Question: On War Against the Turk was a book written during the critical period marked by the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire to capture the city of what?

Context paragraphs:
Background of the Greek War of Independence: The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the subsequent fall of the successor states of the Eastern Roman Empire marked the end of Byzantine sovereignty.  Since then, the Ottoman Empire ruled the Balkans and Anatolia, although there were some exceptions: the Ionian Islands were under British rule, and Ottoman authority was challenged in mountainous areas, such as Agrafa, Sfakia, Souli, Himara and the Mani Peninsula.  Orthodox Christians were granted some political rights under Ottoman rule, but they were considered inferior subjects.  The majority of Greeks were called "rayas" by the Turks, a name that referred to the large mass of subjects in the Ottoman ruling class.  Meanwhile, Greek intellectuals and humanists who had migrated west before or during the Ottoman invasions began to compose orations and treatises calling for the liberation of their homeland.  In 1463, Demetrius Chalcondyles called on Venice and “"all of the Latins"” to aid the Greeks against the Ottomans, he composed orations and treatises calling for the liberation of Greece from what he called “the abominable, monstrous, and impious barbarian Turks.”  In the 17th century, Greek scholar Leonardos Philaras spent much of his career in persuading Western European intellectuals to support Greek independence.  However, Greece was to remain under Ottoman rule for several more centuries.  In the 18th and 19th century, as revolutionary nationalism grew across Europe—including the Balkans (due, in large part, to the influence of the French Revolution)—the Ottoman Empire's power declined and Greek nationalism began to assert itself, with the Greek cause beginning to draw support not only from the large Greek merchant diaspora in both Western Europe and Russia but also from Western European Philhellenes.  This Greek movement for independence, was not only the first movement of national character in Eastern Europe, but also the first one in a non-Christian environment, like the Ottoman Empire.

Language exposure for deaf children: Language exposure is the act of making language readily available to children during the critical early years of language learning.  The theory of the critical period for language exposure states that there is a certain window where children are able to and must learn a first language, or multiple languages.  This exposure allows the brain to fully develop linguistic skills and leads to language fluency and comprehension later in life.  Much of the research on language exposure, the critical period, and language acquisition are based on spoken languages and children who are hearing.  In reality, these same ideas translate to deaf children as well.  Language exposure is essential during the critical period for language acquisition for "all" children.  Unfortunately, deaf children tend to face more hardships when it comes to ensuring that they will receive this input of language in formative years.

Ottoman decline thesis: The Ottoman decline thesis or Ottoman decline paradigm (Turkish: "Osmanlı Gerileme Tezi" ) refers to a now-obsolete historical narrative which had once been used to explain the history of the Ottoman Empire.  According to the Decline Thesis, following a golden age associated with the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566), the empire gradually entered into a period of all-encompassing stagnation and decline from which it was never able to recover, lasting until the empire's dissolution in 1923.  This thesis was used throughout most of the twentieth century as the basis of both Western and Republican Turkish understanding of Ottoman history.  However, by 1978, historians had begun to reexamine the fundamental assumptions of the Decline Thesis.  After the publication of numerous new studies throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, and the reexamination of Ottoman history through the use of previously untapped sources and methodologies, academic historians of the Ottoman Empire achieved a consensus that the entire notion of Ottoman decline was a myth – that in fact, the Ottoman Empire did not stagnate or decline at all, but rather continued to be a vigorous and dynamic state long after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent.  The Decline Thesis has been criticized as "teleological," "regressive," "Orientalist," "simplistic," and "one-dimensional," and described as "a concept which has no place in historical analysis."  Scholars have thus "learned better than to discuss [it]."

Abdulmejid I: Abdülmecid I (Ottoman Turkish: عبد المجيد اول "‘Abdü’l-Mecīd-i evvel"; 23/25 April 182325 June 1861), also known as Abdulmejid and similar spellings, was the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and succeeded his father Mahmud II on 2 July 1839.  His reign was notable for the rise of nationalist movements within the empire's territories.  Abdulmejid wanted to encourage Ottomanism among the secessionist subject nations and stop the rise of nationalist movements within the empire, but failed to succeed despite trying to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into Ottoman society with new laws and reforms.  He tried to forge alliances with the major powers of Western Europe, namely the United Kingdom and France, who fought alongside the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War against Russia.  In the following Congress of Paris on 30 March 1856, the Ottoman Empire was officially included among the European family of nations.  Abdulmejid's biggest achievement was the announcement and application of the Tanzimat "(reorganization)" reforms which were prepared by his father and effectively started the modernization of the Ottoman Empire in 1839.  For this achievement, one of the Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire, the March of Abdulmejid, was named after him.

Critical period: In developmental psychology and developmental biology, a critical period is a maturational stage in the lifespan of an organism during which the nervous system is especially sensitive to certain environmental stimuli.  If, for some reason, the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical period" to learn a given skill or trait, it may be difficult, ultimately less successful, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life.  Functions that are indispensable to an organism's survival, such as vision, are particularly likely to develop during critical periods.  "Critical period" also relates to the ability to acquire one's first language.  Researchers found that people who passed the "critical period" would not acquire their first language fluently.

Siege of Vienna: The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, to capture the city of Vienna, Austria.  The siege signalled the pinnacle of the Ottoman Empire's power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe.  Thereafter, 150 years of bitter military tension and reciprocal attacks ensued, culminating in the Battle of Vienna of 1683, which marked the start of the 15-year-long Great Turkish War.

General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire: The General Assembly (Turkish: "Meclis-i Umumî" or "Genel Parlamento") of the Ottoman Empire was the first attempt at representative democracy at the imperial level in the Ottoman Empire.  Also known as the Ottoman Parliament, it was composed of two houses, an upper house (Senate, "Meclis-i Âyân"), and a lower house (Chamber of Deputies, "Meclis-i Mebusân").  It was first constituted in 1876, and initially lasted until 1878, when the general assembly was dissolved by Abdul Hamid II.  It was revived in the Second Constitutional Era with substantial reforms and participation by political parties, and lasted through the Allied occupation of Constantinople until 1922, when the empire was dissolved.

Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire: Beginning from the late eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire faced challenges defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation.  In response to foreign threats, the empire initiated a period of tremendous internal reform which came to be known as the Tanzimat, which succeeded in significantly strengthening the Ottoman central state, despite the empire's precarious international position.  Over the course of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater degree of influence over its population than in any previous era.  The process of reform and modernization in the empire began with the declaration of the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) during the reign of Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane in 1839 and the Hatt-ı Hümayun in 1856.  At the end of this period, marked with 1908, to a degree the Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized according to the model of Western European Armies.  The period was followed by defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922).

Partition of the Ottoman Empire: The partition of the Ottoman Empire (Armistice of Mudros, 30 October 1918 – Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate, 1 November 1922) was a political event that occurred after World War I and the occupation of Constantinople by British, French and Italian troops in November 1918.  The partitioning was planned in several agreements made by the Allies early in the course of World War I, notably the Sykes-Picot Agreement.  As world war loomed, the Ottoman Empire sought protection but was rejected by Britain, France, and Russia, and finally formed the Ottoman–German Alliance.  The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states.  The Ottoman Empire had been the leading Islamic state in geopolitical, cultural and ideological terms.  The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire led to the rise in the Middle East of Western powers such as Britain and France and brought the creation of the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey.  Resistance to the influence of these powers came from the Turkish national movement but did not become widespread in the post-Ottoman states until after World War II.

On War Against the Turk: On War Against the Turk (German: "Vom Kriege wider die Türken") was a book written by Martin Luther in 1528 and published in 1529.  It was one of several pamphlets and sermons by Martin Luther about Islam and resistance to the Ottoman Empire, during the critical period of territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, marked by the capture of Buda in 1526 and the Siege of Vienna in 1529.

Supporting paragraphs: On War Against the Turk Siege of Vienna
Answer: Vienna, Austria