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Lithium batteries (LIBs) with low capacity graphite anode (~ 372 mAh g−1) cannot meet the ever-growing demand for new energy electric vehicles and renewable energy storage. It is essential to replace graphite anode with higher capacity anode materials for high-energy density LIBs. Silicon (Si) is well known to be a possible alternative for graphite anode due to its highest capacity (~ 4200 mAh g−1). Unfortunately, large volume change during lithiation and delithiation has prevented the Si anode from being commercialized. Metal silicides are a promising type of anode materials which can improve cycling stability via the accommodation of volume change by dispersing Si in the metal inactive/active matrix, while maintain greater capacity than graphite. Here, we present a classification of Si alloying with metals in periodic table of elements, review the available literature on metal silicide anodes to outline the progress in improving and understanding the electrochemical performance of various metal silicides, analyze the challenges that remain in using metal silicides, and offer perspectives regarding their future research and development as anode materials for commercial LIBs application.
The concept of an asymmetric FeWO4/MnO2 electrochemical capacitor cycled in a neutral aqueous electrolyte is presented for the first time. Commercially available cryptomelane-type MnO2 and synthesized nanocrystalline FeWO4 were used as positive and negative electrode materials, respectively. Prior to assembling the cell, the electrodes have been individually tested in a 5 M LiNO3 electrolyte solution to define both the adequate balance of active material in the supercapacitor and the proper working voltage window. Then, the full asymmetric device has been cycled between 0 and 1.4 V for over 40,000 cycles and subjected to accelerated ageing tests under floating conditions at different voltages, without any significant change on its electrochemical behavior. This remarkable stability shows the interest of developing full oxide-based asymmetric supercapacitors operating in non-toxic aqueous electrolytes that could compete with commercial carbon-based electrochemical double-layer capacitors.
In Denmark, cleantech firm Aquaporin A/s and Danish Aerospace Company Aps have created a joint venture in the space sector under the name Aquaporin Space Alliance (ASA).
The implementation of a charging infrastructure network is the necessary prerequisite for the diffusion of Electric Vehicles (EVs). In this paper a methodology to calculate the required number of charging stations for EVs and to set their position in a road network is proposed. The aim is to planning the distribution of services area to host charging infrastructures. Using the demand (the flow of EVs) and the supply (the road network where they will be positioned) through a two-level model were the locations initially identified (first level) and thereafter the number of charging stations for each service area (second level) evaluated. The paper deals with the intersection of three main topics: the vehicle technologies (engine and battery pack specifications), the charging station characteristics and the EVs flow. After verifying the model and the solution procedure on a test road network, the methodology is applied in a high dimension case, considering the Italian highway network.
In this work, a novel type electrode based on RuO2 nanoparticles-modified vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (RuO2/MWCNTs) was prepared by magnetron sputtering deposition. This RuO2/MWCNTs electrode not only shows a high capacity nature, but also possesses a good response to the pH value. The pH sensor based on the RuO2/MWCNTs nanocomposite electrode exhibits some advantages over the conventional pH sensors. It shows good reproducibility, long-term storage stability (over 1 month) and linear response in the whole pH range (2–12) of Britton–Robinson (B–R) buffer solutions with near-Nernstian response (about −55mV/pH). The hysteretic widths of the nanocomposite electrode are 6.4mV, 5.1mV and 10.2mV in pH 7–4–7–10–7, pH 7–10–7–4–7 and pH 2–8–12–8–2 loop cycles, respectively. Moreover, the RuO2/MWCNTs electrode displays an excellent anti-interference property and fast response time (less than 40s). According to the electrochemical impedance measurements, the pH sensing properties of the RuO2/MWCNTs electrode were also discussed.
In this paper, the critical volume fraction (CVF) of electrodes having porosity is predicted with the help of a three-dimensional (3D) conductivity model. The model consists of a 3D lattice of nodes; which in this paper, are assumed to be identical spheres, which are in electrical contact with their neighbors. The porosity that exists between these spheres is referred to as “micro-porosity” while the porosity that occurs from having missing spheres is referred to as “macro-porosity”. The critical volume fraction is the maximum utilization of an electrode's active material and occurs when the electrode's conductivity changes from being conductive to nonconductive. Previous 3D conductivity models used to determine the CVF did not account for porosity. The porosity is modeled from porosity size distribution previously determined experimentally by other researchers. The sphere size of the model is estimated from these porosity distributions and by assuming a simple cubic (SC) lattice structure as the sphere arrangement. Because the porosity between the spheres (i.e. “micro-porosity”) for such an arrangement is 48%, the sphere size can be estimated from the pore size where this value of electrode porosity occurs. Porosity smaller than this sphere size is assumed to be smaller than a single sphere, and to be counted as part of the 48% porosity that exists between the spheres. Porosity above the single sphere size is modeled with nonconductive additives having the same pore size as the porosity being modeled. This approach is therefore used to determine both the sphere size in the model as well as the influence of porosity on the critical volume fraction. The model provides reasonable estimates of the critical volume fraction of positive electrodes having porosity and agrees with experimental data.
Retroviruses encode their genetic information with RNA molecules, and have a high genomic recombination rate which allows them to mutate more rapidly, thereby posting a higher risk to humans. One important way to help combat a pandemic of viral infectious diseases is early detection before large-scale outbreaks occur. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) have been used to identify precisely different strains of some very closely related pathogens. However, isolation and detection of viral RNA in the field are difficult due to the unstable nature of viral RNA molecules. Consequently, performing in-the-field nucleic acid analysis to monitor the spread of viruses is financially and technologically challenging in remote and underdeveloped regions that are high-risk areas for outbreaks. A simplified rapid viral RNA extraction method is reported to meet the requirements for in-the-field viral RNA extraction and detection. The ability of this device to perform viral RNA extraction with subsequent RT-PCR detection of retrovirus is demonstrated. This inexpensive device has the potential to be distributed on a large scale to underdeveloped regions for early detection of retrovirus, with the possibility of reducing viral pandemic events.
Mixed ligand precursor complex bis(N-di-isopropyl-N-octyl dithiocarbamato)tin(II) complex was synthesized from its respective dithiocarbamate ligands, characterized and thermalized through thermogravimetric analysis to yield tin sulfide (SnS) nanocrystals. The thermal decomposition pattern was recorded as a function of the required temperature for the formation of the SnS nanocrystals at 360 °C. The SnS nanocrystals were characterized using optical, vibrational, structural and morphological analyses instruments. The obtained orthorhombic phase SnS nanocrystals showed indirect and direct optical energy band gaps close to the 1.5 eV of the bulk SnS.
The increased use of rechargeable batteries in portable electronic devices and the continuous development of novel applications (e.g. transportation and large scale energy storage), have raised a strong demand for high performance batteries with increased energy density, cycle and calendar life, safety and lower costs. This triggers significant efforts to reveal the fundamental mechanism determining battery performance with the use of advanced analytical techniques. However, the inherently complex characteristics of battery systems make the mechanism analysis sophisticated and difficult. Synchrotron radiation is an advanced collimated light source with high intensity and tunable energies. It has particular advantages in electronic structure and geometric structure (both the short-range and long-range structure) analysis of materials on different length and time scales. In the past decades, synchrotron X-ray techniques have been widely used to understand the fundamental mechanism and guide the technological optimization of batteries. In particular, in situ and operando techniques with high spatial and temporal resolution, enable the nondestructive, real time dynamic investigation of the electrochemical reaction, and lead to significant deep insights into the battery operation mechanism. This review gives a brief introduction of the application of synchrotron X-ray techniques to the investigation of battery systems. The five widely implicated techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), Pair Distribution Function (PDF), Hard and Soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) will be reviewed, with the emphasis on their in situ studies of battery systems during cycling.
Rising carbon emission or carbon footprint imposes grave concern over the earth׳s climatic condition, as it results in increasing average global temperature. Renewable energy sources seem to be the favorable solution in this regard. It can reduce the overall energy consumption rate globally. However, the renewable sources are intermittent in nature with very high initial installation price. Off-grid Small Autonomous Hybrid Power Systems (SAHPS) are good alternative for generating electricity locally in remote areas, where the transmission and distribution of electrical energy generated from conventional sources are otherwise complex, difficult and costly. In optimizing SAHPS, weather data over past several years are generally the main input, which include wind speed and solar radiation. The weather resources used in this optimization process have unsystematic variations based on the atmospheric and seasonal phenomenon and it also varies from year to year. While using past data in the analysis of SAHPS performance, it was assumed that the same pattern will be followed in the next year, which in reality is very unlikely to happen. In this paper, we use BBO optimization algorithm for SAHPS optimal component sizing by minimizing the cost of energy. We have also analysed the effect of using forecast weather data instead of past data on the SAHPS performance. ANNs, which are trained with back-propagation training algorithm, are used for wind speed and solar radiation forecasting. A case study was used for demonstrating the performance of BBO optimization algorithm along with forecasting effects. The simulation results clearly showed the advantages of utilizing wind speed and solar radiation forecasting in a SAHPS optimization problem.
Body wasting is a serious complication that affects a large proportion of patients with heart failure. Muscle wasting, also known as sarcopenia, is the loss of muscle mass and strength, whereas cachexia describes loss of weight. After reaching guideline-recommended doses of heart failure therapies, the most promising approach to treating body wasting seems to be combined therapy that includes exercise, nutritional counselling, and drug treatment. Nutritional considerations include avoiding excessive salt and fluid intake, and replenishment of deficiencies in trace elements. Administration of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is beneficial in selected patients. High-calorific nutritional supplements can also be useful. The prescription of aerobic exercise training that provokes mild or moderate breathlessness has good scientific support. Drugs with potential benefit in the treatment of body wasting that have been tested in clinical studies in patients with heart failure include testosterone, ghrelin, recombinant human growth hormone, essential amino acids, and β2-adrenergic receptor agonists. In this Review, we summarize the pathophysiological mechanisms of muscle wasting and cachexia in heart failure, and highlight the potential treatment strategies. We aim to provide clinicians with the relevant information on body wasting to understand and treat these conditions in patients with heart failure.
The cycled capacity of Li1.1V3O8 based positive electrodes varies between 100 and 250mAhg−1 (C/5 rate, 3.3–2V) depending on the processing parameters. The initial volatile solvent concentration has a strong impact on the distribution of the electrode constituents. For a concentration below the optimal one, the mechanical energy available for mixing is insufficient to overcome viscosity forces and to reach a good dispersion of the constituents in the bulk of the electrode. Above the optimal concentration, settling of the Li1.1V3O8 and carbon black particles in the low viscosity suspensions creates a concentration gradient. In these two cases the electrochemical performance are degraded. The viscosity of the electrode slurry must be systematically adjusted since the grain size and density depend on the active material.
A lithium-air fuel cell combined an air cathode in aqueous electrolyte with a metallic lithium anode in organic electrolyte can continuously reduce O2 to provide capacity. Herein, the performance of this hybrid electrolyte based lithium-air fuel cell under the mixed control of alkalinity and temperature have been investigated by means of galvanistatic measurement and the analysis of electrochemical impedance spectra. Electromotive force and inner resistance of the cell decrease with the increase of LiOH concentration in aqueous electrolyte. The values ranged from 0.5 to 1.0M could be the suitable parameters for the LiOH concentration of aqueous electrolyte. Environment temperature exhibited a significant influence on the performance of lithium-air fuel cell. The lithium-air fuel cell can provide a larger power at elevated temperature due to the decrease of all resistance of elements.
Fuel cells for automobile application need to operate in a wide temperature range including freezing temperature. However, the rapid startup of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) at subfreezing temperature, e.g., −20°C, is very difficult. A cold-start procedure was developed, which made hydrogen and oxygen react to heat the fuel cell considering that the FC flow channel was the characteristic of microchannel reactor. The effect of hydrogen and oxygen reaction on fuel cell performance at ambient temperature was also investigated. The electrochemical characterizations such as I–V plot and cyclic voltammetry (CV) were performed. The heat generated rate for either the single cell or the stack was calculated. The results showed that the heat generated rate was proportional to the gas flow rate when H2 concentration and the active area were constant. The fuel cell temperature rose rapidly and steadily by controlling gas flow rate.
TiO2-doped carbon aerogels (CAs) were synthesized by sol–gel polymerization of a mixture of resorcinol, formaldehyde and tetrabutyl orthotitanate, followed by gelation and supercritical drying and carbonization in N2 gas atmosphere. The morphology of these TiO2-doped CAs was characterized by transmission electron microscopy. X-ray diffraction and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller methods were employed to determine the microstructure and surface characteristics of samples. It was found that the doped TiO2 had no significant effect on the surface area of the samples, whereas the pore and mesopore volumes were increased by the addition of TiO2. The TiO2 particles were kept still as anatase in samples carbonized at 900 °C, and did not transform into rutile on heating. Electrochemical performance of the samples as electrode materials was studied by cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and constant current charge/discharge measurements. The results showed that the specific capacitance of CA electrodes had been improved by TiO2 doping, and the samples with wider pore diameters have higher capacitance values.
The computational cost for all-vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB) models that seek to capture the transport phenomena usually increases with the number of spatial dimensions considered. In this context, we carry out scale analysis to derive a reduced zero-dimensional model. Two nondimensional numbers and their limits to support the model reduction are identified. We verify the reduced model by comparing its charge–discharge curve predictions with that of a full two-dimensional model. The proposed analysis leading to reduction in dimensionality is generic and can be employed for other types of redox flow batteries.
Fuel cells have the potential to reduce domestic energy bills by providing both heat and power at the point of use, generating high value electricity from a low cost fuel. However, the cost of installing the fuel cell must be sufficiently low to be recovered by the savings made over its lifetime. A computer simulation is used to estimate the savings and cost targets for fuel cell CHP systems. Two pitfalls of this kind of simulation are addressed: the selection of representative performance figures for fuel cells, and the range of houses from which energy demand data was taken. A meta-study of the current state of the art is presented, and used with 102 house-years of demand to simulate the range of economic performance expected from four fuel cell technologies within the UK domestic CHP market. Annual savings relative to a condensing boiler are estimated at €170–300 for a 1kWe fuel cell, giving a target cost of €350–625kW−1 for any fuel cell technology that can demonstrate a 2.5-year lifetime. Increasing lifetime and reducing fuel cell capacity are identified as routes to accelerated market entry. The importance of energy demand is seen to outweigh both economic and technical performance assumptions, while manufacture cost and system lifetime are highlighted as the only significant differences between the technologies considered. SOFC are considered to have the greatest potential, but uncertainty in the assumptions used precludes any clear-cut judgement.
We present the first implantable drug delivery system for controlled timing and location of dosing in small animals. Current implantable drug delivery devices do not provide control over these factors nor are they feasible for implantation in research animals as small as mice. Our system utilizes an integrated electrolysis micropump, is refillable, has an inert drug reservoir for broad drug compatibility, and is capable of adjustment to the delivery regimen while implanted. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used for characterization of electrodes on glass substrate and a flexible Parylene substrate. Benchtop testing of the electrolysis actuator resulted in flow rates from 1 μL/min to 34 μL/min on glass substrate and up to 6.8 μL/min on Parylene substrate. The fully integrated system generated a flow rate of 4.72 ± 0.35 μL/min under applied constant current of 1.0 mA while maintaining a power consumption of only ~3 mW. Finally, we demonstrated in vivo application of the system for anti-cancer drug delivery in mice.
Amorphous carbon films were deposited successfully on Cu foils by DC magnetron sputtering technique. Electrochemical performance of the film as lithium battery anode was evaluated across Li metal at 0.2C rate in a non-aqueous electrolyte. The discharge curves showed unusually low irreversible capacity in the first cycle with a reversible capacity of ∼810mAhg−1, which is at least 2 times higher than that of graphitic carbon. For the first time we report here an amorphous carbon showing such a high reversibility in the first cycle, which is very much limited to the graphitic carbon. The deposited films were extensively characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and step profilometer for the structural and surface properties. The hydrogen content of the synthesized films was studied using residual gas analysis (RGA). The low hydrogen content and the low specific surface area of the synthesized amorphous carbon film are considered responsible for such a high first cycle columbic efficiency. The growth mechanism and the reasons for enhanced electrochemical performance of the carbon films are discussed.
Lithium ion capacitors combine the complementary advantageous characteristics of batteries and supercapacitors are expected to deliver both high energy and high power density. However, this technology suffers from the kinetics imbalance between battery electrode and capacitive electrode. Here, two dimensional T-Nb2O5/N-doped carbon nanosheets with a well-continuous ionic/electronic conducting network demonstrate superior rate capability of 142.3 mAhg−1 at 20C (1 C=200mAg−1). A majority of charge storage in the T-Nb2O5/N-doped carbon nanosheets was proved to be intercalation pseudocapacitive processes by kinetic analysis, enabling fast charge storage performance. A lithium ion capacitor is based upon these T-Nb2O5/N-doped carbon nanosheets was successfully fabricated, demonstrating high energy density (70.3Whkg−1) and high power density (16,014Wkg−1).
Micro-nanostructured nickel has been prepared as anode materials for Li ion batteries, via a rheological phase reaction method. Ni2C2O4·xH2O (x =2 or 2.5) as precursors are obtained from the solid–liquid rheological mixture of (NH4)2C2O4·H2O and Ni(NO3)2. The nickel powders are prepared by thermal decomposition of the precursors. The structural, morphological and electrochemical performance are investigated by means of thermogravimetry (TG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM) and typical electrochemical tests. The micro-nanostructured nickel displays an initial discharge capacity of 457mAhg−1. It also has a remarkable cycling stability with an average capacity fade of 0.17% per cycle from 13th to 50th cycle in 0.01–3.00V versus Li at a constant current density of 100mAg−1.
Carbon materials, especially Vulcan XC-72 carbon black, are the most widely used catalyst support in low temperature fuel cells. Several disadvantages of these catalyst supports, however, limit the catalyst performance leading to reduced fuel cell performance and durability: low resistance to corrosion at high potentials, micropores leading to limited accessible surface, impermeability to gases and liquids, and no proton conductivity. Therefore, development of novel supports or modified carbon materials is essential to commercialization of low temperature fuel cell technology. Due to unique metallic/semiconductor characteristics along with excellent environmental stability, facile synthesis and high conductivity, polypyrrole (PPy), a member of the conjugated heterocyclic conducting polymers, has been considered the most promising alternative to carbon supports in fuel cells. Extensive research on PPy-containing catalysts has been reported in the last twenty years. This paper systematically and critically reviews the progress and main achievements of PPy use in both anode and cathode catalysts for low temperature fuel cells. Insight into the remaining challenges and future research directions is also discussed.