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A hierarchical porous carbon with low oxygen content has been prepared by using polystyrene (PS) spheres as template and its structure, composition and performances as anode of lithium ion battery are characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, element analysis (EA), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and galvanostatic charge/discharge test. The results obtained from SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, and EA indicate that the prepared sample has a well-interconnected pore structure with a pore size of 170nm and has an oxygen content of 3.3±0.2wt.%. The low oxygen content of the prepared sample can be ascribed to the low decomposition temperature of the template that was determined by thermal analysis. EIS shows that the prepared sample has lower electrochemical impedance for the lithium insertion/de-insertion than commercial natural graphite and charge/discharge tests show that the battery using the prepared sample as anode exhibits better rate performance than that using the graphite.
LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 one-dimensional (1D) hierarchical microrods assembled with nanoparticles have been successfully prepared through post-heat treatment of MC2O4·xH2O (M = Ni, Co, Mn) microrod precursor which was obtained via stepwise co-precipitation. The CoC2O4·2H2O microrod crystallites formed in the first step can effectively template the subsequent formation of manganese, cobalt and nickel oxalates on the initial CoC2O4·2H2O microrods during the second step co-precipitation, without assistance of any surfactants. The LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 1D hierarchical microrods with pores and voids as cathode material for lithium ion batteries exhibit superior initial coulombic efficiency, reversible capacity, rate capability and cycling stability to the LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 microsized particles. They deliver high specific discharge capacities of 163.3 and 104.9 mAh g−1 at rates of 0.1 and 20 C, respectively. At 0.5 C, they achieve a discharge capacity of 152.2 mAh g−1 with a capacity retention of 89.5% after 160 cycles. The excellent electrochemical performance can be attributed to the novel hierarchical microrod structure with much porous and void space, which shortens the diffusion path of electron and lithium ion, and benefits for their transfer. In addition, this unique structure provides not only appropriate contact area between electrode and electrolyte, but also good accommodation for the strain relaxation during charge and discharge.
Fumed silica was used as a dopant in the preparation of poly(methyl methacrylate-acrylonitrile-vinyl acetate) (P(MMA-AN-VAc)) to improve the ionic conductivity of the P(MMA-AN-VAc)-based gel polymer electrolyte (GPE). The performance of the P(MMA-AN-VAc) membrane and its GPE for lithium ion battery use were studied by XRD, SEM, TGA, LSV, CA, EIS, and charge/discharge test. It is found that the doping of fumed silica in the P(MMA-AN-VAc) changes the membrane from semi-crystal to amorphous state and the pore structure of the membrane. By the doping of 10wt.% fumed silica in the membrane, the porosity of the membrane increases with the pore dispersed more uniformly and interconnected and having higher electrolyte uptake, resulting in the improvement in ionic conductivity of the GPE from 3.48×10−3 to 5.13×10−3 Scm−1 at ambient temperature. On the other hand, the thermal stability of the membrane, the electrochemical stability of the GPE, and the cyclic performance of the battery are also improved.
Li2+x Mn1−x P x Si1−x O4 are prepared by a sol–gel method and characterized as novel cathode materials for lithium ion batteries. Single-phase Li2+x Mn1−x P x Si1−x O4 can be obtained when x is equal to 0, 0.05 and 0.1 and the calcination temperature is 700°C. Calcining at 900°C is of no avail to prepare single-phase Li2+x Mn1−x P x Si1−x O4. In contrast to Li2MnSiO4 and Li2.1Mn0.9P0.1Si0.9O4, Li2.05Mn0.95P0.05Si0.95O4 has nearly the same structure at both calcination temperatures. The Li2.05Mn0.95P0.05Si0.95O4/C sample calcined at 700°C has the best electrochemical performance among the three single-phase samples, which is in accordance with the fact that it has the lowest charge transfer resistance. Smaller particle size and larger specific surface area are obtained at higher x value, and all the Li2+x Mn1−x P x Si1−x O4/C (x =0, 0.05 and 0.1) samples have a core–shell structure. The calcination temperature of 700°C is the best between 600 and 800°C in consideration of both phase purity and crystallinity, resulting in the highest discharge capacity of Li2.05Mn0.95P0.05Si0.95O4.
Electrochemical characteristics of Li/FeS2 batteries having natural pyrite as cathode and liquid electrolytes have been studied at room temperature. The organic electrolytes used were 1M lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) in tetra(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (TEGDME) or a mixture of TEGDME and 1,3-dioxolane (DOX), and 1M LiPF6 in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC). The pyrite powder and FeS2 cathode were characterized by SEM, EDS, XRD and charge/discharge cycling. The discharge capacities of Li/FeS2 cells with 1M LiTFSI dissolved in TEGDME were 772mAhg−1 at the 1st cycle and 313mAhg−1 at the 25th cycle at 0.1C. The cycling performance could be improved by using a mixture of TEGDME and DOX as the electrolyte. It was found that TEGDME contributed to high initial discharge capacity, whereas, DOX contributed to better stabilization of the performance. The first discharge capacities of Li/FeS2 cells showed a decreasing trend with higher current densities (615 and 534mAhg−1, respectively, at 0.5C and 1.0C). Li/FeS2 cells with the battery grade electrolyte 1M LiPF6 in EC/DMC had lower initial discharge capacity and cycling capability compared to the TEGDME system. The natural pyrite cathode with 1M LiTFSI dissolved in a mixture of TEGDME and DOX showed reasonably good first discharge capacity and overall cycling performance, suitable for application in room temperature lithium batteries.
The thermal stability of electrochemically delithiated bare, silica-coated and silicon phosphate-coated Li0.3[Ni0.7Mn0.3]O2 is studied with in-situ high temperature X-ray diffraction (HT-XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and time of flight-secondary ion spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS). For the three delithiated materials, gradual phase transformation appears in the crystal structure in the temperature range of 25–600 °C: rhombohedral to salt structure via cubic spinel phase, which results from oxygen evolution from the active materials as noticed in TGA. Coating evidently retards the above phase transition toward a high temperature approximately over 40 °C owing to less amount of oxygen release from the crystal structure. This effect appears more prominent in the presence of the silicon phosphate coating layer relative to the silica, presumably due to presence of the Si–P–O covalent character. Also, the surface layer remains up to 600 °C, showing original smooth edges. Therefore, thermal degradation of the active materials is delayed when their surfaces are modified by nanoscale coating layers.
Nano-sized SnO2 hollow spheres are facilely synthesized by sol–gel method using the SiO2 nanospheres as sacrificed templates, and their electrochemical properties are investigated as an anode application for lithium ion battery (LIB). The size of the hollow spheres is controlled by using different-sized templates. As-coated SnO2 shell is almost amorphous and transformed into a rutile phase after annealing at 600 °C. The size of the SnO2 hollow spheres ranges from 25 to 100 nm. The shell thickness is almost constant (∼5 nm) irrespective of the size of the hollow spheres. The hollow spheres showed the size dependent electrochemical properties, and the smallest SnO2 (25 nm) hollow sphere exhibited a high reversible capacity of 750 mAh g−1 as well as excellent cyclability.
Direct hydrogen fuel cell power system as an alternative of current batteries is promising for portable applications because of its potential better energy and power density. Straight feeding hydrogen, which is generated from a chemical reaction process, to a fuel cell system requires a load-response hydrogen generation rate which is generally not easy to obtain. Hydrogen generation from the reaction between aluminum and water offers a simple way to acquire hydrogen which can be directly fed to a fuel cell power system, however, the oxide film formed on the surface of aluminum particles will generally stop the reaction to proceed. In the present review, metal aluminum activated by various techniques, namely by the addition of alkaline solutions, carbon materials, oxides and by alloying with other elements, are summarized. The effects of the additives on the hydrogen generation characteristics are evaluated. The available hydrogen generators based on the reaction between aluminum and water are discussed and some recommendations for future work are also proposed.
Abstract Due to the need to both dredge sediments to maintain coastal waterways and manage the impacts of extensive human activities, the management of coastal and estuarine sediments is an important issue. There is a need to assess contaminated sediments in order to optimize that management. However, it is complex; assessment design and interpretation should be driven by the management goals and the ecological, political, and economic goals of interested parties. This chapter reviews various aspects of contaminated sediment assessment, from simple site characterization to the selection of management strategies, in light of how assessment measures can inform various management objectives. The focus of this chapter is on the assessment and management of anthropogenic chemicals and their impacts; biological restoration per se is not addressed.
Copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles have been synthesized through a sonochemical assisted precipitation followed by thermal treatment. As prepared CuO nanoparticles have been anchored on surface of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets through a simple electrostatic coprecipitation. Prepared samples have been characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). Morphology of the samples has been characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Symmetric supercapacitors have been assembled in real two-electrode configurations. Different symmetric configurations including CuO, GO, layer-by-layer coated CuO on GO network (GO/CuO), and composite (COMP) electrodes have been prepared. Their electrochemical behavior and supercapacitive performances have been investigated and compared with each other using various electrochemical methods including cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and chronopotentiometric charge/discharge cycles. The composite material shows better electrochemical supercapacitive behavior and lower charge transfer resistance compared to other samples. It also shows better specific capacitance (245Fg−1) at current density of 0.1Ag−1 compared to the pure components (125Fg−1 for CuO and 120Fg−1 for GO) and the layer-by-layer coated electrodes (155Fg−1). Conducting charge/discharge measurements for 1000 cycles and in different current densities, it has been found that the composite material is a promising candidate for supercapacitor application, in terms of cycle ability and rate capability.
Municipal solid waste in Taiwan is a valuable source of renewable energy. Phases of municipal solid waste lifecycle (classification, disposal, storage, collection and transportation) before incineration or landfilled face various potential failures. Applying a proper technique to eliminate or decrease potential failures is desirable and needed. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis to municipal solid waste lifecycle was found in literature. This study utilized the Failure Modes and Effects Analysis as a convenient technique for determining, classifying and analyzing common failures in the municipal solid waste lifecycle. As a result, an appropriate risk scoring of severity, occurrence, and detection of failure modes and computing the Risk Priority Number for identifying the high potential failure modes were made. Nineteen failure modes were identified, and nine of them were ranked as the priority items for improvement. Recommended actions for all failure modes were suggested. Occurrences of failures were remarkably reduced after implementing the procedure for six months. The results of this study have minimized potential failures and brought continuous improvement, thus achieving a better protection of the environment.
Batteries in hybrid electric vehicles operate in High-Rate Partial-State-of-Charge (HRPSoC) cycling duty. To make lead–acid batteries suitable for this duty, carbon is added to the negative active material. As a result of this technological change, two electrical systems form at the negative plates: (a) a capacitive carbon system comprising high-rate charging and discharging of the electric double layer; low Ah capacity, and (b) a lead electrochemical system, comprising oxidation of Pb to PbSO4 during discharge and vice versa during charge; this system is slow to accept charge, but has high Ah capacity. Through cycling lead–acid cells under HRPSoC conditions with short current pulses of various durations we have established that the processes involved in the capacitive system proceed highly reversibly and complete hundreds of thousands HRPSoC cycles. The number of cycles achieved by the electrochemical system is limited to tens of thousands and lead to progressive sulfation. Carbon added to the negative active material changes the latter's structure. The specific surface of NAM increases and the median pore radius decreases. Some carbon additives may reduce the radius of the pores in NAM to membrane sizes, which may change the chemistry of the electrochemical system.
We report results obtained with lithium 4,5-dicyano-2-(trifluoromethyl) imidazolide (LiTDI), which we believe is a promising lithium salt for electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries. This “Hückel”- type salt has high charge delocalizations which contribute to good lithium-ion dissociation. In addition, it has high thermal stability and safer degradation products compared to LiPF6, which were identified by TGA-MS. It also does not corrode but passivate the aluminum current collector. Cyclic voltammetry measurements showed a stability up to 4.5 V, which is sufficient for use with standard cathode materials. The power capability of half cells containing LiTDI in EC/DEC was evaluated with standard cathodes used in lithium-ion batteries: LFP, NMC, LCO and LMO. Two LiTDI concentrations were investigated: 1 M and 0.6 M and compared with a reference electrolyte: 1 M LiPF6. In spite of a slightly lower conductivity than the LiPF6, LiTDI (1 M and 0.6 M) shows similar power capability up to 2C with LFP (84% of specific capacity recovered), 10C with NMC (61% of specific capacity recovered), and up to 20C for LMO (88% of specific capacity recovered). Furthermore, better power capability was obtained with 0.6 M LiTDI with LCO, which yielded 82% of specific capacity recovered at 1C (67% for 1 M LiTDI and 1 M LiPF6).
Given independent and flexible power supply requirements of space apparatus, miniaturized radioisotope thermoelectric generators are currently playing an increasing role in space power systems. This study creatively proposes a miniaturized integrated-design radioisotope thermoelectric generator based on concentric filament architecture and is the first to formulate a practical battery entity. When heat source temperature is 398.15 K, the maximum open-circuit voltage of 418.82 mV and the maximum output power of 150.95 μW are obtained. The COMSOL is used to simulate precisely the thermoelectric conversion process and optimize the structural size of the radioisotope thermoelectric generator. The optimal results are obtained when the ratio of N- to P-type circle radius and the thermoelectric filament's length are 0.1 and 20 mm, respectively. In this case, the battery obtains the maximum output power of 423.50 μW and open-circuit voltage of 605.84 mV when heat source temperature is 398.15 K. When the thermoelectric filament's curvature is 170°, the electrical density value increases more remarkably than that of 0°. Its effective open-circuit voltage density and output power density are 73.79 mV cm−3 and 53.76 μW cm−3, respectively. The optimized miniaturized radioisotope thermoelectric generator is able to provide power support for space microelectronic devices.
A new process for recycling lithium ion cells and batteries is described. In order to gain maximum value, the process aims to recover every component from the cell. In contrast with existing recycling processes, the AEA Technology process operates at ambient temperatures. There are three main stages; electrolyte extraction, electrode dissolution, and cobalt reduction. The technology is currently in development, with a demonstration unit linking the process stages together in active operation. Based on the projected quantities of lithium ion batteries available for recycling in the next few years, there is a significant market opportunity for a successful technology.
Over the past decades, climate change has been the subject of serious international negotiations. Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy has caught the eyes of many governments as one of the front-runner technologies for the low-carbon energy transition in the global community. However, over 1.3 billion people in the world still have no access to electricity. In this regard, this article sets out to examine opportunities of PV electrification using off-grid PV systems coupled with Li-ion batteries in less developed and developing countries. The main objectives of the study are to define to what extent solar PV power is an energy option that can be considered more secure, affordable and environmentally-friendly compared with the most likely competing technology (diesel generators) in these regions. However, the added value of article is placed to include the interests of PV market development in new regions from the position of developed countries. The study is based on data of 49 countries from energy poverty regions with good solar resources. The sample represents 1.06 billion people with no access to electricity. The proposed opportunities can solve several global sources of anxiety with a more sustainable and affordable energy supply system. Furthermore, it is in the interest of developed countries to develop new markets in pursuit of new growth engines. This can lead to new outlets to resolve the global PV overcapacity issues. The enhanced competitiveness of PV power benefiting from the enlarged market size and experience would eventually contribute to future national installations in developed countries with reduced PV costs. As a result, a ‘virtuous circle’ could be created in the PV sector on a global scale. Therefore, global collaborative actions that widen the energy security frontier based on abundant PV resources are highly recommended for not only environmental sustainability, but also global economic benefits.
As numerous efforts have been devoted to the construction of nano-structured sulfur electrodes, the rational design of multi-functional separator is attracting an increasing research enthusiasm recently as another promising approach towards high-performance lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries. Herein, red phosphorus nanoparticles are employed, for the first time, to establish a metal-free and cost-effective multifunctional separator, which not only efficiently immobilizes the lithium polysulfides but also facilitates the ion conduction for fast and durable sulfur redox reactions. The computational and experimental results reveal that red phosphorus is capable of chemically confining the polysulfides through a combination of the Lewis acid-base interaction and sulfur-chain catenation, while the highly conductive Li3PO4 is generated during the cell operation and facilitates ion transportation. Attributed to these unique features, the cells based on the as-developed separator exhibit a high sulfur utilization of 1287 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C, superb rate capability of 809 mAh g−1 at up to 2 C, and excellent cycling performance with 82% capacity retention after 500 cycles at 1 C. This facile and low-cost strategy not only offers an effective pathway towards enhancement in battery performance, but could also inspire new thinking on developing metal-free functional agents for improved sulfur electrochemistry.
Three-dimensional (3D) technologies have been developing rapidly recent years, and have influenced industrial, medical, cultural, and many other fields. In this paper, we introduce an automatic 3D human head scanning-printing system, which provides a complete pipeline to scan, reconstruct, select, and finally print out physical 3D human heads. To enhance the accuracy of our system, we developed a consumer-grade composite sensor (including a gyroscope, an accelerometer, a digital compass, and a Kinect v2 depth sensor) as our sensing device. This sensing device is then mounted on a robot, which automatically rotates around the human subject with approximate 1-meter radius, to capture the full-view information. The data streams are further processed and fused into a 3D model of the subject using a tablet located on the robot. In addition, an automatic selection method, based on our specific system configurations, is proposed to select the head portion. We evaluated the accuracy of the proposed system by comparing our generated 3D head models, from both standard human head model and real human subjects, with the ones reconstructed from FastSCAN and Cyberware commercial laser scanning systems through computing and visualizing Hausdorff distances. Computational cost is also provided to further assess our proposed system.
New applications such as hybrid electric vehicles and power backup require rechargeable batteries to combine high energy density with high charge and discharge rate capability. In this study, the core–shell Ni(OH)2@CoOOH composite is constructed via a simple cation-exchange route at moderate conditions. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) are used to characterize the resulting Ni(OH)2@CoOOH composites. The Ni(OH)2@CoOOH electrode exhibits high power, higher capacity and longer life cycle when it is chosen as an positive electrode material for rechargeable alkaline MH-Ni battery. The enhanced electrochemical performance is attributed to the seamless combination of the CoOOH shell and the Ni(OH)2 core, avoiding the contact resistance between them at a large current density. It is believed that our methodology provides a simple and environment friendly route to a variety of core–shell materials with different composition and novel function.
The paper tries to make a critical inventory of Ionomers, free of fluorine or fluorine less, which can be used as alternatives to Nafion® in polymer electrolytes fuel cells, as Ionomer is indisputably one of the main bolts of these technologies. All the Ionomer families are discussed, with their main advantages and drawbacks, in particular in terms of their possible industrial scale-up. Special attention has been paid to the discussions about the choice of the ionic functions and that of polymeric backbones of the Ionomers, with regard to the required electrochemical properties and also to their thermomechanical behaviour. It has been emphasized that a global approach of the polymer electrolytes is essential to progress. This must involve (i) a control of the syntheses up to the pilot scale, (ii) thorough characterizations, (iii) attention to the membrane and the MEA assembly and (iv) durability investigations, including post-mortem characterizations.