batterydata/battery-device-data-qa huggingface dataset:
Herein, we report a new finding that 3Mg/Mg2Sn alloy can be a promising solution to the aforementioned issues in Sn-based alloy-type MIB anodes. It is shown that 3Mg/Mg2Sn, which is composed of ternary phases (crystalline Mg-rich (c-Mg), amorphous Mg-rich (a-Mg), and intermetallic Mg2Sn phases), reversibly magnesiates/de-magnesiates a significant amount of Mg2+ ions in a non-Grignard and Lewis acid-free electrolyte even under high rates of C/D. In Table 1, the unprecedented electrochemical performance of 3Mg/Mg2Sn is compared with that of other popular alloy-type anodes. The origin of high capacities and excellent rate-capabilities is also discussed in the context of structural features. Finally, we describe the compatibility of 3Mg/Mg2Sn with versatile conventional electrolytes and the optimality of using 3Mg/Mg2Sn with Mg2+-trapping cathodes (e.g., Mo6S8).

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: Mo6S8

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Sn-based alloy-type MIB

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: non-Grignard and Lewis acid-free

Question: What's the anode?
Answer:  alloy-type
To elucidate the practical applicability, HSABs were assembled using metallic Na as the anode immersed in 1 M NaClO4 in TEGDME organic electrolyte, NASICON solid electrolyte as the separator, O2-saturated 0.1 M NaOH aqueous as the aqueous electrolyte, Pt3Ni1/NixFe LDHs, 20% Pt/C, and RuO2 loaded on Ni foam as the cathode (Fig. 1a). During the discharge process, the Na metal on the anode side is oxidized to Na+ and moves into the NaOH aqueous through the NASICON separator, and the ORR simultaneously occurs at the cathode. On charging, the Na+ ions were transported from the aqueous electrolyte into the anode chamber and reduced to metallic Na, together with the concurrent OER at the cathode side.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: RuO2 loaded on Ni foam

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Na

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: 1 M NaClO4 in TEGDME organic electrolyte

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Na metal

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: NASICON solid electrolyte
In the current study, we investigate composite cathodes that combine a NMC cathode (LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2) with amorphous 75Li2S–25P2S5 (LPS) solid electrolyte. The cathode material was coated with an amorphous Li–Zr-oxide (LZO) layer to reduce the reaction between NMC and LPS and to minimize the effect of the chemical instability on the electrochemical performance. SSB cells were constructed with In metal as the anode, a composite of NMC/LPS/carbon nanofiber (CNF) in a weight ratio of 60:35:5 as the cathode, and LPS as the solid electrolyte. All the cells were cycled between 1.4 and 3.7 V vs. In (between 2 and 4.3 V vs. Li/Li+) using constant-current constant-voltage (CCCV) charging and constant-current discharging at a rate of 0.05 mA cm−2. The details of the cell fabrication have been previously reported and are provided in the ESI.†

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: NMC

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: In metal

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: 75Li2S–25P2S5 (LPS)

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2
Lithium conducting garnets are attractive solid electrolytes for solid-state lithium batteries but are difficult to process, generally requiring high reaction and sintering temperatures with long durations. In this work, we demonstrate a synthetic route to obtain Ta-doped garnet (Li6.4La3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12) utilizing La- and Ta-doped lanthanum zirconate (La2.4Zr1.12Ta0.48O7.04) pyrochlore nanocrystals as quasi-single-source precursors. Via molten salt synthesis (MSS) in a highly basic flux, the pyrochlore nanocrystals transform to Li-garnet at reaction temperatures as low as 400 °C. We also show that the pyrochlore-to-garnet conversion can take place in one step using reactive sintering, resulting in densified garnet ceramics with high ionic conductivity (0.53 mS cm−1 at 21 °C) and relative density (up to 94.7%). This approach opens new avenues for lower temperature synthesis of lithium garnets using a quasi-single-source precursor and provides an alternative route to highly dense garnet solid electrolytes without requiring advanced sintering processes.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: Lithium conducting garnets

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: garnet
The Li+ transport kinetics at the solid–solid electrode|electrolyte interfaces are crucial for the stable and durable performance of solid-state batteries (SSBs). A poor interface due to mechanical problems and/or (electro-)chemical instabilities will curtail the performance of such batteries. Herein, we present a detailed study on the interfaces of a lithium–sulfur (Li–S) SSB with a Li anode, Li–garnet (LLZO) solid electrolyte (SE), and a sulfur–carbon composite as the cathode. Interlayer gels based on ionic liquids were introduced to improve the interfacial properties of the system. For Li symmetric cells, the strategy resulted in a decrease in cell resistance by about a factor of five and stable voltage profiles with low overpotentials (∼300 mV at 0.4 mA cm−2 after >450 hours). Furthermore, the LLZO SE efficiently blocked the polysulfide shuttle to the Li anode. Due to the advantageous features of the design, good electrochemical performance was obtained, where the Li–S SSB delivered an initial discharge capacity of ca. 1360 mA h gsulfur−1 and a discharge capacity of ca. 570 mA h gsulfur−1 after 100 cycles. Detailed electrochemical and compositional characterization of the interphase layers was performed at the Li anode and sulfur cathode interfaces through X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), applying depth-profiling techniques, and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The results revealed the presence of interphase nano-layers with varying thicknesses on the LLZO surface which contained organic and inorganic species.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Li

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Li
CV measurements were conducted on an electrochemical workstation (CHI660A, USA) with glassy carbon as the working electrode (CHI104) and lithium metal as both the reference and counter electrode. A Fc/Fc+ redox couple serves as an internal reference (3.2 V vs. Li+/Li). Standard CR2032 coin cells were assembled inside an Ar-filled glovebox with a 2035 Celgard separator. 30 μL electrolyte was added to each coin cell with barely any electrolyte spilled out during cell crimping. Galvanostatic charge–discharge studies were conducted on a battery cycler (CT2001D, LAND Electronics Co., China). Before assembling full cells, the Si–C anodes were assembled into half-cells for pre-lithiation, which can reduce the initial irreversible capacity. All cells went through three formation cycles at 0.05C, 0.1C and 0.2C, respectively, until the current dropped below 0.05C.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Si–C

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Electrides are a unique class of materials, where the electron density is neither localised at an atomic orbital nor fully delocalised like in metals. Instead, their electrons occupy interstitial regions formed by cavities in the crystal structure, where they act as anions. Materials with anionic electrons offer versatile functionalities, such as high electrical conductivity, ultra-low work function, and non-linear optical responses, ranging their applications as electron emitters, battery anodes, and agent catalysts.

Question: What's the anode?

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS) experiments were performed by a Rigaku three pinholes camera, coupled to an Fr-E+ superbright rotating anode microsource (Cu Kα, λ = 0.15405 nm) through a focusing Confocal Max Flux optics (CMF 15-105). Beam diameter was 0.2 mm. Sample-to-detector distance was 28 mm, calibrated by LaB6 powder standard. The sample was raster scanned with a 0.2 mm lateral step, in order to obtain an average pattern from a large crystal volume. 2D WAXS data were centered and calibrated using LaB6 standard and the corresponding 1D WAXS profiles were derived by SUNBIM software.

Question: What's the anode?

Question: What's the electrolyte?
(4) PEC: a typical PEC process (Fig. 9D) could be regarded as a combination of electrocatalysis, photocatalysis and their synergistic effects from mechanism. On one hand, electrocatalysis could generate functional radicals (e.g. ˙OH) to degrade oxidizable contaminants at the anode and reduce others at the cathode. On the other hand, the photocatalysis subprocess excites e−/h+ to degrade the existing pollutants. In particular, the electrons generated by photocatalysis could migrate along the electric field to the counter electrode by the utilized positive potential (Fig. 9D), which contributes to the reduction of photo-generated holes' and electrons' recombination and thus enhancement of photocatalytic performance. In other words, the increase of bias potential would not only enhance the separation of excitons but also elevate the degree of the electrochemical reaction, which would contribute to the acceleration of PEC performance.

Question: What's the cathode?

Question: What's the anode?

Question: What's the electrolyte?
• Challenge: reality often deviates from theory. Because most metal sulfides are electrochemically active, lithium-inserted products are LiyMSx rather than pristine MSx. These materials strongly influence the behaviors of Li–S batteries but have long been overlooked in theoretical calculations. Solvation also plays an important role in triggering the ionization of LiPSs into solvated Li+ (electrolyte) cations and Sn2− (electrolyte) anions. Therefore, relying on the calculated binding energies of Li2Sx species rather than solvated Li+ (electrolyte) cations might lead to misleading results. There remains a need to optimize theoretical models to enhance the rationality and reliability of computation results.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: solvated Li+ (electrolyte) cations and Sn2− (electrolyte) anions

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: solvated Li+ (electrolyte)
Implementability of Mg metal as an anode in magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs) mostly results from the dendrite-free nature of Mg during electrochemical plating/stripping, although it has been recently reported that the dendritic growth of Mg is dependent on the electrolyte nature and current densities. This feature provides potentially significant advantages to battery fabrication and/or electrochemical performance. For example, Mg metal delivers a higher volumetric capacity (3833 mA h cm−3) than either graphite (841 mA h cm−3) or Li metal (2047 mA h cm−3) in lithium-ion batteries, which enables cell designs that are more compact and flexible. The natural abundance of Mg (29k ppm in the Earth’s crust) is an additional benefit, in comparison with the limits of Li as a natural resource. The reversibility of Mg plating/stripping, however, is quite sensitive to the electrolyte system. The passivation of the Mg surface in conventional electrolytes restricts the versatility of utilizable electrolytes. To overcome this problem, various types of specially designed Mg-compatible electrolytes have been introduced during the past few decades: ‘all phenyl complex’ (APC); ‘magnesium aluminum chloride complex’ (MACC); [(DTBP)MgCl + MgCl2] (DTBP = 2,6-di-tert-butylphenolate); and [PhMgCl + MgCl2]. These electrolytes have shown reasonable levels of reversibility for Mg plating/stripping, but the relatively low anodic stability (≤ca. 3.0 V vs. Mg/Mg2+) and/or the difficulty in reaching high coulombic efficiencies remain problematic if MIBs are to move one step closer to commercialization.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Mg metal

Question: What's the electrolyte?
In comparison with MnOx, NiO and Co3O4, TiO2 with lower theoretical capacitance has also been tested as an electrode in SCs. For instance, by using TiO2 nanofibers, activated carbon and a PVA–H3PO4 membrane, a solid-state SC was fabricated, which delivered a specific capacitance of 310 F g−1. Recently, Ta-doped TiO2 nanofibers were synthesized through the electrospinning technique. In 1 M H2SO4, the 2% Ta-doped TiO2 nanofibers could deliver nearly two times higher specific capacitance than the undoped TiO2 counterpart (111 F g−1), which was attributed to the enhanced electronic conductivity of TiO2 stemming from the replacement of Ti4+ by Ta5+ in the lattice after doping. In addition to the most studied metal oxides mentioned above, Fe2O3, V2O5 and CuO have also been applied to SCs as electrodes. The first report on a pure iron oxide electrode composed of particles with sizes of 53 nm has demonstrated a specific capacitance of 256 F g−1 in 1 M LiOH. Recently, both interconnected Fe2O3 and V2O5 nanofibers with rich meso-/macro-pores were obtained via electrospinning and subsequent heat treatment. Owing to the hierarchical porous structure that acts as an excellent conductive highway for efficient electronic transfer and ion permeation, the resultant binder-free Fe2O3 and V2O5 electrodes gave specific capacitances of 255 F g−1 and 256 F g−1, respectively, at 2 mV s−1 in 1 M Na2SO4. Moreover, an all-solid-state ASC based on an Fe2O3 negative electrode and V2O5 positive electrode could be operated at up to 1.8 V and displayed a high energy density of 32.2 W h kg−1 at an average power density of 128.7 W kg−1. In 2012, pure electrospun V2O5 nanofibers with different structures have been synthesized and tested in two studies. These pure electrospun V2O5 nanofibers displayed a capacitance of around 200 F g−1 in both the studies. A high specific capacitance of 620 F g−1 (accounting for ∼35% of their theoretical capacitance) at 2 A g−1 in 6 M KOH was reported by Jose et al. for electrospun CuO nanowires in 2014. In another reference, an ASC device based on electrospun CuO nanowires as the anode and AC as the cathode was constructed and provided an enhanced voltage window (1.6 V), specific capacitance (83 F g−1), and threefold higher energy density (29.5 W h kg−1) than the AC-based symmetric capacitor (1.4 V, 33 F g−1, 11 W h kg−1).

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: AC

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: CuO nanowires
In order to demonstrate their remarkable performance for electrochemical energy storage in portable and wearable electronics, we assembled the flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIBs using the NV NSs@ACC as the cathode together with the Zn NSs@CC anode (deposited Zn nanosheets on CC). Fig. S7a† depicts the crystal structure of Zn NSs@CC, in which all the peaks were in good accordance with those of hexagonal Zn (JCPDS no. 87-0713). Furthermore, the SEM images of Zn NSs@CC are illustrated in Fig. S7b.† It is clearly observed that the Zn nanosheets are uniformly grown on CC. The cycling performance of the as-assembled flexible ZIB at 0.2 A g−1 is depicted in Fig. 6a. The device achieves an initial discharge capacity of 121 mA h g−1 and a reversible capacity of 91 mA h g−1 can be maintained after 50 cycles. Furthermore, it can deliver a specific capacity of 60 mA h g−1 and maintain a stable capacity of 52 mA h g−1 after 1000 cycles with excellent coulombic efficiency (∼100%) at a high current density of 1.0 A g−1 (Fig. 6b), which can be ascribed to the stable 2D ultrathin nanosheets structure and the free-standing feature. The flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIB device was bent into three mechanical states to further evaluate its flexibility (Fig. 6c). As presented in Fig. 6d and e, there are no evident changes in the EIS spectra and capacity decline (>92% retention) under different bending states, demonstrating the extraordinary structural durability of our flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIB devices. As a demonstration of the practical application, two series-connected devices were shown to successfully illuminate a red light-emitting diode (LED, 1.8 V) (inset of Fig. 6e). These significant results indicate that this flexible quasi-solid-state ARZIB device holds potential promise for powering future portable and wearable electronics.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: NV NSs@ACC

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Zn NSs@CC
(4) Photoelectrocatalysis (PEC): PEC is a special electricity-driven photocatalytic process which could be regarded as a combination of electrocatalysis and photocatalysis. In a typical PEC cell, the photocatalysts are usually immobilized on a conductive substrate as the anode and a bias potential as well as continuous illumination are then applied to the prepared anode to generate functional radicals to remove the contaminants. In particular, it should be mentioned that the separation of photo-induced charge carriers could be significantly enhanced by the utilized bias potential since the electrons generated by photocatalysis follow the electric field to the cathode, which contributes to the reduction of the recombination rate. As a result, the photoelectrocatalytic method would significantly promote the degradation efficiency of the titanate materials. For example, Chang et al. synthesized a Cu2O/titanate composite for photocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic degradation of ibuprofen. The results indicated that the pseudo-first rate constant could be increased from 0.804 h−1 for photocatalysis to 2.28 h−1 for PEC. Finally, the morphology modulation, trap doping and compositing strategies were also extensively applied in PEC to further enhance the separation of charge carriers, for example, layer stacking (morphology modulation), Fe-modification (trap doping) and ZnO compositing (compositing) could significantly improve the PEC performance compared to that of pristine titanate characterized by the increased photocurrent under illumination.

Question: What's the cathode?

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: photocatalysts
Utilization of ceramic SE based separators is also an interesting strategy that can potentially solve problems associated with the S cathode and Li anode. Thanks to their high shear modulus, both the polysulfide shuttle and the Li dendrite growth can be mechanically suppressed. Among various inorganic ceramic SEs, Li–garnet (LLZO) is of particular interest since it offers a relatively high (electro)-chemical stability with Li metal, a much wider potential window compared to other SEs, and a high shear modulus (61 GPa for LLZO; 4.2 GPa for Li). However, the surface impurities/roughness and brittle nature of LLZO SE restrict its intimate contact with Li and other solid-state cathode materials. With S as the cathode material, the electrode/electrolyte integration will be even more challenging considering the enormous volumetric expansion during the conversion reaction with Li. In this regard, surface modification strategies including the use of thin nanometric layer coatings, and 3D interfacial architectures, or the implementation of polymer, gel and liquid interlayers have been used to keep the electrode|SE contacts intact and stabilize the interfacial ionic transport. Using Li ion conducting gel/liquid interlayers instead of using solid interlayers may prove to be an even better strategy due to their inherent tendency to penetrate through the porous structures and hence to access a greater surface area of the composite cathode.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: S

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Li

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: S
For the emerging potassium-ion energy storage technology, the major challenge is seeking suitable electrode materials with a robust structure and fast kinetics for the reversible insertion/desertion of potassium ions. Here, a pseudocapacitive core–shell heterostructure of titanium oxide/carbon confined into N, P, and S co-doped carbon (TiO2/C@NPSC) is obtained by pyrolyzing a metal–organic framework (MOF) precursor of MIL-125 (Ti) modified by poly(cyclotriphosphazene-co-4,4′-sulfonyldiphenol) polymer. The distinctive structure of TiO2/C@NPSC can effectively buffer the volume variation of TiO2 nano-grains during the charge/discharge process, increase the electron/charge transfer, provide abundant active sites, and boost the pseudocapacitive-dominated K+-storage. Consequently, the TiO2/C@NPSC anode displays superior cyclability and fast kinetics behavior. Upon integrating it with a high capacitance activated carbon cathode derived from another MOF precursor, the as-built potassium-ion hybrid capacitor achieves a high-energy density of 114 W h kg−1 and a power output of 21 kW kg−1. Moreover, in a wide working potential window of 0–4.2 V, the device also maintains over 91.6% of its initial capacity after 10000 cycles, showing a superior cycle stability. Our results are conducive to understanding the importance of anode-engineering for designing advanced PIHCs.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: carbon

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: TiO2/C@NPSC
For the former, metal Ni and Cu are the common conductivity improvers and can be introduced into the sulfur cathode through a straightforward addition and/or interfusion. For example, Manthiram's group presented a pie-like electrode that consists of nickel foam as a “filling” and an outer carbon shell as a “crust” for facilitating the utilization of sulfur cathodes. Copper powder was introduced into the sulfur cathode by Jia et al. through partially replacing the sulfur contained active material with Cu during the manufacture procedure of the working electrode. Very similarly, Guo and coworkers recently reported the preparation of a CNT/graphene–S–Al3Ni2 cathode with a 3D network structure using 10 wt% Al3Ni2 powder to displace the CNT/graphene–S active material, where the Al in the Al3Ni2 provides an efficient channel for fast electron and ion transfer in the three dimensions, especially along the vertical direction of the cathode. Furthermore, Zheng et al. demonstrated a copper-stabilized sulfur–microporous carbon composite synthesized by uniformly dispersing 10% highly electronically conductive Cu nanoparticles into microporous carbon (MC), followed by wet-impregnation of S. To obtain highly dispersed Cu, commercial MC with a high surface area is first selected as the matrix and carrier. An ultrasonic-assisted multiple wetness impregnation and synchro-dry method is then applied to load 50% Cu(NO3)2 ethanol alcohol solution in MC and evaporate the solvent. This process is repeated until a certain amount of Cu(NO3)2 is added to MC. Finally, Cu nanoparticles anchored in the MC are gained by the reduction of the dry precursor at 200 °C for 1 h under an argon mixed with 5% hydrogen environment. Interestingly, the Cu content in MC can be easily adjusted by controlling the amount of Cu(NO3)2 addition via impregnation times.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: CNT/graphene–S–Al3Ni2

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: sulfur