Maternal fat intake ( n = 25 ) might be associated with gestational weight gain as suggested by observational studies , although the direction of this association might depend on specific types of fat ( e.g. , saturated fat ) .
Macronutrient intake was not consistently associated with the prevalence of inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain .
CONCLUSIONS The current literature provides evidence that energy intake is associated with gestational weight gain , but the roles of individual macronutrients are inconsistent .
BACKGROUND  Abnormal gestational weight gain is associated with unfavorable pregnancy outcomes .
Several risk factors have been identified , but the effect of macronutrient intake during pregnancy on gestational weight gain has not been systematic ally evaluated in both high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries .
Risk factors and outcomes of maternal obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy.
OBJECTIVE The prevalence of overweight and obesity among women of reproductive age is increasing . We aim ed to determine risk factors and maternal , fetal and childhood consequences of maternal obesity and excessive gestational weight gain . DESIGN AND METHODS The study was embedded in a  population -based prospect i ve cohort study among 6959 mothers and their children . The study was based in Rotterdam , The Netherl and s ( 2001 - 2005 ) . RESULTS Maternal lower educational level , lower household income , multiparity , and FTO risk allel were associated with an increased risk of maternal obesity , whereas maternal European ethnicity , nulliparity , higher total energy intake , and smoking during pregnancy were associated with an increased risk of excessive gestational weight gain ( all p-values < 0.05 ) . As compared to normal weight , maternal obesity was associated with increased risks of gestational hypertension ( OR 6.31 ( 95 % CI 4.30 , 9.26 ) ) , preeclampsia ( OR ( 3.61 , ( 95 % CI 2.04 , 6.39 ) ) , gestational diabetes ( OR 6.28 ( 95%CI 3.01 , 13.06 ) ) , caesarean delivery ( OR 1.91 ( 95 % CI 1.46 , 2.50 ) ) , delivering large size for gestational age infants ( OR 2.97 ( 95 % CI 2.16 , 4.08 ) ) , and childhood obesity ( OR 5.02 ( 95 % CI:2.97 , 8.45 ) ) . Weaker associations of excessive gestational weight gain with maternal , fetal and childhood outcomes were observed , with the strongest effects for first trimester weight gain . CONCLUSIONS Our study shows that maternal obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy are associated with socio-demographic , lifestyle , and genetic factors and with increased risks of adverse maternal , fetal and childhood outcomes . As compared to prepregnancy overweight and obesity , excessive gestational weight gain has a limited influence on adverse pregnancy outcomes
Maternal fat intake ( n = 25 ) might be associated with gestational weight gain as suggested by observational studies , although the direction of this association might depend on specific types of fat ( e.g. , saturated fat ) .
Macronutrient intake was not consistently associated with the prevalence of inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain .
CONCLUSIONS The current literature provides evidence that energy intake is associated with gestational weight gain , but the roles of individual macronutrients are inconsistent .
BACKGROUND  Abnormal gestational weight gain is associated with unfavorable pregnancy outcomes .
Several risk factors have been identified , but the effect of macronutrient intake during pregnancy on gestational weight gain has not been systematic ally evaluated in both high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries .