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Due to its high theoretical energy density and relative abundancy of active materials, the magnesium–sulfur battery has attracted research attention in recent years. A closely related system, the lithium-sulfur battery, can suffer from serious self-discharge behavior. Until now, the self-discharge of Mg–S has been rarely addressed. Herein, we demonstrate for a wide variety of Mg–S electrolytes and conditions that Mg–S batteries also suffer from serious self-discharge. For a common Mg–S electrolyte, we identify a multi-step self-discharge pathway. Covalent S8 diffuses to the metal Mg anode and is converted to ionic Mg polysulfide in a non-faradaic reaction. Mg polysulfides in solution are found to be meta-stable, continuing to react and precipitate as solid magnesium polysulfide species during both storage and active use. Mg–S electrolytes from the early, middle, and state-of-the-art stages of the Mg–S literature are all found to enable the self-discharge. The self-discharge behavior is found to decrease first cycle discharge capacity by at least 32%, and in some cases up to 96%, indicating this is a phenomenon of the Mg–S chemistry that deserves focused attention.
Gravitational wave astronomy has opened the door to test general relativity and the effect of gravity in the Universe. The authors present the capabilities of an overlap between space gravitational wave detectors LISA and Taiji to constrain the Hubble constant to 0.5%, in 10 years, and what can be learned from the satellite pilot Taiji-1 launched in 2019.
Hierarchical porous activated carbon (AC) was obtained from corn stalk pith with a hierarchical macroporous nature, which is composed of cells of soft and spongy texture. The high specific surface area (2495m2 g−1) of the activated carbon (AC) was produced by the activation of corn stalk core (CSC) using potassium hydroxide at 700°C. SEM, TEM and XRD were used to test the microstructure and crystallographic orientation of the carbon samples. The cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge/discharge and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were measured based on CSC-700. This sample had relatively low inner resistance of 1.0Ω. The specific capacitance was 323Fg−1 in 6molL−1 KOH electrolyte at a current density of 0.1Ag−1, and it still maintained very good cyclic stability with capacitance retention ratio of 97.9% (from 265.0 to 262.4Fg−1) at current density of 1.0Ag−1 for 1000 cycles.
Adoption of small scale micro-generation is sometimes coupled with the use of batteries in order to overcome daily variability in the supply and demand of energy. For example, photovoltaic cells and small wind turbines can be coupled with energy storage systems such as batteries. When used effectively with renewable energy production, batteries can increase the versatility of an energy system by providing energy storage that enables the systems to satisfy the highly variable electrical load of an individual dwelling, therefore changing usage patterns on the national grid. A significant shift towards electric or hybrid cars would also increase the number of batteries required. However, batteries can be inefficient and comprise of materials that have high environmental and energy impacts. In addition, some materials, such as lithium, are scarce natural resources. As a result, the overall impact of increasing our reliance on such “sustainable or “low carbon” systems may in fact have an additional detrimental impact. This paper reviews the currently available data and calculated and highlights the impact of the production of several types of battery in terms of energy, raw materials and greenhouse gases. The impact of the production of batteries is examined and presented in order that future studies may be able to include the impact of batteries more easily within any system. It is shown that lithium based batteries have the most significant impact in many environmental areas in terms of production. As the use phases of batteries are extremely variable within different situations this has not been included here, instead providing comprehensive data for the production stage.
Enzymes feature the concerted operation of multiple components around an active site, leading to exquisite catalytic specificity. Realizing such configurations on synthetic catalyst surfaces remains elusive. Here, we report a nanoparticle/ordered-ligand interlayer that contains a multi-component catalytic pocket for high-specificity CO2 electrocatalysis. The nanoparticle/ordered-ligand interlayer comprises a metal nanoparticle surface and a detached layer of ligands in its vicinity. This interlayer possesses unique pseudocapacitive characteristics where desolvated cations are intercalated, creating an active-site configuration that enhances catalytic turnover by two orders and one order of magnitude against a pristine metal surface and nanoparticle with tethered ligands, respectively. The nanoparticle/ordered-ligand interlayer is demonstrated across several metals with up to 99% CO selectivity at marginal overpotentials and onset overpotentials of as low as 27 mV, in aqueous conditions. Furthermore, in a gas-diffusion environment with neutral media, the nanoparticle/ordered-ligand interlayer achieves nearly unit CO selectivity at high current densities (98.1% at 400 mA cm−2).
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) which is being widely used as cathode material in lithium-ion batteries is synthesized by a novel solution-combustion procedure. In this synthesis, a solution mixture of Co(NO3)2, Li2CO3 and diformyl hydrazine fuel is heated to ignite at 350°C. This is accompanied by decomposition of cobalt nitrate and lithium carbonate to form LiCoO2 within a few minutes, which is annealed at 850°C for 6h to obtain an ordered-crystalline layered compound. The powder X-ray diffraction pattern of the prepared LiCoO2 shows a hexagonal cell with a=2.81 and c=13.83Å. Electrodes made with LiCoO2, acetylene black and poly(vinyledene fluoride) yield a discharge capacity of ∼120mAhg−1 with good Faradaic efficiency over several charge–discharge cycles. Cyclic voltammetric and ac impedance data also corroborate the electrochemical activity of LiCoO2 synthesized in the present study.
Thermal energy storage is a great interest for solar dryer as the availability of solar resource is intermittent. In this paper, we present an experimental work on a new mixed mode solar greenhouse drying system with and without thermal energy storage unit by Phase Change Materiel (PCM). In fact, The experiments were carried out simultaneously and the focus area is to investigate the effect of paraffin wax as a PCM on drying efficiency of red pepper. The drying system consists of two solar greenhouses, a storage unit and two identical solar air heaters. The experimental results show that air temperature inside solar greenhouse with PCM is higher than other driers by about 7,5 °C during all night period. The relative humidity in the drying chamber with PCM is lower by about 18,6% than the ambient relative humidity after sunset. The moisture content has an effective reduction of 95% in 30 h for dryer with PCM, whereas it took 55 h in dryer without PCM and 75 h in open sun. Ten thin-layer mathematical models were fitted to the drying data to select a suitable drying equation. The Midili et al. and the Two-term were found to be the best models respectively, in solar greenhouse with PCM, for both solar greenhouse without PCM and open sun dryer. The use of PCM in solar greenhouse dryer was found to be a promising alternative to enhance the drying process efficiency.
Graphene-embedded carbon fiber (GFC) film has been fabricated by using filamentous fungus (Aspergillus niger) as carbonizable fibers to drive the graphene nanosheets to embed in the hyphae network system and then carbonizing at 700°C. The molecular structure of the GFC film is primarily composed of aromatic components, and the film is doped by N (8.62%) and O (8.12%) elements. The conductivity of the final product reaches as high as 0.71Scm−1. The GFC film serves as the conductive interlayer to greatly improve the performance of Li–S batteries including capacity retention and rate capability. By inserting the GFC film, the battery can deliver a capacity of ~700mAh g−1 after 300 cycles at 1C. Even performed at 5C, it is able to deliver a reversible capacity of more than 650mAhg−1. This research presents a facile and effective method for the fabrication of superior macroscopic carbon monolith, which holds great potential in other forms of electrochemical energy storage.
In this paper, a new approach is presented to determine the optimal number, location and capacity of each Electric Vehicle (EV) parking lot to maximize the profit of electrical distribution companies. In the proposed approach, while considering the term of “EV owners’ welfare”, the effect of this term on optimal location and capacity of the EV parking lots is also investigated. Moreover, the expected growth percentage of the EVs in the upcoming years is presented as a probabilistic parameter. The way of affecting the planning of the parking lots is analyzed. Also, an approach has been presented based on K-means clustering method to estimate the number of EVs approaching for a parking lot which can lead to a more accurate prediction of the costs and incomes of establishing a parking lot. The presented approach is performed on the 69 node radial distribution system and the results are analyzed.
Nanomaterials with quasi-zero, one and two dimensionalities, including silicon nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, titanium oxide particles and graphene flakes, have been incorporated into the conducting polymer polyaniline to form nanocomposite materials for making flexible supercapacitor sheets. Characterization of the capacitor sheets showed that the inclusion of the nanomaterials in polyaniline has significantly improved the energy and power capabilities of the capacitor. In particular, a specific capacitance of 477.1F/g has been obtained. The important properties of carbon nanotubes of improving the charge storage and reducing the resistance of the nanocomposite material and hence to enhance the power capability of the capacitor sheets have been studied. Stacks of capacitor sheets have been used to power a LED lamp to demonstrate the potential of the nanocomposite-based capacitor sheet in illumination applications.
Satellite-based solar insolation models and data collected in 2004–05 show large solar assets for the southern and western regions, dry and high reflective zones like deserts, plateaus and upland pasture hillocks. For Afghanistan, both lower latitude plus high-plateau terrain result in excellent solar assets. Afghanistan has landform class of high alpine close-spaced mountains and basin zones with extreme dryness and low rainfall, and high air turbidity. Elevations and air turbidity (evidenced by wind maps, not covered here) suggest high renewable resources. The infrastructure of present electric sector is based upon small hydro, diesel thermal, in place in pre-2001, but now 61% of electrical power is imported from northern neighbor countries. However, total electricity output, today, is about 2× that of 2006 due to success of this import strategy. Trends from 2006 onwards show increases of about 25% per annum. 78% of population is rural, use traditional fuels, and have a very low ownership of electricity appliances. Rural settlements lack all 3 components (generation/transmission/local grids). Finally, we note the country's serious water quality issues and report on small scale solar thermal using evacuated collectors and continuous flow principles in order to produce clean water by hygienics of pasteurization.
Ge nanostructures were fabricated by wet processes based on etching assisted with the catalytic-metal-particles and the electroless-metal-deposition under various conditions. In the etching assisted with catalytic-metal-particles, we used HF+H2O2 solutions after forming Ag particles on the Ge wafer surfaces from an AgNO3 solution. We succeeded in fabrication of porous layers on the Ge substrates and found that the pore sidewall inclination angles with respect to the surfaces can be controlled by the H2O2 concentrations. In the etching assisted with electroless-metal-deposition, we fabricated whisker-like nanostructures and demonstrated that their size and morphology can be varied by changing the AgNO3 concentration, deposition/etching time and the substrate resistivity. We have revealed differences between Ge and Si in the metal-catalyzed etching and pointed out problems in Ge nanowire fabrication via a wet chemical etching.
The study of sustainable energy systems is an interdisciplinary endeavour which entails the analysis of a large amount of diverse data and complex interactions that are better understood if developed from first principles. This paper reviews the approaches to this analysis and presents as a general case study, a fossil free imaginary island whose electricity, heat and mobility demand are fulfilled with sustainable and renewable energies only. The detailed hourly balance between supply and demand highlights the importance of energy storage, which is achieved by reversible hydropower and storage in electric vehicles.
Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries have great potential as an electrochemical energy storage system because of the high theoretical energy density and acceptable cost of financial and environment. However, the shuttle effect leads to severe capacity fading and low coulombic efficiency. Here, graphitic carbon nitride (g–C3N4) is designed and prepared via a feasible and simple method from trithiocyanuric acid (TTCA) to anchor the polysulfides and suppress the shuttle effect. The obtained g–C3N4 exhibits strong chemical interaction with polysulfides due to its high N–doping of 56.87 at%, which is beneficial to improve the cycling stability of Li–S batteries. Moreover, the novel porous framework and high specific surface area of g–C3N4 also provide fast ion transport and broad reaction interface of sulfur cathode, facilitating high capacity output and superior rate performance of Li–S batteries. As a result, Li–S batteries assembled with g–C3N4 can achieve high discharge capacity of 1200 mAh/g at 0.2 C and over 800 mAh/g is remained after 100 cycles with a coulombic efficiency more than 99.5%. When the C–rate rises to 5 C, the reversible capacity of Li–S batteries can still maintain at 607 mAh/g.
A cost model is developed for all vanadium and iron–vanadium redox flow batteries. Electrochemical performance modeling is done to estimate stack performance at various power densities as a function of state of charge and operating conditions. This is supplemented with a shunt current model and a pumping loss model to estimate actual system efficiency. The operating parameters such as power density, flow rates and design parameters such as electrode aspect ratio and flow frame channel dimensions are adjusted to maximize efficiency and minimize capital costs. Detailed cost estimates are obtained from various vendors to calculate cost estimates for present, near-term and optimistic scenarios. The most cost-effective chemistries with optimum operating conditions for power or energy intensive applications are determined, providing a roadmap for battery management systems development for redox flow batteries. The main drivers for cost reduction for various chemistries are identified as a function of the energy to power ratio of the storage system. Levelized cost analysis further guide suitability of various chemistries for different applications.
Publisher Summary This chapter reviews the morphology, function, and development of malpighian tubule of Drosophila melanogaster. Recent results have provided a reference point for tubule studies for insect physiologists and a unique resource for developmental and genetic analysis of fundamental questions of differentiated cell function. It is noted that the formation of the Drosophila melanogaster malpighian tubule is better understood than that of any other insect and it provides a model for epithelial development in general. In addition to the standard Drosophila techniques of close microscopic examination, genetic screens, enhancer trapping, and reporter gene expression, there are some specific tools that have made progress much easier.
LiCO2 battery is a very promising power source with high energy density. Its performance is strongly restricted by the cathode catalysts, in which carbon-based catalysts have been mostly investigated up to now. However, the impacting factors on the performance of carbon catalysts is not yet elucidated. Here, we employed a variety of carbon materials with different pore-structure features as the cathode catalysts of LiCO2 batteries to reveal which are the main influencing factor on the catalytic performance of carbon catalysts. It is found that suitable pore shape (most important), large pore size and high surface area are crucial factors to the catalytic performance of carbon catalysts. This finding is of great significance to the further development of LiCO2 batteries.
In this manuscript, it is reported how the microstructure of metal composites can be designed to obtain excellent cycle performance in Na-(Ni,Fe)Cl2 battery. The microstructure consists of an active material and a conducting material. The conducting material is an active material as well as a conducting chain (an electron path). In Na-(Ni,Fe)Cl2 cells, it is preferable that Ni is selected as the conducting material, since the nickel chloride is not formed on the surface of Ni particles during the electrochemical reaction of Fe particles. In addition, the particle size of Ni should be smaller than that of Fe, in order to ensure that the conducting chain is well-connected. Through this design, the cycle performance of a Na-(Ni,Fe)Cl2 cell was significantly improved, compared to that of a Na-NiCl2 cell. At the 100th cycle, the charge/discharge capacity of a Na-(Ni,Fe)Cl2 cell was much higher than that of a Na-NiCl2 cell, approximately 42%.
A detailed capacity fade analysis was carried out for a commercial lithium ion battery with a mixed LiMn2O4/NMC cathode, cycled at room temperature with a continuous discharge rate of 1C. Complementary electrochemical and physical–analytical investigations revealed that the most significant aging processes was loss of cycleable lithium due to SEI-layer formation on the anode. The layer formation is accelerated by transition metals coming from the cathode. Impedance spectroscopy proved a significant increase of the cathode charge transfer resistance and of the serial resistance due to electrolyte decomposition and the formation of a surface layer on the anode. The changing of the impedance spectra of the lithium ion battery with aging could be interpreted with the help of impedance spectra of symmetric cells. From DRT analysis equivalent circuits for anode and cathode were derived, which were used for fitting of the impedance spectra.
The objective was to study the safety of a Napin-Rich Canola Protein Isolate (NRCPI) fed to rats at various levels for 13-weeks. The study included four groups (20 animals/sex/group) of young Sprague Dawley rats. They were fed ad libitum with an AIN-93G based protein-free diet containing, respectively, 5%, 10% and 20% (w/w) NRCPI (test article) or 20% (w/w) vitamin-free casein (control article). Protein levels were adjusted at 18% in all groups with vitamin-free casein. Body weights, food consumption, locomotor activity and behavioral and clinical pathology parameters were recorded at various points in the study, followed by macroscopic examination, determination of organ weights and microscopic examination at termination. There were no test article-related effects on ophthalmology, functional observations, hematology, serum chemistry, urinalysis, organ weights and macroscopic or microscopic findings. Lower body weight gains were observed in the 10% NRCPI-treated males and the 20% NRCPI-treated males and females. The lower body weight gains were associated with significantly lower food consumption. Therefore, for NRCPI the No Observed Adversed Effect Level (NOAEL) was considered to be 20% (the highest fed level); equivalent to 12.46g/kg BW/day for males and 14.95g/kg BW/day for females. The NRCPI was considered safe under the tested conditions.
The PM10 particulate collected on filters from four air-quality monitoring stations in the city of Torino (Italy) has been investigated by means of detailed magnetic measurements, transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. The magnetic fraction mainly consists of magnetite-like ferrimagnetic phase and a minor contribution from a high-coercivity phase, which probably results from oxidation of the smallest magnetite grains. The magnetic particles have a grainsize mostly comprised in the single-domain/superparamagnetic range with a large prevalence of the latter. A large fraction of superparamagnetic particles of nanometric dimension were identified in the particulate matter by magnetic techniques and directly observed by electron microscopy. Energy dispersive X-ray elemental analysis showed that ultrafine Fe-rich particles have a spherical shape and are often associated with other metals. The analysis of daily-average variations of magnetic particle concentration found a close correlation of magnetic moment with total nitrogen oxides suggesting that the largest part of magnetic minerals in particulate matter originates from anthropogenic combustion processes. A simple model linking total nitrogen oxides with magnetic particles, for the city of Torino, is proposed. The correlation of magnetic moments and PM10 mass is generally poor because of the different sources of the latter, therefore in the studied contest PM10 is not a good proxy for ultrafine magnetic particles.
Iron/copper composite particles were synthesized by a chemical reduction method and then used as the anode material for a rechargeable alkaline battery. The particle size and structure of the samples were characterized by SEM and XRD. Their electrochemical performance was also studied. The results showed that the iron/copper composite prepared by this method is nanosized. Copper improves the electron transfer between particles, and the nanosized iron/copper composite not only has a high electrochemical capacity of up to 800mAhg−1(Fe to Fe(III)), but also has an excellent rate-capacity performance at a current density of 3200mAg−1. Compared with the iron nanoparticle without copper, the iron/copper composite sample maintains a smaller particle size during electrochemical cycling, and therefore improves the cycling stability of the iron electrode.
Battery energy storage (BES) is one of a set of technologies that can be considered to reduce electrical loads, and to realize economic value for industrial customers. To directly compare the energy savings and economic effectiveness of BES to more conventional energy efficiency technologies, this study collected detailed information regarding the electrical loads associated with four Colorado manufacturing facilities. These datasets were used to generate a set of three scenarios for each manufacturer: implementation of a BES system, implementation of a set of conventional energy efficiency recommendations, and the implementation of both BES and conventional energy efficiency technologies. Evaluating these scenarios’ economic payback period allows for a direct comparison between the cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency technologies and that of BES, demonstrates the costs and benefits of implementing both BES and energy efficiency technologies, and characterizes the effectiveness of potential incentives in improving economic payback. For all of the manufacturing facilities modeled, results demonstrate that BES is the least cost-effective among the energy efficiency technologies considered, but that simultaneous implementation of both BES and energy efficiency technologies has a negligible effect on the BES payback period. Incentives are demonstrated to be required for BES to achieve near-term payback period parity with more conventional energy efficiency technologies.