Maternal fat intake ( n = 25 ) might be associated with gestational weight gain as suggested by observational studies , although the direction of this association might depend on specific types of fat ( e.g. , saturated fat ) .
Macronutrient intake was not consistently associated with the prevalence of inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain .
CONCLUSIONS The current literature provides evidence that energy intake is associated with gestational weight gain , but the roles of individual macronutrients are inconsistent .
BACKGROUND  Abnormal gestational weight gain is associated with unfavorable pregnancy outcomes .
Several risk factors have been identified , but the effect of macronutrient intake during pregnancy on gestational weight gain has not been systematic ally evaluated in both high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries .
The association between portion size, nutrient intake and gestational weight gain: a secondary analysis in the WATCH study 2006/7.
BACKGROUND Excessive gestational weight gain ( GWG ) is associated with adverse maternal-child health outcomes . Managing energy intake and GWG versus optimising nutrient intake can be challenging . The present study aim ed to examine the relationships between dietary portion size , GWG and nutrient intakes during pregnancy . It is hypothesised that , after adjustment for potential confounders , portion size would be positively associated with both GWG and nutrient intakes during pregnancy . METHODS Prospect i ve data were obtained for 179 Australian women from the Women and Their Children 's Health Study . A vali date d food frequency question naire was used at 18 - 24 and 36 - 40 weeks of gestation to quantify diet and portion size during the previous 3 months of pregnancy . Nutrient intakes were compared with Australian Nutrient Reference Values ( NRVs ) . GWG was measured up to 36 weeks and compared with the Institute of Medicine weight gain recommendations ( WtAdh ) . RESULTS In multivariate regression models , portion size factor ( PSF ) was positively associated with GWG in women with high socio-economic status ( SES ; β = 0.20 , P = 0.04 ) and those with an overweight/obese pre-pregnancy body mass index ( BMI ) ( β = 0.28 , P = 0.04 ) . PSF uniquely accounted for 8.2 % and 3.7 % of the variability in GWG for women with high SES and overweight/obese pre-pregnancy BMI s , respectively . Nutrient intakes and PSF were similar regardless of WtAdh . Women achieved NRVs for calcium and zinc in all PSF categories . Most of the women with large PSF still failed to achieve the NRVs for folate ( 95.7 % ) , iron ( 89.6 % ) and fibre ( 85.5 % ) . CONCLUSIONS All women require advice on quality food choices during pregnancy to optimise health outcomes . Targeting portion size alone is insufficient to manage GWG but may prove to be a valuable tool in pregnant women of high SES and /or those who are overweight/obese pre-pregnancy
Maternal fat intake ( n = 25 ) might be associated with gestational weight gain as suggested by observational studies , although the direction of this association might depend on specific types of fat ( e.g. , saturated fat ) .
Macronutrient intake was not consistently associated with the prevalence of inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain .
CONCLUSIONS The current literature provides evidence that energy intake is associated with gestational weight gain , but the roles of individual macronutrients are inconsistent .
BACKGROUND  Abnormal gestational weight gain is associated with unfavorable pregnancy outcomes .
Several risk factors have been identified , but the effect of macronutrient intake during pregnancy on gestational weight gain has not been systematic ally evaluated in both high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries .