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Rare earth elements (REE) include the lanthanide series elements (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and Lu) plus Sc and Y. Currently these metals have become very critical to several modern technologies ranging from cell phones and televisions to LED light bulbs and wind turbines. This article summarizes the occurrence of these metals in the Earth's crust, their mineralogy, different types of deposits both on land and oceans from the standpoint of the new data with more examples from the Indian subcontinent. In addition to their utility to understand the formation of the major Earth reservoirs, multi-faceted updates on the applications of REE in agriculture and medicine including new emerging ones are presented. Environmental hazards including human health issues due to REE mining and large-scale dumping of e-waste containing significant concentrations of REE are summarized. New strategies for the future supply of REE including recent developments in the extraction of REE from coal fired ash and recycling from e-waste are presented. Recent developments in individual REE separation technologies in both metallurgical and recycling operations have been highlighted. An outline of the analytical methods for their precise and accurate determinations required in all these studies, such as, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), glow discharge mass spectrometry (GD-MS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (including ICP-MS, ICP-TOF-MS, HR-ICP-MS with laser ablation as well as solution nebulization) and other instrumental techniques, in different types of materials are presented.
Ion transport properties of two types of gel electrolytes based on the same ionic liquid (IL) 2,3-dimethyl-1-hexyl imidazolium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (DMHxImTFSI), namely polymer-in-IL, containing DMHxImTFSI and polyethylene oxide (PEO) and polymer gel electrolytes containing DMHxImTFSI, PEO and propylene carbonate (PC) have been studied over a wide temperature range. The ionic conductivity of polymer-in-IL gels is of the order of 10−3 Scm−1 at 25°C, which increases to 10−2 Scm−1 at 127°C and these gels are thermally stable up to 400°C. Polymer gel electrolytes containing PC show relatively higher ionic conductivity than polymer-in-IL gels but have lower thermal stability. Line narrowing observed in the variation of line width of 1H and 19F NMR lines with temperature shows the simultaneous presence of high and low conducting phases in polymer-in-IL gels whereas high conducting amorphous phase is mainly present in polymer gel electrolytes containing PC. The onset of long range translational motion in these gel electrolytes has been observed to take place at the glass transition (T g) and melting (T m) temperature and is closely related to the ionic conductivity of the gel electrolytes. The range of temperature over which the gel electrolytes possess higher ionic conductivity has also been identified. The polymer has been observed to play an active role in polymer gel electrolytes whereas it mainly acts as a stiffener in polymer-in-IL gels. The polymer gel electrolytes containing PC can be used in practical devices at temperatures below 100°C whereas polymer-in-IL gels can be used up to 400°C.
Negative symptoms are a core dimension of schizophrenia and other psychoses that account for a large degree of the poor functional outcomes related to these disorders. Newer assessment scales for negative symptoms, such as the Clinical Assessment Interview for Negative Symptoms (CAINS), provide evidence for separate dimensions of motivational and pleasure (MAP) and expression (EXP) dimensions. This study was aimed at extending the analysis of the clinical, functional and cognitive correlates of CAINS dimensions in a sample of patients with psychotic disorders (n = 98) and 50 healthy controls.
The electrochemical synthesis and redox response of a copolymer consisting of 3-octylthiophene and biphenyl units have been studied. The polymer material has been characterized by cyclic voltammetry, in situ UV–vis absorption spectroscopy, FTIR transmission and in situ FTIR attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy. Two different copolymer structures have been obtained when lithium hexafluoroarsenate and tetrabutylammonium tetrafluoroborate were used as electrolyte salts. The UV–vis absorption spectra and the IR bands of the neutral copolymer film are compared with the spectra of pure poly(para-phenylene) and poly(3-octylthiophene). The growth of infrared active vibrations are followed during oxidation of the copolymer film in monomer-free electrolyte solution and the spectral feature above 2000 cm−1 shows a reversible transformation of the film from the non-conducting to the conducting form when the copolymer is charged and discharged.
Effects of ball milling way and time on the phase formation, particulate morphology, carbon content, and consequent electrode performance of LiFePO4/C composite, prepared by high-energy ball milling of Li2CO3, NH4H2PO4, FeC2O4 raw materials with citric acid as organic carbon source followed by thermal treatment, were investigated. Three ball milling ways and five different milling durations varied from 0 to 8h were compared. LiFePO4/C composites could be obtained from all synthesis processes. TEM examinations demonstrated LiFePO4/C from ball milling in acetone resulted in sphere shape grains with a size of ∼60nm, similar size was observed for LiFePO4/C from dry ball milling but in a more irregular shape. The ball milling in benzene resulted in a much larger size of ∼250nm. The LiFePO4/C composites prepared from dry ball milling and ball milling in acetone showed much better electrochemical performance than that from ball milling in benzene. SEM examinations and BET measurements demonstrated that the high-energy ball milling effectively reduced the grain size. A ball milling for 4h resulted in the best electrochemical performance, likely due to the proper amount of carbon and proper carbon structure were created.
Polyaniline (PANI) as supercapacitor electrode component has received increasing attention due to its high theoretical capacitance, ease of preparation and offers flexibility to fabricate device at low cost. However, PANI suffers from large volume change during doping-dedoping process, and the structural instability becomes more severe at high current and on repetitive cycling, which create challenges in replicating the theoretical capacitance in practical device form. Herein, we demonstrate the fabrication of a PANI based stable and high performance supercapacitor electrode by engineering PANI nano-architecture with NiFe2O4 (NF) nanoparticles. Notably, the optimized composite electrode showed outstanding stability over the pristine PANI electrode for a wide range of charge-discharge current density (1–10 mA/cm2). An all solid state flexible symmetric supercapacitor was fabricated using the optimized composite electrode, which showed high specific and areal capacitance of 334 F/g and 668 mF/cm2 , respectively at 1 mA/cm2 current density. The device also showed excellent cyclic stability with only 1.07 ∗ 10− 3% capacitance loss per cycle for tested >7000 cycles. Noteworthy, the fabricated device showed even higher capacitance when folded and under pressure applied, indicating its suitability to be used in flexible and bendable devices.
Electrolyte additives play an important role in suppressing lithium dendrites through tailoring the composition/property of the SEI, however lacking of additives can achieve high performances both in ether and carbonate electrolytes hinders further enhancement of the high voltage lithium-metal batteries. Here, lithium perchlorate (LiClO4) has been presented as an excellent additive to meet the above requirements. An optimized chemical composition of SEI can be achieved through the formation of ionic association. Our results indicate that the LiClO4 behaves like a catalyst, which promotes LiTFSI to form a better SEI to inhibit further reaction. Superior coulombic efficiencies and cycling performances were obtained both in ether and carbonate electrolytes. This study paves a new pathway for designing bi-soluble additives for safe lithium metal batteries.
Construction of self-supported porous metal sulfide arrays is critical for the development of high-performance electrochemical energy storage devices. Herein we report hierarchical porous Co/FeS2–C core/branch nanowires arrays by the combination of facile solution-based methods. FeS2–C nanoflakes branch is uniformly coated on the Co nanowire core forming composite core/branch arrays. The as-prepared Co/FeS2–C core/branch nanowire arrays possess combined properties of highly porous structure and strong mechanical stability. As cathode of lithium ion batteries, the Co/FeS2–C core/branch nanowire arrays exhibit good electrochemical performances with initial discharge capacity of 850 mAh g−1 at 0.25 °C and stable high-rate cycling life (539 mAh g−1 after 70 cycles at 0.25 °C). The hierarchical core/branch architecture provides positive roles in the enhancement of electrochemical properties, including fast transportation path of electron, short diffusion of ions and high contact area between the active material and electrolyte.
A new camera system is described that, when attached to an existing Haag-Streit–type slitlamp, can provide the photographic needs of the general ophthalmologist or optometrist conveniently and at relatively low cost. It can also be used to economically expand photography in a teaching environment. This photographic documentation is particularly beneficial when integrated into an electronic health record. Financial Disclosure The author has a financial and proprietary interest in the material and method mentioned. Additional disclosure is found in the footnotes.
Especially, during the last decade the demand for portable power is steadily rising due to the increasing wireless products integrated in our day-to-day lives (cellular phone, personal digital assistant (PDA) and of course the remote control for your television set or VCR). These portable consumer electronics are mainly powered by alkaline batteries, and nowadays more and more by rechargeables. Alternative power sources, like fuel cells and photovoltaic cells, can be used in portable consumer electronics, possibly making them more cost-effective, more environmentally and user friendly. For the consumer industry, the opportunities of these other alternative power sources is unknown, and designers are not known with the state-of-the-art of the technology. Opportunities for short-term but especially long-term developments in portable electronics are in that way overlooked. In this paper, the most interesting power sources available will be compared on the basis of power and energy characteristics, and costs. Emerging power sources like fuel cells are a very interesting alternative for the lithium-ion battery, but the road ahead for it is still long when we look at state-of-the-art developments. Other power sources described and compared are: ether-smog, human power, thermo-electric generators, piëzo generators, electro-mechanical devices, photovoltaic cells, micro-fuel cells and micro-combustion engines.
The transition metal hexacyanoferrate (MHCF, M represents as Fe, Co, Ni, et al), has been studied and applied intensively in biosensor, catalysts, ion exchanger, molecular magnets and gas storage, but as yet remains largely unexplored for electrochemical energy storage device. This study shows that NiHCF can be uniformly deposited into the matrix of poly(4-vinylpyridine) grafted onto multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), and forms coaxial NiHCF/MWCNT nanocables with MWCNTs as core and NiHCF as shell. A different NiHCF content was loaded onto MWCNTs, and their electrochemical behavior and capacitive performance were determined. The as-prepared NiHCF/P4VP-g-MWCNT hybrids can possess a huge specific capacitance up to 1035F·g−1 at a discharge density of 0.05A·g−1. These capacitance will decay by 10% at 25.6A·g−1. They remain 92.7% of its initial capacitance at 2A·g−1 after 10000 discharge/charge cycles. Their energy density is nearly 56.2Wh·kg−1 at a power density of 10W·kg−1. Their good electrochemical reversibility, high cyclic stability and excellent capacitive performance suggest a promising use as an advanced material for supercapacitors.
In this paper, an energy management method is proposed for a power-split plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). Through analyzing the PHEV powertrain, a series of quadratic equations are employed to approximate the vehicle's fuel-rate, using battery current as the input. Pontryagin's Minimum Principle (PMP) is introduced to find the battery current commands by solving the Hamiltonian function. Simulated Annealing (SA) algorithm is applied to calculate the engine-on power and the maximum current coefficient. Moreover, the battery state of health (SOH) is introduced to extend the application of the proposed algorithm. Simulation results verified that the proposed algorithm can reduce fuel-consumption compared to charge-depleting (CD) and charge-sustaining (CS) mode.
Biological pacemakers consisting of pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes are potentially useful for treating bradycardia. However, tachyarrhythmia caused by derived cardiomyocytes themselves is one of main barriers hampering their clinical translation. An in-depth understanding of the mechanisms underlying the spontaneous action potential (a.k.a. automaticity) might provide potential approaches to solve this problem. The aim of this project is to study the role of canonical transient receptor potential isoform 7 (TRPC7) channels in regulating the automaticity of embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (ESC-CMs).
Overuse injuries (OI) are common in elite athletics. Previous studies have had athletes self-report injuries rather than having a medical professional provide a clear diagnosis. This might be a major reason for the inconsistencies in reported incident proportions of OI in elite athletics, in addition to the varying definitions of OI in current literature.
We reported on the synthesis, characterization, and photovoltaic/electrochemical properties of Pt/acetylene-black (AB) cathode as well as their application in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs). The Pt/AB electrode was prepared through a thermal decomposition of H2PtCl6 on the AB substrate. SEM and TEM observations showed that the Pt nanoparticles were homogeneously dispersed on the AB surface. The Pt-loading content in the Pt/AB electrode was only about 2.0μgcm−2, which was much lower than 5–10μgcm−2 generally used for the Pt electrode in DSCs. Electrochemical measurements displayed a low charge-transfer resistance of 1.48Ωcm2 for the Pt/AB electrode. Furthermore, when this low-Pt-loading electrode was used as the cathode of DSCs, an overall light-to-electricity energy conversion efficiency of 8.6% was achieved, showing commercially realistic energy conversion efficiency in the application of DSCs.
Glutaronitrile, CN[CH2]3CN, is evaluated as a co-solvent in thermally and (anodically) electrochemically stable electrolyte mixtures suitable for high energy/power Li-ion batteries. Linear sweep voltammetry scans indicate an electrochemical anodic stability of more than 6V versus Li+/Li for the 1M LiTFSI electrolytes. Glutaronitrile and its ethylene carbonate electrolyte solutions show high ionic conductivities and low viscosities reaching 5mScm−1 and 7cP, respectively, at 20°C. Aluminum corrosion tests of the solutions showed an improved protective resistance up to 4.4V. Lithium ion batteries incorporating graphite as an anode and LiCoO2 as the cathode material were assembled using a glutaronitrile electrolyte mixture, whose stability on graphite was greatly enhanced by the use of ethylene carbonate as a co-solvent and Li (bioxalatoborate) (LiBOB) as a co-salt, and these cells showed moderately good discharge capacities with low capacity fade up to the 100th cycle.
Molybdenum nitride and nitrogen-doped graphene nanosheets (MoN/GNS) hybrid materials are synthesized by a simple hydrothermal method combined with a heat treatment at 800°C under an ammonia atmosphere. It is found by scanning and transmission electron microscopy that MoN nanoparticles ranging from 20 to 40nm in diameter are homogeneously anchored to GNS. The electrochemical performance of MoN/GNS as a possible anode material for Li-ion batteries is investigated. Galvanostatic charge/discharge experiments reveal that the hybrid materials exhibit an enhanced lithium storage capacity and excellent rate capacity as a result of its efficient electronic and ionic mixed conducting network. The electrochemical results demonstrate that the weight ratio of GNS and MoN had significant effect on the electrochemical performance.
Keeping in view the vast potential of endophytic fungi to produce bioactive molecules, this study aimed at isolating and screening endophytes for the production of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. Fifty-four endophytic fungi were isolated from Ricinus communis and screened for their AChE inhibitory activity using Ellman’s colorimetric assay method. Six isolates were found to possess AChE inhibitory activity with maximum inhibition of 78 % being evinced by culture Cas1 which was identified to be Alternaria sp. on the basis of molecular as well as microscopic methods. Optimization of inhibitor production was carried out using one factor at a time approach. Maximum production of inhibitor was obtained on potato dextrose broth after 10 days incubation. The IC50 of the chloroform extract was observed to be 40 μg/ml. The extract was purified on silica gel and eluted stepwise with a gradient of chloroform/methanol. The insecticidal potential of the extract was evaluated by feeding the larvae of Spodoptera litura on diet containing varying concentrations of the extract. It was observed that with increase in the concentration of the extract, mortality of the larvae increased. The culture has the potential of being exploited in medicine as well as a biocontrol agent.
Eddy covariance flux towers were used to measure net ecosystem production over three adjacent agricultural fields in Manitoba, Canada, from 2009 to 2011. Two fields were converted from long-term perennial hay/pasture to annual cropping, while the third field served as a control field that was maintained as hay/pasture. One converted field had a rotation of oat–canola–oat crops, while the second was hay–oat–fallow. Weather was an important driver of inter-annual variability, with poor yields on all fields in 2011 because of dry conditions in summer, with the summer-fallow condition on one field caused by excess spring moisture not allowing planting. The cumulative net ecosystem production of the oat–canola–oat field showed a net CO2 emission of 100gCm−2, the hay–oat–fallow field emitted 500gCm−2, and the hay field gained 550gCm−2 by the end of the 30-month study period. The hay field had the highest cumulative gross primary production of 2500gCm−2, whereas the oat–canola–oat and hay–oat–fallow fields had only about 1400gCm−2. The perennial field had the advantage of both early- and late-season growth when crops were absent on the other fields. The hay and hay–oat–fallow fields had comparable cumulative ecosystem respiration (1400gCm−2). Manure additions contributed 300gCm−2 on the two converted fields. With harvest exports and manure additions included, the oat–canola–oat field was a carbon source of 240gCm−2, the hay–oat–fallow field was a source of 415gCm−2, and the hay/pasture field was a sink of 120gCm−2 over the 30-month period.
A grand challenge for using intermittent renewable energy such as solar for baseload applications is large-scale energy storage. Here, we propose an efficient means of implementing carbon recirculation cycles that enable dense energy storage. In these cycles, during the period of renewable energy availability, a suitable carbon molecule is synthesized from the stored liquid carbon dioxide and then stored in a liquid state. Subsequently, when renewable energy is unavailable, the carbon molecule is oxidized to deliver electricity and carbon dioxide is recovered and liquefied for storage. We introduce exergy based metrics to systematically identify candidate carbon molecules for the cycle. Such a search provides us the trade-off between the exergy stored per carbon atom, exergy used to synthesize the molecule and the exergy stored per unit volume. While no carbon molecule simultaneously has the most favorable values for all three metrics, favorable candidates identified include methane, methanol, propane, ethane and dimethyl ether. For cases where the molecule to be stored is gaseous under ambient conditions, we suggest synergistic integration between liquefaction and boilup of this gas and that of recirculating carbon dioxide. This unique feature allows for minimizing the energy penalty associated with the recovery, purification and liquefaction of carbon dioxide and storage of carbon molecules. Using process simulations we show that these cycles have a potential to provide GWh of electricity corresponding to an overall energy storage efficiency of 55–58% at much reduced storage volumes compared to other options.
The enhancement of potential window can be identified as one of the effective pathways to boost the energy density of supercapacitors to break the limitation of practical applications. NiCo2O4 nanosheet networks grown on carbon cloth are prepared via a facile cathodic electrodeposition process with a post-annealing procedure. A neutral electrolyte of mixing 2 M LiSO4 and 0.1 M CoSO4 is employed to enlarge the potential window of the as-prepared NiCo2O4/CC electrode to 0–1.2 V (vs SCE), while the corresponding potential window in alkaline electrolyte is merely 0–0.5 V. Moreover, the NiCo2O4/CC electrode shows an excellent cycling stability of maintaining 129.7% after 10,000 cycles in neutral electrolyte. The quantitative CV kinetic analysis is carried out to explore the charge storage mechanism, manifesting that capacitive contribution is estimated as high as 64.7–81.8% at the sweep rate of 3–10 mV s−1. Results demonstrate that this neutral electrolyte can greatly boost the electrochemical characteristics of the NiCo2O4 electrode and also provide the possibility of achieving better characteristics in the field of energy storage when applied in other battery-type materials.
Silica based materials are important candidates as anodes for lithium ion batteries due to their high specific capacity, low production and material cost and abundance in the earth crust. Silica lithiation leads to reversible and irreversible reactions to produce silicon, lithium oxide and lithium silicates. The final composition of these products confers a variety of electrochemical performances, particularly concerning their specific capacity and stability/cyclability of the electrodes. Knowledge on the thermochemistry of these reactions is relevant to analyze the thermodynamic stability and potential occurrence of the different phases. In this work, the free energy of reaction for the lithiation of silica is calculated for different products. The present first principles studies indicate that the formation of products is a highly exothermic and endergonic process in all cases. In the case of SiO2 lithiation, the free energy shows that the reaction to form Li2Si2O5 is highly exothermic, having the greatest probability of formation. The lithiation potentials and stability of different products are analyzed in the context of experimental results from the literature.