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Successful direct electrochemical reduction of mixed powders of terbium oxide (Tb4O7) and nickel oxide (NiO) to the intermetallic compound, TbNi5, is demonstrated in molten CaCl2 at 850°C by constant voltage (2.4–3.2V) electrolysis. The reduction mechanism was investigated by cyclic voltammetry using a molybdenum cavity electrode in conjunction with characterisations of the products from both constant voltage and potentiostatic electrolysis under different conditions by XRD, SEM and EDX. It was found that the reduction started from NiO to Ni, followed by that of Tb2O3 (resulting from Tb4O7 decomposition) on the pre-formed Ni to form the intermetallic compound. The reduction speed increased with increasing the cell voltage, but the speed gain was counterbalanced by decreased current efficiency and increased electric energy consumption. At 2.4V, the current efficiency reached 63.2%, and the energy consumption by electrolysis was as low as 3.2kWh/kg TbNi5 when the oxide phase was converted fully to the metal phase (XRD) in 4h. The oxygen level in the produced TbNi5 could readily reach 1800ppm by electrolysis at 3.2V for 12h with the energy consumption being 18.9kWh/kg TbNi5.
Nickel-rich cathode material LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 has received widespread attention as the promising material for high energy density lithium-ion batteries. However, there still remains some formidable challenges for commercial application, of which the high-voltage cycling stability must be paid broad concerns because of the huge gap between the actual and ideal performance. Herein, a series of tungsten-doped LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 with enhanced capacity by pushing the cut-off potential to a high level (4.5 V) are investigated. It is found that the 0.5 mol% WO3 modified LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 (WNCM-0.5) displays optimal performance with an initial discharge capacity of 203.6 mAhg−1, which is almost close to that of pristine LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (205.9 mAhg−1) at 0.2C (1C = 200 mAhg−1), within the potential range of 2.8–4.5 V. Moreover, the capacity loss for WNCM-0.5 is 7.9% after testing for 100 cycles at 1C, much less than that of the pristine cathodes (15%). Improved electrochemical performance could be ascribed to the obstruction of impendence increase and discharge voltage decline, as well as suppression of structure collapse upon cycling.
This paper analyzes the selection processes behind post-schooling transitions into college enrollment, military service, long-term unemployment, and incarceration relative to civilian employment, examining to what extent these processes are racialized. Rather than analyzing a complete set of alternatives, previous research typically focuses on a limited set of these alternatives at a time, and rarely accounts for incarceration or long-term unemployment. Using individual-level panel data on the first post-high school transition from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 Cohort, results show that white men experience positive transitions (college enrollment and military service) at higher rates and for longer periods than black men, who experience negative transitions (long-term unemployment and incarceration) at higher rates for longer periods than whites. Competing risk Cox regression analyses reveal that blacks’ transitions are polarized, showing that blacks in the upper distributions of standardized test scores and socioeconomic status are more likely to pursue a college education relative to their white counterparts, whereas blacks in the bottom of the standardized test score and socioeconomic status distribution are more likely to experience negative transitions than whites. Unlike prior research finding that military service provided “bridging careers” for racial minorities, black men are no longer more likely to join the military than whites. Instead, blacks now face a much higher risk of incarceration. Implications for intra-generational mobility and changing opportunity structures for racial minorities are discussed.
Lithium bis(oxalto)borate (LiBOB) is quite effective to prevent vigorous decomposition of propylene carbonate (PC) at the graphite anode of a Li-ion battery during Li insertion. PC is a very good solvent that is inexpensive, has high conductivity and a low melting point; however, the power capability of PC electrolyte containing LiBOB is unsatisfactory. In an attempt to improve the power capability of the LiBOB/PC electrolyte, mixed electrolytes containing both LiBOB and LiClO4 were examined. An integrated fiber felt of highly graphitized carbon was used as the working electrode and the performance was evaluated by cyclic voltammetry (CV), constant current followed by constant voltage charge (CCCV) and constant current discharge. The CV produced a stable peak for Li extraction, but the peak height was as low as half that obtained in a conventional electrolyte such as a 1:1 mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) containing 1M LiClO4. However, the peak height in PC, containing 1/49M LiBOB and 1M LiClO4, became 1.5 times higher than that in PC containing 1M LiBOB. The peak height was increased further using a 1:1 mixture of PC and acetonitrile (AN) containing 1/49M LiBOB and 1M LiClO4, although the cycleability was poor. A similar tendency was observed with the CCCV test. The CV peak height was plotted against the ionic conductivity of several solvents and showed no linear relationship, implying that the reaction activity was influenced by the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed. The charge transfer resistance was evaluated by impedance spectroscopy. The results revealed that not only the surface film resistance but also the charge transfer resistance was markedly increased in the electrolyte containing LiBOB; however, they were reduced by the addition of LiClO4.
State-of-the-art lithium (Li)-ion batteries are approaching their specific energy limits yet are challenged by the ever-increasing demand of today’s energy storage and power applications, especially for electric vehicles. Li metal is considered an ultimate anode material for future high-energy rechargeable batteries when combined with existing or emerging high-capacity cathode materials. However, much current research focuses on the battery materials level, and there have been very few accounts of cell design principles. Here we discuss crucial conditions needed to achieve a specific energy higher than 350 Wh kg−1, up to 500 Wh kg−1, for rechargeable Li metal batteries using high-nickel-content lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides as cathode materials. We also provide an analysis of key factors such as cathode loading, electrolyte amount and Li foil thickness that impact the cell-level cycle life. Furthermore, we identify several important strategies to reduce electrolyte-Li reaction, protect Li surfaces and stabilize anode architectures for long-cycling high-specific-energy cells.
Combining ASIC and multiple microsensors low-power wireless electronic capsule was developed for the long-term monitoring of the entire human gastro-intestinal (GI) tract. To meet the system requirements, several low-power designs were used in the wireless electronic capsule. The capsule measured 11 × 22 mm including batteries (45mAh). The capsule system’s lifetime was 233 h, and it could meet the requirements of almost all clinical applications. A wireless electronic capsule, portable data recorder, and workstation comprised the human GI physiological parameters monitoring system. In this paper, this system was used in a clinical trial to compare colon peristaltic pressure between patients with constipation and healthy people.
The electrical power requirements for vehicles are continuing to increase and evolve. A substantial amount of effort has been directed towards the development of 36/42V systems as a route to higher power with reduced current levels but high implementation costs have resulted in the introduction of these systems becoming deferred. In the interim, however, alternator power outputs at 14V are being increased substantially and at the same time the requirements for batteries are becoming more intensive. In particular, stop&go systems and wire-based vehicle systems are resulting in new demands. For stop&go, the engine is stopped each time the vehicle comes to rest and is restarted when the accelerator is pressed again. This results in an onerous duty cycle with many shallow discharge cycles. Flooded lead–acid batteries cannot meet this duty cycle and valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries are needed to meet the demands that are applied. For wire-based systems, such as brake-by-wire or steer-by-wire, electrical power has become more critical and although the alternator and battery provide double redundancy, triple redundancy with a small reserve battery is specified. In this case, a small VRLA battery can be used and is optimised for standby service rather than for repeated discharges. The background to these applications is considered and test results under simulated operating conditions are discussed. Good performance can be obtained in batteries adapted for both applications. Battery management is also critical for both applications: in stop&go service, the state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) need to be monitored to ensure that the vehicle can be restarted; for reserve or back-up batteries, the SOC and SOH are monitored to verify that the battery is always capable of carrying out the duty cycle if required. Practical methods of battery condition monitoring will be described.
Safety is the first priority in lithium ion (Li-ion) battery applications. This paper deals with a possibility of the usage numerical simulation methods (by using Finite element/volume method) for application in the advanced sources of electrical energy. These methods are useful in batteries (lithium-ion, lead-acid, etc.), solar panels, fuel cells, etc. It is possible to simulate electro-chemical reactions, current fields, temperature fields, electric potentials, concentrations gradient, electromagnetism, charging and discharging cycle, etc. This paper demonstrates the usage FEM and FVM methods in solution of thermal field of lithium ion battery by discharging. These results can be used in the future as initial conditions for structural analyses, nail test simulation, etc.
The demand for high performance energy storage devices such as supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries has prompted people to design and develop new electrode materials. In this work, WO3 nanotube bundles as the electrode materials are prepared by a template- and surfactant-free hydrothermal process. As anode materials for supercapacitor, WO3 nanotube bundles possess an area capacitance of 2575mF/cm2 at a current density of 3mA/cm2 and cyclic durability of 85.1% retention after 6000 cycles and a specific capacitance of 615.7F/g at a current density of 1A/g. The as-fabricated asymmetric supercapacitor presents a high energy density and cycle abilities after 10,000 cycles. The as-synthesized products are also applied as binder-free Li-ion batteries anode, revealing high discharge capacity at the first discharge and a stable capacity after 200 cycles. Excellent electrochemical performance of the as-synthesized WO3 products for supercapacitors and lithium ion batteries could be ascribed to their unique tube-like structures.
Secondary iron-air batteries re-gained considerable scientific attention due to their excellent energy densities, pronounced environmental friendliness and exceptional reversibility compared to other metal-air batteries. In order to exploit the energy density of iron on full-cell level, the ratio between anode- and overall battery material should be as large as possible, aiming at practically competitive iron-air battery performances in the future. Therefore, here, we report the investigation of comparatively thick, pressed-plate, carbonyl iron-anodes and the distinctive attempt to further elucidate the processes behind the electrochemical formation. In order to do so, the electrode thickness-dependent charge-/discharge performance, the wetting behavior and the specific surface area of the electrodes were examined. In addition to the established dissolution and precipitation mechanism of iron, we propose that a gradually increasing number of electrochemically active carbonyl iron particles may be an additional source of active iron surface for the steeply increasing discharge capacity during the formation, which is particularly relevant for thick rather than thin electrodes. Furthermore, substantiated by cross-section SEM-images, we propose that the increasing number of active carbonyl iron particles is induced by microstructural changes of the electrode, hypothetically driven by hydrogen evolution during the formation period. Bound to the access of electrolyte, the process suggests the presence of active material on the outside and inactive, since non-wetted, material on the inside of porous carbonyl iron-anodes depending on their state of formation.
Given the significant water-energy problems associated with many remote and arid areas of the planet, most studies, projects and developments of installations for the production of fresh water using desalination technologies powered by renewable energy sources have focussed on small-scale stand-alone systems. The most commonly used energy sources have been solar photovoltaic and wind and the most widely applied desalination technology that of reverse osmosis (RO). Most of the systems use batteries as a means of mass energy storage and the RO plants normally operate at constant pressure and flow rate. This paper presents a small-scale prototype SWRO (seawater reverse osmosis) desalination plant designed to continuously adapt its energy consumption to the variable power supplied by a wind turbine (WT), dispensing with mass energy storage in batteries and proposing the use of a supercapacitor bank as a dynamic regulation system. A description is given of the tests performed to date with the SWRO desalination plant connected to the conventional grid while controlling the number of pressure vessels that are connected/disconnected to/from the system and regulating their operating pressures and flow rates (within predetermined admissible limits) to maintain a constant permeate recovery rate and adapt the energy consumption of the plant to a widely varying simulated wind energy supply. One of the most important conclusions that can be drawn from the studies undertaken is the feasibility of adapting the consumption of the prototype of the SWRO desalination plant to widely varying WT-generated power. Despite using various time interval lengths in which it was assumed that the WT output power remained constant, a perfect fit was not obtained between the theoretical WT-generated power and the power consumed by the SWRO desalination plant, nor was it possible to maintain a constant permeate recovery rate at each instant.
Rechargeable aluminum-ion batteries (AIBs) are regarded as a great potential developing energy storage device with the advantages of abundant resources, high theoretical specific capacity and high safety. Nevertheless, the scarcity of suitable cathode materials with satisfactory rate performance and cycling stability hinders its further development and wider field of application. Here, we demonstrate a strategy for designing a novel two-dimensionally porous Co9S8 nanosheets as the cathode materials for AIBs. The electrode exhibits an outstanding electrochemical performance with an excellent cycling stability (maintains 120 mAh g−1 after 250 cycles at 0.2 A g−1) and enchanced rate performance (60 mAh g−1 at 2 A g−1 and can quickly recover to 120 mAh g−1 when the current density is reduced back to 0.1 A g−1). Furthermore, high capacity retentions and superior stability for the assembled soft-pack batteries can also be achieved under high and low temperatures and stringent bending conditions. The remarkable aluminum storage behavior of the engineered Co9S8 cathode is attributed to its unique two dimensional (2D) geometrical architecture, abundant internal porosity and nanosized secondary building blocks. Our findings appear to provide a potential new avenue in the design of cathode materials in AIBs.
Two dimensional materials have exciting optical and electronic properties and have gained significant attention for the formation of new generation solar cells also optoelectronic devices. The narrow active substances in Photovoltaic slim bodies have high flexibility of two-dimensional substances make them a clear option for combination with the upcoming creation of photovoltaic technology. Graphene is a well-known two-dimensional material that is broadly used for the manufacturing of solar cells due to its high a lucidity and conductivity and its utilization as electrodes in solar cells. It can be used as anode and cathode due to its ambipolar electrical transport. In this manner, transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDC) are direct-band gap semiconductors at the monolayer level and used as the operative layer in thin elastic solar cells. Furthermore, this study comprehensively reviewed how Graphene and other two-dimensional substances can be used in the formation of solar cells. Recent advances in Graphene many other types of solar cells including dye-sensitized solar cells, Perovskites solar cells, Nano silicon-based solar cells and TMDC provides a future masterplan of various photocatalytic technologies.
The rational synthesis of high performance electrocatalysts at low cost for water splitting (hydrogen and oxygen evolution reaction, HER and OER) is highly desirable but remains a key challenge. Herein, we report a versatile molecular-confining route to construct strongly coupled metal oxides-N-C frameworks with interconnected configuration. By simply chelating various transition metal ions with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt (EDTA) in agarose hydrogel and subsequent carbonization, the high specific surface area porous N-C frameworks with strongly coupled metal oxides (e.g., manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel and their mixed oxides) can be prepared as advanced nonprecious water splitting electrocatalysts. For instance, the resulting Co3O4-N-C frameworks with the high surface area of 153 m2 g−1, and the moderate nitrogen content of 1.23%, require an overpotential of 324 mV to afford a current density of 10 mA cm−2 in 0.1 M KOH for OER, superior to commercial RuO2 catalysts. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that the strong coupling between N-C and Co3O4 tunes the local electronic structure of Co for high-valence active sites and assures optimal adsorption energies of OER intermediates. Moreover, Co2P-N-C electrocatalysts derived from Co3O4-N-C also exhibit excellent HER performance under 1.0 M KOH with a low overpotential of 139 mV to reach 10 mA cm−2, a small Tafel slope of 45 mV dec−1 and impressive stability, underscoring the versatility of our synthetic strategy.
Na-beta alumina batteries (NBBs) are one of the most promising technologies for renewable energy storage and grid applications. Commercial NBBs are typically constructed in tubular designs, primarily because of their ease of sealing. However, planar designs are considered superior to tubular counterparts in terms of power output, cell packing, ease of assembly, and thermal management. In this paper, the performance of planar NBBs has been evaluated at an intermediate temperature. In particular, planar Na-NiCl2 cells with different cathode loadings and thicknesses have been studied at 190 °C. The effects of the cathode thickness, charging current, and discharging power output on the cell capacity and resistance have been investigated. More than 60% of theoretical cell capacity was retained with constant discharging power levels of 200, 175, and 100 mW/cm2 for 1x, 2x, and 3x cathode loadings, respectively. The cell resistance with 1x and 2x cathode loadings was dominated by ohmic resistance with discharging currents up to 105 mA/cm2, while for 3x cathode loading, it was primarily dominated by ohmic resistance with currents less than 66.67 mA/cm2 and by polarization resistance above 66.67 mA/cm2.
A methodology for optimum sizing of different components (i.e., rotor diameter, electrical generator rating, and battery capacity) of a standalone wind–battery system is proposed in this paper. On the basis of time series simulation of the system performance along with different design constraints, the entire set of feasible design options, also known as the design space, has been identified on a rotor diameter vs. rated power diagram. The design space of a standalone wind–battery system identifies the entire envelope within which a feasible system may be designed. The optimum configuration of the standalone system is identified on the basis of minimum cost of energy (US$/kWh). It is observed that the cost of energy is sensitive to the magnitude of average demand and the wind regime. Sensitivity of the capital cost on the minimum cost of energy is also studied.
An amphiphilic block copolymer comprised of hydrophobic polyaryletherketone (PAEK) and hydrophilic sulfonated polyaryletherketone (SPAEK) blocks has been synthesized and characterized. A membrane prepared from the block copolymer is used as the separator in a single cell vanadium redox flow battery (VRB). The proton conductivity, mechanical property, VO2+ permeability and single VRB cell performance of this block copolymer membrane are investigated and compared to Nafion™ 117. The block copolymer membrane showed significantly improved vanadium ion selectivity, higher mechanical strength and lower conductivity than Nafion™ 117. The VRB containing the block copolymer membrane exhibits higher coulombic efficiency and similar energy efficiency compared to a VRB using Nafion™ 117. The better vanadium ion selectivity of the block copolymer membrane has led to a much smaller capacity loss during 50 charge–discharge cycles for the VRB.
Spinel lithium manganese oxide LiMn2O4 and its substituted forms LiM1/6Mn11/6O4 (M=Co, Al and Ni) were prepared by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis method. As-prepared particles showed a spherical morphology and a densely congested interior structure. The geometric mean diameter was between 0.76 and 0.93μm, and the geometric standard deviation was approximately 1.33. The crystallite size was approximately 30nm, and the specific surface area of the particles ranges from 5.7 to 12.7m2/g. As-prepared particles were used as cathode active materials for lithium secondary battery and their charge/discharge properties have been investigated. As a result, it could be seen that ultrasonic spray pyrolysis is an effective method to prepare lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4) and its substituted forms within very short production time, which is only 4.8min in the present work.
For addressing the problems of current collectors in the aluminum ion batteries, a variety of carbon-based current collectors are employed for serving as lightweight non-metal current collectors. The results indicate that the carbon-based current collectors have electrochemical stability in the ionic liquid environments. This study demonstrates that rationally designing a 3D cross-stacked carbon fiber composite layer as the current collector is an efficient and effective “two-in-one” strategy to reduce the entire electrode mass and provide a long cycling stability with no electrochemical corrosion. Moreover, the electrode connects closely with carbon fiber composite layer, which shows considerable cell performance, strong mechanical, and more importantly, light in weight (2.5 mg cm−2). According to the electrochemical measurements, high reversible capacity of 95 mAh g−1 is obtained at a rate of 1 C. Implication of the results from suggests that all-carbon positive electrodes are able to deliver more advantages in energy storage behaviors in comparison with the traditional positive electrodes of metal Mo current collectors. Such novel strategy promises a new route for fabricating high-performance positive electrodes for stable advanced aluminum batteries.