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The process of hydrogen electrosorption in the Pd thin film electrode was examined in three nitrate ionic liquids (ILs): ethylammonium nitrate (EAN), propylammonium nitrate (PAN) and 1-ethylimidazolium nitrate (C2IMN). The Pd electrode was obtained by electrodeposition on a golden matrix from palladium chloride solution. Cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry and chronopotentiometry were used for the electrochemical analysis. The hydrogen capacity (H/Pd) of Pd electrodes subjected to various pretreatment procedures was determined using cyclic voltammetry. The max. H/Pd equals to 0.6–0.7. In case of C2IMN IL, the noticeable phenomenon of a significant Pd dissolution under the open circuit conditions and during electrochemical hydrogen sorption experiment was observed. The physicochemical properties such as density, ionic conductivity, dynamic viscosity and water content before and after electrochemical measurements were designated. The nitrate ionic liquid stability under the electrochemical measurement conditions was confirmed by the means of Raman and 1H NMR spectroscopies. 1H NMR spectroscopy also served as a tool to compare the acidity of nitrate ILs: C2IMN>PAN>EAN.
For the first time, the basic electrochemical properties and battery performances of titanium(III) oxide (Ti2O3) are reported in bulk and nanoscale powder forms in view of their potential applications for lithium ion battery electrodes. Ti2O3 reacts electrochemically with Li+ ions between 3.0V and 0.01V, and exhibits excellent cycling stability due to its relatively high electrical conductivity. Reactions between Li+ ions and Ti2O3 molecules are shown to proceed via intercalation of the former into the latter. To increase the electrochemical reactivity of Ti2O3, nanoscale Ti2O3 particles with and without graphene were prepared using a facile high-energy milling process. After milling, the specific discharge capacity of the nanoscale Ti2O3 with nanosheet morphology was 161mA⋅h⋅g−1 at the 300th cycle at a current density of 33mA⋅g−1. By combining graphene on the Ti2O3 nanosheets uniformly, the specific capacity was further improved to 248mA⋅h⋅g−1 at the 300th cycle. Furthermore, rate capability of these composite electrodes was enhanced significantly even at high current rates.
Li4Ti5O12 was obtained by solid-state reaction of a ternary precursor mixture, TiO2, Li2CO3 and carbon. The influences of the reaction time, temperature and mixing method on the electrochemical performance of Li4Ti5O12 were investigated. Electrochemical measurements and XRD diffraction characterization were used to determine the reversible capacity and TiO2 residue in the final powder, respectively. Between 1.2 and 2.0V versus Li, a reversible capacity as high as 165mAh/g at 7.3mA/g was obtained.
Homogeneous substitution of Cu(II), Al(III) and Ti(IV) for Mn in the spinel Li[Mn2]O4 is synthesized by lactic-acid assisted Pechini method. Galvanostatic charge–discharge between 3.5 and 4.3V (versus Li+/Li) at C/2 rate shows that the multi-cations doped spinel exhibits initial discharge capacity of 134mAhg−1 with a 97% capacity retention after 400 cycles at room temperature. When cycling at 55°C, the doped sample shows 91% capacity retention after 50 cycles compared to 70% retention for the undoped sample. As the charge–discharge rate increases to 12C, the doped sample delivers capacity of 111mAhg−1, which is much higher than that of the undoped sample of only 84mAhg−1. Moreover, as the charge–discharge rate returns from 12C to C/2, the discharge capacity of the doped electrode recovers nearly completely while the undoped sample lost more than 7% of its capacity.
In this article, we introduce a novel two-dimensional (2D) functional Co3O4 nanostructure, “nanomesh”, which possesses the highest surface area (382 m2 g−1) as compared to the other Co3O4 nanostructures, well-crystallized features, thickness of no more than 10 nm and a void space diameter below 6.0 nm. These structural characteristics of the nanomesh are well-suited for lithium-ion battery (LIBs) applications. In initial tests, high specific capacity (1800 mAh/g), good rate capability (above 380 mAh/g at a discharging rate of 1000 mA g−1 over 50 cycles) and stable cyclability (up to 100 cycles) have been demonstrated. In addition, the dominant (12) crystal plane in the nanomesh has much higher surface energy than the conventional (111) and (100) crystal planes, leading to higher activity in supercapacitors. The Co3O4 nanomesh demonstrated in this research could be successfully utilized in energy and environmental applications, such as selective catalysis, gene delivery and gas or biological sensing, besides the application in electrochemical energy storage shown in this work. More importantly, the synthesis strategy used in this research can possibly be extended to other material systems as a general approach to fabricate 2D mesoporous oxides.
Social Health Scale for the Elderly short version (SHSE-S) is a psychometrically sound instrument that comprehensively assesses the social health status of older adults in China. The aim of the present study was to establish continuous normative data of SHSE-S.
ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To report on the out-of-pocket expenses incurred by insulin- treated patients to manage blood glucose levels. METHODS This retrospective study in insulin-using adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes was conducted between July 7 and December 12, 2003, in 4 Canadian centres, using a patient self-administered questionnaire and medical charts. The questionnaire collected data regarding duration of diabetes; duration of insulin therapy; type of diabetes; source of payment for insulin, oral antihyperglycemic agents and test strips (i.e. insurance company [with % coverage], government, self); average cost per month to treat hypoglycemia; frequency of self-monitoring of blood glucose and insulin injections; and frequency of diabetes-related visits to healthcare professionals. RESULTS All 335 patients enrolled completed the study; 202 (60.3%) had type 1 diabetes and 133 (39.7%) had type 2 diabetes; 29 patients (8.6%; 27 type 1 and 2 type 2 diabetes patients) used pump therapy. The mean out-of-pocket cost per person for all patients was $2.21 daily or $807 annually ($891 for type 1 and $679 for type 2 diabetes). Insulin pump users had higher annual average costs than non-pump users ($1309 vs. $797). At 39.2% of total expenses, glucose monitoring test strips accounted for the greatest cost, followed by management of hypoglycemia (26.1%), insulin (15.8%), syringes and needles (11.7%), and insulin pump and supplies (3.9%). CONCLUSIONS This study provides direct data confirming that the costs of managing blood glucose are significant for people with diabetes treated with insulin. Ensuring that people with diabetes do not receive compromised care because of financial constraints is a challenge that will require a coordinated and thoughtful response from healthcare providers, all levels of government, the insurance industry, formulary listing bodies and patient advocacy groups.
A phenomenon which was not yet described is observed in the potential course of a lithium metal counter electrode (CE) employed for investigations of porous graphite electrodes (WE). The potential characteristics of the CE were found to be strictly connected to the lithium concentration in the active material of the WE. The authors suggest that the observed phenomena at the CE are related to changes of the current density distribution across the thickness of the porous WE. The local depletion/enrichment of lithium in the pores affects the lithium concentration gradient in the electrolyte which results in changes of the overpotential at the CE. This relation may be used prospectively to study the current density distribution in porous electrodes as a function of time, C — rate and state of charge.
Background The MATRICS consensus cognitive battery (MCCB) has been widely used to evaluate cognitive deficits in schizophrenia (SCZ), however, no study has formally examined the validity of the MCCB in Chinese SCZ. This study compared Chinese SCZ patients with healthy Chinese controls on the MCCB and some additional neurocognitive tests to determine if the Chinese MCCB is an optimal battery to assess the cognitive deficits in Chinese SCZ patients. Method The study enrolled and examined 230 patients met DSM-IV criteria for SCZ and 656 healthy controls matched for gender, age and education. Besides the MCCB, we also included some additional neurocognitive tests that have been widely used in patients with schizophrenia. We selected MCCB and non-MCCB tests with large effect size, to assemble a new “optimal battery” and compared its performance with that of the standard MCCB. Results Comparing the putative “optimal” battery with the original MCCB, more patients with SCZ were identified as cognitively impaired according to the criteria of GDS ≥ 0.50 for the optimal battery (166 vs 135, or 72.2% vs 58.7%). The rate of cognitive impairment according to MCCB GDS in patients with SCZ who were currently working, ever worked and never worked are 45.5%, 61.6% and 70.8% (p = 0.051), whereas the optimal battery GDS showed 56.4%, 74.8%, 91.7% (p = 0.003), respectively. Conclusions Our study needs validation with independent samples but suggests that the current “optimal” cognitive battery could be more sensitive than the widely used MCCB in detecting SCZ related cognitive impairment in China.
A series of Al-free Mn-modified AB5-type hydrogen storage alloys have been designed and the effects of thermodynamic stability and electrochemical kinetics on electrochemical performance via Mn substituting have been investigated. Compared with high-Al alloys, the Al-free alloys in this study have better low-temperature performance and instantaneous high-rate output because of the higher surface catalytic ability. After partial substitution of Ni by Mn, both the hydrogen desorption capacity and plateau pressure decrease, and correspondingly results in an improved thermodynamic stability which is adverse to low-temperature delivery. Additionally, with the improvement of charge acceptance ability and anti-corrosion property via Mn substitution, the room-temperature discharge capacity and cycling stability increase slightly. However, Mn adversely affects the electrochemical kinetics and deteriorates both the surface catalytic ability and the bulk hydrogen diffusion ability, leading to the drop of low-temperature dischargeability, high-rate dischargeability and peak power (P peak). Based on the thermodynamic and kinetic regulation and overall electrochemical properties, the optimal composition is obtained when x = 0.2, the discharge capacity is 243.6 mAh g−1 at −40 °C with 60 mA g−1, and the P peak attains to 969.6 W kg−1 at −40 °C.
There is an intense, worldwide effort to develop durable lithium ion batteries with high energy and power densities for a wide range of applications, including electric and hybrid electric vehicles. One of the critical challenges in advancing lithium ion battery technologies is fracture and decrepitation of the electrodes as a result of lithium diffusion during charging and discharging operations. When lithium is inserted in either the positive or negative electrode, a large volume change on the order of a few to several hundred percent, can occur. Diffusion-induced stresses (DISs) can therefore cause the nucleation and growth of cracks, leading to mechanical degradation of the active electrode materials. Our work is aimed at developing a mathematical model relating surface energy with diffusion-induced stresses in nanowire electrodes. With decreasing size of the electrode, the ratio of surface area to volume increases. Thus, surface energy and surface stress can play an important role in mitigating DISs in nanostructured electrodes. In this work, we establish relationships between the surface energy, surface stress, and the magnitude of DISs in nanowires. We find that DISs, especially the tensile stresses, can decrease significantly due to the surface effects. Our model also establishes a relationship between stress and the nanowire radius. We show that, with decreasing size, the electrode material will be less prone to mechanical degradation, leading to an increase in the life of lithium ion batteries, provided other phenomena are unaffected by increased surface area (e.g., chemical degradation reactions). Also we show that, in the case of nanostructures, surface strain energy is significant in magnitude comparing with bulk strain energy. A mathematical tool to calculate total strain energy is developed that can be used to compare strain energy with the fracture energy of that material in electrode system.
The Lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV or Valley) in Texas, facing the big waste management challenge along the US–Mexico border today, is at the crossroads as a result of the rapid population growth, the scarcity of landfill space, the bi-nation’s trade impacts, and the illusive goal of environmental sustainability. This paper offers a unique municipal solid waste investigation with regard to both physical and chemical characteristics leading to illuminate the necessary management policies with greater regional relevancy. With multiple sampling campaigns conducted during the spring of 2005, this study holistically summarizes the composition of solid waste, the statistical distribution patterns of key recyclable items, and the heating value in an uncertain environment. Research findings indicate that high fractions of plastics and paper in the waste stream imply a strong potential for energy recovery. Incineration options are thus bolstered by mildly high heating values across 10 cities in this region, which may lead to save land resources required for final disposal and increase electricity generation in the long run. Additional regression analyses further identify the correlation between recyclable items and heating value, which show that current recycling programs permit no obvious negative impacts on the incineration option. Final statistical hypothesis tests for both the Brownsville–Harlingen–San Benito and the McAllen–Edinburg–Mission metropolitan regions help foster consistent management strategies across the Valley regardless of the trivial differences of waste characteristics in between.
Electrochemical performance of the red phosphorus electrode was examined in ionic-liquid electrolyte, 0.25 mol dm−3 sodium bisfluorosulfonylamide (NaFSA) dissolved N-methyl-N-propylpyridinium-bisfluorosulfonylamide (MPPFSA), at room temperature. We compared its electrochemical performance to conventional EC/PC/DEC, EC/DEC, and PC solutions containing 1 mol dm−3 NaPF6. The electrode in NaFSA/MPPFSA demonstrated a reversible capacity of 1480 mAh g−1 and excellent capacity retention of 93% over 80 cycles, which is much better than those in the conventional electrolytes. The difference in capacity retention for the electrolytes correlates to the different solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer formed on the phosphorus electrode. To understand the SEI formation in NaFSA/MPPFSA and its evolution during cycling, we investigate the surface layer of the red phosphorus electrodes with hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS). A detailed analysis of HAXPES spectra demonstrates that SEI layer consists of major inorganic and minor organic species, originating from decomposition of MPP+ and FSA−. Homogenous surface layer is formed during the first cycle in NaFSA/MPPFSA while in alkyl carbonate ester electrolytes, continuous growth of surface film up to the 20th cycle is observed. Possibility of red phosphorous electrode for battery applications with pure ionic liquid is discussed.
Numerous materials and processes go into the manufacture of lithium-ion batteries, resulting in variations across batteries' capacity fade measurements. Accounting for this variability is essential when determining whether batteries are performing satisfactorily. Motivated by a real manufacturing problem, this article presents an approach to assess whether lithium-ion batteries from a production lot are not representative of a healthy population of batteries from earlier production lots, and to determine, based on capacity fade data, the earliest stage (in terms of cycles) that battery anomalies can be identified. The approach involves the use of a double exponential function to describe nonlinear capacity fade data. To capture the variability of repeated measurements on a number of individual batteries, the double exponential function is then embedded as the individual batteries' trajectories in a Bayesian random effects model. The model allows for probabilistic predictions of capacity fading not only at the underlying mean process level but also at the individual battery level. The results show good predictive coverage for individual batteries and demonstrate that, for our data, non-healthy lithium-ion batteries can be identified in as few as 50 cycles.
The purpose of this article is twofold. First, we review model-based analyses that explore the role of power storage in energy systems with high shares of variable renewables. Second, we introduce a new model that is specifically designed for exploring long-term storage requirements. The literature survey focuses on recent contributions in the peer-reviewed energy economics and engineering literature. We compare key characteristics of the different models, provide an overview of model applications, and summarize key findings on power storage requirements. We also evaluate which system values of storage are covered by respective model analyses. Based on the literature survey, we identify common findings and key model features required for a sound assessment of future storage requirements. In order to raise complementary insights, we introduce DIETER, a new dispatch and investment model. The model contributes to the literature by capturing multiple system values of power storage related to arbitrage, capacity, and reserve provision. Further, the model is designed as an open-source tool that can be freely used and modified. Results of a first application of the new model are presented in a companion paper.
Titanium dioxide based tubular nanocomposites containing long-chain amines were prepared by hydrothermal reaction of anatase with neutral surfactants, dodecylamine and octadecylamine, under strong alkaline conditions. Morphologically pure phases are obtained after reaction times of about 50h at 130°C. Dodecylamine derivates are structural and thermally more fragile than those with octadecylamine. Under more drastic reaction conditions, 72h at 150°C, amine is segregated leading to almost pure inorganic nanotubes or fibers for octadecyl and dodecyl derivatives respectively. The products characterized by electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, FT-IR and elemental analysis are constituted by the hydrogen titanat H2Ti3O7. Diffuse reflectance spectra reveal the products present typical size-dependent optical properties. The photoluminescence spectra are qualitatively similar to that of anatase dominated by the presence of traps located in the band gap. The electrochemical lithium intercalation and lithium diffusion coefficients of the products were studied by intermittent galvanostatic method and galvanostatic pulse relaxation technique respectively. Products were tested in a lithium cell using the nanocomposites as the active material of the positive electrode. The hybrid dodecylamine derivative shows a first cycle irreversible capacity of 219mAh/g, and a capacity of 113mAh/g after the 7th cycle which results improved in comparison with those reported for H2Ti3O7 electrodes, thus pointing to a protective effect of the amine.
Achieving transport decarbonization targets depends on vehicle-purchasing decisions. Non-financial consumer preferences presented in six global energy-economy models reveal that diverse policies targeting vehicle buyers are necessary for the widespread adoption of clean technologies.
Carbon-coated Li2MnSiO4 powders were synthesized by a citric acid-assisted sol–gel process, and their physical and electrochemical properties were characterized to assess their suitability as a cathode material in lithium-rechargeable batteries. Carbon was coated onto the Li2MnSiO4 particles through the carbonization of polymeric materials that were caused by the addition of citric acid during the sol–gel process. The particle size and electrical conductivity of the Li2MnSiO4 powders were found to be changed by varying the amount of citric acid added during the sol–gel process. XRD analysis showed that the quantity of impurities in Li2MnSiO4 was decreased during the sol–gel process. The carbon coating led to an increase in conductivity and mean particle size by creating an electrical and physical connection between the particles. The discharge capacity of Li2MnSiO4 with over 5 % carbon coating was significantly increased to ~125 mAh g−1 compared to just ~3 mAh g−1 for noncoated material.
The cycling behaviors of Co–Si alloy and multilayered films, which were prepared by co-deposition from separate pure metal sources and by alternating deposition of different metals, respectively, are investigated. The alloy films with near stoichiometric compound composition of CoSi2.06 and CoSi2.2 exhibit an excellent cycling stability, but alloying with large excess Si results in capacity fading during cycling. The cycling stability of multilayers with average composition of CoSi2.9 is improved significantly by post-annealing treatment at 350°C. Nano-structured multilayer films are suggested as promising anode materials for thin-film batteries.
‘HAYABUSA’ is a Japanese inter-planetary spacecraft built for the exploration of an asteroid named ‘ITOKAWA.’ The spacecraft is powered by a 13.2Ah lithium-ion secondary battery. To realize maximum performance of the battery for long flight operation, the state-of-charge (SOC) of the battery was maintained at ca. 65% during storage, in case it is required for a loss of attitude control. The capacity of the battery was measured during flight operations. Along with the operation in orbit, a ground-test battery was discharged, and both results showed a good agreement. This result confirmed that the performance of the lithium-ion secondary battery stored under micro-gravity conditions is predictable using a ground-test battery.
In this contribution we propose, design and numerically analyze a plasmonic metamaterial for enhanced optical absorption, based on 100 nm thick titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx) MXene sheets. The analyzed metamaterial is built as a sandwich with a solid MXene bottom (ground) layer, a lossless dielectric middle layer and an MXene mesh top layer. The unit cell of the periodic top mesh consists of two crossed ultrathin MXene strips, each of them spreading its width in step-like increments towards the middle of the unit cell. This ensures position-variable width of the top surface apertures, resulting in a widening of the bandwidth of spectral dispersion of the scattering parameters of the obtained metamaterial. We utilize the finite element method to simulate the scattering parameters of the MXene-based metamaterial. We apply Drude–Lorentz model to derive our analytical expression for complex permittivity of Ti3C2Tx MXene based on experimental measurements. The described approach is general, since various alternative plasmonic materials can be utilized, including different MXenes, but other materials as well, such as graphene, metals and metal alloys, semiconductors, etc. The approach is applicable to various other nanoplasmonic structures. In this manner the available toolbox for plasmonics is extended and a new degree of design freedom ensured.