Results suggest there is moderate-to-high-level evidence that combined pharmacological and behavioral interventions , and pharmacological interventions alone can be effective in managing the core ADHD symptoms and academic performance at 14 months .
However , the effect size may decrease beyond this period .
This review has highlighted the paucity and limitations of the evidence investigating the long-term outcomes of recommended interventions for managing ADHD symptoms .
There is little evidence to suggest that the effects observed over the relatively short term are maintained throughout longer periods of impairment .
PURPOSE To systematic ally identify and review the currently available evidence on the long-term outcomes of recommended attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) interventions following r and omized controlled trials with children and young people .
Clinical and functional outcome of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 33 years later.
CONTEXT Prospect i ve studies of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) have not extended beyond early adulthood . OBJECTIVE To examine whether children diagnosed as having ADHD at a mean age of 8 years ( prob and s ) have worse educational , occupational , economic , social , and marital outcomes and higher rates of ongoing ADHD , antisocial personality disorder ( ASPD ) , substance use disorders ( SUDs ) , adult-onset psychiatric disorders , psychiatric hospitalizations , and incarcerations than non-ADHD comparison participants at a mean age of 41 years . DESIGN Prospect i ve , 33-year follow-up study , with masked clinical assessment s. SETTING Research clinic . PARTICIPANTS A total of 135 white men with ADHD in childhood , free of conduct disorder , and 136 men without childhood ADHD ( 65.2 % and 76.4 % of original cohort , respectively ) . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Occupational , economic , and educational attainment ; marital history ; occupational and social functioning ; ongoing and lifetime psychiatric disorders ; psychiatric hospitalizations ; and incarcerations . RESULTS Prob and s had significantly worse educational , occupational , economic , and social outcomes ; more divorces ; and higher rates of ongoing ADHD ( 22.2 % vs 5.1 % , P < .001 ) , ASPD ( 16.3 % vs 0 % , P < .001 ) , and SUDs ( 14.1 % vs 5.1 % , P = .01 ) but not more mood or anxiety disorders ( P = .36 and .33 ) than did comparison participants . Ongoing ADHD was weakly related to ongoing SUDs ( ϕ = 0.19 , P = .04 ) , as well as ASPD with SUDs ( ϕ = 0.20 , P = .04 ) . During their lifetime , prob and s had significantly more ASPD and SUDs but not mood or anxiety disorders and more psychiatric hospitalizations and incarcerations than comparison participants . Relative to comparisons , psychiatric disorders with onsets at 21 years or older were not significantly elevated in prob and s. Prob and s without ongoing psychiatric disorders had worse social , but not occupational , functioning . CONCLUSIONS The multiple disadvantages predicted by childhood ADHD well into adulthood began in adolescence , without increased onsets of new disorders after 20 years of age . Findings highlight the importance of extended monitoring and treatment of children with ADHD
Results suggest there is moderate-to-high-level evidence that combined pharmacological and behavioral interventions , and pharmacological interventions alone can be effective in managing the core ADHD symptoms and academic performance at 14 months .
However , the effect size may decrease beyond this period .
This review has highlighted the paucity and limitations of the evidence investigating the long-term outcomes of recommended interventions for managing ADHD symptoms .
There is little evidence to suggest that the effects observed over the relatively short term are maintained throughout longer periods of impairment .
PURPOSE To systematic ally identify and review the currently available evidence on the long-term outcomes of recommended attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) interventions following r and omized controlled trials with children and young people .