The strongest evidence for an adverse effect of PMA exposure is in somatic and psychological outcomes ; the evidence for an effect of PMA on child development is inconclusive .
Several decades of research have focused on the impact of exposure to postnatal depression on children , while anxiety has been largely overlooked .
Estimates of the prevalence of postnatal maternal anxiety ( PMA ) range from 3 % to 43 % , suggesting PMA may be an important risk factor for adverse outcomes in children .
This review summarizes what is known about the effects of  PMA exposure on children and makes recommendations for future research .
Maternal antenatal anxiety and behavioural/emotional problems in children: a test of a programming hypothesis.
BACKGROUND Previous animal investigations link antenatal stress with a range of persistent behavioural abnormalities in the offspring . The current study examined if the effect was also found in humans through middle childhood . METHODS The current study is based on the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children ( ALSPAC ) , a prospect i ve , community-based study that has followed a cohort of women from pregnancy .  Self-report measures of maternal anxiety and depression were assessed at repeated intervals in pregnancy and the postnatal period . Children 's behavioural/emotional problems  were assessed by parent report at age 47 and 81 months . Information on obstetric and psychosocial factors was obtained at several points in pregnancy and the postnatal period . RESULTS Children whose mothers experienced high levels of anxiety in late pregnancy exhibited higher rates of behavioural/emotional problems at 81 months of age after controlling for obstetric risks , psychosocial disadvantage , and postnatal anxiety and depression ( for girls , OR = 1.91 , 95%CI = 1.26 - 2.89 ; for boys , OR = 2.16 , 95%CI = 1.41 - 3.30 ) . Furthermore , the effect at 81 months was comparable to what was previously obtained at 47 months , suggesting the kind of persistent effect proposed in the animal literature . CONCLUSIONS There is evidence that  antenatal stress/anxiety  has a programming effect on the fetus which lasts at least until middle childhood
The strongest evidence for an adverse effect of PMA exposure is in somatic and psychological outcomes ; the evidence for an effect of PMA on child development is inconclusive .
Several decades of research have focused on the impact of exposure to postnatal depression on children , while anxiety has been largely overlooked .
Estimates of the prevalence of postnatal maternal anxiety ( PMA ) range from 3 % to 43 % , suggesting PMA may be an important risk factor for adverse outcomes in children .
This review summarizes what is known about the effects of  PMA exposure on children and makes recommendations for future research .