There is no convincing evidence that moderate MDMA use is associated with structural or functional brain alterations in neuroimaging measures .
MDMA ( " ecstasy " ) is widely used as a recreational drug , although there has been some debate about its neurotoxic effects in humans .
However , most studies have investigated subjects with heavy use patterns , and the effects of transient MDMA use are unclear .
In this review , we therefore focus on subjects with moderate use patterns , in order to assess the evidence for harmful effects .
Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Healthy Subjects
BACKGROUND After no research in humans for > 40 years , there is renewed interest in using lysergic acid diethylamide ( LSD ) in clinical psychiatric research and practice . There are no modern studies on the subjective and autonomic effects of LSD , and its endocrine effects are unknown . In animals , LSD disrupts prepulse inhibition ( PPI ) of the acoustic startle response , and patients with schizophrenia exhibit similar impairments in PPI . However , no data are available on the effects of LSD on PPI in humans . METHODS In a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled , crossover study , LSD ( 200 μg ) and placebo were administered to 16 healthy subjects ( 8 women , 8 men ) . Outcome measures included psychometric scales ; investigator ratings ; PPI of the acoustic startle response ; and autonomic , endocrine , and adverse effects . RESULTS Administration of LSD to healthy subjects produced pronounced alterations in waking consciousness that lasted 12 hours . The predominant effects induced by LSD  included visual hallucinations , audiovisual synesthesia , and positively experienced derealization and depersonalization phenomena . Subjective well-being , happiness , closeness to others , openness , and trust were increased by LSD . Compared with placebo , LSD  decreased PPI  . LSD significantly increased blood pressure , heart rate , body temperature , pupil size , plasma cortisol , prolactin , oxytocin , and epinephrine . Adverse effects produced by LSD completely subsided within 72 hours . No severe acute adverse effects were observed . CONCLUSIONS In addition to marked hallucinogenic effects , LSD exerts methylenedioxymethamphetamine-like empathogenic mood effects that may be useful in psychotherapy . LSD altered sensorimotor gating in a human model of psychosis , supporting the use of LSD in translational psychiatric research . In a controlled clinical setting , LSD can be used safely , but it produces significant sympathomimetic stimulation
There is no convincing evidence that moderate MDMA use is associated with structural or functional brain alterations in neuroimaging measures .
MDMA ( " ecstasy " ) is widely used as a recreational drug , although there has been some debate about its neurotoxic effects in humans .
However , most studies have investigated subjects with heavy use patterns , and the effects of transient MDMA use are unclear .
In this review , we therefore focus on subjects with moderate use patterns , in order to assess the evidence for harmful effects .