batterydata/battery-device-data-qa huggingface dataset:
From the linear relationship of Ip and ν0.5 (Fig. S13†), (cathodic peak at 2.3 V), (cathodic peak at 1.9 V), and (anodic peak at 2.4 V) were obtained. The DLi+ values of the Co5.47Nx/S cathode were 219.9, 14.8, and 31.5 × 10−15 cm2 s−1 for peak A, B, and C, respectively. Importantly, the DLi+ of peak A of Co5.47Nx/S was up to four fold that of the Co5.47N/S cathode (48.6, 18.1, and 18.1 × 10−15 cm2 s−1 for peak A, B, and C, respectively), as plotted in Fig. 6d. The adsorption efficacy of cobalt nitride is attributed to its strong chemical interaction with LiPSs through both Co–S and N–Li bonds. The strong Li–N bonding in Co5.47N without nitrogen vacancies impedes direct electron transfer to the LiPSs and delays Li+ diffusion, resulting in sluggish reaction kinetics. Compared with Co5.47N, Co5.47Nx with nitrogen vacancies has a lower N content, which leads to decreased N–Li bonding and accelerated Li+ transportation. The cycling stability of Co5.47Nx and Co5.47N was evaluated at a current density of 0.5C, and the results are shown in Fig. S14.† After 200 cycles, the Co5.47Nx electrode showed a capacity retention of 85%, which was higher than the 76% for the Co5.47N electrode without nitrogen vacancies. These results suggest that Co5.47Nx facilitates Li+ transportation through its hierarchical structure and nitrogen vacancies, resulting in promising cycling and rate capacity.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer:  Co5.47Nx/S

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: Co5.47N/S
To summarize, multiple organic-based active materials showed promising characteristics in potassium-based batteries. Their capacities and potentials are typically less attractive than those of the state-of-the-art inorganic analogs, but the demonstrated rate and cycle capabilities make them highly competitive. There are still plenty of opportunities to improve the characteristics of the organic-based compounds using the truly unlimited diversity of molecular structures and tunability of their properties via functional group substitution. New advanced cathode and anode materials can be developed via rational molecular design, morphology optimization, engineering conductive fillers, and tuning the electrolyte composition.

Question: What's the cathode?

Question: What's the anode?

Question: What's the electrolyte?
The electrochemical performance of LTO electrodes coated with various materials was evaluated by linear sweep voltammetry (Fig. 3). Hydrogen evolution began at ∼1.8 V vs. Li on the pristine LTO surface, which was higher than its lithiation potential (1.55 V). The HER process (rather than lithiation of LTO) dominated the cathodic reaction during the scan. The carbon coating enhanced the electronic conductivity of LTO, thus accelerating the HER (as evidenced by the higher currents and positively shifted HER potential). The TiO2 coating also positively shifted the cathodic limit due to its high catalytic activity. In contrast, the ZnO coating and Al2O3 costing negatively shifted the cathodic limit potential by 0.1 V. In addition, the HER currents on the ZnO-coated and Al2O3-coated LTO electrode were much lower compared with those on pristine LTO. The capability of HER suppression as quantified by the onset potential of the HER should increase in the order TiO2 < carbon < LTO < ZnO < Al2O3, which was consistent with the prediction in Fig. 1. The Al2O3 coating not only suppressed the HER catalytic activity but also acted as a kinetic barrier to slow down electron transfer from the electrode bulk to protons in the electrolyte. Al2O3 coating shifted the HER potential to <1.5 V, so Li+ intercalation was enabled before the HER, as evidenced by a sharp lithiation peak at 1.55 V (Fig. 4a). Using a similar approach, we also evaluated the effect of surface coating on the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Al2O3 coating and TiO2 coating on LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 reduced the side reactions on this high-voltage (4.8 V) cathode material only slightly (Fig. S3†).

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4

Question: What's the electrolyte?
As ideal self-template precursor, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with regular compositions can be converted into porosity-tunable materials with a uniform distribution of metal-based components and carbon. The nano-sized metal-based components sustaining the framework of MOFs are able to curtail the distance of ion diffusion and create more electrolyte-accessible sites. Porous carbon, derived from decomposition of the organic linkers, can efficiently alleviate the volume variation of the metal-based components during the ion insertion/extraction process, and it can also reinforce electron transmission. In addition, the incorporation of heteroatoms can be easily realized by the modification of organic linkers in MOFs. Recently, some studies have reported that MOF-derived nanocomposites are promising anode materials for LIHCs and SIHCs, and they can facilitate boosting the pseudocapacitive-dominant charge storage as well as maintain the structure stability.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: MOF-derived nanocomposites

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Herein, we fabricated two artificial SEIs on Na metal anodes via similar chemical replacement reactions between Na metal and SnCl4 liquid or SnCl2 additive dissolved in diethylene glycol dimethyl ether (DGM). According to X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) depth-profiling results, the SnCl4 liquid treatment leads to a uniform and high ionic diffusion artificial SEI consisting of a simultaneously generated Na–Sn alloy and NaCl, whereas the SnCl2 additive results in a disordered and heterogeneous artificial SEI (Na–Sn alloy, NaCl, Sn metal, organo-chloride, ROCO2Na and RCH2ONa) due to the heterogeneous reaction between the Na metal anode and SnCl2/DGM solvent. It is found that the cycling performance of the SnCl4–Na electrodes is highly superior to that of the SnCl2–Na electrodes, which is mainly ascribed to the uniformity and ionic diffusion distinction of the two artificial SEIs. The importance of homogeneous and high ionic diffusion properties for the artificial SEI is also demonstrated by simulation results. Overall, the artificial SEI of SnCl4–Na electrodes can afford three key advantages: (i) the simple and controllable fabrication leads to a homogeneous artificial SEI consisting of uniformly distributed Na–Sn alloy and NaCl, avoiding the non-uniform products caused by the side reactions that commonly exist in electrolyte additive methods; (ii) both Na–Sn alloy and NaCl possess much higher diffusion coefficients than organic components (ROCO2Na and RCH2ONa) and conventional SEIs, enabling fast ion diffusion and restraining the initiation of Na dendrites; (iii) the high Young's moduli of the Na–Sn alloy and NaCl can also help suppress the growth of Na dendrites. With the above excellent properties, the SnCl4–Na electrode provides an ultralong cycling stability with a stable voltage polarization (∼100 mV) for 4000 h with a cycling capacity of 3 mA h cm−2 at 2 mA cm−2. Moreover, the SnCl4–Na electrode also shows excellent cycling stability for ∼1500 h even under rather tough conditions (5 mA h cm−2, 5 mA cm−2). In addition, benefiting from the durable SEI layer, a SnCl4–Na|FeS2 full cell can deliver a stable capacity of ∼350 mA h g−1 for 380 cycles.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Na metal

Question: What's the electrolyte?

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Na metal
In this work, we carry out classical reactive molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for studying the initial formation of SEI films occurring by Li oxidation and simultaneous decomposition of electrolyte (salt and solvent) molecules in the liquid phase in contact with the Li-metal electrode. We use lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) as a salt because its reductive decomposition has been pointed as critical on the SEI formation and lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (lithium triflate or LiTF) that has shown interesting performance in various systems. We study the behavior of the various system components (i.e. Li-metal anode slab, and salt and solvent molecules) when the electrolyte solution is put in contact with the Li metal surface. We follow the evolution of various events including the lithium metal expansion/dissolution, salt and solvent decomposition, and initial nucleation of the SEI intermediates and products as well as the electron exchange among the species. We aim to identify the effects of electrolyte composition on the Li-metal anode behavior and the SEI formation and growth at open circuit conditions. We focus only on the initial stages of SEI formation, concentrated in a specific part of the battery system, and do not examine the Li deposition events occurring when an ionic flux arrives at the anode during charge, and the effects of an applied field. To gain further understanding of the structures and mechanisms of the initial stages of SEI formation, density functional theory (DFT) calculations on initial Li–F were used to evaluate SEI fragments observed in MD simulations. Once optimized structures of such fragments are obtained, we investigated the fragment clustering processes found at initial stages of SEI nucleation. These simulations provide preliminary estimations for the energies of formation and clustering of LiF fragments.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Li-metal

Question: What's the electrolyte?

Question: What's the anode?
Answer:  Li-metal
Driven by the urgent demand for electrical energy storage in electric vehicles, rechargeable devices with high energy densities and long cycle life continue to attract great interest. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have attracted increasing attention over the past few decades owing to many merits, including high energy density, no memory effect, and good safety. However, making further improvements in their energy density whilst maintaining high safety remains highly challenging, inhibiting the scale-up of their applications. Developing new electrode materials is one of the most efficient ways to achieve LIBs with high energy and high safety. Silicon (Si) is considered to be a promising replacement for the graphite anodes in conventional LIBs, due to its ultrahigh specific capacity (4200 mA h g−1, ten times that of graphite), low working potential (ca. 0.4 V versus Li+/Li), natural abundance, high safety and environmentally benign nature. Unfortunately, Si has a low intrinsic electronic conductivity and this restricts charge transfer within Si anodes during the charge–discharge process. Moreover, the large volume change (>300%) of the Si anode during the lithiation/delithiation process leads to drastic particle pulverization and uncontrollable growth of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), leading to electrical contact loss between the active materials themselves or the active materials and current collectors. All these inherent problems lead to Si anodes having poor rate performance, low coulombic efficiency (CE) and fast capacity decay on cycling.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: graphite

Question: What's the electrolyte?

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Si
Garnet-structured oxide electrolytes (Li7La3Zr2O12, LLZO) have significant advantage of being chemically and electrochemically stable against Li metals and allow implementation in Li metal batteries. However, a short-circuit failure due to Li penetration through the LLZO electrolyte has remained a crucial issue for safety and is a major hurdle for Li-based batteries to overcome. In, we investigated a mechanism of Li dendrite formation for the crystalline Ta-doped LLZO (LLZTO) electrolyte by examining their energy band structures and defect states using reflection electron energy loss spectroscopy (REELS), scanning photoelectron microscopy (SPEM), and nanoscale charge-based deep level transient spectroscopy (Nano Q-DLTS) techniques. The experimental results revealed that the Schottky barrier height (SBH) was lowered by 0.5 eV due to defect states localized in grain boundaries and that the metallic Li propagation along the grain boundaries is caused by the SBH reduction. Based on analytical results, the laser annealing of LLZTO was performed via bandgap engineering method to suppress the Li dendrite formation by forming a mixed surface layer of amorphous LLZTO and Li2O2, which has a wide bandgap to block the electron injection into the grain boundaries. The electrochemical measurements of laser-treated LLZTO demonstrated that the stability and cycling performance were significantly improved. This study sheds light on the importance of electronic structure, in particular, the defect states to develop high-performance oxide solid electrolytes for Li metal batteries and the practicality of surface modification by laser treatment.

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: (Li7La3Zr2O12, LLZO)

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: LLZO (LLZTO)
Electrochemical testing was performed in a 2032 coin-type cell using Na metal (Sigma Aldrich, USA) as the anode. Electrodes were fabricated by blending the prepared cathode powders (85 wt%), carbon black (10 wt%), and polyvinylidene fluoride (5 wt%) in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (Daejung Chem, Korea). The slurry was then cast on aluminum foil (Hohsen Corp., Japan) and pre-dried at 110 °C in an oven. Then, the electrode was further dried at 110 °C for 5 h in a vacuum oven, and the disks were punched out of the foil. The electrolyte solution was 0.5 M NaPF6 (Tokyo Chemical Industry, Japan) in a 1:1 volumetric mixture of ethylene carbonate (Sigma Aldrich, USA) and diethyl carbonate (Sigma Aldrich, USA) with 2 vol% fluoroethylene carbonate (Tokyo Chemical Industry, Japan). All cells were prepared in an Ar-filled glovebox (MBRAUN, Germany). The fabricated cathodes and sodium metal anodes were separated by a glass fiber (Advantec, USA) to prevent short circuiting. The loading amount of the active material for all electrodes was 3.0–4.0 mg cm−2 in the coin-type half-cell. The cells were typically tested in the constant current mode, within the voltage range of 2.0–4.3 V versus Na/Na+, where 1C = 150 mA g−1. For the full-cell test, pouch-type (3 × 5 cm) cells were fabricated and tested in the voltage range of 1.0–4.1 V at 15 mA g−1 at 25 °C. The loading amount of the active material was 9.5–10.0 mg cm−2. The anode was fabricated by blending hard carbon (provided by Aekyung Petrochemical, Korea) (80 wt%), carbon black (3 wt%), and polyvinylidene fluoride (17 wt%). The resulting slurry was covered over copper foil and dried at 110 °C for 5 h in a vacuum oven. The full cell balance was achieved by controlling the capacity ratio of anode to cathode (N/P ratio) at 1.15:1.

Question: What's the cathode?

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Na metal

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: 0.5 M NaPF6
Herein, a Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery was proposed and studied for the first time. The unique NASICON structure of monoclinic LiV2(PO4)3 facilitated Li+ diffusion, ensuring superior rate capability and low-temperature performance of the battery. However, the short shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries hinders their practical applications. The shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary batteries was improved by optimizing the electrolyte composition. It was found that the corrosion of the Al foil triggered by the organic radical cations generated from the electrochemical oxidation of EC at high potentials leads to the self-discharge of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery. When EC was replaced by PC, the corrosion of the Al foil was alleviated, and the shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery was significantly improved. However, the loss of capacity still occurred after storage, which is ascribed to the oxidation decomposition of the electrolyte on the surface of the LiV2(PO4)3 cathode. A slow two-phase transition process from the LiV2(PO4)3 phase to the Li3V2(PO4)3 phase with the reduction of V4+ to low-valence V was characterized by the in situ XRD of the LiV2(PO4)3 cathode during its storage; this process was accompanied by the spontaneous insertion of Li back into LiV2(PO4)3. It was found that LiBOB as an additive effectively helps to improve the shelf life of the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery by alleviating the side reaction between LiV2(PO4)3 and electrolyte according to the XPS results, 100% of capacity could be maintained after one-month storage. Meanwhile, the Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery exhibited superior rate capability and low-temperature performance: 86% energy could be maintained at 50C and 63% energy could be maintained at −40 °C and 0.1C, which was substantially better than the performance of the Li/MnO2 primary battery. Thus, our Li/LiV2(PO4)3 primary battery is an ideal candidate for applications in extreme situations.

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer:  LiV2(PO4)3

Question: What's the electrolyte?

Question: What's the cathode?
Answer: LiV2(PO4)3
The use of Mg-alloyable metallic anodes is another promising approach to enhancing the viability of MIBs. This is mainly because the Mg alloying/dealloying process occurs slightly above the Mg plating/stripping potentials, and the surface passivation problems of Mg in conventional electrolytes is expected to be alleviated to a great extent. Indeed, reversible Mg alloying/dealloying behavior on bismuth has been confirmed in conventional electrolytes by several researchers (e.g., Bi nanoparticles in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/acetonitrile; Bi nanotubes in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme; and Bi nanocrystals in Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme). Bi anodes have shown reasonable cyclability and rate performance in a nanometric form. Mg-alloyable Sn was also studied for use as MIB anodes. Sn can deliver a higher specific capacity than Bi (903 mA h g−1 for Sn + 2Mg2+ + 4e− → Mg2Sn and 385 mA h g−1 for 2Bi + 3Mg2+ + 6e− → Mg3Bi2) and can alloy/dealloy Mg at a lower potential than Bi (0.15 and 0.25 V vs. Mg/Mg2+ for Sn and Bi, respectively). Despite the theoretical prediction that nanometric Sn can act as a high-capacity MIB anode, pure Sn has shown limited electrochemical performance. For example, though pure Sn delivered a capacity of ca. 900 mA h g−1 during the 1st magnesiation (complete conversion of Sn to Mg2Sn), the capacity abruptly dropped to ca. 200–300 mA h g−1 after the 1st magnesiation, and continuously declined with repeated charge/discharge (C/D). Furthermore, pure Sn often requires the application of potentials close to, or even lower than, the thermodynamic Mg plating potential for the activation of an alloying process.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Bi

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/acetonitrile

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Mg-alloyable Sn

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: Mg(N(SO2CF3)2)2/diglyme
The plating and stripping behaviors of the LiF@Po–Li electrodes are observed by SEM after the Li deposition of 1 mA h cm−2 at a current density of 0.5 mA cm−2 with an EC/DEC:3/7, 1.3 M LiPF6, and 5 wt% FEC electrolyte (Fig. 3). All the electrochemical experiments are performed with carbonate-based electrolytes. It has been well known that the ether-based electrolytes, especially the DME/DOL system, exhibit better electrochemical properties compared to carbonate-based electrolytes in LMBs thanks to their stable SEI layer formation and more freedom to choose additives. However, the ether-based electrolyte is not suitable for various commercial cathode material due to its instability above 4.0 V vs. Li/Li+. In this regard, carbonated-based electrolytes should be explored for their electrochemical properties in upcoming high energy density LMBs. The electrodes are washed with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) to remove residual salts before SEM observation. The Li metal plated on the bare Li electrode shows a mossy, porous and dendritic morphology with an 11.8 μm thickness and 59% porosity (Fig. 3a, b and ESI Note 1†). In contrast, the Li metal plated on the LiF@Po–Li electrode exhibits a smooth and film-like morphology with significantly reduced porosity (Fig. 3c, d and S7†). The cross-sectional view of the LiF@Po–Li electrode after plating clearly shows that a 6.8 μm-thick dense Li film is deposited on the LiF@Po–Li electrode with 28% porosity (Fig. 3d). The stripping behavior is also monitored. As shown in Fig. 3e and f, the bare Li electrode has high-density craters with sizes ranging from 10 μm to 50 μm after the Li stripping. This non-uniform surface morphology is attributed to the localized current density caused by the inhomogeneous SEI layer. In contrast, the LiF@Po–Li electrode has a smooth and conformal surface without noticeable holes over a large area after Li stripping (Fig. 3g and h). This improvement in plating and stripping behaviors of Li is attributed to the LiF@Po protective layer, which enables a uniform Li ion concentration and current density over the Li electrode by suppressing the electrolyte decomposition.

Question: What's the cathode?

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer:  5 wt% FEC

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: carbonate-based
For the half-cell tests, the electrochemical properties were evaluated using a CR2032 corn-type cell. The cells were prepared in an Ar-filled glove box with H2O and O2 concentrations <0.1 ppm. Si@CTSC, Si@ALGC, Si@PVDFC and Si/PVDF were used as the anodes (diameter: 14 mm), and Li metal foil was used as the counter electrodes (thickness: 300 μm and diameter: 12 mm). A Celgard 2400 polypropylene membrane was used as the separator. The electrolyte was 1 M LiPF6 in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC) (1:1:1 by vol) with 5 wt% fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC). The electrolyte amount was 5 g A h−1. The electrochemical tests were carried out after letting the assembled cells stand for 24 hours to ensure full infiltration of the electrolyte. The GCD measurements were carried on a Land CT2001A system from 0.01 to 2.5 V. CV measurements were performed with sweep rates from 0.2 to 1.2 mV s−1 using a CHI660E work station. The frequency for the EIS measurements ranged from 100 kHz to 10 mHz. GITT tests were carried out using a constant current pulse with a duration of 10 min and a relaxation process over 10 min.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: Si@CTSC, Si@ALGC, Si@PVDFC and Si/PVDF

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: 1 M LiPF6
(2) A Ti metal precursor is anodized in an alkali electrolyte (e.g. NaOH and Ba(OH)2 solutions). The alkaline anodization (Fig. 6B) could be considered an electro-assisted hydrothermal-like process with 2 stages where TiO2·2H2O anodized from the titanium anode reacts with the hot alkaline surroundings generated by a continuous electric field. In the first stage, a fast anodic reaction on the titanium surface creates a thin TiO2·2H2O nanosheet layer (eqn (1) and (2)) which would react with alkali to form titanate nanowire bundles on the titanium anode (eqn (3)). In particular, it should be mentioned that the OH− concentration should be above 4 M to ensure the formation of titanate rather than titania. In the second stage, the anodized TiO2·2H2O would also break down and disperse into the electrolyte to form a 3D hierarchical porous structure with a large specific surface area.

Question: What's the anode?
Answer:  titanium

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: alkali

Question: What's the anode?
Answer: titanium

Question: What's the electrolyte?
Answer: (e.g. NaOH and Ba(OH)2 solutions)