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Newly designed composites of nickel sulfide (NiS) and vapor grown carbon fiber (VGCF) for use in all-solid-state lithium secondary batteries were synthesized using thermal decomposition of nickel acetylacetonate and 1-dodecanethiol in a mixture of VGCF and 1-octadecene. X-ray diffraction measurements and transmission electron microscopy revealed that NiS nanoparticles of 50nm diameter were grown on the surface of vapor grown carbon fiber. All-solid-state cells using 80Li2S·20P2S5 (mol%) glass–ceramic were fabricated as a solid electrolyte. The cell using the mixture of the NiS–VGCF composite and the solid electrolyte as a working electrode showed initial discharge capacity of 590mAhg−1 at 1.3mAcm−2, and exhibited better cycle performance than the cell using the mixture of NiS, solid electrolyte, and VGCF. Electrochemical performance in all-solid-state batteries was improved by forming a favorable solid–solid interface between NiS active materials and VGCF as electron conduction paths in the working electrode.
In the present work, cold rolling has been investigated as a new means of producing Mg-based metal hydrides for nickel–metal hydride (Ni–MH) batteries. Structure and electrochemical evolution of 2Mg–Ni cold-rolled samples were investigated as a function of the number of rolling passes as well as heat treatment. It was found that nanocrystalline Mg2Ni alloy can be obtained by an appropriate three step process involving rolling, heat treatment and rolling again. It was shown that the number of primary and secondary rolling passes must be carefully optimized in order to favour the complete formation of Mg2Ni alloy having a nanocrystalline structure (∼10nm in crystallite size) without excessive sample oxidation. Actually, the best result was obtained by first rolling 90 times, followed by a heat treatment at 400°C for 4h and roll again 20 times. The resulting material displayed an initial discharge capacity of 205mAhg−1, which is quite similar to that obtained with ball-milled Mg2Ni alloy.
Effects of Li amount used for anode on the discharge capacitance of a lithium-air battery were studied in order to investigate the effects of Li usage. On the basis of Ketjenblack air electrode, electrochemical analysis were performed in the voltage range of 4.5–2.0 V. Because the amount of Li limits the overall discharge capacity, the capacity decreases with decreasing the Li amount in the cell. Although only 370 mAh g−1 (gram of air electrode) of capacity was obtained by reducing the Li amount to 0.9 mg, almost 100% of Li can be used for discharge and it is corresponded to 4111 mAh g−1 (gram of Li) with reasonable cycle stability. To confirm the residual amount of Li on anode, ICP measurement was performed after first discharge. Decrease in capacity with cycle number can be assigned to the decreased amount of Li dissolved and this could be related with formation of dendrite and porous Li deposition.
Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on the basic controls possible in making prints from black and white films. It also looks at some chemical methods of altering the final result. Having a good negative is always an advantage, but it is the final print which people see. While it is difficult to make good prints from poor negatives it is all too easy to make poor prints from good ones if one lacks the basic skills. By practicing the printing techniques one will be able to distinguish really good print quality from the adequate, and develop skills to control the results fully. Other requirements, such as speed and economy, come with experience. Many professional photographers use printing labs for their work but have learned to print first in the darkroom so that they can understand how to advise the printer to achieve the best quality print. Most photographers make contact prints—small prints made direct from the film held flat against the paper—from all their negatives as soon as they are processed. This is a good idea as it allows you to preview all your exposures as positive prints, making it easier to pick and choose which shots to enlarge, mark up possible cropping, etc. Various controls during enlarging, variations, common print faults, toning, tinting, retouching, and permanence and archiving is also discussed.
Previous studies have indicated the phosphoinositide and phospholipid signaling pathways play a key role in plant growth, development and responses to environmental stresses. However, little is known about the phosphoinositide and phospholipid signaling pathways in maize (Zea mays L.). To better understand the function of genes involved in the phosphoinositide and phospholipid signaling pathways in maize, the cDNA sequences of ZmPIS2, ZmPLC2, ZmDGK1, ZmDGK2 and ZmDGK3 were obtained by RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends) or in silico cloning combined with PCR. RT-PCR analysis of cDNA from five tissues (roots, stems, leaves, tassels, and ears) indicated that the expression patterns of the five cDNAs we isolated as well as ZmPIS, ZmPLC, ZmPLD varied in different tissues. To determine the effects of different environmental conditions such as cold, drought and various phytohormones (abscisic acid, indole-3-acetic acid and gibberellic acid) on gene expression, we analyzed expression by Real-Time (RT-PCR), and found that the different isoforms of these gene families involved in the phosphoinositide and phospholipid signaling pathways have specific expression patterns. Our results suggested that these genes may be involved in the responses to environmental stresses, but have different functions. The isolation and analysis of expression patterns of genes involved in the phosphoinositide and phospholipid signaling pathways provides a good basis for further research of the phosphoinositide and phospholipid signaling pathways in maize and is a novel supplement to our comprehension of these pathways in plants.
The recent sharp decline in the cost of renewable energy suggests that the production of hydrogen from renewable power through a power-to-gas process might become more economical. Here we examine this alternative from the perspective of an investor who considers a hybrid energy system that combines renewable power with an efficiently sized power-to-gas facility. The available capacity can be optimized in real time to take advantage of fluctuations in electricity prices and intermittent renewable power generation. We apply our model to the current environment in both Germany and Texas and find that renewable hydrogen is already cost competitive in niche applications (€3.23 kg−1), although not yet for industrial-scale supply. This conclusion, however, is projected to change within a decade (€2.50 kg−1) provided recent market trends continue in the coming years.
An environmentally-friendly route based on hydrometallurgy was investigated for the recovery of cobalt and lithium from spent lithium ion batteries (LIBs) using different organic acids (citric acid, Dl-malic acid, oxalic acid and acetic acid). In this investigation, response surface methodology (RSM) was utilized to optimize leaching parameters including solid to liquid ratio (S/L), temperature, acid concentration, type of organic acid and hydrogen peroxide concentration. Based on the results obtained from optimizing procedure, temperature was recognized as the most influential parameter. In addition, while 81% of cobalt was recovered, the maximum lithium recovery of 92% was achieved at the optimum leaching condition of 60°C, S/L: 30gL−1, citric acid concentration: 2M, hydrogen peroxide concentration: 1.25Vol.% and leaching time: 2h. Furthermore, results displayed that ultrasonic agitation will enhance the recovery of lithium and cobalt. It was found that the kinetics of cobalt leaching is controlled by surface chemical reaction at temperatures lower than 45°C. However, diffusion through the product layer at temperatures higher than 45°C controls the rate of cobalt leaching. Rate of lithium reaction is controlled by diffusion through the product layer at all the temperatures studied.
Hydrodynamic structuring of alkoxide-based sols in an electrical field is a promising technique to fabricate one-dimensional materials as free-standing fiber mats with high surface area and precisely controlled microstructure. Hollow α-LiFeO2 and composite α-LiFeO2/C nanofibers were prepared as self-supported 3D architectures of ceramic fibers by single-step electrospinning of metal alkoxide sols. The spinel fibers exhibited a crystalline spinel phase with uniform fiber diameter and morphology that was modified by a thin sheath of amorphous carbon in the composite fibers that enhances the electrical conductivity and also has a structure-holding influence. The atomic scale mixing and pre-existing LiOFe units in the spinning solution were the delivers of observed phase purity and control over the surface properties verified by high resolution TEM data. Galvanostatic and potentiostatic studies confirmed the superior electrochemical behaviors of α-LiFeO2 and α-LiFeO2/C nanofibers as high-energy density anode materials in half-cell configuration. α-LiFeO2/C composite nanofibers showed after 50 cycles a discharge capacity of 821mAh/g at 0.1C with a capacity retention of 75% from the 2nd to 50th cycle, whereas the discharge capacity of α-LiFeO2-hollow nanofibers was found to be 756mAh/g with a capacity retention of 68%. Flexible composite nanofiber networks are promising solution enabling improved electronic and ionic conductivity and mechanical stability for the development of lithium-ion batteries with high power and energy densities. Investigations on the stability and rate capability of α-LiFeO2/C-composite electrode studied at different rates of 0.1C, 0.25C and 0.5C for 75 cycles also showed high capacity values that indicated their potential as anode materials.
Organometal halide perovskites have drawn remarkable attention in photovoltaic applications due to their optoelectronic properties. In this Perspective, the authors outline the potential of these materials in a variety of energy-related applications.
Pyrethroid insecticides are generally regarded as acutely toxic to predatory phytoseiid mites; however, persistence of hull split spray pyrethroid residues on almond trees and their effects on phytoseiids have not been quantified over time. Hull split, the separation of the almond hull along the suture, exposes the new crop nuts to infestation by Amyelois transitella (Walker) larvae, and is the preferred timing for insecticides applied for their control. Galendromus occidentalis (Nesbitt) is the most important phytoseiid biocontrol agent for web-spinning spider mites in California (USA) almond orchards, and the impact of bifenthrin and λ-cyhalothrin pyrethroid residue on their survival, fertility, and fecundity was determined. The total effects of direct contact with esfenvalerate, permethrin, bifenthrin and λ-cyhalothrin were also evaluated for comparison. The total effects (E) of direct contact treatments of the four pyrethroids ranged from 77.8 % for esfenvalerate to 98.8 % for bifenthrin. Both bifenthrin and λ-cyhalothrin twig residue would be considered harmful (IOBC class 4) following field application at hull split timing. Bifenthrin twig residue would be considered slightly harmful (IOBC class 2) for up to 3.5 months and harmless (IOBC class 1) after 6 months. λ-cyhalothrin residue would be considered moderately harmful (IOBC class 3) for up to 3.5 months following application and harmless (IOBC class 1) after 6 months. Bifenthrin and λ-cyhalothrin twig residue on treated trees significantly reduced G. occidentalis female survival for up to 6 months post-treatment, however total effects (E) classify these residues as harmless (IOBC class 1) after 6 months. Harmful effects of direct and residual exposure following application have implications for the use of these pyrethroids in an integrated mite management program for perennial crops.
The V4P7 phase is synthesized by a facile high energy mechanical milling (HEMM) using vanadium (V) and red phosphorus (P), and its electrochemical properties and reaction mechanism as an anode for lithium ion batteries (LIBs) are investigated. As-synthesized 100 nm-sized V4P7 nanopowder electrode shows the insertion reaction during lithiation/delithiation by forming the amorphous Li-V-P ternary phase and delivers the high discharge and charge capacities of 1035 and 882 mA h g-1, respectively, with a high Coulombic efficiency of 85% at the current density of 100 mA g−1. In addition, V4P7 nanopowder is encapsulated with the conformal carbon layer, which is achieved through polymerization of dopamine and subsequent carbonization. As-fabricated core-shell V4P7@C nanocomposite electrode exhibits the much improved high rate capability and long cycle stability, delivering a high capacity of 388 mA h g-1 after 200 cycles at a high current density of 1 A g−1, which is attributed to high electrical conductivity, high Li+ ion mobility, and structural stability to restrict the aggregation and pulverization of active materials.
The layered LiNi0.7Co0.3O2 cathode material was synthesized by the combustion method using sucrose as fuel at 800°C for 1h, which leads to homogeneous size distribution with sub-micron particle size. The characterization of this material was realized using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and completed by magnetic measurements. The Rietveld refinement shows the presence of 2.6% extra nickel in the interslab space. The presence of nickel ions in the lithium layers was confirmed by magnetization measurements. The 90° Ni–O–Ni ferromagnetic coupling is the main magnetic interactions. Lithium extraction from this phase occurs without major structural modifications. Cycling tests have shown a very good cycling stability at various current rates. Furthermore, this material delivers high reversible capacity of about 150mAh/g in the 2.8–4.4V range at the C/20.
This paper presents an integrated modelling methodology which includes reduced-order models of a lithium ion battery and a power electronic converter, connected to a 35-bus distribution network model. The literature contains many examples of isolated modelling of individual energy storage mediums, power electronic interfaces and control algorithms for energy storage. However, when assessing the performance of a complete energy storage system, the interaction between components gives rise to a range of phenomena that are difficult to quantify if studied in isolation. This paper proposes an integrated electro–thermo–chemical modelling methodology that seeks to address this problem directly by integrating reduced-order models of battery cell chemistry, power electronic circuits and grid operation into a computationally efficient framework. The framework is capable of simulation speeds over 100 times faster than real-time and captures phenomena typically not observed in simpler battery and power converter models or non-integrated frameworks. All simulations are performed using real system load profiles recorded in the United Kingdom. To illustrate the advantages inherent in such a modelling approach, two specific interconnected effects are investigated: the effect of the choice of battery float state-of-charge on overall system efficiency and the rate of battery degradation (capacity/power fade). Higher state-of-charge operation offers improved efficiency due to lower polarisation losses of the battery and lower losses in the converter, however, an increase in the rate of battery degradation is observed due to the accelerated growth of the solid-electrolyte interphase layer. We demonstrate that grid control objectives can be met in several different ways, but that the choices made can result in a substantial improvement in system roundtrip efficiency, with up to a 43% reduction in losses, or reduction in battery degradation by a factor of two, depending on battery system use case.
Large-capacity rechargeable batteries for mobile devices are strongly required now, and the metal-air battery is currently considered as one of the most promising rechargeable batteries with a large capacity. In this study, oxygen reduction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) on mesoporous MnCo2O4 spinel was studied for rechargeable Zn-air battery. Comparing the prepared spinel oxides containing Fe, it was found that the ORR/OER activity of MnCo2O4 was reasonably high and stably cycled. Mesoporous MnCo2O4 was successfully prepared by using a hard template method with mesoporous silica (SBA-15) for an inorganic template. The obtained mesoporous MnCo2O4 showed the BET surface area of 108 m2/g and the average pore size of 2 nm. By increasing the surface area with mesoporous structure, overpotential of MnCo2O4 to ORR/OER was much decreased. Zn-air battery was prepared by using mesoporous MnCo2O4 as air electrode and 4 M KOH aqueous electrolyte, the stable discharge potential and capacity were exhibited at 1.05 V and 700 mAh/g-Zn, respectively. In addition, stable charge/discharge cycles were also sustained more than 200 cycles.
We report monoclinic Fe2(SO4)3 as a novel high-voltage cathode material of Na-ion batteries. The detailed structural information of monoclinic Fe2(SO4)3 are verified through Rietveld refinement and bond-valance sum energy mapping with X-ray diffraction analyses. Monoclinic Fe2(SO4)3 delivers a large specific capacity of ~120 mAh g−1 corresponding to ~1.8 mol Na intercalation into the structure and it exhibits the average operation voltage of ~3.25 V (vs. Na+/Na). Even at 5C, monoclinic Fe2(SO4)3 exhibits retention of ~76% of the capacity measured at C/10, indicating its outstanding power capability. Moreover, monoclinic Fe2(SO4)3 maintains up to ~78% of the initial capacity at 1C over 1000 cycles, with a high Coulombic efficiency of ~99%. This finding demonstrates the excellent cyclability of monoclinic Fe2(SO4)3, which results from the small volume change (~1%) during the Na de/intercalation process.
The rapid development of high brightness light-emitting diodes (LEDs) makes feasible the use of LEDs, among other light sources (such as laser, intense pulse light and other incoherent light systems), for medical treatment and light therapy. This paper provides a general review on red, green, blue, ultraviolet LED applications in photo rejuvenation and medical treatments of a variety of physical abnormalities, as well as the relief of stress, circadian rhythm disorders, and seasonal affective disorder. The review, concentrated in the papers published after 1990, intends to show that LEDs are well qualified to succeed its more energy demanding counterparts in the named areas and beyond.
China has been experiencing a rapid increase in battery-powered personal transportation since the late 1990s due to the strong growth of the electric bike and scooter (i.e. e-bike) market. Annual sales in China reached 17millionbikesyear−1 in 2006. E-bike growth has been in part due to improvements in rechargeable valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery technology, the primary battery type for e-bikes. Further improvements in technology and a transition from VRLA to lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries will impact the future market growth of this transportation mode in China and abroad. Battery performance and cost for these two types are compared to assess the feasibility of a shift from VRLA to Li-ion battery e-bikes. The requirements for batteries used in e-bikes are assessed. A widespread shift from VRLA to Li-ion batteries seems improbable in the near future for the mass market given the cost premium relative to the performance advantages of Li-ion batteries. As both battery technologies gain more real-world use in e-bike applications, both will improve. Cell variability is a key problematic area to be addressed with VRLA technology. For Li-ion technology, safety and cost are the key problem areas which are being addressed through the use of new cathode materials.
In this work, two different Al precursors are used to modify the surface of LiCoO2 particles with Al2O3 layer, and the corresponding structural and electrochemical properties of as-prepared Al2O3-coated LiCoO2 are examined. The SEM, TEM and charge-discharge cycling results suggest that the method using aluminum isopropoxide (AIP) as Al precursor can obtain more uniform Al2O3 coating layer and more excellent electrochemical performance. The ICP results reveal that the cobalt dissolution ability is different for coated LiCoO2 prepared by two Al precursors when the charge cutoff voltage is different, and when charge cutoff voltage further increasing to 4.6V, the dominant factor of cycling decay transform from cobalt dissolution to structural collapse caused by the excessive of Li+ delithiation. Besides, EIS analysis indicates that two kinds of Al2O3 coating layer lead to different polarization impedance, and the growth of polarization impedance during charging/discharging can be effectively suppressed by Al2O3 coating, and thus the electrochemical performance of the coated samples is greatly enhanced.
Many areas in rural non-Western regions are installing electrification systems based on renewable energy. Although these projects are usually welcome, they sometimes fail. Explanations for failures often cite technical reasons. In this research, partly based on the results of the SOPRA_RE project, we focus on the users, studying the relationships between technology and society. By analysing potential sources of failures, we identify the root of the problem as how a new technology is received by the local society. In this paper we introduce dimensions that we consider to be especially important in the process of technology integration. We defend the importance of combining the technical outlook with the sociological one, based on the idea that the latter is often indispensable as a complementary element of technical explanations of system failures, which in turn provides a better basis for solving them. We use specific examples to bolster our insistence on the need to achieve convergence between the technical and the sociological outlooks.
CaF2-coated LiMn1/3Ni1/3Co1/3O2 cathode material is prepared via a wet chemical process followed by a solid state reaction. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) show that the well coated CaF2 layer has a thickness of 4–8nm, and no interaction of chemical bonding is observed. The CaF2-coated LiMn1/3Ni1/3Co1/3O2 exhibits discharge capacity retention of 98.1% at 0.1C after 50 cycles and high initial discharge capacity of 146.3mAhg−1 at 5C. Furthermore, even at an elevated charge–discharge rate of 5C, capacity retention maintains above 85%. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) shows that the CaF2 coating can stabilize the surface structure and reduce the charge transfer resistance. The CaF2 modification has a promising application in improving the performance of layered oxide cathode materials for Li-ion batteries.
The efficiency of non-woven gauntlets for tubular positive plates in industrial lead acid batteries is well known, both in terms of cost and performance. In order to be even better suited for the most demanding applications and filling processes, the non-woven gauntlet properties have been further improved thanks to an extensive work on the fabric itself and on the forming process. As a result, a complete range of non-woven gauntlets are nowadays available depending on the battery type, filling method and end-use: beside the standard and reinforced point-bonded Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) fabrics, also available with edge insulation, a brand new gauntlet type has been especially developed for stationary and gel VRLA batteries. The new generation of gauntlets is based on a flat calendered bicomponent non-woven fabric. This bicomponent material has two main advantages, which are normally antagonist in the point-bonded fabric technology: improved mechanical strength and elasticity in combination with a reduced electrical resistance. A patent is pending for this new generation of non-woven gauntlets.