Fair Value Measurements We report certain assets and liabilities at fair value; specifically, separate account assets, derivatives, embedded derivatives, properties held by our consolidated property funds, and most investments and cash equivalents.
Fair value assumes the exchange of assets or liabilities occurs in orderly transactions.
Companies are not permitted to use market prices that are the result of a forced liquidation or distressed sale.
We include actual market prices, or observable inputs, in our fair value measurements to the extent available.
Non-binding broker quotes are obtained when quotes from third party pricing services are not available.
We validate prices obtained from third parties through a variety of means as described in Note 14 to our Consolidated Financial Statements.
Non-Agency Residential Mortgage Backed Securities Backed by Sub-prime, Alt-A or Prime Collateral Sub-prime mortgage lending is the origination of residential mortgage loans to customers with weak credit profiles.
Alt-A mortgage lending is the origination of residential mortgage loans to customers who have credit ratings above sub-prime but may not conform to government-sponsored standards.
Prime mortgage lending is the origination of residential mortgage loans to customers with good credit profiles.
We have exposure to each of these types of loans predominantly through mortgage backed and asset backed securities.
The slowdown in the U. S.  housing market, combined with relaxed underwriting standards by some originators, has led to higher delinquency and loss rates for some of these investments.
Persistent market conditions have increased the likelihood of other-than-temporary impairments for certain non-agency residential mortgage backed securities.
As a part of our risk management process, an internal rating system is used in conjunction with market data as the basis of analysis to assess the likelihood that we will not receive all contractual principal and interest payments for these investments.
For the investments that are more at risk for impairment, we perform our own assessment of projected cash flows incorporating assumptions about default rates, prepayment speeds and loss severity to determine if an other-than-temporary impairment should be recognized.
The following table presents, as of December 31, 2011, our non-agency residential mortgage backed and asset backed securities backed by sub-prime, Alt-A or prime mortgage loans by credit rating and vintage year:
## Table 0 ##
(1) Re-Remics of mortgage backed securities are prior vintages with cash flows structured into senior and subordinated bonds.
Credit enhancement has been increased through the Re-Remic process on the securities we own.
7.
Reinsurance Generally, the Company reinsures 90% of the death benefit liability related to almost all individual fixed and variable universal life and term life insurance products.
As a result, the Company typically retains and is at risk for, at most, 10% of each policy’s death benefit from the first dollar of coverage for new sales of these policies, subject to the reinsurers fulfilling their obligations.
The Company began reinsuring risks at this level during 2001 (2002 for RiverSource Life of NY) for term life insurance and 2002 (2003 for RiverSource Life of NY) for individual fixed and variable universal life insurance.
Policies issued prior to these dates are not subject to these same reinsurance levels.
Generally, the maximum amount of life insurance risk retained by the Company is $1.5 million on a single life and $1.5 million on any flexible premium survivorship life policy.
Risk on fixed and variable universal life policies is reinsured on a yearly renewable term basis.
Risk on most term life policies starting in 2001 (2002 for RiverSource Life of NY) is reinsured on a coinsurance basis, a type of reinsurance in which the reinsurer participates proportionally in all material risks and premiums associated with a policy.
For existing LTC policies, the Company retained 50% of the risk and ceded the remaining 50% of the risk on a coinsurance basis to subsidiaries of Genworth Financial, Inc.  (‘‘Genworth’’).
For RiverSource Life of NY, this reinsurance arrangement applies for 1996 and later issues only.
Generally, the Company retains at most $5,000 per month of risk per life on DI policies sold on policy forms introduced in most states in October 2007 (August 2010 for RiverSource Life of NY) and reinsures the remainder of the risk on a coinsurance basis with unaffiliated reinsurance companies.
The Company retains all risk for new claims on DI contracts sold on other policy forms.
The Company also retains all risk on accidental death benefit claims and substantially all risk associated with waiver of premium provisions.
At December 31, 2011 and 2010, traditional life and UL insurance in force aggregated $191.2 billion and $192.0 billion, respectively, of which $136.2 billion and $134.0 billion were reinsured at the respective year ends.
Life insurance in force is reported on a statutory basis.
The Company also reinsures a portion of the risks associated with its personal auto, home and umbrella insurance products through three types of reinsurance agreements with unaffiliated reinsurance companies.
The Company purchases reinsurance with a limit of $5 million per loss and the Company retains $750,000 per loss.
The Company purchases catastrophe reinsurance with a limit of $90 million per event and retains $10 million per event.
Those limits change in 2012 to $110 million and $20 million, respectively.
The Company also cedes 90% of every personal umbrella loss with a limit of $5 million.
The effect of reinsurance on premiums was as follows:
## Table 1 ##
Cost of insurance and administrative charges on UL and VUL insurance are reflected in other revenues and were net of reinsurance ceded of $71 million, $67 million and $62 million for the years ended December 31, 2011, 2010 and 2009, respectively.
Reinsurance recovered from reinsurers was $201 million, $172 million and $174 million for the years ended December 31, 2011, 2010 and 2009, respectively.
Reinsurance contracts do not relieve the Company from its primary obligation to policyholders.
Receivables included $2.0 billion and $1.9 billion of reinsurance recoverables as of December 31, 2011 and 2010, respectively, including $1.5 billion and $1.4 billion recoverable from Genworth, respectively.
Included in future policy benefits and claims were $629 million and $657 million related to assumed reinsurance arrangements as of December 31, 2011 and 2010, respectively.
affected by lower sales volume of cabinets, the divestiture of our Arrow and Moores businesses, and an unfavorable sales mix of international plumbing products, which, in aggregate, decreased sales by approximately two percent compared to 2016.
Net sales for 2016 were positively affected by increased sales volume of plumbing products, paints and other coating products and builders' hardware, which, in aggregate, increased sales by approximately five percent compared to 2015.
Net sales for 2016 were also positively affected by favorable sales mix of cabinets and windows, and net selling price increases of North American windows and North American and international plumbing products, which, in aggregate, increased sales approximately one percent.
Net sales for 2016 were negatively affected by lower sales volume of cabinets and lower net selling prices of paints and other coating products, which, in aggregate, decreased sales by approximately two percent.
Net sales for 2015 were positively affected by increased sales volume of plumbing products, paints and other coating products, windows and builders' hardware.
Net sales for 2015 were also positively affected by net selling price increases of plumbing products, cabinets and windows, as well as sales mix of North American cabinets and windows.
Net sales for 2015 were negatively affected by lower sales volume of cabinets and lower net selling prices of paints and other coating products.
Our gross profit margins were 34.2 percent, 33.4 percent and 31.5 percent in 2017, 2016 and 2015, respectively.
The 2017 and 2016 gross profit margins were positively impacted by increased sales volume, a more favorable relationship between net selling prices and commodity costs, and cost savings initiatives.2016 gross profit margins were negatively impacted by an increase in warranty costs resulting from a change in our estimate of expected future warranty claim costs.
Selling, general and administrative expenses as a percent of sales were 18.9 percent in 2017 compared with 19.1 percent in 2016 and 18.7 percent in 2015.
Selling, general and administrative expenses as a percent of sales in 2017 reflect increased sales and the effect of cost containment measures, partially offset by an increase in strategic growth investments, stock-based compensation, health insurance costs and trade show costs.
Selling, general and administrative expenses as a percent of sales in 2016 reflect strategic growth investments, ERPsystem implementation costs and higher insurance costs.
The following table reconciles reported operating profit to operating profit, as adjusted to exclude certain items, dollars in millions:
## Table 2 ##
Operating profit margins in 2017 and 2016 were positively affected by increased sales volume, cost savings initiatives, and a more favorable relationship between net selling prices and commodity costs.
Operating profit margin in 2017 was negatively impacted by an increase in strategic growth investments and certain other expenses, including stock-based compensation, health insurance costs, trade show costs and increased head count.
Operating profit margin in 2016 was negatively impacted by an increase in warranty costs by a business in our Windows and Other Specialty Products segment and an increase in strategic growth investments, as well as ERP system implementation costs and higher insurance costs.

Tables referenced above, in order (Table 0 first):
<table><tr><td> </td><td colspan="2">AAA </td><td colspan="2">AA </td><td colspan="2">A </td><td colspan="2">BBB </td><td colspan="2">BB & Below </td><td colspan="2">Total </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>Amortized Cost </td><td>Fair Value </td><td>Amortized Cost </td><td>Fair Value </td><td>Amortized Cost </td><td>Fair Value </td><td>Amortized Cost </td><td>Fair Value </td><td>Amortized Cost </td><td>Fair Value </td><td>Amortized Cost </td><td>Fair Value </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td colspan="12">(in millions) </td></tr><tr><td> Sub-prime</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2003 & prior</td><td>$5</td><td>$5</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$5</td><td>$5</td></tr><tr><td>2004</td><td>20</td><td>18</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>14</td><td>10</td><td>41</td><td>35</td></tr><tr><td>2005</td><td>41</td><td>40</td><td>36</td><td>33</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>28</td><td>23</td><td>115</td><td>106</td></tr><tr><td>2006</td><td>41</td><td>40</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>42</td><td>29</td><td>87</td><td>73</td></tr><tr><td>2007</td><td>15</td><td>14</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td>1</td><td>22</td><td>17</td></tr><tr><td>2008</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>6</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Re-Remic-1</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>27</td><td>26</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>40</td><td>39</td></tr><tr><td>Total Sub-prime</td><td>$132</td><td>$127</td><td>$44</td><td>$40</td><td>$18</td><td>$18</td><td>$33</td><td>$32</td><td>$89</td><td>$63</td><td>$316</td><td>$280</td></tr><tr><td> Alt-A</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2003 & prior</td><td>$1</td><td>$1</td><td>$11</td><td>$12</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$3</td><td>$3</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$15</td><td>$16</td></tr><tr><td>2004</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>16</td><td>17</td><td>53</td><td>46</td><td>31</td><td>22</td><td>111</td><td>95</td></tr><tr><td>2005</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>9</td><td>7</td><td>262</td><td>176</td><td>272</td><td>184</td></tr><tr><td>2006</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>114</td><td>74</td><td>114</td><td>74</td></tr><tr><td>2007</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>168</td><td>94</td><td>168</td><td>94</td></tr><tr><td>2008</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>2009</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>2010</td><td>67</td><td>66</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>67</td><td>66</td></tr><tr><td>Re-Remic-1</td><td>180</td><td>178</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>190</td><td>188</td></tr><tr><td>Total Alt-A</td><td>$248</td><td>$245</td><td>$22</td><td>$22</td><td>$20</td><td>$21</td><td>$72</td><td>$63</td><td>$575</td><td>$366</td><td>$937</td><td>$717</td></tr><tr><td> Prime</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2003 & prior</td><td>$107</td><td>$110</td><td>$43</td><td>$42</td><td>$109</td><td>$105</td><td>$10</td><td>$10</td><td>$—</td><td>$—</td><td>$269</td><td>$267</td></tr><tr><td>2004</td><td>17</td><td>17</td><td>56</td><td>53</td><td>23</td><td>22</td><td>30</td><td>27</td><td>62</td><td>44</td><td>188</td><td>163</td></tr><tr><td>2005</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>18</td><td>19</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>221</td><td>182</td><td>248</td><td>210</td></tr><tr><td>2006</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>14</td><td>15</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>32</td><td>31</td><td>46</td><td>46</td></tr><tr><td>2007</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>27</td><td>25</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>31</td><td>28</td><td>58</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>Re-Remic-1</td><td>1,664</td><td>1,734</td><td>255</td><td>266</td><td>238</td><td>241</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>9</td><td>16</td><td>2,166</td><td>2,257</td></tr><tr><td>Total Prime</td><td>$1,788</td><td>$1,861</td><td>$357</td><td>$364</td><td>$429</td><td>$427</td><td>$46</td><td>$43</td><td>$355</td><td>$301</td><td>$2,975</td><td>$2,996</td></tr><tr><td> Grand Total</td><td>$2,168</td><td>$2,233</td><td>$423</td><td>$426</td><td>$467</td><td>$466</td><td>$151</td><td>$138</td><td>$1,019</td><td>$730</td><td>$4,228</td><td>$3,993</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td colspan="3">Years Ended December 31,</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>2011</td><td>2010</td><td>2009</td></tr><tr><td></td><td colspan="3">(in millions)</td></tr><tr><td>Direct premiums</td><td>$1,421</td><td>$1,382</td><td>$1,317</td></tr><tr><td>Reinsurance ceded</td><td>-201</td><td>-203</td><td>-219</td></tr><tr><td>Net premiums</td><td>$1,220</td><td>$1,179</td><td>$1,098</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td>2017</td><td>2016</td><td>2015</td></tr><tr><td>Operating profit, as reported</td><td>$1,169</td><td>$1,053</td><td>$914</td></tr><tr><td>Rationalization charges</td><td>4</td><td>22</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>Gain from sale of property and equipment</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>-5</td></tr><tr><td>Operating profit, as adjusted</td><td>$1,173</td><td>$1,075</td><td>$927</td></tr><tr><td>Operating profit margins, as reported</td><td>15.3%</td><td>14.3%</td><td>12.8%</td></tr><tr><td>Operating profit margins, as adjusted</td><td>15.3%</td><td>14.6%</td><td>13.0%</td></tr></table>

Question: what was the percentage change in the gross profit margins from 2016 to 2017
Answer: 0.02395
Reasoning program: subtract(34.2,33.4), divide(#0,33.4)