroleum products. According
to the Department of Customs', Nepal
spends billions of rupees every year
to import fossil fuels like diesel and
petrol. These fuels not only offer an
expensive pathway but also pollute the
environment. In other words, Nepal has
enormous potential for clean energy.
There are scads of rivers and streams
flowing all over the country that can
be utilized to generate hydroelectricity.
Hydropower is clean and renewable
energy. Shrestha & Shrestha (2019),
in an article published in the Journal of
Renewable Energy, have estimated that
Nepal can economically generate a little
more than 40,000 MW of hydroelectric

1 Department of Customs. (2023). Annual Trade Statistics. Government of Nepal.

2 Shrestha, R., & Shrestha, P. (2019). Hydropower Development in Nepal: Status, Challenges, and
Future Directions. Journal of Renewable Energy, 8(2), 15-22.

११२ § faa vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

power. However, tragically, only a small
fraction of this hydropower potential
is being harnessed at present. The
total power generation capacity is still
insufficient to meet all demands of the
country, especially during peak hours.

Roads are often congested and poorly
maintained in Nepal concerning
transportation. Most vehicles in Nepal
are diesel and petrol-powered. Number
of vehicles is growing every year, which
In tandem grows pollution. £5 per
the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure
and Transport®, Kathmandu is facing
tremendous traffic issues and growing
air pollution situations brought about by
fossil-fuel-powered vehicles. This goes
on to be a great threat to human health
and environment. Electric vehicles
appear to be the new horizon toward
these problems. They are cleaner in
the sense they do not produce harmful
smoke or gases. Also, they may harness
electricity generation from Nepal's own
hydropower, so the country can save
some foreign exchange that is otherwise
spent on buying fuels from outside.
According to Thapa & Joshi (2021) in
Nepalese Journal of Environmental
Policy, the promotion of electric vehicles
to reduce air pollution; make the cities
of Nepal cleaner and a healthier place.
The government of Nepal has started
promotion of electric mobility. National
Action Plan for Electric Mobility 2020°
envisions that 25% of all vehicles will
be electric by 2025. The government

incentives to EV buyers. Yet, challenges
like the lack of charging stations, poor
infrastructure, and unclear laws exist.

Rise of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in Nepal

Electric vehicles or EVs are gaining a lot
of popularity in Nepal as an alternative
to petrol and diesel. On the contrary,
these vehicles are clean, silence, and
friendly towards the environment. In
the last few years, many have started
to look towards electric vehicles in
Nepal because of high fuel prices and
worsening air pollution.

When EVs were first set up in Nepal,
their growth was slow at first. The "Safa
Tempo" was one of the earliest electric
vehicles in Nepal: these are mini three-
wheelers that functioned as_ public
transport in Kathmandu. According to
Shrestha & Bajracharya (2018)° in the
Journal of Sustainable Transportation,
Safa Tempos have been running since
the 1990s and worked toward pollution
reduction in the city.

In recent years, electric cars, scooters,
and buses have begun to be purchased
increasingly more by various people.
Electric vehicles are presently being sold
in Nepal by BYD, Tata, and Hyundai.
The number of electric vehicles sold
rose more than 200% in the year 2022'
as compared to previous years, said
the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA),
indicating a growing interest of the

___also_ provides tax benefits and other people toward clean transportation.
3 Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport. (2020). Annual Transport Report 2020. Government
of Nepal.

4  Thapa, R., & Joshi, M. (2021). Promoting Electric Vehicles in Nepal: Environmental and Economic
Benefits. Nepalese Journal of Environmental Policy, 5(1), 33-40.

5 Government of Nepal. (2020). National Action Plan for Electric Mobility. Ministry of Energy, Water
Resources, and Irrigation.

6 Shrestha, S., & Bajracharya, C. (2018). Role of Safa Tempos in Promoting Electric Public Transport in
Kathmandu. Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 4(1), 12-18.

7 Nepal Electricity Authority. (2022). EV Charging Infrastructure Report. Government of Nepal.

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT ११३

National

10
11

A change is also being supported by the
government. In line with that assumption,
this government has reduced customs
duty and road tax on electric vehicles.
According to Dhungana (2021)® in Nepal
Policy Review, government policies as
well as an increase in public awareness
have really influenced the growth of EVs
in Nepal.

There are still some challenges here,
however, as the EV sector is growing.
The greatest challenge: the shortage
of charging stations. Buyers may hold
back to buy EVs if they feel there would
be a challenge in charging them. With
increased investment and __better-
regulated policies, however, the future
for EVs in Nepal is certainly bright.

Legal and Policy Framework for EV
Infrastructure in Nepal

a. National Transport Policy and EV
Promotion

Electric vehicles (EVs) are to be
promoted by the government under
its national transport policies. These
are norms and objectives that state
how a transportation system ought to
grow in the country. Due to increasing
pollution and rise in fuel prices, the
government has now been interested
in exiting the petrol and diesel vehicle-
laden environment in favor of electric
vehicles.

A first attempt at improving
transportation was made under the
Transport Policy, 2001.

3.2 Electricity Act

However, in the years afterward, it
was updated with an eye on clean
and green mobility. To promote
Electric Vehicles, the Electric Mobility
Promotion Plan (2020-2030)? was
brought in. According to Basnet &
Koirala (2020) in the Journal of Clean
Energy Development, the plan has
principals such as 25% of vehicles
running on electricity by 2025.

There are tax incentives and
concessions on import duties for the
purchase of electric vehicles in this
policy. This makes the model relatively
cheaper and more affordable for the
common man. The government also
intends to increase the number of
charging stations all over the country.

and Renewable
Energy Policies

Several laws have been implemented
for managing electricity and
encouraging clean energy in Nepal.
One famous law is the Electricity Act
of 1992'°. This law governs electricity
development, generation, and
distribution. It allows private companies
to generate electricity in the country,
mostly from hydropower. Since Nepal
has many rivers, the possibilities
to generate clean energy are very
high. The Renewable Energy Policy,
2006", also supports the use of clean
sources such as water, wind, and solar
power. These policies become vital
for electric vehicles (EVs) as EVs run
on electricity. When electric energy is

Dhungana, R. (2021). Electric Mobility in Nepal: Policies and Progress. Nepal Policy Review, 3(2),

45-50.

Government of Nepal. (2020). Electric Mobility Promotion Plan (2020-2030). Ministry of Energy,

Water Resources, and Irrigation.

Government of Nepal. (1992). Electricity Act. Ministry of Water Resources.
Government of Nepal. (2006). Renewable Energy Policy. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre

(AEPC).

> fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

3.3

harnessed from clean sources, it helps
to further reduce pollution. According
to Adhikari & Tiwari (2020)'? published
in the Journal of Energy Policy and
Management, these laws ease the
starting of new energy projects and
help in linking the charging stations of
electric vehicles to the national grid. An
article in The Himalayan Times (2021)?
mentioned that the government of
Nepal is updating the archaic electricity
laws to meet the demand of new
energy systems, including EVs.

Environment Protection and Urban
Planning Laws

To make cities clean and safe, Nepal
has established laws dealing with
environment protection and urban
planning. These laws are connected
to electric vehicles (EVs) as well since
such vehicles reduce air pollution
and require proper infrastructure,
such as charging stations and the
resilient distribution of network.
One of the most important ones is
the Environment Protection Act,
2019". This law deals with pollution
prevention and conservation of natural
resources. It states that projects such
as EV charging stations are required
to conduct an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA), if they are of
large size, in order to make sure that
these projects do not cause harm

to nature. According to Gautam &

12

13

15

16
17
18

Acharya (2021) in the Journal of
Environmental Law and Policy, this
law stands for the promotion of green
technology and hence for promoting
the EVs. Also, the country has urban
planning laws such as the Town
Development Act, 1988'®, the Laws
governing the development of urban
areas. These enable the government
to reserve land for public use, which
includes EV charging stations. A report
from The Kathmandu Post (2022)
mentioned that local governments are
now planning to incorporate green
transport and charging points into city
layouts.

4. Regulatory Landscape for EV
Charging Stations

a.

Licensing and Permits

Businesses need licenses and
permits to legally build and run
electric vehicle charging stations in
Nepal. Such legal authorizations help
ensure the stations are genuinely
safe and laid down per government
rules. The process usually involves
applying for permits from local
government offices and the Nepal
Electricity Authority (NEA). According
to Khadka & Sharma (2021)'®,
published in the Journal of Energy
Regulation, one must obtain a license
to connect charging installations
to the national power grid. Further,

Adhikari, B., & Tiwari, R. (2020). Electricity Law and Energy Access in Nepal. Journal of Energy Policy
and Management, 4(1), 30-36.

The Himalayan Times. (2021, March 10). Government to Review Electricity Laws to Support EV Sector.
14 Government of Nepal. (2019). Environment Protection Act. Ministry of Forests and Environment.

Gautam, R., & Acharya, S. (2021). Role of Environmental Laws in Promoting Sustainable Transport.
Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 5(2), 19-25.

Government of Nepal. (1988). Town Development Act. Ministry of Urban Development.

The Kathmandu Post. (2022, April 14). Local Governments Eye EV-Friendly Urban Plans.

Khadka, R., & Sharma, L. (2021). Licensing Challenges for EV Infrastructure in Nepal. Journal of
Energy Regulation, 3(1), 12-17.

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT ११५

local government authorities impose
permits concerning use of land,
construction safety amongst others.
Hence charging stations without
licenses cannot legally operate. The
Kathmandu Post (2022) suggests
lax, unclear permit processes have
discouraged many investors from
taking up ventures in EV charging.
The government therefore is engaged
in streamlining licensing regulations
to invite more investments. Having
artisanal, rapid licensing certainly
brings development to the EV
charging network of Nepal, supporting
the broader aspiration of cleaner
transportation in the sisterland.

4.3 Standards and Safety Regulations

Standards and _ safety regulations
ensure that safety is maintained at
EV charging stations in Nepal for the
user and environment. These are
guidelines for the design, installation,
and operation of the charging stations.
Such regulations basically prevent
mishaps such as electric shocks or
fires. The Nepal Bureau of Standards
and Metrology (५851) works to
formulate the standards for electrical
machinery, including EV chargers. If
one follows the standards, the chargers
will work properly and be in long
use, according to Sharma & Gurung
(2022)*' in the Journal of Electrical

____ Safety. The Kathmandu Post, 20237:

19

5. Institutional

Safety rules particular to EV charging
stations would soon be formulated by
the government for the protection of
consumers and infrastructures.

and Governance

Mechanisms

a.

Roles of NEA, DoTM, and AEPC

Several government institutes assist
In creating an EV infrastructure in
Nepal. The Nepal Electricity Authority
(NEA), which maintains the power
supply system across all of Nepal,
has its attention on establishing the
power connection from charging
stations. The NEA also intends to put
up a charging network."

The Department of Transport
Management (DoTM) has. vehicle
registration and driving licenses
under its control. It therefore seeks
to promote the use of EVs by
streamlining processes for vehicle
registration and giving incentives to
EV owners, according to Shrestha
& Paudel (2021) in the Journal of
Transport Policy.

The promotion of renewable energy
programs including EV infrastructure
is one concern of AEPC. AEPC
promotes the research, training,
and investment in clean energy so
that Nepalese transportation may
become greener."°

The Kathmandu Post. (2022, June 5). Licensing Hurdles Slow Down EV Charging Station Growth.

Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology. (2021). Electrical Equipment Standards. Government of
Nepal.

Sharma, P., & Gurung, R. (2022). Electrical Safety Standards for EV Infrastructure in Nepal. Journal
of Electrical Safety, 7(1), 20-25.

The Kathmandu Post. (2023, May 10). New Safety Rules for EV Charging Stations Expected Soon.
Nepal Electricity Authority. (2022). Annual Report. Government of Nepal.

Shrestha, K., & Paudel, S. (2021). Institutional Roles in Promoting Electric Vehicles in Nepal. Journal
of Transport Policy, 5(2), 28-33.
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre. (2021). Renewable Energy Programs. Ministry of Energy.

११६ fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

20

21

22
23
24

25

The Kathmandu Post (2022) reports these the EV ecosystem in a sustainable way in
agencies coordinate towards establishing Nepal.

6. Tariff Structure and Incentives

EV Charging Station Tariff

Voltage Level Consumer Category Demand charge Energy charge
_ (NPR/Kva/month) (NPR/kWh)

High Voltage Public Transportation 230 Peak : 7.00
(266 kV) (charging station) Off-Peak : 3.70
Normal : 5.50
Medium Voltage। Public Transportation (Charging 230 Peak : 7.15
(11 kV / 33 kV) Station) OffPeak : 4.20
Normal : 5.60
Medium Voltage Other Transportation 230 Peak : 9.65
(11 kV / 33 kV) OffPeak : 4.20
Normal : 8.50
Low Voltage Public Transportation (Charging 200 Peak : 7.25
(230/400 V) Station) OffPeak : 4.30
Normal :5.75
Low Voltage Other Transportation 220 Peak : 9.75
(230/400 V) OffPeak : 4.30
Normal : 8.60

Time Slot NEA Public Charging Rate (NPR/kWh)

Off - Peak (10 PM - 5 AM)

Daytime (5 AM - 5 PM)

Peak (5 PM — 10 PM)

11.00

companies invest their money in
local businesses or projects. FDI
and domestic private investment are
equally important for the development
of Nepal because both are needed

7. Investment, Financing, and Incentive
Mechanisms

a. FDI and Domestic Investment

Opportunities

When companies from other nations
invest in Nepal to start or enlarge
industries, FDI comes into existence.
This contributed to employment
generation in Nepal, the transfer
of new technology, and economic
improvement (Adhikari, 2018)".
Domestic investment takes place
when Nepalese themselves or local

for laying infrastructure, factories,
and services (Thapa & Gurung,
2020). The government provides
several facilities such as duty-free
import of capital goods, tax holidays,
exemption from income tax, and so
on to investors (The Rising Nepal,
2021). Nepal has prime investment
potential in tourism, hydropower, and

26 The Kathmandu Post. (2022, August 15). Government Agencies Join Hands for EV Growth.
27 Adhikari, K. (2018). Foreign Investment in Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Economic Publishers.

28 Thapa, S., & Gurung, P. (2020). "Investment Opportunities in Nepal." Nepal Economic Journal, 10(3),
50-60.

29 The Rising Nepal. (2021). "Incentives to Boost Investment." July 5, 2021.

@ Ty 3g ७ SEP १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT EU

8.

agriculture (Shrestha, 2019)%. Other
than this, political instability hinders
the pace of investment at times
(Joshi, 2017)*'. All in all, promotion
of FDI and domestic investments is
the way for economic development in
Nepal.

Challenges in Fragmentation and
Ambiguity in Laws
Nepal's legal system faces major

challenges due to fragmented and
ambiguous laws. Fragmentation means
legal provisions are spread across
various documents and_ institutions,
making them difficult to access and
interpret (Sharma, 2017). Ambiguity
arises from unclear or vague language
in the laws, often leading to confusion,
disputes, and inconsistent application
(Adhikari, 2019)**. These issues affect
citizens, businesses, and _ officials
alike, particularly in sectors like land
ownership and foreign investment, where
overlapping or conflicting regulations
cause delays and legal hurdles (Thapa,
2020)**. According to The Kathmandu
Post (2021), such legal confusion
undermines development efforts and
erodes public confidence in the justice
system. Experts recommend revising
and simplifying the legal framework to

promote transparency and coherence

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

(Bhattarai, 2018). Additionally, public
awareness and market readiness are
essential for economic growth. Many
people in Nepallack adequate knowledge
of their rights and new opportunities
due to limited access to information
(Kafle, 2019)". Market challenges such
as inadequate infrastructure and a
shortage of skilled labor further hinder
progress (Ghimire & Basnet, 2020)°*°.
Education and media can play a vital
role in improving awareness, enabling
informed participation in the economy
(The Rising Nepal, 2022). Training and
awareness programs are thus crucial to
prepare Nepal for future development
(Sharma, 2018).

Conclusion

Nepal is at a crossroads for sustainable
transport, with EVs being an efficient,
greenway of cutting down the import of
fossil fuel and tackling urban air pollution
in cities like Kathmandu. Though the
country is endowed with a huge potential
for hydropower generation, it has, of
late, started using this clean energy
for transportation. Other government
initiatives for encouraging the use of
EVs include the National Action Plan
for Electric Mobility and tax incentives.
However, the lack of an established legal
framework for charging infrastructure

Shrestha, R. (2019). Economic Development and Investment. Kathmandu: Himalaya Books.
Joshi, M. (2017). "Challenges to Investment Growth." Nepa/ Business Review, 5(1), 14-20.
Sharma, R. (2017). Legal Challenges in Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Law Publications.

Adhikari, S. (2019). "Ambiguity in Nepalese Laws." Nepal Law Journal, 5(1), 12-19.

Thapa, M. (2020). "Conflicts in Land and Investment Laws." Nepal Legal Review, 8(2), 30-37.
The Kathmandu Post. (2021). "Legal Ambiguity Hurts Development." June 15, 2021.

Bhattarai, P. (2018). "Improving Nepal's Legal System." Nepal Economic Journal, 11(3), 22-28.
Kafle, D. (2019). Public Awareness in Nepal. Kathmandu: Social Science Press.

Ghimire, R., & Basnet, S. (2020). "Market Readiness in Nepal." Nepa/ Business Review, 9(1), 45-52.
The Rising Nepal. (2022). "Education Key to Economic Growth." March 10, 2022.

Sharma, P. (2018). "Importance of Awareness and Training." Nepal Development Journal, 7(3),

18-25.

११८ fear svipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

serves as a big impediment to the
nation. Fragmented laws and varying
procedures for licensing along with
poor coordination among concerned
regulatory agencies are slowing the
progress on and the promotion of an
EV sector. Legal reforms need to be
carried out in totality to unleash Nepal's
renewable energy potential. Legislations,
including the Electricity Act, Environment
Protection Act, and urban planning
regulations, need harmonization along
with the stipulation of specific standards

for

infrastructural requirements _ for

EVs. Awareness-building and market

readiness

through education and

incentives are equally important. In order
to streamline and effectively implement
policies, key institutions such as the
NEA, DoTM, and AEPC need to work
in close collaboration. Having a set of
transparent and conducive regulations
In place could fast track investments
from both within Nepal and abroad.
With proper legal and_ institutional
backing, Nepal can build a sustainable
network for EV charging that secures
energy, promotes economic growth, and
safeguards the environment, making it a
green-mobility hub in South Asia.

10.References

Department of Customs. (2023). Annual
Trade Statistics. Government of Nepal.

Shrestha, R., & Shrestha, P. (2019).
Hydropower Development in Nepal:
Status, Challenges, and Future
Directions. Journal of Renewable
Energy, 8(2), 15-22.

Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and
Transport. (2020). Annual Transport
Report 2020. Government of Nepal.

Thapa, R., & Joshi, M. (2021). Promoting
Electric Vehicles in Nepal: Environmental
and Economic' Benefits. Nepalese
Journal of Environmental Policy, 5(1),
33-40.

Government of Nepal. (2020). National
Action Plan for Electric Mobility. Ministry
of Energy, Water Resources, and
Irrigation.

Shrestha, S., & Bajracharya, C. (2018).
Role of Safa Tempos in Promoting
Electric Public Transport in Kathmandu.
Journal of Sustainable Transportation,
4(1), 12-18.

Nepal Electricity Authority. (2022).
EV Charging Infrastructure Report.
Government of Nepal.

Dhungana, R. (2021). Electric Mobility
in Nepal: Policies and Progress. Nepal
Policy Review, 3(2), 45-50.

Government of Nepal. (2020). Electric
Mobility Promotion Plan (2020-2030).
Ministry of Energy, Water Resources,
and Irrigation.

Government of Nepal. (1992). Electricity
Act. Ministry of Water Resources.

Government of Nepal. (2006).
Renewable Energy Policy. Alternative
Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC).

Adhikari, B., & Tiwari, R. (2020).
Electricity Law and Energy Access in
Nepal. Journal of Energy Policy and
Management, 4(1), 30-36.

The Himalayan Times. (2021, March
10). Government to Review Electricity
Laws to Support EV Sector.

Government of Nepal. (2019).
Environment Protection Act. Ministry of
Forests and Environment.

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT an

Gautam, R., & Acharya, S. (2021). Role
of Environmental Laws in Promoting
Sustainable Transport. Journal of
Environmental Law and Policy, 5(2),
19-25.

Government of Nepal. (1988). Town
Development Act. Ministry of Urban
Development.

The Kathmandu Post. (2022, April 14).
Local Governments Eye EV-Friendly
Urban Plans.

Khadka, R., & Sharma, L. (2021).
Licensing Challenges for EV
Infrastructure in Nepal. Journal of
Energy Regulation, 3(1), 12-17.

The Kathmandu Post. (2022, June
5). Licensing Hurdles Slow Down EV
Charging Station Growth.

Nepal Bureau of Standards and
Metrology. (2021). Electrical Equipment
Standards. Government of Nepal.

Sharma, P., & Gurung, रि. (2022).
Electrical Safety Standards for EV
Infrastructure in Nepal. Journal of
Electrical Safety, 7(1), 20-25.

The Kathmandu Post. (2023, May 10).
New Safety Rules for EV Charging
Stations Expected Soon.

Nepal Electricity Authority. (2022).
Annual Report. Government of Nepal.

Shrestha, K., & Paudel, S. (2021).
Institutional Roles in Promoting Electric
Vehicles in Nepal. Journal of Transport
Policy, 5(2), 28-33.

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre.
(2021). Renewable Energy Programs.
Ministry of Energy.

The Kathmandu Post. (2022, August
15). Government Agencies Join Hands
for EV Growth.

Adhikari, K. (2018). Foreign Investment
in Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Economic
Publishers.

Thapa, S., & Gurung, P. (2020). "Investment
Opportunities in Nepal." Nepal Economic
Journal, 10(3), 50-60.

The Rising Nepal. (2021). "Incentives to
Boost Investment." July 5, 2021.

Shrestha, रि. (2019). Economic
Development and Investment.
Kathmandu: Himalaya Books.

Joshi, M. (2017). "Challenges to
Investment Growth." Nepal Business
Review, 5(1), 14-20.

Sharma, R. (2017). Legal Challenges
in Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Law
Publications.

Adhikari, S. (2019). "Ambiguity in
Nepalese Laws." Nepal Law Journal,
5(1), 12-19.

Thapa, M. (2020). "Conflicts in Land and
Investment Laws." Nepal Legal Review,
8(2), 30-37.

The Kathmandu Post. (2021). "Legal
Ambiguity Hurts Development." June 15,
2021.

Bhattarai, P. (2018). "Improving Nepal's
Legal System." Nepal Economic Journal,
11(3), 22-28.

Kafle, D. (2019). Public Awareness
in Nepal. Kathmandu: Social Science
Press.

Ghimire, R., & Basnet, S. (2020). "Market
Readiness in Nepal." Nepal Business
Review, 9(1), 45-52.

The Rising Nepal. (2022). "Education Key to
Economic Growth." March 10, 2022.

Sharma, P. (2018). "Importance of
Awareness and_ Training." Nepal
Development Journal, 7(3), 18-25.

१२० __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

Securing NEA's Digital Infrastructure

with Cybersecurity Aaisha Dhungana
LT. Student
Jain University
CSE Cyber Security (hotline "1150"), allowing millions of Nepalese

Nepal's powersectoris beingrapidly modernized.
In recent years, NEA has started to implement
advanced technologies like smart grids, smart
metering and also substation automation. One
major change includes expanding renewable
integration. These must-needed innovations
such as mobile apps and online billing help
increase productivity, reliability, and customer
service. They do however also introduce cyber
risks. Digital systems and internet connected
devices now monitor and control generation,
transmission, and distribution. NEA's own
reports note that it has "digitized infrastructure
and services" and introduced online portals
so customers can pay bills, report issues and
access outage information. While this "Digital
transformation has empowered NEA" 10
enhance the customer experience, it also makes
the grid a high value target. In this modern
energy era, cyber security is very crucial for
every industry ranging from small to big. Even
a single breach could disrupt power supply and
put public safety at risk ultimately weakening
public trust. That's why strong cyber defenses
are very essential for Nepal to unlock the full
potential of a smart and efficient energy system.

The Digitalization of NEA

NEA's digital transformation spans every level
of the grid. At the customer interface, NEA has
rolled out online services including web portals
and mobile apps and a centralized call center

to pay bills electronically, report outages and
get support. Internally, NEA is modernizing
its operations. It 15 automating its distribution
and transmission systems, building new high-
voltage substations, and upgrading its SCADA
and load dispatch centers. The introduction
of Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
is underway, and will replace millions of
electromechanical meters with smart meters
that will support real-time data. These meters
allow two-way communication between homes
and utility, enabling load management and
much faster fault detection. Other wonderful
digital initiatives include implementing an
enterprise resource planning (ERP), geographic
information system (GIS) and _ customer
relationship management (CRM) system. These
changes give NEA powerful new capabilities.
Also these real-time monitoring and control
make the grid more efficient and reliable. Now
faults can be isolated quickly, and the electricity
flows can be optimized. Smart meters also help
reduce the losses and manage peak demand.
Digitized processes improve responsiveness
and transparency (e.g. automating billing and
complaints). NEA can even export surplus
power on short notice thanks to enhanced data
sharing. In short, Nepal's grid is becoming
smarter and greener, but with digital integration
everywhere, it's certain that the attack surface
is also growing. So cyber security must also
evolve side by side.

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT १२१

Cyber Threat Landscape
Infrastructure

in Energy

The global energy sector has become a prime
target for cyber adversaries. Unlike other
assets, the power grid touches every part of
society, homes, hospitals, industry and national
security. Disrupting electricity can quickly
paralyze a region. Moreover, modern grids rely
on Operational Technology (OT) specialized
control systems (SCADA, PLCs, RTUs, etc.)
which are often built by third-party vendors
and designed for reliability more than security.
Hackers, criminal syndicates and even nation-
states see huge leverage in attacking this
infrastructure.

In recent years, there have been serious warnings
about cyber attacks on the energy systems,
which has been called a warning signal for all.
In December 2015, Ukraine had experienced a
coordinated cyber attack where hackers caused
blackouts for over 225000 customers taking
control of breakers at three regional utilities.
The attack happened when these attackers used
malicious software to wipe important control
systems and disrupted communication devices
to disable substations. A year later, Ukraine
faced another attack where attackers used a
malware called "Crash Override". This new
malware could send harmful commands to grid
devices, rapidly opening and closing breakers,
causing disruption. These incidents highlight
how vulnerable poorly secured control systems
are which also justifies how cyber-attacks on
energy systems are rising globally. In 2021, the
Colonial Pipeline in the US was hacked, causing
major fuel shortages. Even though it was not
a part of the power grid, it showcased how
vulnerable energy infrastructure could really be.
In Europe alone, cyber-attacks on energy firms
doubled from 2020 to 2022, which in many cases
included ransom ware. In 2022 alone, there
were around 1,100 reported attacks on utilities
worldwide. Most of the energy companies have
faced breaches, and many of them fear that one
successful attack could shut down operations.
In practice, even one compromised meter,
substation controller, or communication link
can lead to a big problem. Attackers might start

with a phishing email to an engineer, then move
through the network to control servers, and
then cause damage by misoperating breakers
or generators. Supply-chain vulnerabilities,
like unpatched software or hacked IoT devices,
double the existing risk. As Nepal's grid
becomes more connected, including cross-
border links with India, a breach could spread
beyond NEA's network. The energy sector is
seen as a "soft target" by cybercriminals. For
example, a blackout in Kathmandu during the
monsoon season could harm the hospitals,
disrupt communications, many industries will
suffer loss, and cause public panic. It could also
affect foreign exchange earnings from power
exports and the investors might also lose faith
in it. Therefore, Nepal's modernizing grid is
critical national infrastructure and a high-value
target for cyber-attacks.

Key Cyber security Risks Faced by NEA

NEA has paved a way for smart energy which
has also bought several vulnerabilities:

1) SCADA/Control Systems: Many of
NEA's control centers and _ substations

run legacy ICS and SCADA platforms
(e.g. Siemens and ABB systems). These
technologies were often not designed with
modern cyber threats in the mind. The
common risks includes weak or hard-coded
credentials, outdated operating systems, and
unencrypted protocols. If the attackers gain
access to these systems, they could inject
malicious commands to circuit breakers,
transformers or generators, causing
blackouts or equipment damage (as seen in
Ukraine)

2) Smart Meters and AMI: 1705 smart
metering initiative greatly improves data
visibility, but also expands the attack
surface. Millions of smart meters and
their wireless networks could be hacked
or spoofed. Attackers might manipulate
meter readings or even remotely disconnect
customers. If meter data is sent to a central
MDMS (Meter Data Management System),
compromising that system could provide
attackers with a wealth of network topology
and usage data.

१२२ __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

3) Substation Automation and 10]: New
substations and distribution feeders are being
equipped with Internet-connected relays,
sensors and automation controllers. These
type of IoT devices are often bought from
various vendors and there is a high chance
of them containing various vulnerabilities
or insufficient authentication. If hackers
get a way to penetrate a substation LAN,
they could reconfigure protection settings
or send false telemetry, undermining grid
stability.

4) Interconnected Grid/Supply टी:
Nepal's grid is increasingly interconnected
domestically and with India. A breach in one
region or linked network could propagate.
For instance, malware planted in equipment
procured abroad could slip into NEA's
network which is a classic supply-chain risk.
Any third-party vendor or contractor having
network access (for example, to update
software on NEA systems) is a potential
entry point if not thoroughly vetted.

5) Remote Access and OT-IT Convergence:
NEA's digitization means more and more

of remote connectivity, For example
engineers can work from remote offices
or smartphones accessing network
dashboards. This convergence of IT and
OT networks can blur security boundaries.
Poorly segmented networks or weak VPN
configurations might give a chance for an
attacker in the business network to reach
operational systems. Phishing or credential
theft on the IT side could translate into OT
compromise.

6) Human Factor: All the technology is
ultimately managed by people. Social
engineering attacks (phishing emails
posing as colleagues or utility alerts) could
trick even staff into revealing passwords
or clicking malicious links. A_ single
compromised account could bypass many
technical safeguards.

NEA's Current Cybersecurity Measures

Recognizing these several risks, NEA has
started improving its cyber security to protect
its digital infrastructure. As per the official
reports, they are taking bold steps. Firstly, they
are strengthening their infrastructure by using
firewalls, intrusion detection systems, web
application firewalls (WAF), and tools to block
DDoS (Denial of Service) attacks. Secondly,
they use monitoring systems like SIEM (security
information and event management) and NDR
(Network Detection and Response) to watch
for any strange activity in real time. Thirdly, In
Syuchatar, NEA has built its own Data Center
to safely host important services like billing
and GIS. Also, for better network safety, they
are using SD-WAN to divide and secure traffic
across locations and are setting up secure access
points and LANs that allow only trusted devices.
Further, NEA has also updated its IT Policy in
2023 to follow Digital Nepal goals. This includes
rules for audits, strong passwords, and using
multi-factor login for important systems. Staff
training is part of the plan too; emails, phishing,
and reporting problems are covered in memos
and training sessions. Overall, while the system
is still developing, these steps like building a data
center, using firewalls, and updating policies
show NEA is really serious and its efforts are
fabulous to keep the grid secure.

Global Best Practices and Recommendations

While NEA has made an admirable progress, the
global energy sector still continues to set higher
standards in cybersecurity. NEA can benefit a
lot by adopting or aligning with the following
international best practices:

1) International Standards: Many countries
require adherence to cybersecurity
frameworks.Asforexample, NorthAmerican
grid operators must follow NERC CIP
(Critical Infrastructure Protection)
standards, which cover everything which
goes from network segmentation to incident
reporting. Adopting elements of IEC 62443
(for industrial automation security) and
IEC 62351 (security for power systems
protocols) can strengthen NEA's programs.

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT ४ १२३

2)

3)

4)

NEA should also consider aligning its
policies with such best-practice guidelines,
which we can also call it as a protocol.
For example, NEA could follow trusted
frameworks like NIST's 1८59 security
guide or IEC standards carrying out regular
cybersecurity audits, run vulnerability scans,
and manage the patches effectively. These
steps will help identify the weaknesses early
and keep systems up to date and attack free.

Real-Time Threat Monitoring: Advanced
utilities have special teams called Security

Operations Centers (SOCs) that watch their
networks all the time using smart tools and
AI to spot threats. AI helps find new kinds
of attacks or unusual activity in connected
devices. NEA has started using a tool called
SIEM to do this, but they can improve this
by adding machine learning to catch tactful
attacks. Around the world, many utilities
have dedicated SIEM teams working 24/7 to
check for problems and send alerts quickly.

Cybersecurity Exercises: Regular drills
and "war games" must be organized. In

Europe, energy companies participate in
annual exercises (e.g. EU Cyber Europe
drills) simulating grid attacks. In the U.S.,
the Department of Homeland Security
runs GridEx to test utility response. NEA
(together with Nepal's National Energy
Control Centre) should organize inter-
departmental simulations: for example, a
mock cyber-incident causing a substation
loss, requiring coordinated response. These
exercises build up muscle memory and
expose gaps in incident plans. Emergency
response teams, IT staff and executives
should practise roles, communication
protocols and the recovery steps.

Dedicated Cyber Workforce: Internationally
there is a trend that utilities invest in
specialized cybersecurity personnel. NEA
could form a cybersecurity unit within its
IT department which are staffed by experts
trained in ICS security. Positions like ICS
security analyst, forensic investigator and
OT network engineer can be formed which

5)

6)

7)

would ultimately institutionalize cyber
defense. Joint training with law enforcement
and CERT agencies can also help. As global
surveys note, there is a severe shortage
of qualified cyber professionals. NEA
may need to collaborate with universities
or participate in international training
programs to build expertise.

International Collaboration: Cyber threats
do not consider borders, so cooperation is the
key. NEA should join global information-
sharing organizations (e.g. INL's ICS-CERT,
CERT-EU forums, ASEAN Grid Security
networks). Sharing threat intelligence — such
as details of phishing campaigns or malware
signatures — can alert NEA to new dangers.
Moreover, NEA's experiences could benefit
neighboring countries (e.g. Bhutan or
India's grid authorities), building a regional
defensive network. Tech partnerships with
international agencies (ADB, World Bank
energy cybersecurity projects) can also
bring 11 expertise and funding. For instance,
the ADB has funded NEA's smart grid
projects.

Holistic Governance: Utilities globally
are extending governance beyond tech
to culture and processes. This includes
third-party risk management (vetting
suppliers and contractors for cybersecurity
compliance) and formal incident-response
plans (including legal counsel, PR, and
coordination with police). NEA should
ensure that every contract (for hardware and
software services) includes the necessary
security requirements and audit rights. It can
also adopt the practice of "least privilege"
that is giving contractors only the minimum
network access needed and further requiring
timely patch updates for vendor equipment.

Benchmarking and ___— Metrics: —_ Smart
organizations use clear metrics like how

fast they detect threats or how many critical
patches get applied on time. These things
help them stay on top of their cybersecurity
game. NEA could build a simple dashboard
to track these key performance indicators

१२४ बै __  विद्युत/५00ा खु ७ वर्ष ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

(KPIs), making it easy to monitor progress
. Lastly this will help keep both leadership
and regulators in the loop.

Building a Culture of Cybersecurity

Technology alone is not enough at all. A security-
conscious culture is a must at NEA. This means
every employee, contractor and even customer
must play a vital role:

1) Employee Awareness: NEA should make
cybersecurity training for all. This includes
staff from field technicians to top managers.
They need regular briefings on the latest
cyber threats like phishing tactics, social
engineering and malwar. They should also be
encouraged to use strong password and not
plug in unknown USB drives. Simple steps
like enforcing multi-factor authentication
for VPNs or desktop logins will improve
cyber hygience. Routine phishing drills like
sending fake malicious emails to see who
clicks can keep people vigilant. Encouraging
a mindset of "assume breach" where users
question unusual requests and report them
reduces human risk.

2) Incident Reporting and Transparency: All
employees and contractors should know
how to report suspicious events (strange
emails, unusual outages) immediately.
NEA can establish an internal hotline or
portal for reporting. Management must
treat reports seriously and without blame.
Transparency in dealing with incidents
(e.g. after a phishing test or minor breach,
sharing lessons learned) helps build trust
and ensures mistakes are corrected.

3) Engaging Partners and Suppliers: Vendors
and service providers should be part of the

security culture. NEA can hold security
workshops for partner companies and require
them to follow NEA's security protocols
(e.g. no use of personal devices on sensitive
networks, encrypted communications).
Contracts can include penalties for
security lapses. Subcontractors working in
substations or IT shops should sign non-
disclosure and security agreements, and
undergo background checks.

4) Consumer Education: While NEA's main
duty is the grid, raising public awareness
indirectly helps security. For example, NEA
newsletters or social media could advise
customers to protect their smart appliances or
report unauthorized access to smart meters.
If consumers are aware of cybersecurity,
they may avoid actions (like installing
unapproved wireless extenders near meter
boxes) that could create vulnerabilities.

5) Leadership and Policy Alignment:
Top leadership must actively support

cybersecurity. When executives and board
members make cybersecurity a priority in
their strategies and budgets, it sends a clear
message throughout the organization. NEA
should align its cybersecurity objectives
with national policies, such as Nepal's
emerging National Cybersecurity Strategy.
Recognizing and rewarding good security
practices. For example, acknowledging
employees who prevent phishing attacks
also helps strengthen the security culture.

Conclusion

Nepal's energy transformation is moving
forward rapidly. A reliable, smart power system
is no longer just a vision, it is becoming a
reality. However, its digital foundation must be
well protected. NEA must be aware that strong
cybersecurity is crucial in this new era. Securing
NEA's digital infrastructure is more than an
IT responsibility; it is a national priority. It is
also crucial since the power grid supports the
economy, healthcare and transportation. Looking
ahead, NEA must maintain a proactive approach
by continually improving defenses. As the
threat landscape changes very rapidly investing
in skilled people and technology will be best.
It should also be working with international
partners. By following global best practices
and creating a strong culture of cybersecurity
awareness, NEA can easily protect Nepal's
electricity supply. This will ensure the vision of
a smarter and greener energy. When these things
are achieved the country's future will not be
threatened by cyber risks and ultimately Nepal's
power will remain safe and reliable, no matter
what challenges arise.

@ gy ३६ ७ अङ्क १ ७ भाद्र २०८२ छ" विद्युत /VIDYUT १२५

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण

अनिवार्य अवकाश प्राप्त कर्मचारीहरूको विवरण
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१२३९५० फोरमेन २०८२/०२/११। अनिवार्य। लालबन्दी वितरण केन्द्र
११८३८७ सुपरभाईजर २०८२/०२/१९। अनिवार्य। सुन्दरीजल जलविद्युत केन्द्र
११२१५३८ मिटर रिडर २०८२/०२/१९। अनिवार्य। दृहबी वितरण केन्द्र
१५९२४७ ईलेक्ट्रिसियन २०८२/०२/२५। अनिवार्य। रत्नपार्क वितरण केन्द्र
२७। ११५४९७७ ईलेक्ट्रिसियन २०८२/०२/३०। अनिवार्य। जनकपुर वितरण केन्द्र
a5। १४ २३६७ _
pe
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> far VIDYUT \ ७ वर्ष ३३ ७ SSH १ ७ भाद्र २०८२

९२ अनिवार्य

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गुलरिया वितरण केन्द्र

सहायक प्रवन्धक शिव प्रसाद नेपाल

यि

MW। si,
4। ay
A। ap
ap
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१०२। १९८७३८ लेखापाल/स्टोरकीपर। राजु महर्जन २०८२/०३/१०। अनिवार्य। पुल्चोक वितरण केन्द्र

र roston to पोखरा ग्रिड महाशाखा।
४। फोरमेन शिव प्रसाद दुलाल। २०८२/०३/१० बानेश्वर वितरण केन्द्र।।
१९६१२० २ पेशल कुमार भट्टराई। 7058/03/40 सिराहा वितरण केन्द्र

१८९०५१ ४। फोरमेन अमत बहादर थिङ। २०८२/०३/१०। अनिवार्य। कलेखानी दोश्रो जलविद्यत केन्द्र
लामा

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नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण
राजीनामा स्वीकृत भएका कर्मचारीहरूको विवरण
2009 माघ १ गते देखि 2002 असार मसान्तसम्म

A. पद नाम थर अवकास मिति अवकासको कार्यरत कार्यालय कैफियत

तह
किसिम
सक
teat re वितरण केन्द
धन १४०४७७

१६६९८८ ७। वातावरणविद प्रभा आले मगर २०८१/०८/१८। राजिनामा। वातावरण तथा
सामाजिक अध्ययन
विभाग

wore २००१/१०/१४ लि
OUR २००१/१०/२० लि

१४७१५२ ७। ईन्जिनियर अनमोल वटाजु 2069/99/09। राजिनामा। योजना तथा प्राविधिक
Le ee

ee।

१०। ११९४४२ ७। इन्जिनियर दीपा उपाध्याय सुवेदी। २०८१/१२/०७। राजिनामा। आयोजना व्यवस्थापन
निर्देशनालय

an

egy ३६ ७ अडङक १ ७ भाद २०८२

YW विद्युत /VIDYUT &a

नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण
स्वेच्छिक अवकाश लिएका कर्मचारीहरुको विवरण
२0८१ माघ १ गते देखि 2002 असार मसान्तसम्म

पद नाम थर अवकास मिति अवकासको कार्यरत कार्यालय कैफियत

क.स.नं.

तह
१९७८०६ सहायक लेखा। चन्द्रदेव कपाडी २०८१/०८/२४। स्वेच्छिक। थानकोट चापागाउ उ
अधिकृत भक्तपूर १३२ के. भी.
प्रसारण लाइन
आयोजना

प्रशासकीय अधिकृत अभिलेख शाखा
लि

द् पू ०337। २ सि.हे.इ.अ किरण तण्डूकार कार २०८२/०१/१६। स्वेच्छिक सामान्य प्रशासन
महाशाखा

G {OBER Ww फारमन धमरा ज महजन aT 2058/08/04 स्वेच्छिक मनाङ वितरण केन्द्र

Tt Z
मगर जलविद्युत केन्द्र
गुणस्तरीय विद्युत, समृद्धिको आधार

i"। anny
ee a
न "ay ar ॥ .
धा।
हँ -

GO GREEN SAVE EARTH

१३० fears vipyut खु ७ वर्ष ३६५ ७ अङ्क १ ७ ME २०८२

लेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण
प्रशासन निर्देशनालय
जनसाधन विभाग
केन्द्रीय कर्मचारी प्रशासन शाखा

००८२ असार महिनाको दरबन्दी विवरण

स्वीकृत दरबन्दी
जम्मा
१ 0 १

कार्यकारी निर्देशक
उप कार्यकारी निर्देशक (प्राविधिक/ प्रशासन) ४ ट 0 ट
अधिकृत स्तर प्राविधिक १७२८ १२९१ 0 १२९१
(तह & देखि ११ सम्म) प्रशासन ट्ट३ ६८0 १ ६८१
जम्मा २९४१ १४४१ १ १४४२
सहायक स्तर प्राविधिक ६०१४ 5२१३ १११ 5३२४
(तह १ देखि ५ सम्म) प्रशासन २७४३ २२८१ ४३ २३७८
जम्मा ACY As) ६8४८ २०४ ६७०२
कूल जम्मा 99833 T88T २०५ ट्६५३

चुहावट लिंयल्वण ठहाशाखाकी Hse टीवीलि कुबैपर्नि बेला तपाई्गकी लिटर निरीक्षण गर्न आउन सक्छु। तसर्थ,
& मिटरमा क्तयअप TACT छ भने आजै सम्बन्धित वितरण केन्द्रमा सम्पर्क गरी Stock Clear गरौं।

ङा Meter Bypass गरी विद्युतको दुरुपयोग नगरौं।

© Hooking गरी विद्युतको दुरुपयोग नगरौं।

© स्वीकृत क्षमता भन्दा बढीको MCB/MCCB प्रयोग नगरौं।

e मिटर बन्द भएको छ भने यथाशिघ्र सम्बन्धित वितरण केन्द्रमा सम्पर्क गरी नया मिटर बदली गरौं।

'ङ" नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरणले मिटर/बाकस लगायत कुनेपनि ठाउँमा लगाएको सिल जथाभावी काट्ने काम
नगरौं।

& विद्युत सम्बन्धी कुनै समस्या आएको खण्डमा तृरुल्त सम्बन्धित वितरण केन्द्रमा सम्पर्क गरौं।

लेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरण
चुहावट नियन्त्रण महाशाखा

आर्शिक सहायता लिने कर्मचारीहरूको विवरण

(20८१ माघ १ गतेदेखि 2002 असार मसान्तसम्म)

सि.नं. विवरण

१ काजक्रिया सहायता।।कार्यविधि, २०७९ अनूसार १३५ जना कर्मचारीको परिवार
लाई २० हजार साथै ७ जना कर्मचारी स्वयंको मृत्यु भएकोले
३० हजारका दरले जम्मा १४२ जनालाई काजक्रिया सहायता
उपलब्ध गराईएको।

२ कडा रोग सहायता।।कार्यविधि, २०७९ अनूसार ४ जनाको कडा रोग सहायता
उपलब्ध गराईएको।

रे दैवी प्रकोप सहायता। कार्यविधि, २०७९ ATA १ जनाको YO हजारका दरले दैवी
प्रकोप सहायता उपलब्ध गराईएको।

जम्मा रकम रु.

२९१०,०००।००

2,00 OOO।OO
गै d

४०,200।00

po #,X0,000100

कुनै गुनासो भएमा वा जानकारी आवश्यक भएमा नेपाल विद्युत प्राधिकरणको हट

लाइन नं. ११५० मा सम्पर्क गर्नुहुन अनुरोध गरिन्छ।

दुर्घटनामा परी घाइते तथा अंगभंग भएमा पेश गर्नुपर्ने कागजातहरु :

चालकको नाम, ठेगाना, सवारी इजाजत पत्र नवीकरण सहितको प्रतिलिपि
सम्बन्धित कार्यालयका प्रमुखबाट दिइएको कार्यदेश पत्र।

दुर्घटना प्रतिवेदन (कार्यालयको तर्फबाट)

दुर्घटनाको प्रहरी प्रतिवेदन (स्थलगत मचुल्का सहित)

दुर्घटना भएको साधनको नम्बर र किसिम (भाडा, सहकारी, संस्थान आदि)
सवारी साधन बीमा गर्दाको चालु बीमालेखको प्रतिलिपि।

दुर्घटनाको किसिम (दुर्घटना आफ्नो कारणले वा तेस्रो पक्ष)।

८ OO Cf KN WH ©

उपचार खर्चका सक्कल बिल तथा Prescription र शीर्षक वाइज खर्चको विवरणहरू।

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