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Sb3+ ions are introduced into the negative electrolyte of vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB), and their influence on the electrochemical performance of VRFB are investigated by cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The results show that the electrochemical activity and sluggish kinetics of V(II)/V(III) redox couple can be improved by the addition of Sb3+ ions, and the optimal concentration of Sb3+ ions is found to be 5mM. Meanwhile, Sb3+ ions can lead to an increase of the diffusion coefficient of V(III) species and a decrease of charge transfer resistance. Moreover, the VRFB cell using negative electrolyte with Sb3+ ions exhibits excellent cycling stability and high average energy efficiency, especially under high power operation. The energy efficiency (67.1%) of the VRFB employing electrolyte with 5mM Sb3+ ions is increased by 9.6% at a current density of 120 mA·cm−2, compared to the pristine one (57.5%). The improved electrochemical performance should be ascribed to the prominent catalytic effect of Sb particles, which are simultaneously electrodeposited onto the surface of graphite felts during operation of the flow cell and facilitate charge transfer process.
Active/inactive alloyed systems in battery materials have been shown to relieve the agglomeration of active materials during cycling, thus exhibiting enhanced cyclability. However, the immoderate interaction between active and inactive elements can reduce the capacity of active materials. The present study realized a compositionally gradational heterostructure composed of a Ni core, NiSb interface, and attached Sb crystals via pulsed electrodeposition under controlled conditions. The 3-D Sb/NiSb/Ni electrode showed highly stable cycling performance for sodium storage at the expense of capacity decrease (391mAhg−1 at a current rate of 66mAg−1 after 300 cycles). High-resolution transmission electron microscopy analysis of the cycled samples revealed that the reversible solid-state reaction occurs between Sb/NiSb/Ni and Na3Sb/NaSb/Ni heterostructures during sodiation/desodiation. The cycling stability was attributed to the strong interaction between Ni and Sb.
Industrially produced spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) waste contain not only strategic metals such as cobalt and lithium but also impurity elements like copper, aluminum and iron. The current work investigates the distribution of the metallic impurity elements in LIBs waste, and their influence on the acid dissolution of target active materials. The results demonstrate that the presence of these, naturally reductive, impurity elements (e.g. Cu, Al, and Fe) can substantially promote the dissolution of active materials. Through the addition of Cu and Al-rich larger size fractions, the extraction efficiencies of Co and Li increased up to over 99%, to leave a leach residue that is rich in graphite. By this method, the use of high cost reductants like hydrogen peroxide or ascorbic acid could be avoided. More importantly, additional Co and Li associated with the Cu and Al electrode materials could be also recovered. This novel approach contributes not only to improved reduction efficiency in LIBs waste leaching, but also to improved total recovery of Co and Li from LIBs waste, even from the larger particle size fractions, which are typically lost from circulation.
Despite considerable efforts to find other substituents, carbon still remains the only commercially viable negative electrode (anode) material for Li-on batteries. Present work aimed at understanding, characterising and improving the performance of carbon anode materials is reviewed. A brief historical background of developments in carbon host lattices is presented. A wide range of carbon materials from amorphous to highly oriented graphitic materials and the techniques employed in characterisation of the lithium insertion/de-insertion process are outlined. Fundamental investigations of the electrochemical process on natural graphite, as well as highly oriented pyrolitic graphite materials, are then comprehensively reviewed. The problems and prospects of different hard carbon materials which increased battery capacity are then discussed. A variety of new carbon materials and carbon-based composites are also introduced. The critical review ends with an overview of the present status of carbon materials and their role in Li-ion battery systems for different potential applications.
Inactive components and safety hazards are two critical challenges in realizing high-energy lithium-ion batteries. Metal foil current collectors with high density are typically an integrated part of lithium-ion batteries yet deliver no capacity. Meanwhile, high-energy batteries can entail increased fire safety issues. Here we report a composite current collector design that simultaneously minimizes the ‘dead weight’ within the cell and improves fire safety. An ultralight polyimide-based current collector (9 μm thick, specific mass 1.54 mg cm−2) is prepared by sandwiching a polyimide embedded with triphenyl phosphate flame retardant between two superthin Cu layers (~500 nm). Compared to lithium-ion batteries assembled with the thinnest commercial metal foil current collectors (~6 µm), batteries equipped with our composite current collectors can realize a 16–26% improvement in specific energy and rapidly self-extinguish fires under extreme conditions such as short circuits and thermal runaway.
A highly reversible aqueous rechargeable battery system is assembled by using a Zn anode, a room-temperature synthesized MnO2-birnessite cathode and a mild ZnSO4-based aqueous electrolyte with MnSO4 as an additive. Structural analysis reveal that MnO2-birnessite undergoes a structural transformation to poorly crystalline MnO2. It offers an operating voltage of 1.39 V, an energy density of 364 Wh kg−1 (cathode only) at 200 mA g−1 and shows a capacity retention of 100% over 400 cycles at 500 mA g−1. This low-cost battery system is a promising candidate for large-scale energy storage.
A series of Ag+-ion conducting composites consisting of glasses of the AgI–Ag2O–B2O3 system and hard Al2O3 powder matrix were synthesized by a high-pressure route (pressure 7.7GPa, temperature 100–200°C). The composition of the glasses was described by the general formula: xAgI·(100− x)(0.667Ag2O·0.333B2O3), where x =40, 50 and 60. Alumina powder (2μm average grain size) was added to the glass in 50/50 proportions (by volume). Conductivity, thermal behavior and microstructure of these composites are reported. Though the conductivity of the composites is lower than that of the constituent glasses, other properties like mechanical resistance to fracture are considerably improved.
The main objective of this work is to model a renewable energy system that meets a known electric load with the combination of a photovoltaic (PV) array, a diesel generator and batteries. The replacement of conventional technologies with hydrogen technologies is examined. The analysis utilizes the power load data from an electric machinery laboratory located in Kavala town, Greece. The modeling, optimization and simulation of the proposed system were performed using HOMER software. Different combinations of PV, generators, and batteries sizes were selected in order to determine the optimal combination of the system on the basis of the Net Present Cost (NPC) method.
Uniform cathode films were prepared with a Li-rich solid-solution (Li[Li0.2Ni0.18Co0.03Mn0.58]O2) cathode material and a water-based hybrid polymer binder (TRD202A, JSR, Japan) composed of acrylic polymer and fluoropolymer, carboxymethyl cellulose, and conducting carbon additive. The films exhibited stable charge/discharge cycling performances (average discharge capacity: 260 mAh g−1) when cycled between 4.8 and 2.0 V for 80 cycles. After 80 cycles in the chemical environment of Li-ion cells, a cathode film prepared with the water-based hybrid polymer binder showed longer-term reliability as well as higher electrochemical resistance when compared with a cathode film using the conventional polyvinylidene difluoride binder. Additionally, even without electrochemical pretreatment, the Al2O3 coating on the cathode surfaces improved the cycling stability by preventing the cathode surface from making direct contact with H2O.
Nitrogen-enriched carbon layer-coated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (N/C-MWNTs) composed of core MWNTs and carbon shells were prepared to obtain a new type of carbon electrode materials, and then chemically activated using KOH. After carbonization and activation, the activated N/C-MWNTs (A-N/C-MWNTs) contained about 18% nitrogen and showed a 1-D structure like MWNTs. In addition, the A-N/C-MWNTs exhibited superior electrochemical performance to that of pristine MWNTs and N/C-MWNTs; the highest specific capacitance (262F/g) of the A-N/C-MWNTs was obtained at a current density of 0.5A/g, as compared to 66F/g for MWNTs and 161F/g for N/C-MWNTs. This superior performance was attributed to the combination effect between improved EDLC features via microporosity developed by chemical activation and increased redox reaction by high nitrogen content of basic A-N/C-MWNTs in acidic electrolyte.
This paper deals with the feasibility of RES-based systems for electricity supply in four different Greek Islands. Three specific typical loads were selected to be covered, where the grid connection was considered as optional. An optimization procedure in terms of energy efficiency and economical feasibility has also been applied, using the HOMER software for the energy part and a hand-made calculation procedure for the financial aspects. It is found that an off-grid project is not economically feasible and the grid connection is necessary only for the sale of excess electricity (not as a backup source). Finally, the relationship between environmental potential and produced energy is found to be linear, with almost constant behaviour for solar systems.
The nationwide multicenter trials of the German Research Network on Neuropathic Pain (DFNS) aim to characterize the somatosensory phenotype of patients with neuropathic pain. For this purpose, we have implemented a standardized quantitative sensory testing (QST) protocol giving a complete profile for one region within 30min. To judge plus or minus signs in patients we have now established age- and gender-matched absolute and relative QST reference values from 180 healthy subjects, assessed bilaterally over face, hand and foot. We determined thermal detection and pain thresholds including a test for paradoxical heat sensations, mechanical detection thresholds to von Frey filaments and a 64Hz tuning fork, mechanical pain thresholds to pinprick stimuli and blunt pressure, stimulus/response-functions for pinprick and dynamic mechanical allodynia, and pain summation (wind-up ratio). QST parameters were region specific and age dependent. Pain thresholds were significantly lower in women than men. Detection thresholds were generally independent of gender. Reference data were normalized to the specific group means and variances (region, age, gender) by calculating z-scores. Due to confidence limits close to the respective limits of the possible data range, heat hypoalgesia, cold hypoalgesia, and mechanical hyperesthesia can hardly be diagnosed. Nevertheless, these parameters can be used for group comparisons. Sensitivity is enhanced by side-to-side comparisons by a factor ranging from 1.1 to 2.5. Relative comparisons across body regions do not offer advantages over absolute reference values. Application of this standardized QST protocol in patients and human surrogate models will allow to infer underlying mechanisms from somatosensory phenotypes.
Abstract Central auditory processing disorders (CAPDs) are a collection of conditions in which the ability to detect sounds, localize their sources, or determine their identity and meaningfulness is impaired due to a functional compromise of the central auditory nervous system by disease, damage, or maldevelopment. Symptoms of CAPDs range from subtle difficulties understanding speech in a noisy environment to a complete inability to extract meaning from speech, identify environmental sounds, or appreciate music. This article characterizes various acquired and developmental forms of CAPD, discusses methods used for their diagnosis and summarizes a number of treatment approaches.
Electrodeposition of manganese dioxide has been examined using a combination of rotating disk electrode (RDE) and rotating ring–disk electrode (RRDE) voltammetry, with the goal of developing an understanding of the electrodeposition mechanism. Experimental variables that have been examined include electrolyte composition (combined changes within the ranges 0.1–1.0M MnSO4 and 0.1–5.0M H2SO4), rotation rate (1000–4000rpm) and temperature (22–98°C). Voltammetric data (current peak instead of sigmoidal response, and non-proportional current–concentration data) indicates that already deposited manganese dioxide is a poorer catalytic surface compared to Pt. The overall electrodeposition process revolves on the formation of a Mn(III) intermediate, and whether it is soluble for extended periods of time, as in concentrated H2SO4 (>1.0M), or whether it hydrolyzes rapidly to precipitate as a solid Mn(III) species (e.g. MnOOH) as in more dilute H2SO4 solutions (<1.0M). In the more concentrated acid electrolytes most of the Mn(III) was lost to the bulk electrolyte through convection, with what little manganese dioxide that was formed resulting from chemical disproportionation. However, in dilute acid electrolytes, evidence suggests that the solid hydrolysis product underwent solid state oxidation to manganese dioxide. Activation energies extracted from temperature studies supports the different mechanism under different acid concentrations. Experiments examining the effect of rotation rate also indicate that the overall electrodeposition process is not mass transport limited.
Dynamic light scattering and broad band impedance spectroscopy have been performed on polymer gel electrolytes consisting of a mixture of propylene carbonate/lithium perchlorate (PC/LiClO4) stabilised with a polymer matrix, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). The salt concentration and temperature dependences of the conductivity are compared to the dynamical behaviour of the system. Complex relaxation dynamics is observed in the dynamic light scattering experiments with multiple relaxation processes with different temperature and wave vector dependencies. In focus here is a fast exponential decay attributed to diffusion of low molecular compounds and a slower and very broad relaxation process attributed to the segmental motion of the polymer backbone. The relation between the relaxation processes and the ionic conductivity is investigated, with special emphasis on the relation to the fast diffusive process. We show that the slowing down of this diffusion process is a more important limiting factor for ionic conductivity than the possible creation of ion pairs at higher salt-concentrations. The physical picture that emerges from the results is that the conductivity mechanism is a diffusion of ions moving together with the solvent molecules, both of which are essentially decoupled from the segmental motion of the polymer backbone.
Tactile sensing is one of the key technologies for robotics that enables recognition of vibrations and brief moments of contact with an object, and facilitating object-manipulation and recognition. Here we describe a fabrication of highly efficient triboelectric nanogenerator that enables high yield and uniformity from stretchable electronic polymers with controlled density of tactile sensors, which thus constitute intrinsically self-powered stretchable (up to 580%) skin electronics. A dynamic pressure can be harnessed and detected with a sensitivity of 0.04 μA/kPa in the linear range from 16 KPa to 64 KPa and the texture and hardness of the object can be read out from the current waveforms with a location detection sensitivity of 2 mm, which help robots determine the moment and assess the grasp stability when they first come in contact with an object. Meanwhile, temperature can be detected in the linear range from 19.4 °C to 34.9 °C with a sensitivity of 0.59 μA/°C. At the same time, mechanical energy can be harnessed and converted to electricity with an open-circuit voltage of 160 V, a short-circuit current of 12.4 μA, and a maximum out power of 1387 μW (0.087 mW/cm2). Our process offers a general strategy for the fabrication of next generation stretchable TENG toward the development of self-powered skin electronic devices from robotics to the medical field, consumer devices and the auto industry.
An optogenetic illumination system based on the use of a liquid crystal display projector and video tracking software is reported, which allows real-time multispectral light delivery with high spatial resolution to specified targets in freely moving Caenorhabditis elegans. Also in this issue, Leifer et al. report a similar illumination system using a digital micromirror device. Both methods allow optogenetic perturbation of a variety of neural circuits in the behaving worm.
Background Large variability in individual spoken language outcomes remains a persistent finding in the group of children with cochlear implants (CIs), particularly in their grammatical development. Aims In the present study, we examined the extent of delay in lexical and morphosyntactic spoken language levels of children with CIs as compared to those of a normative sample of age-matched children with normal hearing. Furthermore, the predictive value of auditory and verbal memory factors in the spoken language performance of implanted children was analyzed. Methods & procedures Thirty-nine profoundly deaf children with CIs were assessed using a test battery including measures of lexical, grammatical, auditory and verbal memory tests. Furthermore, child-related demographic characteristics were taken into account. Outcomes & results The majority of the children with CIs did not reach age-equivalent lexical and morphosyntactic language skills. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that lexical spoken language performance in children with CIs was best predicted by age at testing, phoneme perception, and auditory word closure. The morphosyntactic language outcomes of the CI group were best predicted by lexicon, auditory word closure, and auditory memory for words. Conclusions Qualitatively good speech perception skills appear to be crucial for lexical and grammatical development in children with CIs. Furthermore, strongly developed vocabulary skills and verbal memory abilities predict morphosyntactic language skills.
We report here a systematic study concerning the effects of different Si oxides and sub-oxides (viz., SiO2, Si2O3, SiO, Si2O), in varying contents, as present on the surface of amorphous Si shell of ‘micron-sized’ Si wires (SiMWs), towards the electrochemical behavior as anode material for Li-ion batteries. This has been carried out by exposing the SiMWs, as stand-alone electrodes sans any conducting additive/binder/interlayer, to different surface treatments and air exposure/non-exposure prior to cell assembly. The 5–6 μm long SiMWs, having crystalline core (∼25 nm in diameter) and amorphous shell (∼0.22 μm thick), were grown on stainless steel substrate via hot-wire chemical vapour deposition technique. The optimal combination of ‘native’ SiO2, SiO and Si2O, as present on the surface of the ‘as-deposited’ SiMWs, yields the best possible 1st cycle coulombic efficiency (>98%), near-theoretical reversible Li-storage capacity (∼3780 mAh g−1) and also superior cyclic stability, as compared to the SiMWs subjected to either HF treatment/etching or additional annealing or extra care to totally prevent any air exposure (post deposition and prior to characterization/cycling). Electrochemical impedance measurements also supported the above results by showing nearly negligible build-ups of the resistances due to SEI layer and towards charge transfer for the ‘as-deposited’ SiMWs (i.e., the ones showing the best electrochemical performances) upon electrochemical cycling, unlike for the other investigated SiMW-types (having greater/lesser O-containing surface layers). Li-ion ‘full cell’ developed with the as-deposited SiMW as anode and home-made LiFePO4 as cathode showed appreciable capacity retention over 100 cycles, despite the anode being made of micron-sized Si, sans any conducting additive or buffer interlayer.
In this study, we report a facile method to synthesize carbon-coated LiTi2(PO4)3 nanoporous microplates (LTP/C MPs) using ethylenediamine as the chelating agent and carbon source. The as-prepared LTP/C MPs with thickness of 0.4 μm consist of interconnected nanosized particles embedded in nano-thickness carbon layer and well-dispersed nanopores. The carbon layer significantly improves the electrochemical performance of LiTi2(PO4)3 microplates. LTP/C MPs deliver a reversible capacity of 121 mAh g−1 at 0.2C (1C = 138 mAh g−1) and show a remarkable capacity retention of 94.2% over 100 cycles when matched with Li metal counter electrode. It also presents excellent electrochemical properties as anode material for aqueous rechargeable lithium batteries (ARLBs). LTP/C MPs//LiMn2O4 ARLB shows a high discharge capacity of 76 mAh g−1 at 20 mA g−1 and superior rate capability. The results suggest a practical stratagem to develop a novel composite in which the carbon is coated with LiTi2(PO4)3 nanoporous microplates, which can become one of the promising electrode materials for both non-aqueous and aqueous lithium ion batteries.
Novelis has worked with industry partners to develop the world’s first aluminum sheet battery enclosure. When compared to aluminum extrusion and casting-intense designs, it is the most cost-effective solution for mass production vehicles. The enclosure accommodates all battery cell types and is designed particularly for battery electric vehicles with larger power packs such as pick-up trucks, sport utility vehicles, and crossovers.Novelis proposes aluminum sheet battery enclosure
Fast charge of Li-ion cells is one of the main challenges in automotive battery application. As a particular problem at low temperatures and high charging rates, lithium deposits as metal on the anode surface (so-called lithium plating) instead of intercalation. Electrochemical models help to understand internal processes and predict aging effects, which finally lead to optimized charging strategies. In this work, a 1D + 1D (pseudo-2D) electrochemical model is developed, applied over a wide range of temperature (T = −25 °C to 40 °C) and current (I = 0.1 C to 6 C), and coupled with a 0D thermal model. The model is parameterized with measurement data in frequency domain using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and validated with time-domain data. In experiments cells are charged under different operating conditions. Capacity fade is measured after a significant number of cycles and compared to the simulated anode potential. A qualitative correlation is found between the degradation in experiment and the anode potential dropping below 0 V vs. Li/Li+ at the separator-anode boundary in the simulation. Furthermore a semi-quantitative expression for degradation is introduced. The transformation of the model into an on-board applicable form is presented in the companion contribution (part II).