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The intercalation/deintercalation characteristics of electrochemically formed Ni(OH)2/Ni/ITO electrodes in aqueous KOH and nonaqueous LiPF6+EC:DEC (1:1) electrolyte solutions were studied. The Ni(OH)2 film was grown by Ni electrodeposition and a subsequent anodizing process. The metallic Ni nano-layer between Ni(OH)2 and ITO was identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). To understand the characteristics of the Ni(OH)2 film, the intercalation and deintercalation of OH− ion in KOH and Li+ in LiPF6+EC:DEC (1:1) electrolyte were investigated using cyclic voltammetry and charge calculations and further confirmed with the structure, oxide states and interfacial properties of the Ni(OH)2 layer using X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, XPS, ac impedance spectroscopy, and in situ transmittance spectroscopy. The Ni(OH)2/Ni/ITO electrode showed improved interfacial properties due to the metallic Ni nano-layer when it was compared with directly electrodeposited Ni(OH)2/ITO.
We demonstrate an excellent performance of nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbon (N-MPC) for energy storage in vanadium redox flow batteries. Mesoporous carbon (MPC) is prepared using a soft-template method and doped with nitrogen by heat-treating MPC in NH3. N-MPC is characterized with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The redox reaction of [VO]2+/[VO2]+ is characterized with cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electrocatalytic kinetics of the redox couple [VO]2+/[VO2]+ is significantly enhanced on N-MPC electrode compared with MPC and graphite electrodes. The reversibility of the redox couple [VO]2+/[VO2]+ is greatly improved on N-MPC (0.61 for N-MPC vs. 0.34 for graphite), which is expected to increase the energy storage efficiency of redox flow batteries. Nitrogen doping facilitates the electron transfer on electrode/electrolyte interface for both oxidation and reduction processes. N-MPC is a promising material for redox flow batteries. This also opens up new and wider applications of nitrogen-doped carbon.
Studies linking election outcomes to economics frequently assume that the economy’s salience is constant. This study shows that the economy’s salience systematically fluctuates. The number of voters focused on economic issues shifted dramatically throughout the 2008 campaign as the recession worsened and this change occurred well before the financial markets collapsed in September 2008. However, even during the recession substantial numbers of individuals said their vote was based on non-economic issues and for these individuals there was no relationship between their assessment of the economy and their electoral choice. Consistent with extant theories of issue attention, citizens who were the hardest hit by the recession and those who had the most anxiety about suffering a financial dislocation in the future were most likely to consider economic performance electorally important while secure voters were less likely to be economic voters.
Geological sequestration of CO2 in depleted oil reservoirs is a potentially useful strategy for greenhouse gas management and can be combined with enhanced oil recovery. Development of methods to estimate CO2 leakage rates is essential to assure that storage objectives are being met at sequestration facilities. Perfluorocarbon tracers (PFTs) were added as three 12h slugs at about one week intervals during the injection of 2090 tons of CO2 into the West Pearl Queen (WPQ) depleted oil formation, sequestration pilot study site located in SE New Mexico. The CO2 was injected into the Permian Queen Formation. Leakage was monitored in soil–gas using a matrix of 40 capillary adsorbent tubes (CATs) left in the soil for periods ranging from days to months. The tracers, perfluoro-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane (PDCH), perfluorotrimethylcyclohexane (PTCH) and perfluorodimethylcyclobutane (PDCB), were analyzed using thermal desorption, and gas chromatography with electron capture detection. Monitoring was designed to look for immediate leakage, such as at the injection well bore and at nearby wells, and to develop the technology to estimate overall CO2 leak rates based on the use of PFTs. Tracers were detected in soil–gas at the monitoring sites 50m from the injection well within days of injection. Tracers continued to escape over the following years. Leakage appears to have emanated from the vicinity of the injection well in a radial pattern to about 100m and in directional patterns to 300m. Leakage rates were estimated for the 3 tracers from each of the 4 sets of CATs in place following the start of CO2 injection. Leakage was fairly uniform during this period. As a first approximation, the CO2 leak rate was estimated at about 0.0085% of the total CO2 sequestered per annum.
Spinel lithium manganese oxides LiMn1.6M0.4O4 (M=Mn, Co, Cr, Ni) for the cathode materials of the lithium ion secondary batteries were studied by electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). The ELNES spectra at Mn L- and O K-edge of the extracted lithium or substituted to Mn 16d site with third cations were successfully obtained. Electrochemically deintercalated Li1−x Mn2O4 showed a chemical shift of both Mn L- and O K-edges to the higher energy side compared with those of the stoichiometric LiMn2O4 indicating oxidation of Mn and O due to the electrochemical deintercalation of Li. Substitution of M for Mn (M=Co, Cr, Ni) also caused a similar spectral shift of Mn L- and O K-edges. These shifts suggest lowering of the energy levels of the inner atomic orbitals compared with that of LiMn2O4.
A post-annealing strategy at 600 °C was used to modify the oxygen deficiency during synthesis of a spinel LiMn1.45Cr0.1Ni0.45O4 cathode for lithium-ion batteries. Structural analyses revealed that post-annealing is an effective way to eliminate the impurity phase without changing the F d 3 ¯ m space group. The substitution of a small amount of Cr leads to better rate performance along with cyclability at room temperature, compared to the commercial LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4. LiMn1.45Cr0.1Ni0.45O4 delivered a reversible capacity of ∼115, 104, 95 and 40 mAh g−1 at 0.2C, 1C, 2C and 5C, respectively. While commercial LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 offered a lower reversible capacity of ∼110, 98, 85 and 20 mAh g−1 at the same C rates. After 125 cycles, about 99% of reversible capacity was retained for the LiMn1.45Cr0.1Ni0.45O4, while about 6% of capacity loss was obtained after 125 cycles for the commercial LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements revealed that the LiMn1.45Cr0.1Ni0.45O4 had a smaller surface resistance, which may be due to the segregation of Ni from the surface to the bulk.
Genotoxicity of crude cyanobacteria extracts (CBE) from blooms in Taihu Lake, China toward common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was measured. The primary extracellular product was determined by HPLC to be Microcystin-LR (MC-LR, L for leucine and R for arginine) with an average concentration of 2.4 × 102 μg MC g−1 dry weight of cyanobacteria. Acute toxicity to carp, expressed as the 72-h LC50, was 53 mg, dw cyanobacteria L−1. Genotoxicity, as determined by the micronucleus (MN) and comet assays were both dose- and time-depended. Deformities of cellular organelles in liver and gill were observed by use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results showed that MC-LR from cyanobacteria from Taihu Lake could induce genotoxic response and tissue-level morphological changes in common carp.
Power grid interconnection has gained attention in Northeast Asia (NEA) as a means to effectively utilize the abundant renewable resources in Mongolia. This paper quantifies the potential economic and environmental benefits of deploying massive wind turbines and solar PV in Mongolia for power exports. The author uses an NEA-wide multi-region power system model formulated as a linear programming problem. The analysis considers power systems characteristics, such as the seasonal and daily electric load curves of the NEA regions. The simulation results show that the large-scale Mongolian renewables contribute to significant CO2 reductions in NEA. China, in particular, benefits from a significant reduction in coal-fired generation. However, huge investments would be required for the massive renewables and cross-boundary transmission facilities, pushing up electricity supply cost. The relevant planning organizations need to carefully consider these environmental opportunities and economic barriers before implementation. This paper also investigates the economic impacts of transmission route circuity due to avoiding transmission through the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). Our results imply modest effects of the circuity on the total system cost; availability of routes through the DPRK would not significantly increase the benefits to the NEA system of integrating massive renewables in Mongolia.
A small sized TiO2 nanocrystal (∼10 nm)/reduced graphene oxide (TiO2/rGO) hybrid is synthesized through a sol–gel process for hybrid TiO2/GO followed by solvothermal reduction of GO to rGO and is further used as a microbial fuel cell (MFC) anode. The strong synergistic effect from a large surface area produced by uniformly deposited TiO2 nanocrystals, good hydrophilicity of TiO2 nanocrystals and superior conductivity of rGO leads to significantly improved electrocatalysis. In particular, a direct electrochemistry is realized by generating endogenous flavins from a large amount of microbes grown on the highly biocompatible TiO2 nanocrystals to mediate fast electron transfer between microbes and conductive rGO for a high performance anode. The TiO2/rGO hybrid anode delivers a maximum power density of 3169 mW m−2 in Shewanella putrefaciens CN32 MFC, which is much large than that of the conventional carbon cloth anode and reported TiO2/carbon hybrid anode, thus offering great potential for practical applications of MFC. This work is for the first time to report that the synergistic effect from tailoring the physical structure to achieve small sized TiO2 nanocrystals while rationally designing chemistry to introduce highly conductive rGO and superior biocompatible TiO2 is able to significantly boost the MFC performance.
Lead(II) oxide thin films were prepared by spray pyrolysis of aqueous solutions of Pb(CH3COO)2·2H2O and deposited onto a lead substrate. A homogeneous coating was obtained at 260°C that consisted of well-crystallized α-PbO. Following soaking and curing, the oxide became a phase mixture the main component of which was PbO·PbSO4. The electroformation of the cured plate produces dense agglomerates of small β-PbO2 particles accompanied by unreacted α-PbO. Preliminary electrochemical tests of the cell revealed a progressive decrease in polarization during charging in the first few cycles probably associated to improved adherence of active particles to the substrate. The cell was found to maintain a discharge capacity of ca. 100Ah/kg (40% of the theoretical value) upon extensive cycling.
Solid electrolyte interface (SEI) formation is a key that utilizes to protect the structure of graphite anode and enhances the redox stability of lithium-ion batteries before entering the market. The effect of SEI formation applies a differential pulse (DP) and constant current (CC) charging on charge–discharge performance and cycling behavior into brand new commercial lithium ion batteries is investigated. The morphologies and electrochemical properties on the anode surface are also inspected by employing SEM and EDS. The electrochemical impedance spectra of the anode electrode in both charging protocols shows that the interfacial resistance on graphite anodes whose SEI layer formed by DP charging is smaller than that of CC charging. Moreover, the cycle life result shows that the DP charging SEI formation is more helpful in increasing the long-term stability and maintaining the capacity of batteries even under high power rate charge–discharge cycling. The DP charging method can provide a SEI layer with ameliorated properties to improve the performance of lithium ion batteries.
This work constitutes detailed EIS (Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy) measurements on a PBI-based HT-PEM unit cell. By means of EIS the fuel cell is characterized in several modes of operation by varying the current density, temperature and the stoichiometry of the reactant gases. Using Equivalent Circuit (EC) modeling key parameters, such as the membrane resistance, charge transfer resistance and gas transfer resistance are identified, however the physical interpretation of the parameters derived from EC’s are doubtful as discussed in this paper. The EC model proposed, which is a modified Randles circuit, provides a reasonably good fit at all the conditions tested. The measurements reveal that the cell temperature is an important parameter, which influences the cell performance significantly, especially the charge transfer resistance proved to be very temperature dependent. The transport of oxygen to the Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) likewise has a substantial effect on the impedance spectra, results showed that the gas transfer resistance has an exponential-like dependency on the air stoichiometry. Based on the present results and results found in recent publications it is still not clear what exactly causes the distinctive low frequency loop occurring at oxygen starvation. Contrary to the oxygen transport, the transport of hydrogen to the Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction (HOR), in the stoichiometry range investigated in this study, shows no measurable change in the impedance data. Generally, this work is expected to provide a basis for future development of impedance-based fuel cell diagnostic systems for HT-PEM fuel cell.
Nano-sized particles of a lithium ion conductive solid electrolyte, LiTi2(PO4)3, were prepared by laser ablation. The obtained particles were ca. 10nm in diameter. X-ray powder diffraction and Raman spectroscopy showed that they were amorphous with local structure similar to the crystalline counterpart. They were crystallized by the heating at ca. 630°C.
One promising public health intervention for promoting physical activity is the Ciclovía program. The Ciclovía is a regular multisectorial community-based program in which streets are temporarily closed for motorized transport, allowing exclusive access to individuals for recreational activities and physical activity. The objective of this study was to conduct an analysis of the cost–benefit ratios of physical activity of the Ciclovía programs of Bogotá and Medellín in Colombia, Guadalajara in México, and San Francisco in the USA. The data of the four programs were obtained from program directors and local surveys. The annual cost per capita of the programs was: US $6.0 for Bogotá, US $23.4 for Medellín, US $6.5 for Guadalajara, and US $70.5 for San Francisco. The cost–benefit ratio for health benefit from physical activity was 3.23–4.26 for Bogotá, 1.83 for Medellín, 1.02–1.23 for Guadalajara, and 2.32 for San Francisco. For the program of Bogotá, the cost–benefit ratio was more sensitive to the prevalence of physically active bicyclists; for Guadalajara, the cost–benefit ratio was more sensitive to user costs; and for the programs of Medellín and San Francisco, the cost–benefit ratios were more sensitive to operational costs. From a public health perspective for promoting physical activity, these Ciclovía programs are cost beneficial.
Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) provide new opportunities to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emission. PEVs need to draw and store energy from an electrical grid to supply propulsive energy for the vehicle. As a result, it is important to know when PEVs batteries are available for charging and discharging. Furthermore, battery energy management and control is imperative for PEVs as the vehicle operation and even the safety of passengers depend on the battery system. Thus, scheduling the grid power electricity with parking lots would be needed for efficient charging and discharging of PEV batteries. This paper aims to propose a new intelligent battery energy management and control scheduling service charging that utilize Cloud computing networks. The proposed intelligent vehicle-to-grid scheduling service offers the computational scalability required to make decisions necessary to allow PEVs battery energy management systems to operate efficiently when the number of PEVs and charging devices are large. Experimental analyses of the proposed scheduling service as compared to a traditional scheduling service are conducted through simulations. The results show that the proposed intelligent battery energy management scheduling service substantially reduces the required number of interactions of PEV with parking lots and grid as well as predicting the load demand calculated in advance with regards to their limitations. Also it shows that the intelligent scheduling service charging using Cloud computing network is more efficient than the traditional scheduling service network for battery energy management and control.
Robust freestanding polymer gel electrolytes (PGEs) are fabricated via a facile approach and used for flexible zinc-air (Zn-air) and aluminium-air (Al-air) batteries. The fabrication involves an ultraviolet light-initiated free radical polymerization of acrylamide using N,N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) as crosslinker to form a partially crosslinked polyacrylamide, and the soaking of the resultant polymer in a potassium hydroxide aqueous solution or a saline. With their merits of good flexibility, high ionic conductivity (σ = 0.33 S cm−1), easy fabrication and scalability, these freestanding PGEs qualify as superb candidates to enable high performance flexible metal-air batteries. The Zn-air batteries show no noticeable performance degradation at a bending angle down to 60°, delivering a power density of 39 mW cm−2 and a stable voltage profile over 50 h of continuous cycling (1 h per cycle) with a discharge and charge potential of 1.2 and 2.0 V, respectively. The flexible Al-air battery assembled using a neutral pH PGE and a household aluminium foil anode gives a high areal specific capacity of up to 20 mAh cm−2.
Various yolk-shell structured particles designed for large volume expansion materials for lithium-ion storage have been reported, the cycle stability and coulombic efficiency can be effectively improved through such structure design. SnO2 has high theoretical capacity of 1494 mA h g−1 and 1378 mA h g−1 for lithium and sodium storage, respectively. The large volume expansion problem of SnO2 has long been considered as the primary reason for the capacity fading of SnO2 based anode materials. In this paper, the yolk-shell structured SnO2 porous nanowire has been designed, and this unique yolk-shell structure is reported as anode materials for lithium and sodium-ion storage for the first time. The yolk-shell structured porous nanowires deliver significantly improved cycle stability and coulombic efficiency as active material for both lithium and sodium-ion storage compared with that of pure SnO2 porous nanowires. It exhibits a high and stable capacity of 1150 mA h g−1 at current density of 200 mA g−1 for lithium-ion storage, and a capacity of 401 mA h g−1 at current density of 50 mA g−1 after 50 cycles for sodium-ion storage.
Using environmental concentrations and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to model human exposure is an emerging tool in environmental epidemiology. To evaluate the usefulness of this, we investigated to what extent cadmium and lead concentrations in soil and moss could be used as potential determinants for cadmium and lead exposure for a population living near a battery plant. Methods: Cadmium in urine and blood and lead in blood, as well as food, smoking habits, places of residence, occupations and health, were determined for 512 individuals living near a closed down battery factory in Sweden. Cadmium and lead contents in moss were available through previous assessments by the Geological Survey of Sweden. Soil samples had been collected at various distances from the factory, and analyzed for cadmium and lead contents in 1990. Kriging technique in GIS was used to create areas with different metal concentrations based on these measurements. By linking individual address coordinates to mapped concentration levels, each study subject home address received a value of cadmium and lead in moss and soil. Results: We found a statistically significant association between lead in soil and lead in blood, for female subjects eating homegrown vegetables regularly. No significant association was found between cadmium in soil and cadmium in urine for either gender in the study population. No clear associations were found for either gender regarding lead and cadmium in moss and lead in blood or cadmium in urine or in blood. Conclusion: In general, environmental concentrations may not be useful surrogates for assessing human exposure to lead and cadmium, but concentrations of metals in soil around emitting point sources can be a complement for estimating the exposure in certain subgroups.
A serious environmental problem was presented by waste batteries resulting from lack of relevant regulations and effective recycling technologies in China. The present work considered the enhancement of waste Ni–Cd and Ni–MH batteries recycling by mechanical treatment. In the process of characterization, two types of waste batteries (Ni–Cd and Ni–MH batteries) were selected and their components were characterized in relation to their elemental chemical compositions. In the process of mechanical separation and recycling, waste Ni–Cd and Ni–MH batteries were processed by a recycling technology without a negative impact on the environment. The technology contained mechanical crushing, size classification, gravity separation, and magnetic separation. The results obtained demonstrated that: (1) Mechanical crushing was an effective process to strip the metallic parts from separators and pastes. High liberation efficiency of the metallic parts from separators and pastes was attained in the crushing process until the fractions reached particle sizes smaller than 2mm. (2) The classified materials mainly consisted of the fractions with the size of particles between 0.5 and 2mm after size classification. (3) The metallic concentrates of the samples were improved from around 75% to 90% by gravity separation. More than 90% of the metallic materials were separated into heavy fractions when the particle sizes were larger than 0.5mm. (4) The size of particles between 0.5 and 2mm and the rotational speed of the separator between 30 and 60rpm were suitable for magnetic separation during industrial application, with the recycling efficiency exceeding 95%.
Skin sensitization is an important toxic endpoint in the risk assessment of chemicals. In this paper, structure–activity relationships analysis was performed on the skin sensitization potential of 357 compounds with local lymph node assay data. Structural fragments were extracted by GASTON (GrAph/Sequence/Tree extractiON) from the training set. Eight fragments with accuracy significantly higher than 0.73 (p < 0.1) were retained to make up an indicator descriptor fragment. The fragment descriptor and eight other physicochemical descriptors closely related to the endpoint were calculated to construct the recursive partitioning tree (RP tree) for classification. The balanced accuracy of the training set, test set I, and test set II in the leave-one-out model were 0.846, 0.800, and 0.809, respectively. The results highlight that fragment-based RP tree is a preferable method for identifying skin sensitizers. Moreover, the selected fragments provide useful structural information for exploring sensitization mechanisms, and RP tree creates a graphic tree to identify the most important properties associated with skin sensitization. They can provide some guidance for designing of drugs with lower sensitization level.