label,species,text,pmid
1,6978,"Nociceptive Pathway in the Cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Detecting and avoiding environmental threats such as those with a potential for injury is of crucial importance for an animal's survival. In this work, we examine the nociceptive pathway in an insect, the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END], from detection of noxious stimuli to nocifensive behavior. We show that noxious stimuli applied to the cuticle of cockroaches evoke responses in sensory axons that are distinct from tactile sensory axons in the sensory afferent nerve. We also reveal differences in the evoked response of post-synaptic projection interneurons in the nerve cord to tactile versus noxious stimuli. Noxious stimuli are encoded in the cockroach nerve cord by fibers of diameter different from that of tactile and wind sensitive fibers with a slower conduction velocity of 2-3 m/s. Furthermore, recording from the neck-connectives show that the nociceptive information reaches the head ganglia. Removing the head ganglia results in a drastic decrease in the nocifensive response indicating that the head ganglia and the nerve cord are both involved in processing noxious stimuli.
",31496959
1,7130,"Nociceptive neurons respond to multimodal stimuli in [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The caterpillar [START]Manduca sexta[END] produces a highly stereotyped strike behavior in response to noxious thermal or mechanical stimuli to the abdomen. This rapid movement is targeted to the site of the stimulus, but the identity of the nociceptive sensory neurons are currently unknown. It is also not known whether both mechanical and thermal stimuli are detected by the same neurons. Here, we show that the likelihood of a strike increases with the strength of the stimulus and that activity in nerves innervating the body wall increases rapidly in response to noxious stimuli. Mechanical and thermal stimuli to the dorsal body wall activate the same sensory unit, suggesting it represents a multimodal neuron. This is further supported by the effects of rapidly repeated thermal or mechanical stimuli, which cause a depression of neuronal responsiveness that is generalized across modalities. Mapping the receptive fields of neurons responding to strong thermal stimuli indicates that these multimodal, nociceptive units are produced by class gamma multidendritic neurons in the body wall.
",31932302
1,7227,"Thermal nociception in adult [START]Drosophila[END]: behavioral characterization and the role of the painless gene.
Nociception, warning of injury that should be avoided, serves an important protective function in animals. In this study, we show that adult [START]Drosophila[END] avoids noxious heat by a jump response. To quantitatively analyze this nociceptive behavior, we developed two assays. In the CO2 laser beam assay, flies exhibit this behavior when a laser beam heats their abdomens. The consistency of the jump latency in this assay meets an important criterion for a good nociceptive assay. In the hot plate assay, flies jump quickly to escape from a hot copper plate (>45 degrees C). Our results demonstrate that, as in mammals, the latency of the jump response is inversely related to stimulus intensity, and innoxious thermosensation does not elicit this nociceptive behavior. To explore the genetic mechanisms of nociception, we examined several mutants in both assays. Abnormal nociceptive behavior of a mutant, painless, indicates that painless, a gene essential for nociception in [START]Drosophila[END] larvae, is also required for thermal nociception in adult flies. painless is expressed in certain neurons of the peripheral nervous system and thoracic ganglia, as well as in the definite brain structures, the mushroom bodies. However, chemical or genetic insults to the mushroom bodies do not influence the nociceptive behavior, suggesting that different painless-expressing neurons play diverse roles in thermal nociception. Additionally, no-bridge(KS49), a mutant that has a structural defect in the protocerebral bridge, shows defective response to noxious heat. Thus, our results validate adult [START]Drosophila[END] as a useful model to study the genetic mechanisms of thermal nociception.
",17081265
1,7227,"Sensory integration and neuromodulatory feedback facilitate [START]Drosophila[END] mechanonociceptive behavior.
Nociception is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to encode and process harmful environmental stimuli. Like most animals, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae respond to a variety of nociceptive stimuli, including noxious touch and temperature, with stereotyped escape responses through activation of multimodal nociceptors. How behavioral responses to these different modalities are processed and integrated by the downstream network remains poorly understood. By combining trans-synaptic labeling, ultrastructural analysis, calcium imaging, optogenetics and behavioral analyses, we uncovered a circuit specific for mechanonociception but not thermonociception. Notably, integration of mechanosensory input from innocuous and nociceptive sensory neurons is required for robust mechanonociceptive responses. We further show that neurons integrating mechanosensory input facilitate primary nociceptive output by releasing short neuropeptide F, the [START]Drosophila[END] neuropeptide Y homolog. Our findings unveil how integration of somatosensory input and neuropeptide-mediated modulation can produce robust modality-specific escape behavior.
",28604684
1,7227,"Useful road maps: studying [START]Drosophila[END] larva's central nervous system with the help of connectomics.
The larva of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is emerging as a powerful model system for comprehensive brain-wide understanding of the circuit implementation of neural computations. With an unprecedented amount of tools in hand, including synaptic-resolution connectomics, whole-brain imaging, and genetic tools for selective targeting of single neuron types, it is possible to dissect which circuits and computations are at work behind behaviors that have an interesting level of complexity. Here we present some of the recent advances regarding multisensory integration, learning, and action selection in [START]Drosophila[END] larva.
",33242722
1,6978,"Suppression of host nocifensive behavior by parasitoid wasp venom.
The parasitoid wasp Ampulex compressa envenomates the brain of its host the [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]), thereby making it a behaviorally compliant food supply for its offspring. The target of venom injection is a locomotory command center in the brain called the central complex. In this study, we investigate why stung cockroaches do not respond to injuries incurred during the manipulation process by the wasp. In particular, we examine how envenomation compromises nociceptive signaling pathways in the host. Noxious stimuli applied to the cuticle of stung cockroaches fail to evoke escape responses, even though nociceptive interneurons projecting to the brain respond normally. Hence, while nociceptive signals are carried forward to the brain, they fail to trigger robust nocifensive behavior. Electrophysiological recordings from the central complex of stung animals demonstrate decreases in peak firing rate, total firing, and duration of noxious-evoked activity. The single parameter best correlated with altered noxious-evoked behavioral responses of stung cockroaches is reduced duration of the evoked response in the central complex. Our findings demonstrate how the reproductive strategy of a parasitoid wasp is served by venom-mediated elimination of aversive, nocifensive behavior in its host.
",36035493
1,7227,"Topological and modality-specific representation of somatosensory information in the fly brain.
Insects and mammals share similarities of neural organization underlying the perception of odors, taste, vision, sound, and gravity. We observed that insect somatosensation also corresponds to that of mammals. In [START]Drosophila[END], the projections of all the somatosensory neuron types to the insect's equivalent of the spinal cord segregated into modality-specific layers comparable to those in mammals. Some sensory neurons innervate the ventral brain directly to form modality-specific and topological somatosensory maps. Ascending interneurons with dendrites in matching layers of the nerve cord send axons that converge to respective brain regions. Pathways arising from leg somatosensory neurons encode distinct qualities of leg movement information and play different roles in ground detection. Establishment of the ground pattern and genetic tools for neuronal manipulation should provide the basis for elucidating the mechanisms underlying somatosensation.
",29097543
1,7227,"Fan-Shaped Body Neurons in the [START]Drosophila[END] Brain Regulate Both Innate and Conditioned Nociceptive Avoidance.
Multiple brain regions respond to harmful nociceptive stimuli. However, it remains unclear as to whether behavioral avoidance of such stimuli can be modulated within the same or distinct brain networks. Here, we found subgroups of neurons localized within a well-defined brain region capable of mediating both innate and conditioned nociceptive avoidance in [START]Drosophila[END]. Neurons in the ventral, but not the dorsal, of the multiple-layer organized fan-shaped body (FB) are responsive to electric shock (ES). Silencing ES-responsive neurons, but not non-responsive neurons, leads to reduced avoidance of harmful stimuli, including ES and heat shock. Activating these neurons consistently triggers avoidance and can serve as an unconditional stimulus in an aversive classical conditioning task. Among the three groups of responsive neurons identified, two also have reduced activity in ES-conditioned odor avoidance. These results demonstrate that both innate and conditioned nociceptive avoidance might be represented within neurons confined to a single brain region.
",30089267
1,7227,"Leucokinin signaling regulates hunger-driven reduction of behavioral responses to noxious heat in [START]Drosophila[END].
In the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], hunger has a significant impact on its sensory systems and brain functions, and consequently modifies related behaviors. However, it remains unclarified whether hunger affects nociceptive behavioral responses to heat stimuli. In this study, we show that food deprivation reduces responses to noxious heat in wild-type flies. We further identified that the neuropeptide Leucokinin (Lk) and its receptor (Lkr) are essential for the reduction of responses to noxious heat. Temporal silencing of Lk-expressing neurons and a knockout mutation of Lkr generated using the CRISPR/Cas9 system inhibited the reduction of responses to noxious heat. Thus, our results reveal that hunger induces reduction of responses to noxious heat through the Lk/Lkr signaling pathway in [START]Drosophila[END].
",29559237
1,7227,"Three dopamine pathways induce aversive odor memories with different stability.
Animals acquire predictive values of sensory stimuli through reinforcement. In the brain of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], activation of two types of dopamine neurons in the PAM and PPL1 clusters has been shown to induce aversive odor memory. Here, we identified the third cell type and characterized aversive memories induced by these dopamine neurons. These three dopamine pathways all project to the mushroom body but terminate in the spatially segregated subdomains. To understand the functional difference of these dopamine pathways in electric shock reinforcement, we blocked each one of them during memory acquisition. We found that all three pathways partially contribute to electric shock memory. Notably, the memories mediated by these neurons differed in temporal stability. Furthermore, combinatorial activation of two of these pathways revealed significant interaction of individual memory components rather than their simple summation. These results cast light on a cellular mechanism by which a noxious event induces different dopamine signals to a single brain structure to synthesize an aversive memory.
",22807684
1,7227,"Converging circuits mediate temperature and shock aversive olfactory conditioning in [START]Drosophila[END].
BACKGROUND: [START]Drosophila[END] learn to avoid odors that are paired with aversive stimuli. Electric shock is a potent aversive stimulus that acts via dopamine neurons to elicit avoidance of the associated odor. While dopamine signaling has been demonstrated to mediate olfactory electric shock conditioning, it remains unclear how this pathway is involved in other types of behavioral reinforcement, such as in learned avoidance of odors paired with increased temperature. RESULTS: To better understand the neural mechanisms of distinct aversive reinforcement signals, we here established an olfactory temperature conditioning assay comparable to olfactory electric shock conditioning. We show that the AC neurons, which are internal thermal receptors expressing dTrpA1, are selectively required for odor-temperature but not for odor-shock memory. Furthermore, these separate sensory pathways for increased temperature and shock converge onto overlapping populations of dopamine neurons that signal aversive reinforcement. Temperature conditioning appears to require a subset of the dopamine neurons required for electric shock conditioning. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that dopamine neurons integrate different noxious signals into a general aversive reinforcement pathway.
",25042591
1,7227,"Activity of defined mushroom body output neurons underlies learned olfactory behavior in [START]Drosophila[END].
During olfactory learning in [START]fruit flies[END], dopaminergic neurons assign value to odor representations in the mushroom body Kenyon cells. Here we identify a class of downstream glutamatergic mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) called M4/6, or MBON-beta2beta'2a, MBON-beta'2mp, and MBON-gamma5beta'2a, whose dendritic fields overlap with dopaminergic neuron projections in the tips of the beta, beta', and gamma lobes. This anatomy and their odor tuning suggests that M4/6 neurons pool odor-driven Kenyon cell synaptic outputs. Like that of mushroom body neurons, M4/6 output is required for expression of appetitive and aversive memory performance. Moreover, appetitive and aversive olfactory conditioning bidirectionally alters the relative odor-drive of M4beta' neurons (MBON-beta'2mp). Direct block of M4/6 neurons in naive flies mimics appetitive conditioning, being sufficient to convert odor-driven avoidance into approach, while optogenetically activating these neurons induces avoidance behavior. We therefore propose that drive to the M4/6 neurons reflects odor-directed behavioral choice. 
",25864636
1,7227,"Punishment prediction by dopaminergic neurons in [START]Drosophila[END].
The temporal pairing of a neutral stimulus with a reinforcer (reward or punishment) can lead to classical conditioning, a simple form of learning in which the animal assigns a value (positive or negative) to the formerly neutral stimulus. Olfactory classical conditioning in [START]Drosophila[END] is a prime model for the analysis of the molecular and neuronal substrate of this type of learning and memory. Neuronal correlates of associative plasticity have been identified in several regions of the insect brain. In particular, the mushroom bodies have been shown to be necessary for aversive olfactory memory formation. However, little is known about which neurons mediate the reinforcing stimulus. Using functional optical imaging, we now show that dopaminergic projections to the mushroom-body lobes are weakly activated by odor stimuli but respond strongly to electric shocks. However, after one of two odors is paired several times with an electric shock, odor-evoked activity is significantly prolonged only for the ""punished"" odor. Whereas dopaminergic neurons mediate rewarding reinforcement in mammals, our data suggest a role for aversive reinforcement in [START]Drosophila[END]. However, the dopaminergic neurons' capability of mediating and predicting a reinforcing stimulus appears to be conserved between [START]Drosophila[END] and mammals.
",16271874
1,6978,"Dopamine- and Tyrosine Hydroxylase-Immunoreactive Neurons in the Brain of the [START]American Cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The catecholamine dopamine plays several vital roles in the central nervous system of many species, but its neural mechanisms remain elusive. Detailed neuroanatomical characterization of dopamine neurons is a prerequisite for elucidating dopamine's actions in the brain. In the present study, we investigated the distribution of dopaminergic neurons in the brain of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END], using two antisera: 1) an antiserum against dopamine, and 2) an antiserum against tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, an enzyme required for dopamine synthesis), and identified about 250 putatively dopaminergic neurons. The patterns of dopamine- and TH-immunoreactive neurons were strikingly similar, suggesting that both antisera recognize the same sets of ""dopaminergic"" neurons. The dopamine and TH antibodies intensively or moderately immunolabeled prominent brain neuropils, e.g. the mushroom body (memory center), antennal lobe (first-order olfactory center) and central complex (motor coordination center). All subdivisions of the mushroom body exhibit both dopamine and TH immunoreactivity. Comparison of immunolabeled neurons with those filled by dye injection revealed that a group of immunolabeled neurons with cell bodies near the calyx projects into a distal region of the vertical lobe, which is a plausible site for olfactory memory formation in insects. In the antennal lobe, ordinary glomeruli as well as macroglomeruli exhibit both dopamine and TH immunoreactivity. It is noteworthy that the dopamine antiserum labeled tiny granular structures inside the glomeruli whereas the TH antiserum labeled processes in the marginal regions of the glomeruli, suggesting a different origin. In the central complex, all subdivisions excluding part of the noduli and protocerebral bridge exhibit both dopamine and TH immunoreactivity. These anatomical findings will accelerate our understanding of dopaminergic systems, specifically in neural circuits underlying aversive memory formation and arousal, in insects. 
",27494326
1,7227,"A multilevel multimodal circuit enhances action selection in [START]Drosophila[END].
Natural events present multiple types of sensory cues, each detected by a specialized sensory modality. Combining information from several modalities is essential for the selection of appropriate actions. Key to understanding multimodal computations is determining the structural patterns of multimodal convergence and how these patterns contribute to behaviour. Modalities could converge early, late or at multiple levels in the sensory processing hierarchy. Here we show that combining mechanosensory and nociceptive cues synergistically enhances the selection of the fastest mode of escape locomotion in [START]Drosophila[END] larvae. In an electron microscopy volume that spans the entire insect nervous system, we reconstructed the multisensory circuit supporting the synergy, spanning multiple levels of the sensory processing hierarchy. The wiring diagram revealed a complex multilevel multimodal convergence architecture. Using behavioural and physiological studies, we identified functionally connected circuit nodes that trigger the fastest locomotor mode, and others that facilitate it, and we provide evidence that multiple levels of multimodal integration contribute to escape mode selection. We propose that the multilevel multimodal convergence architecture may be a general feature of multisensory circuits enabling complex input-output functions and selective tuning to ecologically relevant combinations of cues. 
",25896325
1,7227,"Growing pains: development of the larval nocifensive response in [START]Drosophila[END].
The ability to perceive and avoid harmful substances or stimuli is key to an organism's survival. The neuronal cognate of the perception of pain is known as nociception, and the reflexive motion to avoid pain is termed the nocifensive response. As the nocifensive response is an ancient and evolutionarily conserved behavioral response to nociceptive stimuli, it is amenable to study in relatively simple and genetically tractable model systems such as [START]Drosophila[END]. Recent studies have taken advantage of the useful properties of [START]Drosophila[END] larvae to begin elucidating the neuronal connectivity and molecular machinery underlying the nocifensive response. However, these studies have primarily utilized the third-instar larval stage, and many mutations that potentially influence nociception survive only until earlier larval stages. Here we characterize the nocifensive responses of [START]Drosophila[END] throughout larval development and find dramatic changes in the nature of the behavior. Notably, we find that prior to the third instar, larvae are unable to perform the characteristic ""corkscrew-like roll"" behavior. Also, we identify an avoidance behavior consistent with a nocifensive response that is present immediately after larval hatching, representing a paradigm that may be useful in examining mutations with an early lethal phenotype.
",22186918
1,7130,"Local and generalized sensitization of thermally evoked defensive behavior in caterpillars.
In addition to camouflage and chemical toxicity, many caterpillars defend themselves against predators with sudden sharp movements. For smaller species, these movements propel the body away from the threat, but in larger caterpillars, such as the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END], the movement is a defensive strike targeted to a noxious stimulus on the abdomen. Previously, strikes have been studied using mechanical stimulation like poking or pinching the insect, but such stimuli are hard to control. They also introduce mechanical perturbations that interfere with measurements of the behavior. We have now established that strike behavior can be evoked using infra-red lasers to provide a highly localized and repeatable heat stimulus. The latency from the end of an effective stimulus to the start of head movement decreased with repeated stimuli and this effect generalized to other stimulus locations indicating a centrally mediated component of sensitization. The tendency to strike increased with two successive subthreshold stimuli. When delivered to different locations or to a single site, this split-pulse stimulation revealed an additional site-specific sensitization that has not previously been described in [START]Manduca[END]. Previous work shows that strong stimuli increases the effectiveness of sensory stimulation by activating a long-lasting muscarinic cation current in motoneurons. Injection of muscarinic cholinergic antagonists, scopolamine methyl bromide or quinuclidinyl benzilate, only decreased the strike probability evoked by paired stimuli at two locations and not at a single site. This strongly suggests a role of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the generalized sensitization of nociceptive responses in caterpillars.
",31644815
1,7130,"Central neural alterations predominate in an insect model of nociceptive sensitization.
Many organisms respond to noxious stimuli with defensive maneuvers. This is noted in the hornworm, [START]Manduca sexta[END], as a defensive strike response. After tissue damage, organisms typically display sensitized responses to both noxious or normally innocuous stimuli. To further understand this phenomenon, we used novel in situ and in vitro preparations based on paired extracellular nerve recordings and videography to identify central and peripheral nerves responsible for nociception and sensitization of the defensive behavior in [START]M. sexta[END]. In addition, we used the in vivo defensive strike response threshold assayed with von Frey filaments to examine the roles that N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels play in this nociceptive sensitization using the inhibitors MK-801 and AP5 (NMDAR), and ivabradine and ZD7288 (HCN). Using our new preparations, we found that afferent activity evoked by noxious pinch in these preparations was conveyed to central ganglia by axons in the anterior- and lateral-dorsal nerve branches, and that sensitization induced by tissue damage was mediated centrally. Furthermore, sensitization was blocked by all inhibitors tested except the inactive isomer L-AP5, and reversed by ivabradine both in vivo and in vitro. Our findings suggest that [START]M. sexta[END]'s sensitization occurs through central signal amplification. Due to the relatively natural sensitization method and conserved molecular actions, we suggest that [START]M. sexta[END] may be a valuable model for studying the electrophysiological properties of nociceptive sensitization and potentially related conditions such as allodynia and hyperalgesia in a comparative setting that offers unique experimental advantages. J. Comp. Neurol. 525:1176-1191, 2017.   2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
",27650422
1,7130,"Defensive responses of larval [START]Manduca sexta[END] and their sensitization by noxious stimuli in the laboratory and field.
Sensitization of defensive responses following noxious stimulation occurs in diverse species, but no demonstration of nociceptive sensitization in insects has been reported. A set of defensive behavior patterns in larval [START]Manduca sexta[END] is described and shown to undergo sensitization following noxious mechanical stimulation. The striking response is a rapid bending that accurately propels the head towards sharply poking or pinching stimuli applied to most abdominal segments. The strike is accompanied by opening of the mandibles and, sometimes, regurgitation. The strike may function to dislodge small attackers and startle larger predators. When the same stimuli are applied to anterior segments, the head is pulled away in a withdrawal response. Noxious stimuli to anterior or posterior segments can evoke a transient withdrawal (cocking) that precedes a strike towards the source of stimulation and may function to maximize the velocity of the strike. More intense noxious stimuli evoke faster, larger strikes and may also elicit thrashing, which consists of large, cyclic, side-to-side movements that are not directed at any target. These are sometimes also associated with low-amplitude quivering cycles. Striking and thrashing sequences elicited by obvious wounding are sometimes followed by grooming-like behavior. Very young larvae also show locomotor responses to noxious stimuli. Observations in the field of attacks on [START]M. sexta[END] larvae by Cardinalis cardinalis, an avian predator, suggest that thrashing decreases the success of a bird in biting a larva. In the laboratory, noxious stimulation was found to produce two forms of sensitization. Repeated pinching of prolegs produces incremental sensitization, with later pinches evoking more strikes than the first pinch. Brisk pinching or poking of prolegs also produces conventional sensitization, in which weak test stimuli delivered to another site evoke more strikes following noxious stimulation. The degree and duration of sensitization increase with more intense noxious stimulation. The most intense stimulus sequences were found to enhance strike frequency for approximately 60 min. Nociceptive sensitization generalizes to sites distant from sites of noxious stimulation, suggesting that it involves a general, but transient, arousal of defensive responses. http://www.biologists.com/JEB/movies/jeb3271.html
",11171298
1,7130,"Retention of memory through metamorphosis: can a moth remember what it learned as a caterpillar?
Insects that undergo complete metamorphosis experience enormous changes in both morphology and lifestyle. The current study examines whether larval experience can persist through pupation into adulthood in Lepidoptera, and assesses two possible mechanisms that could underlie such behavior: exposure of emerging adults to chemicals from the larval environment, or associative learning transferred to adulthood via maintenance of intact synaptic connections. Fifth instar [START]Manduca sexta[END] caterpillars received an electrical shock associatively paired with a specific odor in order to create a conditioned odor aversion, and were assayed for learning in a Y choice apparatus as larvae and again as adult moths. We show that larvae learned to avoid the training odor, and that this aversion was still present in the adults. The adult aversion did not result from carryover of chemicals from the larval environment, as neither applying odorants to naive pupae nor washing the pupae of trained caterpillars resulted in a change in behavior. In addition, we report that larvae trained at third instar still showed odor aversion after two molts, as fifth instars, but did not avoid the odor as adults, consistent with the idea that post-metamorphic recall involves regions of the brain that are not produced until later in larval development. The present study, the first to demonstrate conclusively that associative memory survives metamorphosis in Lepidoptera, provokes intriguing new questions about the organization and persistence of the central nervous system during metamorphosis. Our results have both ecological and evolutionary implications, as retention of memory through metamorphosis could influence host choice by polyphagous insects, shape habitat selection, and lead to eventual sympatric speciation.
",18320055
1,7227,"Development of the [START]Drosophila[END] mushroom bodies: sequential generation of three distinct types of neurons from a neuroblast.
The mushroom bodies (MBs) are prominent structures in the [START]Drosophila[END] brain that are essential for olfactory learning and memory. Characterization of the development and projection patterns of individual MB neurons will be important for elucidating their functions. Using mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (Lee, T. and Luo, L. (1999) Neuron 22, 451-461), we have positively marked the axons and dendrites of multicellular and single-cell mushroom body clones at specific developmental stages. Systematic clonal analysis demonstrates that a single mushroom body neuroblast sequentially generates at least three types of morphologically distinct neurons. Neurons projecting into the (gamma) lobe of the adult MB are born first, prior to the mid-3rd instar larval stage. Neurons projecting into the alpha' and beta' lobes are born between the mid-3rd instar larval stage and puparium formation. Finally, neurons projecting into the alpha and beta lobes are born after puparium formation. Visualization of individual MB neurons has also revealed how different neurons acquire their characteristic axon projections. During the larval stage, axons of all MB neurons bifurcate into both the dorsal and medial lobes. Shortly after puparium formation, larval MB neurons are selectively pruned according to birthdays. Degeneration of axon branches makes early-born gamma neurons retain only their main processes in the peduncle, which then project into the adult gamma lobe without bifurcation. In contrast, the basic axon projections of the later-born (alpha'/beta') larval neurons are preserved during metamorphosis. This study illustrates the cellular organization of mushroom bodies and the development of different MB neurons at the single cell level. It allows for future studies on the molecular mechanisms of mushroom body development.
",10457015
1,7227,"Discovery of brainwide neural-behavioral maps via multiscale unsupervised structure learning.
A single nervous system can generate many distinct motor patterns. Identifying which neurons and circuits control which behaviors has been a laborious piecemeal process, usually for one observer-defined behavior at a time. We present a fundamentally different approach to neuron-behavior mapping. We optogenetically activated 1054 identified neuron lines in [START]Drosophila[END] larvae and tracked the behavioral responses from 37,780 animals. Application of multiscale unsupervised structure learning methods to the behavioral data enabled us to identify 29 discrete, statistically distinguishable, observer-unbiased behavioral phenotypes. Mapping the neural lines to the behavior(s) they evoke provides a behavioral reference atlas for neuron subsets covering a large fraction of larval neurons. This atlas is a starting point for connectivity- and activity-mapping studies to further investigate the mechanisms by which neurons mediate diverse behaviors. 
",24674869
0,6978,"Experimental infection of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] with Toxocara canis and the establishment of patent infections in pups.
The possible role of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] in the transmission of Toxocara canis eggs and larvae via faeces and tissue migration was studied. Cockroaches fed with 3 x 105 and 5 x 105 embryonated eggs were found to harbour viable eggs and larvae from days 1 to 5 post-infection (DPI). At necropsy on 5 DPI, eggs and larvae were also recovered from the rectal contents but not from the tissues of cockroaches. In addition patent infections were established in pups fed on infected faeces of cockroaches, with eggs first appearing in the faeces of pups at 38 DPI. Adult worms of T. canis were also recovered at necropsy. Therefore the importance of cockroaches as good mechanical disseminators of ascarid eggs, especially T. canis, is discussed.
",18053303
0,6978,"Isocoumarins from [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) and their cytotoxic activities.
Four new isocoumarins (1-4), along with three known ones (5-7), were isolated from the 70% ethanol extract of the whole body of the traditional Chinese insect medicine, [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]). The structures with absolute configurations of new compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods in combination with X-ray diffraction experiment and CD analyses. Compounds 3-5 showed significant cytotoxic activities in HepG2 and MCF-7 cells with IC50 values in the ranges 6.41-23.91 muM and 6.67-39.07 muM, respectively.
",24631766
0,6978,"Improved genome assembly provides new insights into the environmental adaptation of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The synanthropic pest and a model organism for entomological research, [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Linnaeus), can survive in unfavorable environments for humans. To investigate the genetic mechanisms of success in environmental adaptation of [START]P. americana[END], we de novo reassembled its whole genome based on next-generation sequencing and PacBio sequencing. The final genome reassembly consisted of approximately 3.34 Gb with scaffold N50 of 465.51 Kb. The completeness (95.4%) of the complete genome was evaluated with single-copy orthologous genes using BUSCO. We identified 18,618 protein-coding genes, 16,443 (88.32%) of which were well supported by public protein databases. We identified 482.04 Mb (approximately 14.45%) repeat elements, 1,385,093 perfect microsatellites simple sequence repeats in [START]P. americana[END] genome, which was higher than other four Blattaria insects. Comparative genomics analysis revealed obvious expansion in the gene families associated with chemoreception (olfactory receptors, gustatory receptors, ionotropic glutamate receptors, chemosensory protein, and sensory neuron membrane protein), which provided the necessary information for functional characterization of the chemosensory receptors of [START]P. americana[END], with potential for new or refined applications of semiochemicals-based control of this pest insect. Similarly, gene families (cytochrome P450s, carboxyl/choline esterases, and UDP-glycosyl-transferases) encoding receptors for bitter or toxic substances and detoxification enzymes were obviously expanded in [START]P. americana[END], enabling its ability to detect and detoxify many toxins. Enrichment analysis of positively selected genes in [START]P. americana[END] revealed items associated with metabolic process and catalytic activity, which possibly contributed to the pesticide resistance of [START]P. americana[END]. We also analyzed the homologs to antimicrobial peptide genes reported in the Drosophila genome, and identified two attacins and seven defensins in [START]P. americana[END]. Our data and findings will substantially facilitate molecular studies in [START]P. americana[END], including elucidation of detoxification mechanisms of xenobiotic, as well as development of new pest management strategies for the control of pests like [START]P. americana[END].
",35933728
0,6978,"Analyses of the mouthpart kinematics in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Blattodea, Blattidae) using synchrotron-based X-ray cineradiography.
The kinematics of the biting and chewing mouthparts of insects is a complex interaction of various components forming multiple jointed chains. The non-invasive technique of in vivo cineradiography by means of synchrotron radiation was employed to elucidate the motion cycles of the mouthparts in the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Digital X-ray footage sequences were used in order to calculate pre-defined angles and distances, each representing characteristic aspects of the movement pattern. We were able to analyze the interactions of the mouthpart components and to generate a functional model of maxillary movement by integrating kinematic results, morphological dissections and fluorescence microscopy. During the opening and closing cycles, which take about 450-500 ms on average, we found strong correlations between the measured maxillary and mandibular angles, indicating a strong neural coordination of these movements. This is manifested by strong antiphasic courses of the maxillae and the mandibles, antiphasic patterns of the rotation of the cardo about its basic articulation at the head and by the deflection between the cardo and stipes. In our functional model of the maxilla, its movement pattern is explained by the antagonistic activity of four adductor-promotor muscles and two abductor-remotor muscles. However, beyond the observed intersegmental and bilateral stereotypy, certain amounts of variation across subsequent cycles within a sequence were observed with respect to the degree of correlation between the various mouthparts, the maximum, minimum and time course of the angular movements. Although generally correlated with the movement pattern of the mandibles and the maxillary cardo-stipes complex, such plastic behaviour was especially observed in the maxillary palpi and the labium. 
",24948639
0,6978,"[START]Periplaneta americana[END] arginine kinase as a major cockroach allergen among Thai patients with major cockroach allergies.
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] is the predominant cockroach (CR) species and a major source of indoor allergens in Thailand. Nevertheless, data on the nature and molecular characteristics of its allergenic components are rare. We conducted this study to identify and characterize the [START]P. americana[END] allergenic protein. A random heptapeptide phage display library and monoclonal antibody (MAb) specific to a the [START]P. americana[END] component previously shown to be an allergenic molecule were used to identify the MAb-bound mimotope and its phylogenic distribution. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, peptide mass fingerprinting, and BLAST search were used to identify the [START]P. americana[END] protein containing the MAb-specific epitope. We studied the allergenicity of the native protein using sera of CR-allergic Thai patients in immunoassays. The mimotope peptide that bound to the MAb specific to [START]P. americana[END] was LTPCRNK. The peptide has an 83-100% identity with proteins of Anopheles gambiae, notch homolog scalloped wings of Lucilia cuprina, delta protein of Apis mellifera; neu5Ac synthase and tyrosine phosphatase of Drosophila melanogaster, and a putative protein of Drosophila pseudoobscura. This finding implies that the mimotope-containing molecule of [START]P. americana[END] is a pan-insect protein. The MAb-bound protein of [START]P. americana[END] was shown to be arginine kinase that reacted to IgE in the sera of all of the CR-allergic Thai patients by immunoblotting, implying its high allergenicity. In conclusion, our results revealed that [START]P. americana[END] arginine kinase is a pan-insect protein and a major CR allergen for CR-allergic Thai patients.
",16759988
0,6978,"Antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory [START]Periplaneta americana[END] remnant chitosan/polysaccharide composite film: In vivo wound healing application evaluation.
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] ([START]P. americana[END]), which is widely used for wound healing in China, produces a large amount of solid waste ([START]P. americana[END] remnant) after pharmaceutical production extraction. [START]P. americana[END] remnant chitosan (PAC) has a low molecular weight, low crystallinity, and easily modifiable structural properties. In this study, PAC and [START]P. americana[END] remnant polysaccharide (PAP) were used as raw materials to prepare a composite film (PAPCF). The good biocompatibility of the composite film was verified by cell proliferation assays and protein adsorption assays. The bioactivity of the composite film was assessed by antibacterial and in vivo/vitro antioxidant assays to evaluate its potential as a wound dressing. The wound healing experiment revealed that PAPCF improved wound closure and collagen deposition, decreased reactive oxygen species levels, and attenuated the inflammatory response, enabling rapid wound healing from the inflammatory phase to the proliferative phase in mice. Additionally, PAPCF was administered only once, reducing the chance of infection from multiple deliveries. In summary, this paper presents an easy-to-administer, cost-effective, and effective dressing candidate for wound treatment based on the environmental concept of resource reuse.
",36934824
0,6978,"PeaTAR1B: Characterization of a Second Type 1 Tyramine Receptor of the [START]American Cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The catecholamines norepinephrine and epinephrine regulate important physiological functions in vertebrates. In insects; these neuroactive substances are functionally replaced by the phenolamines octopamine and tyramine. Phenolamines activate specific guanine nucleotide-binding (G) protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Type 1 tyramine receptors are better activated by tyramine than by octopamine. In contrast; type 2 tyramine receptors are almost exclusively activated by tyramine. Functionally; activation of type 1 tyramine receptors leads to a decrease in the intracellular concentration of cAMP ([cAMP]i) whereas type 2 tyramine receptors can mediate Ca2+ signals or both Ca2+ signals and effects on [cAMP]i. Here; we report that the [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) expresses a second type 1 tyramine receptor (PeaTAR1B) in addition to PeaTAR1A (previously called PeaTYR1). When heterologously expressed in flpTM cells; activation of PeaTAR1B by tyramine leads to a concentration-dependent decrease in [cAMP]i. Its activity can be blocked by a series of established antagonists. The functional characterization of two type 1 tyramine receptors from [START]P. americana[END]; PeaTAR1A and PeaTAR1B; which respond to tyramine by changing cAMP levels; is a major step towards understanding the actions of tyramine in cockroach physiology and behavior; particularly in comparison to the effects of octopamine.
",29084141
0,6978,"Characterization of a chemostable serine alkaline protease from [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
BACKGROUND: Proteases are important enzymes involved in numerous essential physiological processes and hold a strong potential for industrial applications. The proteolytic activity of insects' gut is endowed by many isoforms with diverse properties and specificities. Thus, insect proteases can act as a tool in industrial processes. RESULTS: In the present study, purification and properties of a serine alkaline protease from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] and its potential application as an additive in various bio-formulations are reported. The enzyme was purified near to homogeneity by using acetone precipitation and Sephadex G-100 gel filtration chromatography. Enzyme activity was increased up to 4.2 fold after gel filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme appeared as single protein-band with a molecular mass of ~ 27.8 kDa in SDS-PAGE. The optimum pH and temperature for the proteolytic activity for purified protein were found around pH 8.0 and 60 C respectively. Complete inhibition of the purified enzyme by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride confirmed that the protease was of serine-type. The purified enzyme revealed high stability and compatibility towards detergents, oxidizing, reducing, and bleaching agents. In addition, enzyme also showed stability towards organic solvents and commercial detergents. CONCLUSION: Several important properties of a serine protease from [START]P. Americana[END] were revealed. Moreover, insects can serve as excellent and alternative source of industrially important proteases with unique properties, which can be utilized as additives in detergents, stain removers and other bio-formulations. Properties of the [START]P. americana[END] protease accounted in the present investigation can be exploited further in various industrial processes. As an industrial prospective, identification of enzymes with varying essential properties from different insect species might be good approach and bioresource.
",24229392
0,6978,"Protective effect of [START]periplaneta americana[END] extract on intestinal mucosal barrier function in patients with sepsis.
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of the [START]periplaneta americana[END] extract on the intestinal mucosal barrier and prognostic implications in patients with sepsis. METHODS: Sixty and six patients with sepsis were assigned randomly to treatment group (32 cases) and control group (32 cases). The extractfrom [START]periplaneta americana[END] plus conventional medication for sepsis was administered to the treatment group, while the control group only received conventional treatment. The gastrointestinal function scores and acute physiology and chronic health evaluation II (APACHE II) scores of all subjects were documented at baseline, at days 1, 3 and 7 after treatment respectively and their blood endotoxin was tested at the same time points as well. The incidence of death was recorded for both groups throughout the trial. RESULTS: At days 3 and 7 after treatment, gastrointestinal function score, APACHE II, and endotoxin level in treatment group was better than that in control group and the difference between them was significant (both P < 0.05). Although the incidence of death in treatment group was less than that in control group, the difference between the two groups was not significant (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The extract of [START]periplaneta americana[END] had protective effect on intestinal mucosal barrier and could improve the condition and prognosis in patients with sepsis.
",23596815
0,6978,"Coding of odour and space in the hemimetabolous insect [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The general architecture of the olfactory system is highly conserved from insects to humans, but neuroanatomical and physiological differences can be observed across species. The [START]American cockroach[END], inhabiting dark shelters with a rather stable olfactory landscape, is equipped with long antennae used for sampling the surrounding air-space for orientation and navigation. The antennae's exceptional length provides a wide spatial working range for odour detection; however, it is still largely unknown whether and how this is also used for mapping the structure of the olfactory environment. By selectively labelling antennal lobe projection neurons with a calcium-sensitive dye, we investigated the logic of olfactory coding in this hemimetabolous insect. We show that odour responses are stimulus specific and concentration dependent, and that structurally related odorants evoke physiologically similar responses. By using spatially confined stimuli, we show that proximal stimulations induce stronger and faster responses than distal ones. Spatially confined stimuli of the female pheromone periplanone B activate a subregion of the male macroglomerulus. Thus, we report that the combinatorial logic of odour coding deduced from holometabolous insects applies also to this hemimetabolous species. Furthermore, a fast decrease in sensitivity along the antenna, not supported by a proportionate decrease in sensillar density, suggests a neural architecture that strongly emphasizes neuronal inputs from the proximal portion of the antenna.
",31932303
0,6978,"The inhibitory effect of Periplaneta americana L. on hepatocellular carcinoma: Explore the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma active site and its mechanism of action.
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The [START]American cockroach[END] (Periplaneta americana L.) belongs to the family Blattidae, order Blattodea, and class Insecta. Its medicinal history in China spans thousands of years. In recent years, the anti-tumor activity of [START]American cockroach[END] has gradually attracted the attention of researchers and has a good application prospect in the treatment of tumors. [START]Periplaneta americana[END] has been found to contain proteins, peptides, amino acids and nucleosides. Pharmacological studies have shown that [START]P. americana[END] has anti-tumour, tissue repair, immunoregulatory and other activities. In this study, we investigated the chemical composition and mechanism of action of its active site against hepatocellular carcinoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We adopted ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS), measuring the accurate relative molecular mass, fragment ion peak, chromatographic retention time and reference substance information of the compound obtained by HRMS, to identify the chemical components of the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) active site of [START]P. americana[END] based on data from relevant literature. We used western blotting (WB) to detect the expression levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt) and Akt in the PI3K/Akt pathway and further study the molecular mechanism of the active site of [START]P. americana[END] against HCC. RESULTS: UPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS identified 35 compounds from the active site of [START]P. americana[END]. Of these, 10 were amino acids, 1 was an alkaloid, 6 were nucleosides and their bases, 4 were dipeptides and cyclic dipeptides, 8 were organic acids, 2 were isoflavones and 4 were other compounds; 8 of these compounds were confirmed by comparison with the reference substance. The WB results showed that the relative expression levels of PI3K and p-Akt protein in the active site of [START]P. americana[END] in the medium-dose (concentration, 0.15624 mg mL-1) and high-dose (concentration, 0.31250 mg mL-1) experimental groups were significantly reduced compared with the blank control group (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01), whereas the expression level of Akt protein did not significantly change amongst the groups (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study found that the anti-HCC active site of [START]P. americana[END] is composed of multiple components that can reduce the relative expression of PI3K and p-Akt protein. It exerts its anti-HCC effect by regulating the PI3K/Akt pathway.
",34999145
0,6978,"Progesterone in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] and Neobellieria bullata adults from the procuticle phase until first progeny production.
A significant amount of progesterone-like immunoreactive material (150 ng/g) was measured by EIA in the procuticle phase of adult of both sexes of [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. This peak markedly decreased to 1-10 ng/g during sclerotization and was unlikely to be of dietary origin. In the case of 0-hr-old [START]P. americana[END] adults 96-98% of progesterone-like material was localized in the digestive tract and Malpighian tubules. In contrast, a relatively low level of progesterone-like immunoreactive material was measured in 0-hr-old Neobellieria bullata adults. Activity of 3beta-HSD/isomerase converting pregnenolone to progesterone was high (22-43 fmol/mg protein/20 min) in 0-hr-old [START]P. americana[END] adults and significantly fell during sclerotization. High progesterone levels (13-16 ng/g), measured by HPLC-RIA, coexist with high levels of 3beta-HSD/isomerase activity. Orally active human contraceptives (ethisterone, ethynodiol, ethynodiol diacetate, lynestrenol, mestranol, norgestrel, norethynodrel, tamoxifen citrate, and mifepristone) which act on mammalian steroid receptors had no significant effects on progeny production in either polytrophic or meroistic insect ovaries even at concentration of 5000 mg/kg.
",9268626
0,6978,"Moderate Hyperglycemia-Preventive Effect and Mechanism of Action of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] Oligosaccharides in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Mice.
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] is a kind of medicinal and edible insect, and its oligosaccharides (PAOS) have been reported to exert anti-inflammatory effects by regulating immunity, reducing oxidative stress, and meliorating gut microbiota. We hypothesized PAOS might benefit experimental diabetes mellitus (DM), an inflammatory disease coordinated by both innate and adaptive immunity. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of PAOS on glycemia and its potential mechanisms. Mice model of diabetes was established, and then the potential effects of PAOS was tested in vivo. Here, we found that PAOS triggered a moderate hyperglycemia-preventive effect on DM mice, showing markedly alleviated symptoms of DM, reduced blood glucose, and meliorated functions of liver and pancreas beta cell. Deciphering the underlying mechanism of PAOS-improving diabetes, the results revealed that PAOS downregulated the blood glucose level by activating PI3K/AKT/mTOR and Keap/Nrf2/HO-1 pathways, meanwhile inhibiting TLR4/MAPK/NF-kappaB, Beclin1/LC3, and NLRP3/caspase1 pathways in vivo. Furthermore, analyses of the microbial community intriguingly exhibited that PAOS promoted the communities of bacteria producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), whereas attenuating lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-producing ones that favored inflammatory tolerance. Collectively, balancing the intestinal bacterial communities by PAOS, which favored anabolism but suppressed inflammatory responses, contributed substantially to the glycemia improvement of PAOS in DM mice. Accordingly, PAOS might function as complementary and alternative medicine for DM.
",36364880
0,6978,"Identification of anti-hepatic fibrosis components in [START]Periplaneta Americana[END] based on spectrum-effect relationship and chemical component separation.
[START]Periplaneta Americana[END] ([START]PA[END]) is a traditional medicine used for hepatic disease such as hepatic fibrosis in China. However, the relationship between the corresponding therapeutic effect and the chemical composition is still unclear. In this study, spectrum-effect relationship and chemical component separation was used to discovery potential anti-hepatic fibrosis components of [START]PA[END]. The fingerprints of 10 batches sample were established by HPLC and anti-hepatic fibrosis effect was determined using HSC-T6 cells. The spectrum-effect relationship between common peaks and efficacy values was established using partial least squares analysis. Partial peaks in the fingerprints were identified, including X4 (9,12-heptadecanedenoic acid glyceride), X5 (nonadecanoic acid methyl ester), X6 (glyceryl oleate), X7 (13,16,19-eicosatrienoic acid), X9 (linoleic acid), X10 (9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid glyceride), X12 (hexadecanoic acid), X13 (oleic acid) and X14 (octadecanoic acid), and their anti-hepatic fibrosis activity were tested to verify the results of spectrum-effect relationships. The results showed that X4 , X6 , X7 and X10 were the active ingredients of [START]PA[END]. This work successfully identified the partial anti-hepatic fibrosis components of [START]PA[END], which can be used to explain the material basis for the [START]PA[END] anti-hepatic fibrosis effect.
",34837247
0,6978,"Matrix metalloproteinases are involved in eclosion and wing expansion in the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are the major proteinases that process or degrade numerous extracellular matrix (ECM) components and are evolutionarily conserved from nematodes to humans. During molting in insects, the old cuticle is removed and replaced by a new counterpart. Although the regulatory mechanisms of hormones and nutrients in molting have been well studied, very little is known about the roles of ECM-modifying enzymes in this process. Here, we found that MMPs are necessary for imaginal molting of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Inhibition of Mmp activity via inhibitor treatment led to the failure of eclosion and wing expansion. Five Mmps genes were identified from the [START]P. americana[END] genome, and PaMmp2 played the dominant roles during molting. Further microscopic investigations showed that newly formed adult cuticles were attenuated and that then chitin content was reduced upon Mmp inhibition. Transcriptomic analysis of the integument demonstrated that multiple signaling and metabolic pathways were changed. Microscopic investigation of the wings showed that epithelial cells were restrained together because they were incapable of degrading the ECM upon Mmp inhibition. Transcriptomic analysis of the wing identified dozens of possible genes functioned in wing expansion. This is the first study to show the essential roles of Mmps in the nymph-adult transition of hemimetabolous insects.
",33556555
0,6978,"[START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. a potential source of traditional medicine: chemometric analysis, in vitro and in silico study.
'Mayurbhanj is the ethnic dominant tribal population district in Odisha, India. The triabl's of Mayurbhanj depends on traditional medicines since time immemorial for health-related issues. Due to the imperative ethnic claim of traditional healers, the financial stringency of the patient community and the necessity to produce a better therapeutic effect has led to investigate ethno zoological sources and to find out the biochemical moiety responsible for the healing process. Considering the ethnic communities' acceptability of the zoological source as traditional medicine, the current evidence-based research study is conducted to investigate the biochemical moiety present in [START]Periplaneta americana[END], responsible for therapeutic activity. The whole powdered [START]Periplaneta americana[END] was extracted using maceration techniques with n-hexane and methanol as solvent. The obtained extracts were subjected to GC-MS analysis to identify the biochemical moiety. To check the potential biological activity, an in-vitro antimicrobial test was carried out in both turbidimetry and a viable count method against E. coli. Moreover, the obtained biochemical molecules were exposed to in silico studies for their binding modes and their affinity using Discovery studio software. The major compounds were found to be hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, n-hexadecanoic acid, oleic acid, octadecanoic acid along with other minor constituents. The maximum inhibitory activity of n-hexane and methanol extract against S. aureus at a concentration of 400 microg/mL was found to be 89 and 87%, respectively. The binding models of almost all identified compounds confer very good binding affinities with some key and strong non-covalent interactions with various amino acid residues of receptor active site pocket, which predict the compounds to be potent inhibitors of various infectious bacteria. These findings suggested that the hexane extract of [START]P. americana[END] could be exploited as a potential natural source. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
",34151747
0,6978,"[Threshold temperature and effective accumulative temperature of [START]Periplaneta Americana[END]].
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] is an important medicinal insect. A series of new drugs developed from it have remarkable clinical effects and are in great demand in the market. Because of unclear biology, the quality and yield of [START]P. americana[END] are affected. Understanding the developmental threshold temperature and effective accumulated temperature of [START]P. americana[END] can provide theoretical basis for standardized culture of [START]P.americana[END]. Under climate chamber, the threshold temperature and effective accumulated temperature for egg development of [START]P. americana[END] to were determined through effective accumulated temperature law. The threshold temperature was (15.8+-0.71) C, the effective accumulated temperature was 415.8+-38.05 degree days. A model of the relationship between temperature and developmental rates was established.
",30583620
0,6978,"Cockroaches ([START]Periplaneta americana[END] and Blattella germanica) as potential vectors of the pathogenic bacteria found in nosocomial infections.
Although it has been difficult to prove the direct involvement of cockroaches (i.e. insects of the order Blattaria) in the transmission of pathogenic agents to humans, such insects often carry microorganisms that are important in nosocomial infections, and their medical importance in the spread of bacteria cannot be ruled out. In houses and institutions with poor standards of hygiene, heavy infestations with cockroaches, such as the peridomestic [START]American cockroach[END] (Periplaneta americana L.) and the domestic German cockroach (Blattella germanica L.), can occur. In the present study, cockroaches (126 B. germanica and 69 [START]P. americana[END]) were collected from four buildings (three public training hospitals and one house) in central Tehran, Iran. Each insect was processed, under sterile conditions, so that the bacteria on its external surfaces and in its alimentary tract and faecal pellets could be isolated and identified. The oldest and largest of the three hospitals sampled (a 1400-bed unit built 80 years ago) appeared to be the one most heavily infested with cockroaches, and cockroaches from this hospital accounted for most (65.4%) of the isolates of medically important bacteria made during the study. No significant difference was found between the percentages of [START]P. americana[END] and B. germanica carrying medically important bacteria (96.8% v. 93.6%; P>0.05). At least 25 different species of medically important bacteria were isolated and identified, and at least 22 were Gramnegative. The genus of enteric bacteria most frequently isolated from both cockroach species, at all four collection sites, was Klebsiella. The cockroaches from each hospital were much more likely to be found contaminated with medically important bacteria than those from the house. The hospital cockroaches were also more likely to be carrying medically important bacteria internally than externally (84.3% v. 64.1%; P<0.05). The implications of these and other recent results, for the control of cockroaches and nosocomial infections, are discussed.
",20863441
0,6978,"New insight into foregut functions of xenobiotic detoxification in the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The physiological functions of insect foregut, especially in xenobiotic detoxification, are scarcely reported because of unimportance in appearance and insufficient molecular information. The cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END], an entomological model organism, provides perfect material to study physiological functions of foregut tissue due to its architectural feature. Through Illumina sequencing of foregut tissue from [START]P. americana[END] individuals (control) or insects treated with cycloxaprid, as a novel neonicotinoid insecticide, 54 193 166 clean reads were obtained and further assembled into 53 853 unigenes with an average length of 366 bp. Furthermore, the number of unigenes involved in xenobiotic detoxification was analyzed, mainly including 70 cytochrome P450s, 12 glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), seven carboxylesterases (CarEs) and seven adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. Compared to control, the expression of 22 xenobiotic detoxification unigenes was up-regulated after cycloxaprid application, mainly containing 18 P450s, one GST, two CarEs and one ABC adenosine triphosphate transporter, indicating that the oxidation-reduction was the major reactive process to cycloxaprid application. Through quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis, the expression of selected unigenes (six P450s, one GST and one CarE) was up-regulated at least two-fold following cycloxaprid treatment, and was generally in agreement with transcriptome data. Compared to the previous midgut transcriptome of [START]P. americana[END], it looks like the expressive abundance of the xenobiotic detoxification unigenes might be important factors to the detoxifying functional differences between foregut and midgut. In conclusion, insect foregut would also play important roles in the physiological processes related to xenobiotic detoxification.
",28556457
0,6978,"Further characterization of distinct high-affinity binding sites for dinotefuran in the abdominal nerve cord of the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Blattodea).
Dinotefuran (DTF) is a systemic neonicotinoid insecticide characterized by a tetrahydrofuran ring. In the present study, we examined the characteristics of DTF binding to native nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) expressed in the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END] using radioligand-binding methods. The Scatchard analysis, using [3H]imidacloprid (IMI), indicated that IMI has a single class of high-affinity binding sites in the [START]P. americana[END] nerve cord. In contrast, the Scatchard analysis using [3H]DTF indicated that DTF has two different classes of binding sites. Both DTF and IMI were found to bind to one of the classes, for which DTF showed low affinity. The other class, for which DTF showed high affinity, was localized in the abdominal nerve cord but not in the thoracic nerve cord. IMI showed low affinity for the high-affinity DTF binding sites. Our data suggest that DTF binds with high affinity to a nAChR subtype distinct from the high-affinity subtype for IMI. This difference might be responsible, at least in part, for the difference in resistance development to DTF and IMI in [START]P. americana[END].
",32359545
0,6978,"[Chemical Constituents from [START]Periplaneta americana[END]].
OBJECTIVE: To study the chemical constituents in [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. METHODS: The chemical constituents were separated and purified by chromatographic methods after solvent extraction and identified by spectroscopic analyses. RESULTS: Ten compounds were isolated from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] and identified as following: 8-hydroxy-3,4-dihydroquinolin-2 (1H)-one (1), cyclo-( L-Phe-L-Pro) (2), cyclo-(Pro-Ile) (3), cyclo-(L-Pro-D-Leu) (4), brevianamide F (5), cyclo-(Ile-Ala) (6), cyclo-( L-Val-L-Pro) (7), cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Tyr) (8), cyclo-(Trp-Val)-dipeptide (9), and (-)-(1S, 3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (10). CONCLUSION: Compounds 2 - 9 are isolated from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] for the first time.
",27254913
0,6978,"Shock-induced Analgesia in the cockroach ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]).
For 3 consecutive days cockroaches ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) received escapable, inescapable, or no shock in an escape task. 24 hr. later minimum shock which initiated movement was identified. Reliably higher shocks were needed to initiate movement in the inescapably shocked roaches. In a second experiment the analgesia induced by inescapable shock was blocked by the opiate antagonist naloxone. The results are discussed in relation to the escape deficit and analgesia commonly seen following exposure to inescapable shock in a variety of species.
",8058847
0,6978,"Chitosan electrospun nanofibers derived from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] residue for promoting infected wound healing.
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] has been used medicinally for years to treat a wide variety of skin lesions or ulcers. However, a sizable portion of the drug residues that are retained after extraction are routinely thrown away, thus posing a hazard to the environment and depleting resources. In this study, low molecular weight [START]Periplaneta americana[END] chitosan (LPCS) and high molecular weight [START]Periplaneta americana[END] chitosan (HPCS) were extracted from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] residue (PAR) based on the conventional acid-base method and two deacetylation methods. Moreover, the physicochemical properties and structural differences between the above two chitosan and commercial chitosan (CS) were compared using different methods. Next, two nanofibers comprising different ratios of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] chitosan (LPCS or HPCS), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and polyethylene oxide (PEO) were prepared and optimized. The above nanofibers exhibited excellent mechanical properties, antibacterial properties, and biocompatibility while facilitating wound healing in an infected rat whole-layer wound model by promoting wound closure, epithelialization, collagen deposition, and inflammation reduction. In brief, this study produced an effective and affordable wound dressing and offered a suggestion for the comprehensive utilization of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] residue.
",36592849
0,6978,"Experimental transmission of Toxocara canis from Blattella germanica and [START]Periplaneta americana[END] cockroaches to a paratenic host.
The present study assessed the capacity of Blattella germanica and [START]Periplaneta americana[END] to disseminate and transmit infective phases of T. canis to rats, which were used as a model paratenic host. [START]P. americana[END] and B. germanica inoculated orally with T. canis larvated eggs shed eggs and larvae in their fecal matter during the first 6days post-inoculation. Larvae were recovered from the brain, lungs, kidneys and liver of rats that had been inoculated with either infected cockroaches or their feces. ELISAs of serum detected an increase of antibodies anti-T. canis excretion-secretion antigens, whereas Western Blot (WB) showed 4 bands (120, 50, 35 and 28kDa) that were similar to those found in positive control rats. Macroscopically, the liver and kidneys of infected rats had hemorrhagic areas with milk-spot-like lesions. The lungs showed diffuse grey protuberances. Histologically, hemorrhagic areas with leucocytic infiltrate were observed in the liver, lungs and kidneys. Some larvae were found within a granuloma that was surrounded by eosinophils and other leucocytic infiltrates. Larvae were found in the brain, but without inflammatory infiltrate. Both cockroach species that ingested larvated eggs of T. canis may shed viable larvae or eggs in their fecal matter. The induction of specific serum antibodies, presence of larvae in tissues and characteristic lesions associated with larval migration in the organs of rats that had ingested either whole adults or feces of B. germanica or [START]P. americana[END] demonstrate the capacity of these cockroaches to transmit toxocariosis to paratenic hosts.
",28969780
0,6978,"Development of microparticles for oral administration of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] extract to treat ulcerative colitis.
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic disease, which can result the inflammation of the rectum, mucosa of the colon, and submucosa. The active component such as polypeptide in [START]Periplaneta americana[END], which is one of the most common insects in the nature, can be extracted to treat UC. However, the active components in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] extract (PAE) can be degraded in the stomach due to its extreme acidic environment and enzyme. In this study, we developed a pH-dependent drug delivery method using polymer cellulose acetate (Eudragit S100) as a carrier to deliver high concentration PAE to inflamed colon. Both in vitro and in vivo results showed the PAE-Eudragit-S100 could treat UC through delivering active drug components to colon without degradation.
",35982644
0,6978,"Characterization and diabetic wound healing benefits of protein-polysaccharide complexes isolated from an animal ethno-medicine [START]Periplaneta americana[END] L.
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. (PA), a type of animal medicine, has been widely used for wound healing in clinical settings. In order to further investigate the bioactive wound healing substances in PA, crude PA protein-polysaccharide complexes were further purified by cellulose DE-52 and Sephadex G100 chromatography in succession. Among these isolated fractions, two fractions eluted by 0.3 M and 0.5 M NaCl with the higher yield, respectively named PaPPc2 and PaPPc3 respectively, were chosen for the wound healing experiments. Mediated by HPGPC, amino acid and monosaccharide composition analysis, circular dichroism spectrum, glycosylation type, FT-IR, and 1H NMR analysis, the characterization of PaPPc2 and PaPPc3 was implemented. And then, the benefits of PaPPcs to promote cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation of HUVECs were determined in vitro, indicated these fractions would facilitate angiogenesis. Finally, as proof of concept, PaPPc2 and PaPPc3 were employed to accelerate the acute wounds of diabetic mice, involving in increase blood vessels and the amounts of angiogenesis-related cytokines (alpha-SMA, VEGF, and CD31). In short, this study provides an experimental basis to demonstrate the protein-polysaccharide complexes of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. as its wound healing bioactive substances.
",34914909
0,6978,"Function of the lipopolysaccharide-binding protein of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] as an opsonin.
Previously, we reported the purification of an LPS-binding protein from the hemolymph of the [START]American cockroach[END] that was specific for E. coli LPS. In this study we found that this protein participated in the clearance of E. coli cells injected into the abdominal cavity of the cockroach, and that hemocytes ingested E. coli cells treated with this LPS-binding protein in vitro. These findings suggest that this LPS-binding protein acts as an opsonin.
",1537405
0,6978,"[START]Periplaneta americana[END] Oligosaccharides Exert Anti-Inflammatory Activity through Immunoregulation and Modulation of Gut Microbiota in Acute Colitis Mice Model.
The incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disorders (IBD) are increasing around the world due to bacterial infection, abnormal immune response, etc. The conventional medicines for IBD treatment possess serious side effects. [START]Periplaneta americana[END] ([START]P. americana[END]), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been used to treat arthritis, fever, aches, inflammation, and other diseases. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of oligosaccharides from [START]P. Americana[END] (OPA) and its possible mechanisms in vivo. OPA were purified and biochemical characterization was analyzed by HPGPC, HPLC, FT-IR, and GC-MS. Acute colitis mice model was established, the acute toxicity and anti-inflammatory activity were tested in vivo. The results showed OPA with molecular mass of 1.0 kDa were composed of 83% glucose, 6% galactose, 11% xylose, and the backbone was (1 4)-Glcp. OPA had potent antioxidant activities in vitro and significantly alleviated the clinical symptoms of colitis, relieved colon damage without toxic side effects in vivo. OPA exhibited anti-inflammatory activity by regulating Th1/Th2, reducing oxidative stress, preserving intestinal barrier integrity, and inhibiting TLR4/MAPK/NF-kappaB pathway. Moreover, OPA protected gut by increasing microbial diversity and beneficial bacteria, and reducing pathogenic bacteria in feces. OPA might be the candidate of complementary and alternative medicines of IBD with low-cost and high safety.
",33808686
0,6978,"Assessment of dermal safety of oil extracted from [START]Periplaneta americana[END]: acute dermal toxicity, irritation, and sensitization.
INTRODUCTION: The [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) is used in traditional Chinese medicine. [START]Periplaneta americana[END] ([START]P. americana[END]) is rich in oil that has shown potential antioxidant and antibacterial activities in vitro. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety of oil extracted from [START]P. americana[END] by conducting acute dermal toxicity, irritation, and sensitization tests. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In an acute dermal toxicity study, adult Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to [START]P. americana[END] oil (2000 mg/kg body weight) for 24 h. Clinical observations were conducted to evaluate the toxicity, behaviour, and health of the animals every day after dermal exposure for 14 days. For the dermal irritation test, the oil was applied to rabbits in single and multiple doses. Multi-dose treatment was administered once per day for 14 days. Each rabbit served as its own left- and right-side control and the rabbits' irritation reactions in local intact and damaged skin were recorded and scored. The skin sensitization study of guinea pigs with the oil was conducted for a period of 28 days. RESULTS: The acute dermal median lethal dose (LD50) of [START]P. americana[END] oil was > 2000 mg/kg body weight in adult rats. There was no significant difference in mean irritation scores between the negative control and oil groups. The oil caused very little or no irritation in the intact and damaged skin rabbits treated with either single or multiple doses and it was non-sensitizing to the skin of guinea pigs. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that [START]P. americana[END] oil does not produce any significant acute toxic effects and is safe for use in animal models with almost no dermal irritation or sensitization. Therefore, it presents a low risk of provoking skin reactions in humans.
",32406268
0,6978,"Polyphosphate polymers during early embryogenesis of [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Inorganic polyphosphates (PolyP) are linear polymers of phosphate (Pi) residues linked by high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. Despite a wide distribution, their role during insect embryogenesis has not been examined so far. In this study, we show the mobilization of PolyP polymers during the embryogenesis of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. PolyP was detected by enzymatic and fluorimetric assays and found to accumulate in two main sizes by agarose gel electrophoresis. Confocal microscopy showed their presence in small vesicles. In addition, X-ray microanalysis of small vesicles showed considerable amounts of calcium, sodium and magnesium, suggesting an association of PolyP with these elements. Variations of the free Ca+2, Pi and PolyP levels were observed during the first days of embryogenesis. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that phosphate ions modulate PolyP variation and that PolyP hydrolysis result in increasing free Ca+2 levels. This is the first investigation of PolyP metabolism during embryogenesis of an insect and might shed light on the mechanisms involving Pi storage and homeostasis during this period. We suggest that PolyP, mainly stored in small vesicles, might be involved in the functional control of Ca+2 and Pi homeostasis during early embryogenesis of [START]P. Americana[END].
",18773905
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] serpin-5 regulates prophenoloxidase activation and the Toll signaling pathway by inhibiting hemolymph proteinase HP6.
Insect immune responses include prophenoloxidase (proPO) activation and Toll pathway initiation, which are mediated by serine proteinase cascades and regulated by serpins. [START]Manduca sexta[END] hemolymph proteinase-6 (HP6) is a component of both pathways. It cleaves and activates proPO activating proteinase 1 (PAP1) and hemolymph proteinase-8 (HP8), which activates proSpatzle. Inhibitors of HP6 could have the capability of regulating both of these innate immune proteinase cascade pathways. Covalent complexes of HP6 with serpin-4 and serpin-5 were previously isolated from [START]M. sexta[END] plasma using immunoaffinity chromatography with serpin antibodies. We investigated the inhibition of purified, recombinant HP6 by serpin-4 and serpin-5. Both serpin-4 and serpin-5 formed SDS-stable complexes with HP6 in vitro, and they inhibited the activation of proHP8 and proPAP1. Serpin-5 inhibited HP6 more efficiently than did serpin-4. Injection of serpin-5 into larvae resulted in decreased bacteria-induced antimicrobial activity in hemolymph and reduced the bacteria-induced expression of attacin, cecropin and hemolin genes in fat body. Injection of serpin-4 had a weaker effect on antimicrobial peptide expression. These results indicate that serpin-5 may regulate the activity of HP6 to modulate proPO activation and antimicrobial peptide production during immune responses of [START]M. sexta[END].
",20624461
0,7130,"Parameters of motion vision in low light in the hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END] is nocturnally active, beginning its flight activity at sunset, and executing rapid controlled maneuvers to search for food and mates in dim light conditions. The visual system of this moth has been shown to trade off spatial and temporal resolution for increased sensitivity in these conditions. The study presented here uses tethered flying moths to characterize the flight performance envelope of the wide-field-motion-triggered steering response of [START]M. sexta[END] in low light conditions by measuring attempted turning in response to wide-field visual motion. Moths were challenged with a horizontally oscillating sinusoidal grating at a range of luminance, from daylight to starlight conditions. The impact of luminance on response to a range of temporal frequencies and spatial wavelengths was assessed across a range of pattern contrasts. The optomotor response decreased as a function of decreasing luminance, and the lower limit of the moth's contrast sensitivity was found to be between 1 and 5%. The preferred spatial frequency for [START]M. sexta[END] increased from 0.06 to 0.3 cycles deg-1 as the luminance decreased, but the preferred temporal frequency remained stable at 4.5 Hz across all conditions. The relationship between the optomotor response time to the temporal frequency of the pattern movement did not vary significantly with luminance levels. Taken together, these results suggest that the behavioral response to wide-field visual input in [START]M. sexta[END] is adapted to operate during crepuscular to nocturnal luminance levels, and the decreasing light levels experienced during that period changes visual acuity and does not affect their response time significantly.
",29997159
0,7130,"Jasmonate-dependent depletion of soluble sugars compromises plant resistance to [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Jasmonates regulate plant secondary metabolism and herbivore resistance. How they influence primary metabolites and how this may affect herbivore growth and performance are not well understood. We profiled sugars and starch of jasmonate biosynthesis-deficient and jasmonate-insensitive Nicotiana attenuata plants and manipulated leaf carbohydrates through genetic engineering and in vitro complementation to assess how jasmonate-dependent sugar accumulation affects the growth of [START]Manduca sexta[END] caterpillars. We found that jasmonates reduce the constitutive and herbivore-induced concentration of glucose and fructose in the leaves across different developmental stages. Diurnal, jasmonate-dependent inhibition of invertase activity was identified as a likely mechanism for this phenomenon. Contrary to our expectation, both in planta and in vitro approaches showed that the lower sugar concentrations led to increased [START]M. sexta[END] growth. As a consequence, jasmonate-dependent depletion of sugars rendered N. attenuata plants more susceptible to [START]M. sexta[END] attack. In conclusion, jasmonates are important regulators of leaf carbohydrate accumulation and this determines herbivore growth. Jasmonate-dependent resistance is reduced rather than enhanced through the suppression of glucose and fructose concentrations, which may contribute to the evolution of divergent resistance strategies of plants in nature. 
",25704234
0,7130,"The role of lysozyme in the prophenoloxidase activation system of [START]Manduca sexta[END]: an in vitro approach.
Activation of the prophenoloxidase (proPO) system and synthesis of antimicrobial peptides (including lysozyme) are two key defense mechanisms in arthropods. Activation of proPO involves a cascade of serine proteinases that eventually converts proPO to active phenoloxidase (PO). However, a trade-off between lysozyme/antibacterial activity and PO activity has been observed in some insects, and a mosquito lysozyme can inhibit melanization. It is not clear whether lysozyme can inhibit PO activity and/or proPO activation. In this study, we used in vitro assays to investigate the role of lysozyme in proPO activation in the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END]. We showed that lysozymes from [START]M. sexta[END], human milk and hen egg white did not inhibit PO activity in the pre-activated naive plasma of [START]M. sexta[END] larvae, but significantly inhibited proPO activation in the naive plasma. Western blot analysis showed that direct incubation of [START]M. sexta[END] lysozyme with the naive plasma prevented conversion of proPO to PO, but stimulated degradation of precursor proteins for serine proteinase homolog-2 (SPH2) and proPO-activating proteinase-1 (PAP1), two key components required for proPO activation. Far-western blot analysis showed that [START]M. sexta[END] lysozyme and proPO interacted with each other. Altogether, our results suggest that lysozymes may inhibit the proPO activation system by preventing conversion of proPO to PO via direct protein interaction with proPO.
",19835909
0,7130,"Distinct nutritional and endocrine regulation of prothoracic gland activities underlies divergent life history strategies in [START]Manduca sexta[END] and Drosophila melanogaster.
Life history trade-offs lead to various strategies that maximize fitness, but the developmental mechanisms underlying these alternative strategies continue to be poorly understood. In insects, trade-offs exist between size and developmental time. Recent studies in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster have suggested that the steroidogenic prothoracic glands play a key role in determining the timing of metamorphosis. In this study, the nutrient-dependent growth and transcriptional activation of prothoracic glands were studied in D. melanogaster and the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END]. In both species, minimum viable weight (MVW) was associated with activation of ecdysteroid biosynthesis genes and growth of prothoracic gland cells. However, the timing of MVW attainment in [START]M. sexta[END] is delayed by the presence of the sesquiterpenoid hormone, juvenile hormone (JH), whereas in D. melanogaster it is not. Moreover, in D. melanogaster, the transcriptional regulation of ecdysteroidogenesis becomes nutrient-independent at the MVW/critical weight (CW) checkpoint. In contrast, in [START]M. sexta[END], starvation consistently reduced transcriptional activation of ecdysteroid biosynthesis genes even after CW attainment, indicating that the nature of CW differs fundamentally between the two species. In D. melanogaster, the prothoracic glands dictate the timing of metamorphosis even in the absence of nutritional inputs, whereas in [START]M. sexta[END], prothoracic gland activity is tightly coupled to the nutritional status of the body, thereby delaying the onset of metamorphosis before CW attainment. We propose that selection for survival under unpredictable nutritional availability leads to the evolution of increased modularity in both morphological and endocrine traits.
",32061770
0,7130,"Unique neural coding of crucial versus irrelevant plant odors in a hawkmoth.
The sense of smell is pivotal for nocturnal moths to locate feeding and oviposition sites. However, these crucial resources are often rare and their bouquets are intermingled with volatiles emanating from surrounding 'background' plants. Here, we asked if the olfactory system of female hawkmoths, [START]Manduca sexta[END], could differentiate between crucial and background cues. To answer this question, we collected nocturnal headspaces of numerous plants in a natural habitat of [START]M. sexta[END]. We analyzed the chemical composition of these headspaces and used them as stimuli in physiological experiments at the antenna and in the brain. The intense odors of floral nectar sources evoked strong responses in virgin and mated female moths, most likely enabling the localization of profitable flowers at a distance. Bouquets of larval host plants and most background plants, in contrast, were subtle, thus potentially complicating host identification. However, despite being subtle, antennal responses and brain activation patterns evoked by the smell of larval host plants were clearly different from those evoked by other plants. Interestingly, this difference was even more pronounced in the antennal lobe of mated females, revealing a status-dependent tuning of their olfactory system towards oviposition sites. Our study suggests that female moths possess unique neural coding strategies to find not only conspicuous floral cues but also inconspicuous bouquets of larval host plants within a complex olfactory landscape.
",35622402
0,7130,"Mobilization of lipid stores in [START]Manduca sexta[END]: cDNA cloning and developmental expression of fat body triglyceride lipase, TGL.
Fatty acids stored as triglycerides (TG) in the fat body serve as precursor in multiple processes including energy production and synthesis of cellular components. Mobilization of fatty acids from TG depends on the action of lipases. The fat body triglyceride lipase from [START]Manduca sexta[END], MsTGL, is the only insect lipase that has been purified and characterized, so far. A TGL cDNA from [START]M. sexta[END] fat body encoding a 649 amino acid protein was cloned and its identity confirmed by mass spectrometry and Edman sequencing data of the purified protein. The protein sequence has conserved domains and residues of potential importance for the function and regulation of TGL activity. The expression of TGL and the lipase activity of fat body homogenates were studied in several developmental stages of [START]M. sexta[END]. TG-hydrolase activity of fat body increased as larva grew to the last instar and, then, decreased to minimal levels during pupa stage. Lipase activity was progressively restored in adult insects and reached maximum values at this stage. The fat body lipase activity from adult insects, 1-2 day after emergence, was 9-fold higher than that from 2 to 3 days old 5th-instar larvae. A good correlation was found between the abundance of TGL protein and the lipase activity of fat body homogenates. This correlation and the expression pattern of TGL throughout development are consistent with the notion that TGL is the main fat body TG lipase of [START]M. sexta[END].
",20060045
0,7130,"A novel site of haematopoiesis and appearance and dispersal of distinct haemocyte types in the [START]Manduca sexta[END] embryo (Insecta, Lepidoptera).
With a set of haemocyte specific markers novel findings on haematopoiesis in the [START]Manduca sexta[END] embryo are presented. We identify a hitherto unknown paired haematopoietic cluster, the abdominal haemocyte cluster in abdominal segment 7 (A7-HCC). These clusters are localised at distinct positions and are established at around katatrepsis. Later in embryogenesis, the A7-HCCs disintegrate, thereby releasing numerous embryonic plasmatocytes which disperse both anteriorly and posteriorly. These cells follow stereotypic migration routes projecting anteriorly. The thoracic larval haematopoietic organs are established at around midembryogenesis. We identify embryonic oenocytoids in the [START]M. sexta[END] embryo for the first time. They appear in the head region roughly at the same time as the A7-HCCs occur and successively disperse in the body cavity during development. Localisation of the prophenoloxidase (proPO) mRNA and of the proPO protein are identical. Morphological, cytometric and antigenic traits show three independently generated haemocyte types during embryogenesis.
",32360227
0,7130,"The immune signaling pathways of [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Signal transduction pathways and their coordination are critically important for proper functioning of animal immune systems. Our knowledge of the constituents of the intracellular signaling network in insects mainly comes from genetic analyses in Drosophila melanogaster. To facilitate future studies of similar systems in the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] and other lepidopteran insects, we have identified and examined the homologous genes in the genome of [START]Manduca sexta[END]. Based on 1:1 orthologous relationships in most cases, we hypothesize that the Toll, Imd, MAPK-JNK-p38 and JAK-STAT pathways are intact and operative in this species, as are most of the regulatory mechanisms. Similarly, cellular processes such as autophagy, apoptosis and RNA interference probably function in similar ways, because their mediators and modulators are mostly conserved in this lepidopteran species. We have annotated a total of 186 genes encoding 199 proteins, studied their domain structures and evolution, and examined their mRNA levels in tissues at different life stages. Such information provides a genomic perspective of the intricate signaling system in a non-drosophiline insect. 
",25858029
0,7130,"Altered tyrosine metabolism and melanization complex formation underlie the developmental regulation of melanization in [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The study of hemolymph melanization in Lepidoptera has contributed greatly to our understanding of its role in insect immunity. [START]Manduca sexta[END] in particular has been an excellent model for identifying the myriad components of the phenoloxidase (PO) cascade and their activation through exposure to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). However, in a process that is not well characterized or understood, some insect species rapidly melanize upon wounding in the absence of added PAMPs. We sought to better understand this process by measuring wound-induced melanization in four insect species. Of these, only plasma from late 5th instar [START]M. sexta[END] was unable to melanize, even though each contained millimolar levels of the putative melanization substrate tyrosine (Tyr). Analysis of Tyr metabolism using substrate-free plasmas (SFPs) from late 5th instar larvae of each species showed that only [START]M. sexta[END] SFP failed to melanize with added Tyr. In contrast, early instar [START]M. sexta[END] larvae exhibited wound-induced melanization and Tyr metabolism, and SFPs prepared from these larvae melanized in the presence of Tyr. Early instar melanization in [START]M. sexta[END] was associated with the formation of a high mass protein complex that could be observed enzymatically in native gels or by PO-specific immunoblotting. Topical treatment of [START]M. sexta[END] larvae with the juvenile hormone (JH) analog methoprene delayed pupation and increased melanizing ability late in the instar, thus linking development with immunity. Our results demonstrate that melanization rates are highly variable in Lepidoptera, and that developmental stage can be an important factor for melanization within a species. More specifically, we show that the physiological substrate for melanization in [START]M. sexta[END] is Tyr, and that melanization is associated with the formation of a PO-containing protein complex. 
",25596090
0,7130,"Identification of conserved and novel microRNAs in [START]Manduca sexta[END] and their possible roles in the expression regulation of immunity-related genes.
The [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END] has served as a model for insect biochemical and physiological research for decades. However, knowledge of the posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression by microRNAs is still rudimentary in this species. Our previous study (Zhang et al., 2012) identified 163 conserved and 13 novel microRNAs in [START]M. sexta[END], most of which were present at low levels in pupae. To identify additional [START]M. sexta[END] microRNAs and more importantly to examine their possible roles in the expression regulation of immunity-related genes, we constructed four small RNA libraries using fat body and hemocytes from naive or bacteria-injected larvae and obtained 32.9 million reads of 18-31 nucleotides by Illumina sequencing. Mse-miR-929 and mse-miR-1b (antisense microRNA of mse-miR-1) were predicted in the previous study and now found to be conserved microRNAs in the tissue samples. We also found four novel microRNAs, two of which result from a gene cluster. Mse-miR-281-star, mse-miR-965-star, mse-miR-31-star, and mse-miR-9b-star were present at higher levels than their respective mature strands. Abundance changes of microRNAs were observed after the immune challenge. Based on the quantitative data of mRNA levels in control and induced fat body and hemocytes as well as the results of microRNA target site prediction, we suggest that certain microRNAs and microRNA*s regulate gene expression for pattern recognition, prophenoloxidase activation, cellular responses, antimicrobial peptide synthesis, and conserved intracellular signal transduction (Toll, IMD, JAK-STAT, MAPK-JNK-p38, and small interfering RNA pathways). In summary, this study has enriched our knowledge on [START]M. sexta[END] microRNAs and how some of them may participate in the expression regulation of immunity-related genes. 
",24508515
0,7130,"Immune Defense Varies within an Instar in the [START]Tobacco Hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Research on how insect immunity changes with age as insects develop within an instar, or larval developmental stage, is limited and contradictory. Insects within an instar are preparing for the next developmental stage, which may involve changes in morphology or habitat. Immunity may also vary accordingly. To determine how immunity varies in the fifth instar, we tested humoral immune responses, antimicrobial peptide activity, and phenoloxidase activity using the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END]. We determined that while [START]M. sexta[END] have more robust antimicrobial peptide and phenoloxidase responses at the beginning of their fifth instar, this did not translate into better survival of bacterial infection or lower bacterial load in the hemolymph. We also determined that [START]M. sexta[END] injected with bacteria early in the fifth instar experience lower growth rates and longer development times than caterpillars of the same age injected with sham. This could indicate a shift in energy allocation from growth and development to metabolically costly immune responses. Because of the importance of insects as pests and pollinators, understanding how immunity varies throughout development is critical.
",25730277
0,7130,"Molecular interactions between the specialist herbivore [START]Manduca sexta[END] (lepidoptera, sphingidae) and its natural host Nicotiana attenuata. VI. Microarray analysis reveals that most herbivore-specific transcriptional changes are mediated by fatty acid-amino acid conjugates.
Evidence is accumulating that insect-specific plant responses are mediated by constituents in the oral secretions and regurgitants (R) of herbivores, however the relative importance of the different potentially active constituents remains unclear. Fatty acid-amino acid conjugates (FACs) are found in the R of many insect herbivores and have been shown to be necessary and sufficient to elicit a set of herbivore-specific responses when the native tobacco plant Nicotiana attenuata is attacked by the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END]. Attack by this specialist herbivore results in a large transcriptional reorganization in N. attenuata, and 161 genes have been cloned from previous cDNA differential display-polymerase chain reaction and subtractive hybridization with magnetic beads analysis. cDNAs of these genes, in addition to those of 73 new R-responsive genes identified by cDNA-amplified fragment-length polymorphism display of R-elicited plants, were spotted on polyepoxide coated glass slides to create microarrays highly enriched in [START]Manduca[END] spp.- and R-induced genes. With these microarrays, we compare transcriptional responses in N. attenuata treated with R from the two most damaging lepidopteran herbivores of this plant in nature, [START]M. sexta[END] and Manduca quinquemaculata, which have very similar FAC compositions in their R, and with the two most abundant FACs in [START]Manduca[END] spp. R. More than 68% of the genes up- and down-regulated by [START]M. sexta[END] R were similarly regulated by M. quinquemaculata R. A majority of genes up-regulated (64%) and down-regulated (49%) by [START]M. sexta[END] R were similarly regulated by treatment with the two FACs. In contrast, few genes showed similar transcriptional changes after H(2)O(2)- and R-treatment. These results demonstrate that the two most abundant FACs in [START]Manduca[END] spp. R can account for the majority of [START]Manduca[END] spp.-induced alterations of the wound response of N. attenuata.
",12692348
0,7130,"Identification, sequence and expression of a crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) gene in the moth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) gene was isolated from the [START]tobacco hawkmoth[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END]. The gene has an open reading frame of 125 amino acid residues containing a single, complete copy of CCAP. Analysis of the gene structure revealed three introns interrupting the coding region. A comparison of the [START]M. sexta[END] CCAP gene with the Drosophila melanogaster genome database reveals significant similarities in sequence and gene structure. The spatial and temporal expression patterns of the CCAP gene in the [START]M. sexta[END] central nervous system were determined in all major post-embryonic stages using in situ hybridization techniques. The CCAP gene is expressed in a total of 116 neurons in the post-embryonic [START]M. sexta[END] central nervous system. Nine pairs of cells are observed in the brain, 4.5 pairs in the subesophageal ganglion, three pairs in each thoracic ganglion (T1-T3), three pairs in the first abdominal ganglion (A1), five pairs each in the second to sixth abdominal ganglia (A2-A6) and 7.5 pairs in the terminal ganglion. The CCAP gene is expressed in every ganglion in each post-embryonic stage, except in the thoracic ganglia of first- and second-instar larvae. The number of cells expressing the CCAP gene varies during post-embryonic life, starting at 52 cells in the first instar and reaching a maximum of 116 shortly after pupation. One set of thoracic neurons expressing CCAP mRNA shows unusual variability in expression levels immediately prior to larval ecdysis. Using previously published CCAP immunocytochemical data, it was determined that 91 of 95 CCAP-immunopositive neurons in the [START]M. sexta[END] central nervous system also express the [START]M. sexta[END] CCAP gene, indicating that there is likely to be only a single CCAP gene in [START]M. sexta[END].
",11683436
0,7130,"Rearing and injection of [START]Manduca sexta[END] larvae to assess bacterial virulence.
[START]Manduca sexta[END], commonly known as the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], is considered a significant agricultural pest, feeding on solanaceous plants including tobacco and tomato. The susceptibility of [START]M. sexta[END] larvae to a variety of entomopathogenic bacterial species(1-5), as well as the wealth of information available regarding the insect's immune system(6-8), and the pending genome sequence(9) make it a good model organism for use in studying host-microbe interactions during pathogenesis. In addition, [START]M. sexta[END] larvae are relatively large and easy to manipulate and maintain in the laboratory relative to other susceptible insect species. Their large size also facilitates efficient tissue/hemolymph extraction for analysis of the host response to infection. The method presented here describes the direct injection of bacteria into the hemocoel (blood cavity) of [START]M. sexta[END] larvae. This approach can be used to analyze and compare the virulence characteristics of various bacterial species, strains, or mutants by simply monitoring the time to insect death after injection. This method was developed to study the pathogenicity of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus species, which typically associate with nematode vectors as a means to gain entry into the insect. Entomopathogenic nematodes typically infect larvae via natural digestive or respiratory openings, and release their symbiotic bacterial contents into the insect hemolymph (blood) shortly thereafter(10). The injection method described here bypasses the need for a nematode vector, thus uncoupling the effects of bacteria and nematode on the insect. This method allows for accurate enumeration of infectious material (cells or protein) within the inoculum, which is not possible using other existing methods for analyzing entomopathogenesis, including nicking(11) and oral toxicity assays(12). Also, oral toxicity assays address the virulence of secreted toxins introduced into the digestive system of larvae, whereas the direct injection method addresses the virulence of whole-cell inocula. The utility of the direct injection method as described here is to analyze bacterial pathogenesis by monitoring insect mortality. However, this method can easily be expanded for use in studying the effects of infection on the [START]M. sexta[END] immune system. The insect responds to infection via both humoral and cellular responses. The humoral response includes recognition of bacterial-associated patterns and subsequent production of various antimicrobial peptides(7); the expression of genes encoding these peptides can be monitored subsequent to direct infection via RNA extraction and quantitative PCR(13). The cellular response to infection involves nodulation, encapsulation, and phagocytosis of infectious agents by hemocytes(6). To analyze these responses, injected insects can be dissected and visualized by microscopy(13, 14).
",23271332
0,7130,"Changes in growth and developmental timing in [START]Manduca sexta[END] when exposed to altered oxygen levels.
The effect of chronic oxygen exposure on growth and development of insects is an active field of research. It seeks to unravel the triggers and limitations to molting and growth across many insect groups, although even now there are gaps in our knowledge and inconsistencies that need to be addressed. The oxygen dependent induction of molting (ODIM) hypothesis states that the impetus for molting is triggered by the development of hypoxic tissue due to the rapid increase in mass coupled with the fixed nature of tracheal systems between molts. In this study, we raised [START]Manduca sexta[END] in three chronic oxygen treatments (10, 21, & 30% O2). We measured the mass of these insects throughout their larval development and as adults. We found that both hyperoxia and hypoxia had marked effects on size and developmental times. Hyperoxia exposure resulted in increased mass throughout development and into adulthood while increasing developmental times. Hypoxia also increased developmental time and decreased mass of adult moths. We show that pupation is a critical window for exposure to altered oxygen levels. This suggests that oxygen may play a role in affecting the timing of eclosion at the end of pupation.
",36571898
0,7130,"Neuroethology of oviposition behavior in the moth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Olfactory cues play decisive roles in the lives of most insect species, providing information about biologically relevant resources, such as food, mates, and oviposition sites. The nocturnal moth [START]Manduca sexta[END] feeds on floral nectar from a variety of plants (and thus serves as a pollinator), but females oviposit almost exclusively on solanaceous plants, which they recognize on the basis of olfactory cues. Plants, however, respond to herbivory by releasing blends of volatiles that attract natural enemies of herbivores. Thus, oviposition behavior probably results from the sensory evaluation not only of attractive host plant volatiles but also of repellent volatiles that indicate the acceptability or inappropriateness, respectively, of host plants for the females' offspring. Here we describe results from chemical-ecological, neurophysiological, and behavioral experiments aimed at understanding the neural mechanisms that control oviposition behavior in [START]M. sexta[END].
",19686178
0,7130,"Elastic proteins in the flight muscle of [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The flight muscles (DLM1) of the Hawkmoth, [START]Manduca sexta[END] are synchronous, requiring a neural spike for each contraction. Stress/strain curves of skinned DLM1 showed hysteresis indicating the presence of titin-like elastic proteins. Projectin and kettin are titin-like proteins previously identified in Lethocerus and Drosophila flight muscles. Analysis of [START]Manduca[END] muscles with 1% SDS-agarose gels and western blots showed two bands near 1 MDa that cross-reacted with antibodies to Drosophila projectin. Antibodies to Drosophila kettin cross-reacted to bands at ~500 and ~700 kDa, but also to bands at ~1.6 and ~2.1 MDa, that had not been previously observed in insect flight muscles. Mass spectrometry identified the 2.1 MDa protein as a product of the Sallimus (sls) gene. Analysis of the gene sequence showed that all 4 putative Sallimus and kettin isoforms could be explained as products of alternative splicing of the single sls gene. Both projectin and sallimus isoforms were expressed to higher levels in ventrally located DLM1 subunits, primarily responsible for active work production, as compared to dorsally located subunits, which may act as damped springs. The different expression levels of the 2 projectin isoforms and 4 sallimus/kettin isoforms may be adaptations to the specific requirements of individual muscle subunits.
",25602701
0,7130,"The effect of ambient humidity on the foraging behavior of the hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The foraging decisions of flower-visiting animals are contingent upon the need of an individual to meet both energetic and osmotic demands. Insects can alter their food preferences to prioritize one need over the other, depending on environmental conditions. In this study, preferences in nectar sugar concentrations (0, 12, 24 %) were tested in the hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END], in response to different levels of ambient humidity (20, 40, 60, and 80 % RH). Moths altered their foraging behavior when placed in low humidity environments by increasing the volume of nectar imbibed and by consuming more dilute nectar. When placed in high humidity environments the total volume imbibed decreased, because moths consumed less from dilute nectars (water and 12 % sucrose). Survivorship was higher with higher humidity. Daily foraging patterns changed with relative humidity (RH): moths maximized their nectar consumption earlier, at lower humidities. Although ambient humidity had an impact on foraging activity, activity levels and nectar preferences, total energy intake was not affected. These results show that foraging decisions made by [START]M. sexta[END] kept under different ambient RH levels allow individuals to meet their osmotic demands while maintaining a constant energy input.
",23756587
0,7130,"De novo genome assembly of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] moth ([START]Manduca sexta[END]).
The [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END], is a lepidopteran insect that is used extensively as a model system for studying insect biology, development, neuroscience, and immunity. However, current studies rely on the highly fragmented reference genome Msex_1.0, which was created using now-outdated technologies and is hindered by a variety of deficiencies and inaccuracies. We present a new reference genome for [START]M. sexta[END], JHU_Msex_v1.0, applying a combination of modern technologies in a de novo assembly to increase continuity, accuracy, and completeness. The assembly is 470 Mb and is ~20x more continuous than the original assembly, with scaffold N50 > 14 Mb. We annotated the assembly by lifting over existing annotations and supplementing with additional supporting RNA-based data for a total of 25,256 genes. The new reference assembly is accessible in annotated form for public use. We demonstrate that improved continuity of the [START]M. sexta[END] genome improves resequencing studies and benefits future research on [START]M. sexta[END] as a model organism.
",33561252
0,7130,"Shifting Nicotiana attenuata's diurnal rhythm does not alter its resistance to the specialist herbivore [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Arabidopsis thaliana plants are less resistant to attack by the generalist lepidopteran herbivore Trichoplusia ni when plants and herbivores are entrained to opposite, versus identical diurnal cycles and tested under constant conditions. This effect is associated with circadian fluctuations in levels of jasmonic acid, the transcription factor MYC2, and glucosinolate contents in leaves. We tested whether a similar effect could be observed in a different plant-herbivore system: the wild tobacco Nicotiana attenuata and its co-evolved specialist herbivore, [START]Manduca sexta[END]. We measured larval growth on plants under both constant and diurnal conditions following identical or opposite entrainment, profiled the metabolome of attacked leaf tissue, quantified specific metabolites known to reduce [START]M. sexta[END] growth, and monitored [START]M. sexta[END] feeding activity under all experimental conditions. Entrainment did not consistently affect [START]M. sexta[END] growth or plant defense induction. However, both were reduced under constant dark conditions, as was [START]M. sexta[END] feeding activity. Our data indicate that the response induced by [START]M. sexta[END] in N. attenuata is robust to diurnal cues and independent of plant or herbivore entrainment. We propose that while the patterns of constitutive or general damage-induced defense may undergo circadian fluctuation, the orchestration of specific induced responses is more complex. 
",26699809
0,7130,"Identification of parasite-responsive cysteine proteases in [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Parasites have evolved different virulence strategies to manipulate host physiological functions. The parasitoid wasp Cotesia congregata induces developmental arrest and immune suppression of its Lepidopteran host [START]Manduca sexta[END]. In this interaction, a symbiotic virus (C. congregata Bracovirus, CcBV) associated with the wasp is essential for parasitism success. The virus is injected into the host with wasp eggs and virus genes are expressed in host tissues. Among potential CcBV virulence genes, cystatins, which are tight binding inhibitors of C1A cysteine proteases, are suspected to play an important role in the interaction owing to their high level of expression. So far, however, potential in vivo targets in [START]M. sexta[END] are unknown. Here, we characterized for the first time four [START]M. sexta[END] C1A cysteine proteases corresponding to cathepsin L and cathepsin B and two different '26-29 kDa' cysteine proteases (MsCath1 and MsCath2). Our analyses revealed that MsCath1 and MsCath2 are transcriptionally downregulated in the course of parasitism. Moreover, viral Cystatin1 and MsCath1 co-localize in the plasma following parasitism, strongly suggesting that they interact. We also show that parasitism induces a general increase of cysteine protease activity which is later controlled. The potential involvement of cysteine proteases in defense against parasitoids is discussed.
",19361282
0,7130,"Characterization of a novel [START]Manduca sexta[END] beta-1, 3-glucan recognition protein (betaGRP3) with multiple functions.
Recognition of pathogens by insect pattern recognition receptors is critical to mount effective immune responses. In this study, we reported a new member (betaGRP3) of the beta-1, 3-glucan recognition protein (betaGRP) family from the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END]. Unlike other members of the [START]M. sexta[END] betaGRP family proteins, which contain an N-terminal small glucan binding domain and a C-terminal large glucanase-like domain, betaGRP3 is 40-45 residues shorter at the N-terminus and lacks the small glucan binding domain. The glucanase-like domain of betaGRP3 is most similar to that of [START]M. sexta[END] microbe binding protein (MBP) with 78% identity. betaGRP3 transcript was mainly expressed in the fat body, and both its mRNA and protein levels were not induced by microorganisms in larvae. Recombinant betaGRP3 purified from Drosophila S2 cells could bind to several Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and yeast, as well as to laminarin (beta-1, 3-glucan), mannan, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), lipoteichoic acid (LTA), and meso-diaminopimelic acid (DAP)-type peptidoglycan (PG), but did not bind to Lysine-type PG. Binding of betaGRP3 to laminarin could be competed well by free laminarin, mannan, LPS and LTA, but almost not competed by free PGs. Recombinant betaGRP3 could agglutinate Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli in a calcium-dependent manner and showed antibacterial (bacteriostatic) activity against B. cereus, novel functions that have not been reported for the betaGRP family proteins before. [START]M. sexta[END] betaGRP3 may serve as an immune surveillance receptor with multiple functions. 
",24952171
0,7130,"Shape matters: corolla curvature improves nectar discovery in the hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
1. We measured the effects of variation in corolla curvature and nectary aperture radius on pollinator foraging ability using the hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END] and 3D-printed artificial flowers whose shapes were mathematically specified. 2. In dimorphic arrays containing trumpet-shaped flowers and flat-disk flowers, hawkmoths were able to empty the nectaries of significantly more trumpet-shaped flowers regardless of nectary aperture size. Interestingly, trumpet-shaped flowers needed to deviate only slightly from the flat-disk morphotype in order to significantly increase hawkmoth foraging ability. 3. Whole-flower three-dimensional shape, particularly corolla curvature, has the potential to act as a mechanical guide for [START]Manduca sexta[END], further implicating direct flower-proboscis contact as an important contributor to foraging success during flower handling in hawkmoths.
",25987763
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] prophenoloxidase activating proteinase-1 (PAP-1) gene: organization, expression, and regulation by immune and hormonal signals.
Insect phenoloxidase (PO) participates in melanotic encapsulation, wound healing, and cuticle sclerotization. It is converted from prophenoloxidase (proPO) by a proPO-activating proteinase (PAP). [START]Manduca sexta[END] PAP-1, the final component of a serine proteinase cascade, cleaves proPO to generate active PO. In an effort to understand the transcriptional regulation, we isolated a genomic clone of the PAP-1 gene, determined its nucleotide sequence, and elucidated its exon-intron organization. Computer analysis revealed several immune and hormone responsive elements in the upstream region. Southern blot analysis suggested that the [START]M. sexta[END] genome contains a single copy of PAP-1 gene. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed that PAP-1 was constitutively expressed in fat body, trachea, and nerve tissue of the fifth instar larvae. The mRNA levels in hemocytes and fat body markedly increased in response to a bacterial challenge. We also observed tissue-specific and developmental regulation of the gene's transcription. Treating [START]M. sexta[END] fat body culture with 20-hydroxyecdysone reduced the PAP-1 mRNA level. These data indicated that the expression of PAP-1 gene is under the dual control of immune and hormonal signals.
",15857768
0,7130,"Hemolymph protease-5 links the melanization and Toll immune pathways in the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Proteolytic activation of phenoloxidase (PO) and the cytokine Spatzle during immune responses of insects is mediated by a network of hemolymph serine proteases (HPs) and noncatalytic serine protease homologs (SPHs) and inhibited by serpins. However, integration and conservation of the system and its control mechanisms are not fully understood. Here we present biochemical evidence that PO-catalyzed melanin formation, Spatzle-triggered Toll activation, and induced synthesis of antimicrobial peptides are stimulated via hemolymph (serine) protease 5 (HP5) in [START]Manduca sexta[END] Previous studies have demonstrated a protease cascade pathway in which HP14 activates proHP21; HP21 activates proPAP2 and proPAP3, which then activate proPO in the presence of a complex of SPH1 and SPH2. We found that both HP21 and PAP3 activate proHP5 by cleavage at ESDR176*IIGG. HP5 then cleaves proHP6 at a unique site of LDLH112*ILGG. HP6, an ortholog of Drosophila Persephone, activates both proHP8 and proPAP1. HP8 activates proSpatzle-1, whereas PAP1 cleaves and activates proPO. HP5 is inhibited by [START]Manduca sexta[END] serpin-4, serpin-1A, and serpin-1J to regulate its activity. In summary, we have elucidated the physiological roles of HP5, a CLIPB with unique cleavage specificity (cutting after His) that coordinates immune responses in the caterpillar.
",32900946
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] serpin-12 controls the prophenoloxidase activation system in larval hemolymph.
Insect prophenoloxidase activation is coordinated by a serine protease network, which is regulated by serine protease inhibitors of the serpin superfamily. The enzyme system also leads to proteolytic processing of a Spatzle precursor. Binding of Spatzle to a Toll receptor turns on a signaling pathway to induce the synthesis of defense proteins. Previous studies of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END] have revealed key members of the protease cascade, which generates phenoloxidase for melanogenesis and Spatzle to induce immunity-related genes. Here we provide evidence that [START]M. sexta[END] serpin-12 regulates hemolymph protease-14 (HP14), an initiating protease of the cascade. This inhibitor, unlike the other serpins characterized in [START]M. sexta[END], has an amino-terminal extension rich in hydrophilic residues and an unusual P1 residue (Leu429) right before the scissile bond cleaved by a target protease. Serpins with similarities to serpin-12, including Drosophila Necrotic, were identified in a wide range of insects including flies, moths, wasps, beetles, and two hemimetabolous species. The serpin-12 mRNA is present at low, constitutive levels in larval fat body and hemocytes and becomes more abundant after an immune challenge. We produced the serpin-12 core domain (serpin-12DeltaN) in insect cells and in Escherichia coli and demonstrated its inhibition of human cathepsin G, bovine alpha-chymotrypsin, and porcine pancreatic elastase. MALDI-TOF analysis of the reaction mixtures confirmed the predicted P1 residue of Leu429. Supplementation of larval plasma samples with the serpin-12DeltaN decreased prophenoloxidase activation elicited by microbial cells and reduced the proteolytic activation of the protease precursors of HP6, HP8, PAPs, and other serine protease-related proteins. After incubation of plasma stimulated with peptidoglycan, a 72 kDa protein appeared, which was recognized by polyclonal antibodies against both serpin-12 and HP14, suggesting that a covalent serpin-protease complex formed when serpin-12 inhibited HP14. Together, these data suggest that [START]M. sexta[END] serpin-12 inhibits HP14 to regulate melanization and antimicrobial peptide induction.
",29800677
0,7130,"A metalloprotease secreted by the insect pathogen Photorhabdus luminescens induces melanization.
Photorhabdus luminescens is a gram-negative insect pathogen that enters the hemocoel of infected hosts and produces a number of secreted proteins that promote colonization and subsequent death of the insect. In initial studies to determine the exact role of individual secreted proteins in insect pathogenesis, concentrated culture supernatants from various P. luminescens strains were injected into the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END]. Culture supernatants from P. luminescens TT01, the genome-sequenced strain, stimulated a rapid melanization reaction in [START]M. sexta[END]. Comparison of the profiles of secreted proteins from the various Photorhabdus strains revealed a single protein of approximately 37 kDa that was significantly overrepresented in the TT01 culture supernatant. This protein was purified by DEAE ion-exchange and Superdex 75 gel filtration chromatography and identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight analysis as the product of the TT01 gene plu1382 (NCBI accession number NC_005126); we refer to it here as PrtS. PrtS is a member of the M4 metalloprotease family. Injection of PrtS into larvae of [START]M. sexta[END] and Galleria mellonella and into adult Drosophila melanogaster and D. melanogaster melanization mutants (Bc) confirmed that the purified protein induced the melanization reaction. The prtS gene was transcribed by P. luminescens injected into [START]M. sexta[END] before death of the insect, suggesting that the protein was produced during infection. The exact function of this protease during infection is not clear. The bacteria might survive inside the insect despite the melanization process, or it might be that the bacterium is specifically activating melanization in an attempt to circumvent this innate immune response.
",17933944
0,7130,"Adipokinetic hormones (AKHs) of sphingid Lepidoptera, including the identification of a second [START]M. sexta[END] AKH.
The adipokinetic hormones (AKHs) from the corpora cardiaca (CC) of representative species from all three subfamilies of the Sphingidae (hawkmoths) were investigated using matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) and liquid chromatography electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry (LC-ESI MS), including a re-examination of the AKH complement of the [START]tobacco hawkmoth[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END]. In addition to larvae and adults of [START]M. sexta[END] (subfamily: Sphinginae), adults from the following subfamilies were examined: Macroglossinae (large elephant hawkmoth, Deilephila elpenor), Smerinthinae (poplar hawkmoth, Laothoe populi and eyed hawkmoth, Smerinthus ocellata), and Sphinginae (death's head hawkmoth, Acherontia atropos). All moths are shown to have the nonapeptide Manse-AKH (pELTFTSSWGamide) [corrected] in their CC, together with a second AKH, which, on the basis of mass ions ([M+Na](+), [M+K](+)) and partial sequence analysis is identical in all species examined. The structure of this AKH was extracted from the CC [corrected] of adult [START]M. sexta[END] and shown, by ESI-collision-induced dissociation (CID) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), to be a novel decapeptide AKH with a sequence of pELTFSSWGQamide. [corrected]. The new peptide has been code named Manse-AKH-II. Sequence confirmation was obtained from identical MS studies with synthetic Manse-AKH-II and with the native peptide. Manse-AKH-II has significant lipid-mobilizing activity when injected at low dose (5pmol) into newly emerged adult [START]M. sexta[END]. The potential implications of a second AKH, in [START]M. sexta[END] in particular, are discussed in relation to putative receptor(s).
",22285789
0,7130,"The molecular mechanisms of cuticular melanization: the ecdysone cascade leading to dopa decarboxylase expression in [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Many insect developmental color changes are known to be regulated by both ecdysone and juvenile hormone. Yet the molecular mechanisms underlying this regulation have not been well understood. This review highlights the hormonal mechanisms involved in the regulation of two key enzymes [dopa decarboxylase (DDC) and phenoloxidase] necessary for insect cuticular melanization, and the molecular action of 20-hydroxyecdysone on various transcription factors leading to DDC expression at the end of a larval molt in [START]Manduca sexta[END]. In addition, the ecdysone cascade found in [START]M. sexta[END] is compared with that of other organisms.
",19552890
0,7130,"Innate immune responses of a lepidopteran insect, [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Many innate immune mechanisms are conserved throughout the animal kingdom. [START]Manduca sexta[END], a widely used model for insect biochemical research, employs these mechanisms to defend against invading pathogens and parasites. We have isolated from [START]M. sexta[END] hemolymph a group of proteins (hemolin, peptidoglycan recognition proteins, beta-1,3-glucan recognition proteins, and C-type lectins), which serve as a surveillance mechanism by binding to microbial surface molecules (e.g. peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid, and beta-1,3-glucan). The binding triggers diverse responses such as phagocytosis, nodule formation, encapsulation, melanization, and synthesis of anti-microbial peptides/proteins. Some of these responses are mediated and coordinated by serine proteinase cascades, analogous to the complement system in mammals. Our current research is focused on the proteolytic activation of prophenoloxidase (proPO)--a reaction implicated in melanotic encapsulation, wound healing, and protein cross-linking. We have isolated three proPO-activating proteinases, each of which requires serine proteinase homologs as a cofactor for generating active phenoloxidase. The proteinases and proteinase-like molecules, containing one to two clip domains at their amino-terminus, are acute-phase proteins induced upon an immune challenge. Inhibitory regulation of the proteinases by serpins and association of the proteinase homologs with a bacteria-binding lectin are important for ensuring a localized defense response. Additional serine proteinases expressed in [START]M. sexta[END] hemocytes and fat body have been discovered. Future research efforts will be aimed at elucidating the proteinase cascade for proPO activation and investigating the roles of proteinases in other immune responses such as processing of plasmatocyte-spreading peptide.
",15199957
0,7130,"Clues on the function of [START]Manduca sexta[END] perilipin 2 inferred from developmental and nutrition-dependent changes in its expression.
Cellular triglycerides (TG) are stored in cytosolic lipid droplets (LDs). Perilipins (PLIN) are a group of LD-proteins that play important roles in the assembly and transport of LDs and in TG metabolism. Two members of the PLIN family are found in insects (PLIN1 & 2 or Lsd1 & 2). We have cloned and expressed [START]Manduca sexta[END] PLIN2 (MsPLIN2), and studied developmental and nutritional changes in the expression of PLIN2. Nutritional changes induced fast alterations in PLIN2 mRNA and protein levels in fat body and midgut of the feeding larvae. The relationship observed between PLIN2 expression and TG synthesis in both larval fat body and midgut suggests that PLIN2 is needed when tissues are accumulating TG. However, when the fat body was storing TG at maximal capacity, MsPLIN2 levels declined. This unexpected finding suggests the occurrence of alternative mechanism/s to shield TG from the action of lipases in [START]M. sexta[END] LDs. In addition, it implies that the cellular level of lipid storage could be modulating MsPLIN2 expression and/or degradation. The study also confirmed that MsPLIN2 was most abundant in the adult fat body, which is characterized by a high rate of TG hydrolysis and lipid mobilization. Whether MsPLIN2 is directly involved in lipolysis and/or the secretion of lipids in the fat body of adult of [START]M. sexta[END] is unknown at this time. Nonetheless, the coexistence of high PLIN2 and lipolysis levels suggests a complex role for MsPLIN2. Altogether, we found that MsPLIN2 is needed when the synthesis of glycerides, DG and TG, is active even if the insect is accumulating or consuming TG.
",27939924
0,7130,"Presence of unsaturated sphingomyelins and changes in their composition during the life cycle of the moth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
NMR and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry were used to show for the first time the presence of sphingomyelins in extracts of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END] (Lepidoptera). The sphingosine in the ceramide was identified as tetradecasphing-4-enine, and the fatty acids were C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, and C24:0 (compound 1). Heterogeneity in the ceramide was observed in sphingomyelins from [START]M. sexta[END]. All of the sphingomyelins were associated with their doubly unsaturated sphingosine, tetradecasphing-4,6-dienine (compound 2), which contained the same set of fatty acids as compound 1 and represents a novel set of sphingomyelins not previously reported in Lepidoptera. Lipid rafts were isolated from brains of [START]M. sexta[END], and the association of these novel sphingomyelins with rafts was confirmed. The existence of the additional double bond was also observed in ceramide and ceramide phosphoethanolamine isolated from [START]M. sexta[END]. The levels of the doubly unsaturated ceramide showed modest changes during metamorphosis of [START]M. sexta[END]. These results suggest that [START]Manduca[END] sphingomyelins may participate in the formation of lipid rafts, in keeping with their function in vertebrates.
",15102888
0,7130,"The essential role of jasmonic acid in plant-herbivore interactions--using the wild tobacco Nicotiana attenuata as a model.
The plant hormone jasmonic acid (JA) plays a central role in plant defense against herbivores. Herbivore damage elicits a rapid and transient JA burst in the wounded leaves and JA functions as a signal to mediate the accumulation of various secondary metabolites that confer resistance to herbivores. Nicotiana attenuata is a wild tobacco species that inhabits western North America. More than fifteen years of study and its unique interaction with the specialist herbivore insect [START]Manduca sexta[END] have made this plant one of the best models for studying plant-herbivore interactions. Here we review the recent progress in understanding the elicitation of JA accumulation by herbivore-specific elicitors, the regulation of JA biosynthesis, JA signaling, and the herbivore-defense traits in N. attenuata. 
",24377866
0,7130,"Stepping pattern changes in the caterpillar [START]Manduca sexta[END]: the effects of orientation and substrate.
Most animals can successfully travel across cluttered, uneven environments and cope with enormous changes in surface friction, deformability and stability. However, the mechanisms used to achieve such remarkable adaptability and robustness are not fully understood. Even more limited is the understanding of how soft, deformable animals such as [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END] (caterpillars) can control their movements as they navigate surfaces that have varying stiffness and are oriented at different angles. To fill this gap, we analyzed the stepping patterns of caterpillars crawling on two different types of substrate (stiff and soft) and in three different orientations (horizontal and upward/downward vertical). Our results show that caterpillars adopt different stepping patterns (i.e. different sequences of transition between the swing and stance phases of prolegs in different body segments) based on substrate stiffness and orientation. These changes in stepping pattern occur more frequently in the upward vertical orientation. The results of this study suggest that caterpillars can detect differences in the material properties of the substrate on which they crawl and adjust their behavior to match those properties.
",32527957
0,7130,"Developmental expression of mRNAs for epidermal and fat body proteins and hormonally regulated transcription factors in the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END].
This paper provides a compilation of diagrammatic representations of the expression profiles of epidermal and fat body mRNAs during the last two larval instars and metamorphosis of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END]. Included are those encoding insecticyanin, three larval cuticular proteins, dopa decarboxylase, moling, and the juvenile hormone-binding protein JP29 produced by the dorsal abdominal epidermis, and arylphorin and the methionine-rich storage proteins made by the fat body. The mRNA profiles of the ecdysteroid-regulated cascade of transcription factors in the epidermis during the larval molt and the onset of metamorphosis and in the pupal wing during the onset of adult development are also shown. These profiles are accompanied by a brief summary of the current knowledge about the regulation of these mRNAs by ecdysteroids and juvenile hormone based on experimental manipulations, both in vivo and in vitro.
",20361974
0,7130,"Interaction of visual and odour cues in the mushroom body of the hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The responses to bimodal stimuli consisting of odour and colour were recorded using calcium-sensitive optical imaging in the mushroom bodies of the hawkmoth [START]Manduca sexta[END]. The results show that the activity in the mushroom bodies is influenced by both olfaction and vision. The interaction between the two modalities depends on the odour and the colour of the visual stimulus. A blue stimulus suppressed the response to a general flower scent (phenylacetaldehyde). By contrast, the response to a green leaf scent (1-octanol) was enhanced by the presence of the blue stimulus. A green colour had no influence on these odours but caused a marked increase in the response to an odour component (benzaldehyde) of the hawkmoth-pollinated Petunia axillaris.
",19181901
0,7130,"The [START]Manduca sexta[END] serpinome: Analysis of serpin genes and proteins in the [START]tobacco hornworm[END].
Members of the serpin superfamily of proteins occur in animals, plants, bacteria, archaea and some viruses. They adopt a variety of physiological functions, including regulation of immune system, modulation of apoptosis, hormone transport and acting as storage proteins. Most members of the serpin family are inhibitors of serine proteinases. In this study, we searched the genome of [START]Manduca sexta[END] and identified 32 serpin genes. We analyzed the structure of these genes and the sequences of their encoded proteins. Three [START]M. sexta[END] genes (serpin-1, serpin-15, and serpin-28) have mutually exclusive alternatively spliced exons encoding the carboxyl-terminal reactive center loop of the protein, which is the site of interaction with target proteases. We discovered that MsSerpin-1 has 14 splicing isoforms, including two undiscovered in previous studies. Twenty-eight of the 32 [START]M. sexta[END] serpins include a putative secretion signal peptide and are predicted to be extracellular proteins. Phylogenetic analysis of serpins in [START]M. sexta[END] and Bombyx mori indicates that 17 are orthologous pairs, perhaps carrying out essential physiological functions. Analysis of the reactive center loop and hinge regions of the protein sequences indicates that 16 of the serpin genes encode proteins that may lack proteinase inhibitor activity. Our annotation and analysis of these serpin genes and their transcript profiles should lead to future advances in experimental study of their functions in insect biochemistry.
",30237077
0,7130,"Transcriptomic response of [START]Manduca sexta[END] immune tissues to parasitization by the bracovirus associated wasp Cotesia congregata.
During oviposition, Cotesia congregata parasitoid wasps inject into their host, [START]Manduca sexta[END], some biological factors such as venom, ovarian fluid and a symbiotic polydnavirus (PDV) named Cotesia congregata bracovirus (CcBV). During parasitism, complex interactions occur between wasp-derived factors and host targets that lead to important modifications in host physiology. In particular, the immune response leading to wasp egg encapsulation is inhibited allowing wasp survival. To date, the regulation of host genes during the interaction had only been studied for a limited number of genes. In this study, we analysed the global impact of parasitism on host gene regulation 24 h post oviposition by high throughput 454 transcriptomic analyses of two tissues known to be involved in the host immune response (hemocytes and fat body). To identify specific effects of parasitism on host transcription at this time point, transcriptomes were obtained from non-treated and parasitized larvae, and also from larvae injected with heat-killed bacteria and double stimulated larvae that were parasitized prior to bacterial challenge. Results showed that, immune challenge by bacteria leads to induction of certain antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes in [START]M. sexta[END] larvae whether they were parasitized or not prior to bacterial challenge. These results show that at 24 h post oviposition pathways leading to expression of AMP genes are not all inactivated suggesting wasps are in an antiseptic environment. In contrast, at this time point genes involved in phenoloxidase activation and cellular immune responses were globally down-regulated after parasitism in accordance with the observed inhibition of wasp egg encapsulation.
",25584519
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] serpin-3 regulates prophenoloxidase activation in response to infection by inhibiting prophenoloxidase-activating proteinases.
Many serine proteinase inhibitors of the serpin superfamily have evolved in vertebrates and invertebrates to regulate serine proteinase cascades that mediate the host defense responses. We have isolated an immune-responsive serpin from the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END]. This inhibitor, [START]M. sexta[END] serpin-3, contains a reactive site loop strikingly similar to the proteolytic activation site in prophenoloxidase (pro-PO). Molecular cloning and sequence comparison indicate that serpin-3 is orthologous to Drosophila melanogaster serpin 27A, a regulator of melanization. [START]M. sexta[END] serpin-3 is constitutively present in hemolymph at a low concentration of 5-12 microg/ml and increases to 30-75 microg/ml after a microbial challenge. Recombinant serpin-3 efficiently blocks pro-PO activation in the hemolymph, and it forms SDS-stable acyl-enzyme complexes with purified pro-PO-activating proteinases (PAPs) from [START]M. sexta[END]. PAP-serpin-3 complexes were isolated by immunoaffinity chromatography from hemolymph activated by treatment with Micrococcus luteus. Kinetic analysis of PAP-serpin-3 association strongly suggests that serpin-3 is a physiological regulator of the pro-PO activation reaction.
",12966082
0,7130,"Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin interaction with [START]Manduca sexta[END] aminopeptidase N in a model membrane environment.
The Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac delta-endotoxin was shown to bind in a biphasic manner to [START]Manduca sexta[END] aminopeptidase N (APN) present in a novel model membrane. Surface plasmon resonance analysis allowed the quantification of toxin binding to [START]M. sexta[END] APN in a supported lipid monolayer. The initial binding was rapid and reversible, with an affinity constant of 110 nM. The second phase was slower and resulted in an overall affinity constant of 3.0 nM. Reagents used to disrupt protein-protein interactions did not dissociate the toxin after high-affinity binding was attained. The initial association between Cry1Ac and APN was inhibited by the sugar GalNAc, but the higher-affinity state was resistant to GalNAc-induced dissociation. The results suggest that after binding to [START]M. sexta[END] APN, the Cry1Ac toxin undergoes a rate-limiting step leading to a high-affinity state. A site-directed Cry1Ac mutant, N135Q, exhibited a similar initial binding affinity for APN but did not show the second slower phase. This inability to form an irreversible association with the APN-lipid monolayer helps explain the lack of toxicity of this protein towards [START]M. sexta[END] larvae and its deficient membrane-permeabilizing activity on [START]M. sexta[END] midgut brush border membrane vesicles.
",9677328
0,7130,"The immune properties of [START]Manduca sexta[END] transferrin.
Transferrins are secreted proteins that bind iron. The well-studied transferrins are mammalian serum transferrin, which is involved in iron transport, and mammalian lactoferrin, which functions as an immune protein. Lactoferrin and lactoferrin-derived peptides have bactericidal activity, and the iron-free form of lactoferrin has bacteriostatic activity due to its ability to sequester iron. Insect transferrin is similar in sequence to both serum transferrin and lactoferrin, and its functions are not well-characterized; however, many studies of insect transferrin indicate that it has some type of immune function. The goal of this study was to determine the specific immune functions of transferrin from [START]Manduca sexta[END] ([START]tobacco hornworm[END]). We verified that transferrin expression is upregulated in response to infection in [START]M. sexta[END] larvae and determined that the concentration of transferrin in hemolymph increases from 2 muM to 10 muM following an immune challenge. It is also present in molting fluid and prepupal midgut fluid, two extracellular fluids with immune capabilities. No immune-induced proteolytic cleavage of transferrin in hemolymph was observed; therefore, [START]M. sexta[END] transferrin does not appear to be a source of antimicrobial peptides. Unlike iron-saturated lactoferrin, iron-saturated transferrin had no detectable antibacterial activity. In contrast, 1 muM iron-free transferrin inhibited bacterial growth, and this inhibition was blocked by supplementing the culture medium with 1 muM iron. Our results suggest that [START]M. sexta[END] transferrin does not have bactericidal activity, but that it does have a bacteriostatic function that depends on its iron sequestering ability. This study supports the hypothesis that insect transferrin participates in an iron withholding strategy to protect insects from infectious bacteria.
",27986638
0,7130,"Rhodnius, Golden Oil, and Met: A History of Juvenile Hormone Research.
Juvenile hormone (JH) is a unique sesquiterpenoid hormone which regulates both insect metamorphosis and insect reproduction. It also may be utilized by some insects to mediate polyphenisms and other life history events that are environmentally regulated. This article details the history of the research on this versatile hormone that began with studies by V. B. Wigglesworth on the ""kissing bug"" Rhodnius prolixus in 1934, through the discovery of a natural source of JH in the abdomen of male Hyalophora cecropia moths by C. M. Williams that allowed its isolation (""golden oil"") and identification, to the recent research on its receptor, termed Methoprene-tolerant (Met). Our present knowledge of cellular actions of JH in metamorphosis springs primarily from studies on Rhodnius and the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END], with recent studies on the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, the silkworm Bombyx mori, and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster contributing to the molecular understanding of these actions. Many questions still need to be resolved including the molecular basis of competence to metamorphose, differential tissue responses to JH, and the interaction of nutrition and other environmental signals regulating JH synthesis and degradation.
",32850806
0,7130,"Odor tracking flight of male [START]Manduca sexta[END] moths along plumes of different cross-sectional area.
Males of the hawkmoth, [START]Manduca sexta[END], track wind-borne plumes of female sex pheromone by flying upwind, while continuously turning from side-to-side and changing altitude. Their characteristic ""zigzagging"" trajectory has long been thought to result from the interaction of two mechanisms, an odor-modulated orientation to wind and a built-in central nervous system turning program. An interesting and as of yet unanswered question about this tracking behavior is how the cross-section of an odor plume or its clean-air ""edges"" affects moths' odor tracking behavior. This study attempts to address this question by video recording and analyzing the behavior of freely flying [START]M. sexta[END] males tracking plumes from pheromone sources of different lengths and orientations with equal odor concentration per unit area. Our results showed that moths generated significantly wider tracks in wide plumes from the longest horizontally-oriented sources as compared to narrower point-source plumes, but had relatively unaltered tracks when orienting to plumes from the same length sources oriented vertically. This suggests that in addition to wind and the presence of pheromones, the area of the plume's cross section or its edges may also play an important role in the plume tracking mechanisms of [START]M. sexta[END]. 
",24081678
0,7130,"Pattern recognition proteins in [START]Manduca sexta[END] plasma.
Recognition of nonself is the first step in mounting immune responses. In the innate immune systems of both vertebrates and arthropods, such recognition, termed pattern recognition, is mediated by a group of proteins, known as pattern recognition proteins or receptors. Different pattern recognition proteins recognize and bind to molecules (molecular patterns) present on the surface of microorganisms but absent from animals. These molecular patterns include microbial cell wall components such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid and peptidoglycan, and fungal beta-1,3-glucans. Binding of pattern recognition proteins to these molecular patterns triggers responses such as phagocytosis, nodule formation, encapsulation, activation of proteinase cascades, and synthesis of antimicrobial peptides. In this article, we describe four classes of pattern recognition proteins, hemolin, peptidoglycan recognition protein, beta-1,3-glucan recognition proteins, and immulectins (C-type lectins) involved in immune responses of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END].
",12225919
0,7130,"A comprehensive analysis of the [START]Manduca sexta[END] immunotranscriptome.
As a biochemical model, [START]Manduca sexta[END] has substantially contributed to our knowledge on insect innate immunity. The RNA-Seq approach was implemented in three studies to examine tissue immunotranscriptomes of this species. With the latest and largest focusing on highly regulated process- and tissue-specific genes, we further analyzed the same set of data using BLAST2GO to explore functional aspects of the larval fat body (F) and hemocyte (H) transcriptomes with (I) or without (C) immune challenge. Using immunity-related sequences from other insects, we found 383 homologous contigs and compared them with those discovered based on relative abundance changes. The major overlap of the two lists validated our previous research designed for gene discovery and transcript profiling in organisms lacking sequenced genomes. By concatenating the contigs, we established a repertoire of 232 immunity-related genes encoding proteins for pathogen recognition (16%), signal transduction (53%), microbe killing (13%) and others (18%). We examined their transcript levels along with attribute classifications and detected prominent differences in nine of the 30 level 2 gene ontology (GO) categories. The increase in extracellular proteins (155%) was consistent with the highly induced synthesis of defense molecules (e.g., antimicrobial peptides) in fat body after the immune challenge. We identified most members of the putative Toll, IMD, MAPK-JNK-p38 and JAK-STAT pathways and small changes in their mRNA levels. Together, these findings set the stage for on-going analysis of the [START]M. sexta[END] immunogenome.
",23178408
0,7130,"The larval scaffold controls fascicle number but is not required for formation of the dorsolongitudinal flight muscles in [START]Manduca sexta[END].
During metamorphosis, the dorsolongitudinal flight muscles (DLMs) of both the moth [START]Manduca sexta[END] and the fly Drosophila melanogaster develop from the remnants of larval muscles called larval scaffolds. Although this developmental program has been conserved across highly disparate taxa, the role of the larval scaffold remains unclear. Ablation experiments have demonstrated that the Drosophila DLM does not require the scaffold, but the resulting de novo muscles vary highly in fiber number, and their functional characteristics were not examined. To address this question in [START]Manduca[END], we have surgically ablated the DLM precursors in [START]Manduca sexta[END] larvae and assayed the resulting DLMs in pharate adults using X-ray micro-CT and phalloidin histology. Following ablation, animals were able to form de novo DLMs with normal myofibril alignment, but these muscles had an altered shape and highly variable number of fascicles. Our results suggest that the larval scaffold is not required for DLM development in [START]Manduca sexta[END], but appears to define the number of fascicles in the adult muscle, as previously found in Drosophila. Additionally, our ablated animals were able to generate flight, further suggesting that the use of a larval scaffold is a modification on the more ancestral myogenesis program.
",35576787
0,7130,"Overview of chitin metabolism enzymes in [START]Manduca sexta[END]: Identification, domain organization, phylogenetic analysis and gene expression.
Chitin is one of the most abundant biomaterials in nature. The biosynthesis and degradation of chitin in insects are complex and dynamically regulated to cope with insect growth and development. Chitin metabolism in insects is known to involve numerous enzymes, including chitin synthases (synthesis of chitin), chitin deacetylases (modification of chitin by deacetylation) and chitinases (degradation of chitin by hydrolysis). In this study, we conducted a genome-wide search and analysis of genes encoding these chitin metabolism enzymes in [START]Manduca sexta[END]. Our analysis confirmed that only two chitin synthases are present in [START]M. sexta[END] as in most other arthropods. Eleven chitin deacetylases (encoded by nine genes) were identified, with at least one representative in each of the five phylogenetic groups that have been described for chitin deacetylases to date. Eleven genes encoding for family 18 chitinases (GH18) were found in the [START]M. sexta[END] genome. Based on the presence of conserved sequence motifs in the catalytic sequences and phylogenetic relationships, two of the [START]M. sexta[END] chitinases did not cluster with any of the current eight phylogenetic groups of chitinases: two new groups were created (groups IX and X) and their characteristics are described. The result of the analysis of the Lepidoptera-specific chitinase-h (group h) is consistent with its proposed bacterial origin. By analyzing chitinases from fourteen species that belong to seven different phylogenetic groups, we reveal that the chitinase genes appear to have evolved sequentially in the arthropod lineage to achieve the current high level of diversity observed in [START]M. sexta[END]. Based on the sequence conservation of the catalytic domains and on their developmental stage- and tissue-specific expression, we propose putative functions for each group in each category of enzymes. 
",25616108
0,7130,"Developmental expression of [START]Manduca sexta[END] hemolin.
Hemolin is hemolymph protein that is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Its induced expression after bacterial infection suggests that it functions in the immune response. In this paper, we describe the expression of the [START]Manduca sexta[END] hemolin gene at certain developmental stages in the absence of microbial challenge. Hemolin was present at a very low level in hemolymph of naive larvae until the beginning of the wandering stage prior to pupation, when its concentration in hemolymph increased dramatically. At the same time, hemolin could be found in the fluid contained in the midgut lumen. The appearance of hemolin mRNA in fat body and midgut at the beginning of the wandering stage correlated with the presence of hemolin in the hemolymph and midgut lumen. Hemolin was present in hemolymph through the pupal and adult stages. Hemolin was also present in newly deposited eggs, and persisted in eggs throughout embryonic development. A hemolin cDNA isolated from an adult fat body library had the same sequence as those previously obtained from larval libraries. Hemolin purified from hemolymph of bacteria-injected larvae, from hemolymph of naive wandering stage larvae and adult moths, and from midgut fluid of wandering stage larvae had the same apparent mass, which was consistent with the mass predicted from the hemolin cDNA sequence. Hemolin from hemolymph of wandering stage larvae did not contain any detectable carbohydrate, but hemolin from the hemolymph of bacteria-injected larvae and from naive adult moths was associated with carbohydrate, although of different amounts and composition. These results suggest that a single hemolin gene is developmentally regulated and is also induced when insects are exposed to microbial infection. M. sexta hemolin apparently lacks post-translational covalent glycosylation, but instead is associated under some conditions with non-covalently bound carbohydrates. Arch.
",10536048
0,7130,"Characterization and regulation of expression of an antifungal peptide from hemolymph of an insect, [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Insects secrete antimicrobial peptides as part of the innate immune response. Most antimicrobial peptides from insects have antibacterial but not antifungal activity. We have characterized an antifungal peptide, diapausin-1 from hemolymph of a lepidopteran insect, [START]Manduca sexta[END] ([START]tobacco hornworm[END]). Diapausin-1 was isolated by size exclusion chromatography from hemolymph plasma of larvae that were previously injected with a yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Fractions containing activity against S. cerevisiae were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and MALDI-TOF MS/MS and found to contain a 45-residue peptide that was encoded by sequences identified in [START]M. sexta[END] transcriptome and genome databases. A cDNA for diapausin-1 was cloned from cDNA prepared from fat body RNA. Diapausin-1 is a member of the diapausin family of peptides, which includes members known to have antifungal activity. The [START]M. sexta[END] genome contains 14 genes with high similarity to diapausin-1, each with 6 conserved Cys residues. Diapausin-1 was produced as a recombinant protein in Escherichia coli. Purified recombinant diapausin-1 was active against S. cerevisiae, with IC50 of 12 muM, but had no detectable activity against bacteria. Spores of some plant fungal pathogens treated with diapausin-1 had curled germination tubes or reduced and branched hyphal growth. Diapausin-1 mRNA level in fat body strongly increased after larvae were injected with yeast or with Micrococcus luteus. In addition, diapausin-1 mRNA levels increased in midgut and fat body at the wandering larval stage prior to pupation, suggesting developmental regulation of the gene. Our results indicate that synthesis of diapausin-1 is part of an antifungal innate immune response to infection in [START]M. sexta[END].
",26976231
0,7227,"Gut-associated microbes of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
There is growing interest in using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to elucidate mechanisms that underlie the complex relationships between a host and its microbiota. In addition to the many genetic resources and tools [START]Drosophila[END] provides, its associated microbiota is relatively simple (1-30 taxa), in contrast to the complex diversity associated with vertebrates (> 500 taxa). These attributes highlight the potential of this system to dissect the complex cellular and molecular interactions that occur between a host and its microbiota. In this review, we summarize what is known regarding the composition of gut-associated microbes of [START]Drosophila[END] and their impact on host physiology. We also discuss these interactions in the context of their natural history and ecology and describe some recent insights into mechanisms by which [START]Drosophila[END] and its gut microbiota interact.
",22572876
0,7227,"The anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axes have a common origin in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The mechanisms governing anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral polarity in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] had previously been considered as independent processes. However, two papers(1,2) now reveal that both axes are initiated during oogenesis by the same pathway, and also clearly demonstrate that one is dependent on the other.
",8526885
0,7227,"The [START]Drosophila[END] TNF ortholog eiger is required in the fat body for a robust immune response.
Eiger is the sole TNF family member found in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. This signaling molecule is induced during infection and is required for an appropriate immune response to many microbes; however, little is known about where eiger is produced. Here, we show that eiger is made in the fly's fat body during a Salmonella typhimurium infection. Using tissue-specific knockdown, we found that eiger expression in the fat body is required for all of the phenotypes we observed in eiger null mutant flies. This includes reduced melanization, altered antimicrobial peptide expression and reduced feeding rates. The effect of eiger on feeding rates alone may account for the entire phenotype seen in eiger mutants infected with S. typhimurium.
",20505310
0,7227,"Long-range projection neurons in the taste circuit of [START]Drosophila[END].
Taste compounds elicit innate feeding behaviors and act as rewards or punishments to entrain other cues. The neural pathways by which taste compounds influence innate and learned behaviors have not been resolved. Here, we identify three classes of taste projection neurons (TPNs) in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] distinguished by their morphology and taste selectivity. TPNs receive input from gustatory receptor neurons and respond selectively to sweet or bitter stimuli, demonstrating segregated processing of different taste modalities. Activation of TPNs influences innate feeding behavior, whereas inhibition has little effect, suggesting parallel pathways. Moreover, two TPN classes are absolutely required for conditioned taste aversion, a learned behavior. The TPNs essential for conditioned aversion project to the superior lateral protocerebrum (SLP) and convey taste information to mushroom body learning centers. These studies identify taste pathways from sensory detection to higher brain that influence innate behavior and are essential for learned responses to taste compounds.
",28164781
0,7227,"Female and male genetic contributions to post-mating immune defence in female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Post-mating reduction in immune defence is common in female insects, and a trade-off between mating and immunity could affect the evolution of immunity. In this work, we tested the capacity of virgin and mated female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to defend against infection by four bacterial pathogens. We found that female [START]D. melanogaster[END] suffer post-mating immunosuppression in a pathogen-dependent manner. The effect of mating was seen after infection with two bacterial pathogens (Providencia rettgeri and Providencia alcalifaciens), though not after infection with two other bacteria (Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). We then asked whether the evolution of post-mating immunosuppression is primarily a 'female' or 'male' trait by assaying for genetic variation among females for the degree of post-mating immune suppression they experience and among males for the level of post-mating immunosuppression they elicit in their mates. We also assayed for an interaction between male and female genotypes to test the specific hypothesis that the evolution of a trade-off between mating and immune defence in females might be being driven by sexual conflict. We found that females, but not males, harbour significant genetic variation for post-mating immunosuppression, and we did not detect an interaction between female and male genotypes. We thus conclude that post-mating immune depression is predominantly a 'female' trait, and find no evidence that it is evolving under sexual conflict.
",20573620
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila[END] mechanoreceptors as a model for studying asymmetric cell division.
Asymmetric cell division (ACD) is one of the processes creating the overall diversity of cell types in multicellular organisms. The essence of this process is that the daughter cells exit from it being different from both the parental cell and one another in their ability to further differentiation and specialization. The large bristles (macrochaetae) that are regularly arranged on the surface of the [START]Drosophila[END] adult function as mechanoreceptors, and since their development requires ACD, they have been extensively used as a model system for studying the genetic control of this process. Each macrochaete is composed of four specialized cells, the progeny resulting from several ACDs from a single sensory organ precursor (SOP) cell, which differentiates from the ectodermal cells of the wing imaginal disc in the third-instar larva and pupa. In this paper we review the experimental data on the genes and their products controlling the ACDs of the SOP cell and its daughter cells, and their further specialization. We discuss the main mechanisms determining the time when the cell enters ACD, as well as the mechanisms providing for the structural characteristics of asymmetric division, namely, polar distribution of protein determinants (Numb and Neuralized), orientation of the division spindle relative to these determinants, and unequal segregation of the determinants specifying the direction of daughter cell development.
",21671219
0,7227,"Fruit flies for anti-pain drug discovery.
Recent work has indicated that [START]fruit flies[END] ([START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]) can be used in nociception research. Genetic screening identified a gene, painless, that is required for thermal and mechanical nociception in [START]Drosophila[END] larvae. On the other hand, pharmacological techniques and noxious heat were used to assay antinocieceptive behavior in intact adult [START]Drosophila[END]. In general, animal models for pain research are bound by ethical concerns. Since no serious ethical controversies have been raised regarding experiments in insects, [START]Drosophila[END] may be, for the time being an ethically acceptable animal model for combined genetic and pharmacological analgesia research.
",15763072
0,7227,"Microscopy methods for the study of centriole biogenesis and function in [START]Drosophila[END].
Centrosomes regulate cell motility, adhesion, and polarity in interphase and participate in spindle formation in mitosis. They are composed of two centrioles, which are microtubule-based structures, and a proteinaceous matrix recruited by those, called pericentriolar material. Centrioles are also necessary for the nucleation of the axoneme, the microtubule inner structure of cilia and flagella. The [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], has played an important role in the study of cell biology processes and their contextualization in a variety of developmental phenomena. In this chapter, we describe immunofluorescence and electron microscopy methods used to study [START]Drosophila[END] early embryogenesis and spermatogenesis. These methods have been widely used to study centriole assembly and its function as a centrosome organizer during mitotic and meiotic cell divisions and as an axoneme nucleator in the formation of flagella.
",20719274
0,7227,"The effect of inbreeding on fluctuating asymmetry of wing veins in two laboratory strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Many authors have proposed that inbreeding destabilizes developmental processes. This destabilization may be reflected by increased fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in inbred compared to relatively outbred populations, but many studies have failed to find such differences. We measured the left and right wings of a large number of individual [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] from two genetically distinct populations to estimate changes in FA caused by inbreeding. The large sample size and experimental design allowed removal of potentially confounding directional asymmetry (DA) and measurement error terms. Trait means in the two populations were essentially unchanged by inbreeding (less than 0.5% smaller in both populations). Inbred lines showed higher signed FA variances (16 and 38% higher, significantly so in one population) and higher unsigned FA means (3.7 and 13.2%, significantly increased in one population). Significant DA was found in both populations, although the pattern differed between populations. DA did not change due to inbreeding.
",19277055
0,7227,"Chimaeras of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] obtained by injection of haploid nuclei.
Since the observation by Bridges of a few mosaics containing haploid tissue in [START]Drosophila[END], specimens supposedly haploid have rarely been found. A technique for the easy production of haploid animals or tissues could have important applications. We have now successfully designed such a technique by the production of chimaeras obtained by transplantation of haploid nuclei from a maternal effect mutant that produces haploid embryos. We have used this technique to test the proposal of Jack and Judd that the zeste locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] cannot repress the activity of unpaired alleles at the white locus.
",6776407
0,7227,"Odour avoidance learning in the larva of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
[START]Drosophila[END] larvae can be trained to avoid odours associated with electric shock. We describe here, an improved method of aversive conditioning and a procedure for decomposing learning retention curve that enables us to do a quantitative analysis of memory phases, short term (STM), middle term (MTM) and long term (LTM) as a function of training cycles. The same method of analysis when applied to learning mutants dunce, amnesiac, rutabaga and radish reveals memory deficits characteristic of the mutant strains.
",19920347
0,7227,"An assessment of sperm survival in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Recently published evidence based on cytological staining indicates that sperm die rapidly after being stored in female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. However, measuring sperm death in this way has a potential artifact: the death of sperm owing to the extraction, mounting, and staining of sperm. Here we use a protocol that bypasses all of these potential extraneous mortality factors to test the hypothesis that there is high mortality of stored sperm in [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Contrary to the findings from cytological staining, our data indicates that mortality of stored sperm is quite low.
",17348926
0,7227,"Developmental genetic analysis of Contrabithorax mutations in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A developmental analysis of the Contrabithorax (Cbx) alleles offers the opportunity to examine the role of the Ultrabithorax (Ubx) gene in controlling haltere, as alternative to wing, morphogenesis in [START]Drosophila[END]. Several Cbx alleles are known with different spatial specificity in their wing toward haltere homeotic transformation. The molecular data on these mutations, however, does not readily explain differences among mutant phenotypes. In this work, we have analyzed the ""apogenetic"" mosaic spots of transformation in their adult phenotype, in mitotic recombination clones and in the spatial distribution of Ubx proteins in imaginal discs. The results suggest that the phenotypes emerge from early clonality in some Cbx alleles, and from cell-cell interactions leading to recruitment of cells to Ubx gene expression in others. We have found, in addition, mutual interactions between haltere and wing territories in pattern and dorsoventral symmetries, suggesting short distance influences, ""accommodation,"" during cell proliferation of the anlage. These findings are considered in an attempt to explain allele specificity in molecular and developmental terms.
",1977655
0,7227,"Neurogenetics of female reproductive behaviors in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We follow an adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] female through the major reproductive decisions she makes during her lifetime, including habitat selection, precopulatory mate choice, postcopulatory physiological changes, polyandry, and egg-laying site selection. In the process, we review the molecular and neuronal mechanisms allowing females to integrate signals from both environmental and social sources to produce those behavioral outputs. We pay attention to how an understanding of [START]D. melanogaster[END] female reproductive behaviors contributes to a wider understanding of evolutionary processes such as pre- and postcopulatory sexual selection as well as sexual conflict. Within each section, we attempt to connect the theories that pertain to the evolution of female reproductive behaviors with the molecular and neurobiological data that support these theories. We draw attention to the fact that the evolutionary and mechanistic basis of female reproductive behaviors, even in a species as extensively studied as [START]D. melanogaster[END], remains poorly understood. 
",24880733
0,7227,"Correlated responses to selection on body size in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Correlated responses to artificial selection on body size in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] were investigated, to determine how the changes in size were produced during development. Selection for increased thorax length was associated with an increase in larval development time, an extended growth period, no change in growth rate, and an increased critical larval weight for pupariation. Selection for reduced thorax length was associated with reduced growth rate, no change in duration of larval development and a reduced critical larval weight for pupariation. In both lines selected for thorax length and lines selected for wing area, total body size changed in the same direction as the artificially selected trait. In large selection lines of both types, the increase in size was achieved almost entirely by an increase in cell number, while in the small lines the decrease in size was achieved predominantly by reduced cell size, and also by a reduction in cell number. The implications of the results for evolutionary-genetic change in body size in nature are discussed.
",10505406
0,7227,"Influence of temperature on the inheritance of adult life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Mating experiments were performed at 27 degrees C, 22 degrees C, and 17 degrees C, to investigate the inheritance of adult life span of highly inbred strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Effects of temperature difference were quantitatively analyzed at the genotypic level. In the temperature range of 17-27 degrees C the autosomal longevity alleles, A1 and A2, exerted major effects. Their effects produced longer life spans as the temperature decreased. The sex-linked longevity alleles, X1 and X2, played a secondary role in influencing life span, and they displayed different effects at different temperatures. Each genotype showed correspondence to the life span expected from the combinations of these longevity genes at the respective temperatures. The genetic loci controlling life span in these inbred strains were named JmA and JmX from ""Ju-myo"" which means life span or longevity in Japanese.
",2114381
0,7227,"Calcium homeostasis in larval and adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Calcium homeostasis in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was examined in response to the challenges imposed by growth, reproduction and variations in dietary calcium content. Turnover time for calcium, calculated as the time for (45)Ca(2+)to accumulate to half the steady state value of 3.46 nmol/fly, was 3.3 days. Although larvae weighed 2x as much as adults, they contained 3-4x as much calcium. Anterior Malpighian tubules (Mts) contain much more calcium than posterior Mts, accounting for 25-30% of the calcium content of the whole fly. In response to a 6.2-fold increase in dietary calcium level, calcium content of whole flies increased only 10%. Hemolymph calcium concentration ( approximately 0.5 mM) was similar in males and females and in animals raised on diets differing in calcium content. Fluid secretion rate, secreted fluid calcium concentration, and transepithelial calcium flux in tubules isolated from flies raised on high and low calcium diets did not differ significantly. Malpighian tubules secrete calcium at rates sufficient to eliminate whole body calcium content in 0.5 and 3 days for tubules secreting fluid at basal and maximal rates, respectively. It is suggested that flies absorb high quantities of calcium from the diet and maintain homeostasis through the combined effects of elimination of calcium in fluid secreted by the Malpighian tubules and the sequestration of calcium in granules, especially within the distal segment of the anterior pair of Malpighian tubules.
",10790183
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a Versatile Model Organism in Food and Nutrition Research.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been widely used in the biological sciences as a model organism. [START]Drosophila[END] has a relatively short life span of 60-80 days, which makes it attractive for life span studies. Moreover, approximately 60% of the [START]fruit fly[END] genes are orthologs to mammals. Thus, metabolic and signal transduction pathways are highly conserved. Maintenance and reproduction of [START]Drosophila[END] do not require sophisticated equipment and are rather cheap. Furthermore, there are fewer ethical issues involved in experimental [START]Drosophila[END] research compared with studies in laboratory rodents, such as rats and mice. [START]Drosophila[END] is increasingly recognized as a model organism in food and nutrition research. [START]Drosophila[END] is often fed complex solid diets based on yeast, corn, and agar. There are also so-called holidic diets available that are defined in terms of their amino acid, fatty acid, carbohydrate, vitamin, mineral, and trace element compositions. Feed intake, body composition, locomotor activity, intestinal barrier function, microbiota, cognition, fertility, aging, and life span can be systematically determined in [START]Drosophila[END] in response to dietary factors. Furthermore, diet-induced pathophysiological mechanisms including inflammation and stress responses may be evaluated in the fly under defined experimental conditions. Here, we critically evaluate [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a versatile model organism in experimental food and nutrition research, review the corresponding data in the literature, and make suggestions for future directions of research.
",29619822
0,7227,"Plastic and evolutionary responses of cell size and number to larval malnutrition in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Both development and evolution under chronic malnutrition lead to reduced adult size in [START]Drosophila[END]. We studied the contribution of changes in size vs. number of epidermal cells to plastic and evolutionary reduction of wing size in response to poor larval food. We used flies from six populations selected for tolerance to larval malnutrition and from six unselected control populations, raised either under standard conditions or under larval malnutrition. In the control populations, phenotypic plasticity of wing size was mediated by both cell size and cell number. In contrast, evolutionary change in wing size, which was only observed as a correlated response expressed on standard food, was mediated entirely by reduction in cell number. Plasticity of cell number had been lost in the selected populations, and cell number did not differ between the sexes despite males having smaller wings. Results of this and other experimental evolution studies are consistent with the hypothesis that alleles which increase body size through prolonged growth affect wing size mostly via cell number, whereas alleles which increase size through higher growth rate do so via cell size.
",21276112
0,7227,"Functional analysis of the SUMOylation pathway in [START]Drosophila[END].
SUMOylation, a reversible process used as a 'fine-tuning' mechanism to regulate the role of multiple proteins, is conserved throughout evolution. This post-translational modification affects several cellular processes by the modulation of subcellular localization, activity or stability of a variety of substrates. A growing number of proteins have been identified as targets for SUMOylation, although, for many of them, the role of SUMO conjugation on their function is unknown. The use of model systems might facilitate the study of SUMOylation implications in vivo. In the present paper, we have compiled what is known about SUMOylation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], where the use of genetics provides new insights on SUMOylation's biological roles.
",18793153
0,7227,"The effects of age on radiation resistance and oxidative stress in adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] ([START]fruit fly[END]) is a well-established model organism for genetic studies of development and aging. We examined the effects of lethal ionizing radiation on male and female adult [START]Drosophila[END] of different ages, using doses of radiation from 200 to 1500 Gy. Fifty percent lethality 2 days postirradiation (LD(50/2)) in wild-type 1-day-old adult [START]fruit flies[END] was approximately 1238 Gy for males and 1339 Gy for females. We observed a significant age-dependent decline in the radiation resistance of both males and females. Radiation damage is postulated to occur by the generation of oxygen radicals. An age-related decline in the ability of flies to resist an agent that induces oxygen radicals, paraquat, was observed when comparing 10- and 20-day adults. Female flies are more resistant to paraquat than male flies. Oxidative stress mediated by paraquat was additive with sublethal exposures to radiation in young adults. Therefore, the ability to repair the damage caused by oxygen radicals seems to decline with the age of the flies. Because [START]Drosophila[END] adults are largely post-mitotic, our data suggest that adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] can serve as an excellent model to study the factors responsible for radiation resistance in post-mitotic tissue and age-dependent changes in this resistance.
",18494545
0,7227,"The effects of CO(2) and chronic cold exposure on fecundity of female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Carbon dioxide and chilling are sometimes used to immobilise insects for laboratory research. Both of these methods are known to have short-term effects on behaviour and physiology in [START]Drosophila[END], but their long-term impacts are unknown. We exposed female [START]D. melanogaster[END] adults to high CO(2) concentrations (4h at 18,000ppm) and chronic cold (72h at 4 C). The carbon dioxide exposure increased chill coma recovery time, but did not result in changes in offspring number, sex ratio, or size. By contrast, the cold exposure resulted in fewer, smaller offspring, and resulted in a male-biased sex ratio compared to controls. There was no significant interaction between CO(2) and cold. We conclude that although caution must be used in choosing an immobilisation method, CO(2) appears to have less long-term impact than cold.
",20868691
0,7227,"Programmed cell death and patterning in [START]Drosophila[END].
Selective cell death provides developing tissues with the means to precisely sculpt emerging structures. By imposing patterned cell death across a tissue, boundaries can be created and tightened. As such, programmed cell death is becoming recognized as a major mechanism for patterning of a variety of complex structures. Typically, cell types are initially organized into a fairly loose pattern; selective death then removes cells between pattern elements to create correct structures. In this review, we examine the role of selective cell death across the course of [START]Drosophila[END] development, including the tightening of embryonic segmental boundaries, head maturation, refining adult structures such as the eye and the wing, and the ability of cell death to correct for pattern defects introduced by gene mutation. We also review what is currently known of the relationship between signals at the cell surface that are responsible for tissue patterning and the basal cell death machinery, an issue that remains poorly understood.
",11139279
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila[END] immune cell migration and adhesion during embryonic development and larval immune responses.
The majority of immune cells in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] are plasmatocytes; they carry out similar functions to vertebrate macrophages, influencing development as well as protecting against infection and cancer. Plasmatocytes, sometimes referred to with the broader term of hemocytes, migrate widely during embryonic development and cycle in the larvae between sessile and circulating positions. Here we discuss the similarities of plasmatocyte developmental migration and its functions to that of vertebrate macrophages, considering the recent controversy regarding the functions of [START]Drosophila[END] PDGF/VEGF related ligands. We also examine recent findings on the significance of adhesion for plasmatocyte migration in the embryo, as well as proliferation, trans-differentiation, and tumor responses in the larva. We spotlight parallels throughout to vertebrate immune responses. 
",26210104
0,7227,"The relationship between the functional complexity and the molecular organization of the Antennapedia locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The Antp locus is involved in the development of the thorax of the larval and adult [START]Drosophila[END]. The absence of Antp+ function during embryogenesis results in the larval mesothorax exhibiting characteristics of the prothorax and an ensuing lethality; the loss of Antp+ function in the development of the adult thorax causes specific portions of the leg, wing and humeral imaginal discs to develop abnormally. Every Antp mutation, however, does not cause all of these developmental defects. Certain mutant alleles disrupt humeral and wing disc development without affecting leg development, and they are not deficient for the wild-type function required during embryogenesis. Other Antp mutations result in abnormal legs, but do not alter dorsal thoracic development. Mutations of each type can complement to produce a normal adult fly, which suggests that there are at least two discrete functional units within the locus. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that each of the developmental defects arises from the alteration of a different physical region within the Antp DNA. These observations indicate that the complete developmental role of the Antp locus is defined by the spatial and temporal regulation of the expression of several individual functional units.
",3098627
0,7227,"Concomitant changes in radiation resistance and trehalose levels during life stages of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] suggest radio-protective function of trehalose.
PURPOSE: During development, various life stages of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] ([START]D. melanogaster[END]) show different levels of resistance to gamma irradiation, with the early pupal stage being the most radiation sensitive. This provides us an opportunity to explore the biochemical basis of such variations. The present study was carried out to understand the mechanisms underlying radiation resistance during life stages of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Homogenates from all the life stages of [START]D. melanogaster[END] were prepared at stipulated age. These homogenates were used for the determination of (1) enzymatic antioxidants: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, [START]D. melanogaster[END] glutathione peroxidase (DmGPx), and glutathione S-transferase (GST); (2) reducing non-enzymatic antioxidants: total antioxidant capacity (TAC), reduced glutathione (GSH) and non-reducing non-enzymatic antioxidant trehalose; and (3) levels of protein carbonyl (PC) content. Age-dependent changes in radiation resistance and associated biochemical changes were also studied in young (2 d) and old (20 and 30 d) flies. RESULTS: TAC and GSH were found high in the early pupal stage, whereas catalase and DmGPx were found to increase in the early pupal stage. The non-feeding third instar (NFTI) larvae were found to have high levels of SOD and GST, besides NFTI larvae showed high levels of trehalose. A remarkable decrease was observed in radiation resistance and trehalose levels during the early pupal stage. The PC level was the highest during early pupal stage and was the lowest in NFTI larvae. Older flies showed high level of PC compared with young flies. CONCLUSION: In vitro increments in trehalose concentration correspond to reduced formation of PCs, suggesting a protective role of trehalose against free radicals. A strong correlation between levels of trehalose and PC formation suggests amelioration of proteome damage due to ionizing radiation (IR). Stages with high trehalose levels showed protected proteome and high radiation resistance, suggesting a significant role for this disaccharide in radiation resistance.
",29613812
0,7227,"Biological stoichiometry of growth in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We examined the relationship between growth rate, C:N:P stoichiometry, and nucleic acid content in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. The ""Growth Rate Hypothesis"" predicts that N and P contents per unit body mass will be high during ontogenetic stages characterized by rapid growth, reflecting the large requirement for P-rich ribosomal RNA during these periods. The ratio of RNA:DNA also is predicted to change with changes in growth rate. Growth is rapid in early [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae, slowing considerably just prior to pupation. As predicted, a positive relationship was found between growth rate and N and P content, but not C. Thus, body C:P and N:P ratios declined with increasing growth rate. The relationship between RNA content and growth rate also was positive. Additionally, the fraction of total body P contributed by ribosomal RNA increased with increasing growth rate.
",16310212
0,7227,"Context- and dose-dependent modulatory effects of naringenin on survival and development of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Naringenin, the predominant bioflavonoid found in grapefruit and tomato has diverse bioactive properties that encompass anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, anti-estrogenic, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-hyperglycemic characteristics. Naringenin has not been explored for its pro-longevity traits in [START]fruit flies[END]. Therefore, the current study explores its influence on longevity, fecundity, feeding rate, larval development, resistance to starvation stress and body weight in male and female wild-type [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Canton-S flies. Flies were fed with normal and high fat diets respectively. The results implied hormetic effects of naringenin on longevity and development in flies. In flies fed with standard and high fat diets, lower concentrations of naringenin (200 and 400 microM) augmented mean lifespan while higher concentrations (600 and 800 microM) were consistently lethal. However, enhanced longevity seen at 400 microM of naringenin was at the expense of reduced fecundity and food intake in flies. Larvae reared on standard diet having 200 microM of naringenin exhibited elevated pupation and emergence as flies. Eclosion time was hastened in larvae reared on standard diet having 200 microM of naringenin. Female flies fed with a standard diet having 200 and 400 microM of naringenin were more resistant to starvation stress. Reduction in body weight was observed in male and female flies fed with a high fat diet supplemented with 200 and 400 microM of naringenin respectively. Collectively, the results elucidated a context- and dose-dependent hormetic efficacy of naringenin that varied with gender, diet and stage of lifecycle in flies. 
",26520643
0,7227,"Quantitative analysis of antennal mosaic generation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by the MARCM system.
Mosaics have been used in [START]Drosophila[END] to study development and to generate mutant structures when a mutant allele is homozygous lethal. New approaches of directed somatic recombination based on FRT/FLP methods, have increased mosaicism rates but likewise multiple clones in the same individual appeared more frequently. Production of single clones could be essential for developmental studies; however, for cell-autonomous gene function studies only the presence of homozygous cells for the target recessive allele is relevant. Herein, we report the number and extension of antennal mosaics generated by the MARCM system at different ages. This information is directed to obtain the appropriated mosaic type for the intended application. By applying heat shock at 10 different developmental stages from 0-12 h to 6-7 days after egg laying, more than 50% of mosaics were obtained from 5,028 adults. Single recombinant clones appeared mainly at early stages while massive recombinant areas were observed with late treatments.
",18543310
0,7227,"Cellular basis and developmental timing in a size cline of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We examined 20 [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations collected from a 2600-km north-south transect in Australia. In laboratory culture at constant temperature and standard larval density, a genetic cline in thorax length and wing area was found, with both traits increasing with latitude. The cline in wing area was based on clines in both cell size and cell number, but was primarily determined by changes in cell number. Body size and larval development time were not associated among populations. We discuss our results in the context of selection processes operating in natural and experimental populations.
",7498744
0,7227,"Identification and characterization of the major [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] mating plug protein.
In many insects, semen coagulates into a mating plug at the distal part of the female's genital tract. Mating plugs have been proposed to facilitate sperm movement or to prevent subsequent matings or sperm loss. The molecular constituents of insect mating plugs have not previously been characterized. Here we report that an abundant autofluorescent protein made by the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] male's ejaculatory bulb is a major constituent of the posterior region of the mating plug. Identities in size, chromosomal location and expression pattern indicate that the autofluorescent protein is PEB-me, an abundant ejaculatory bulb protein reported by Ludwig et al. [Biochem. Genet. 29 (1991) 215]. We cloned and sequenced the RNA encoding this protein. The transcript, which is male-specific and expressed only in the ejaculatory bulb, encodes a 377 a.a. predicted secreted protein with PGG repeats similar to those in homopolymer-forming proteins found in spider silk.
",11267893
0,7227,"Selection for resistance to a fungal pathogen in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
An artificial selection experiment designed to explore the evolution of resistance to a fungal pathogen, Beauveria bassiana, in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is reported here. The experiment was designed to test whether there is sufficient additive genetic variation in this trait for increased resistance to evolve, and, if so, whether there are correlated responses that might represent a cost to defence. After 15 generations of selection, flies from selected lines did not have higher overall fitness after infection compared with control lines. The response to selection for resistance against this pathogen is thus much weaker than against other species, in particular, parasitoids. There was, however, evidence for increased late-life fecundity in selected lines, which may indicate evolved tolerance of fungal infection. This increase was accompanied by reduced early-life fitness, which may reflect the well-known trade-off between early and late reproduction. In the absence of fungal infection, selected flies had lower fitness than control flies, and the possibility that this is also a trade-off with increased tolerance is explored.
",18301441
0,7227,"Genetics of life history in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. II. Exploratory selection experiments.
two types of small-scale selection experiments were performed. (1) Artificial selection experiments were performed on age-specific female fecundity. Selection for early fecundity over three generations produced a statistically detectable direct response. There was no detectable indirect response in other life-history characters. Selection for late fecundity over three generations did not produce any detectable direct response. Indirect responses were detected: early egg-laying decreased and longevity increased. (2) Natural selection for late-age fitness components increased late fecundity, female longevity, and the duration of female reproduction, while early fecundity and mean egg-laying rate decreased.
",6790341
0,7227,"Neuropeptide Mapping of Dimmed Cells of Adult [START]Drosophila[END] Brain.
Neuropeptides are structurally highly diverse messenger molecules that act as regulators of many physiological processes such as development, metabolism, reproduction or behavior in general. Differentiation of neuropeptidergic cells often corresponds with the presence of the transcription factor DIMMED. In the central nervous system of the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], DIMMED commonly occurs in neuroendocrine neurons that release peptides as neurohormones but also in interneurons with complex branching patterns. Fly strains with green fluorescence protein (GFP)-expressing dimmed cells make it possible to systematically analyze the processed neuropeptides in these cells. In this study, we mapped individual GFP-expressing neurons of adult [START]D. melanogaster[END] from the dimmed (c929)>GFP line. Using single cell mass spectrometry, we analyzed 10 types of dimmed neurons from the brain/gnathal ganglion. These cells included neuroendocrine cells with projection into the retrocerebral complex but also a number of large interneurons. Resulting mass spectra not only provided comprehensive data regarding mature products from 13 neuropeptide precursors but also evidence for the cellular co-localization of neuropeptides from different neuropeptide genes. The results can be implemented in a neuroanatomical map of the [START]D. melanogaster[END] brain. Graphical Abstract  .
",29372551
0,7227,"Sexual activity increases resistance against Pseudomonas entomophila in male [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Maintenance and deployment cost of immunity is high, therefore, it is expected to trade-off with other high cost traits like sexual activity. Previous studies with [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] show that male's ability to clear bacteria decreases with increase in sexual activity. We subjected this idea to test using two pathogens (Pseudomonas entomophila and Staphylococcus succinus) and three different populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. RESULTS: We found that sexual activity enhanced male survivorship in a pathogen specific manner. Sexually active males show higher resistance than virgins upon infection with Pseudomonas entomophila. Interestingly, the beneficial effects of sexual activity increased with time of co-habitation with females and declined when access to females was restricted. We observed no change in male survivorship upon experimentally varying the number of sexual interactions. CONCLUSION: Our results show that the sexual activity-immunity trade-off in males cannot be generalised. The trade-off is potentially mediated through complex interactions between the host, pathogen and the environment experienced by the host.
",24010544
0,7227,"Genetic variation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] pathogen susceptibility.
Genetic variation in susceptibility to pathogens is a central concern both to evolutionary and medical biologists, and for the implementation of biological control programmes. We have investigated the extent of such variation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], a major model organism for immunological research. We found that within populations, different [START]Drosophila[END] genotypes show wide-ranging variation in their ability to survive infection with the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. Furthermore, striking divergence in susceptibility has occurred between genotypes from temperate and tropical African locations. We hypothesize that this may have been driven by adaptation to local differences in pathogen exposure or host ecology. Genetic variation within populations may be maintained by temporal or spatial variation in the costs and benefits of pathogen defence. Insect pathogens are employed widely as biological control agents and entomopathogenic fungi are currently being developed for reducing malaria transmission by mosquitoes. Our data highlight the need for concern about resistance evolution to these novel biopesticides in vector populations.
",16497252
0,7227,"The genetics of the dorsal-Bicaudal-D region of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The chromosomal region 36C on 2L contains two maternal-effect loci, dorsal (dl) and Bicaudal-D (Bic-D), which are involved in establishing polarity of the [START]Drosophila[END] embryo along the dorsal-ventral and anterior-posterior axes, respectively. To analyze the region genetically, we isolated X-ray-induced dorsal alleles, which we recognized by virtue of the haplo-insufficient temperature-sensitive dorsal-dominant phenotype in progeny of single females heterozygous for a mutagenized chromosome. From the 20,000 chromosomes tested, we isolated three deficiencies, two inversions with breakpoint in dl and one apparent dl point mutant. One of the deficiencies, Df(2L)H20 (36A6,7; 36F1,2) was used to screen for EMS-induced lethal- and maternal-effect mutants mapping in the vicinity of dl and Bic-D. We isolated 44 lethal mutations defining 11 complementation groups. We also recovered as maternal-effect mutations four dl alleles, as well as six alleles of quail and one allele of kelch, two previously identified maternal-effect genes. Through complementation tests with various viable mutants and deficiencies in the region, a total of 18 loci were identified in an interval of about 30 cytologically visible bands. The region was subdivided into seven subregions by deficiency breakpoints. One lethal complementation group as well as the two maternal loci, Bic-D and quail, are located in the same deficiency interval as is dl.
",3089869
0,7227,"Methods to Assay the Behavior of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] for Toxicity Study.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], the [START]fruit fly[END], has been widely used in biological investigation as an invertebrate alternative to mammals for its various advantages compared to other model organisms, which include short life cycle, easy handling, high prolificacy, and great availability of substantial genetic information. The behavior of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is closely related to its growth, which can reflect the physiological conditions of [START]Drosophila[END]. We have optimized simple and robust behavioral assays for determining the larvae survival, adult climbing ability (mobility assay), reproductive behavior, and lifespan of [START]Drosophila[END]. In this chapter, we present the step-by-step detailed method for studying [START]Drosophila[END] behavior.
",34097260
0,7227,"Physiological and metabolic consequences of viral infection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
An extensively used model system for investigating anti-pathogen defence and innate immunity involves Drosophila C virus (DCV) and [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. While there has been a significant effort to understand infection consequences at molecular and genetic levels, an understanding of fundamental higher-level physiology of this system is lacking. Here, we investigate the metabolic rate, locomotory activity, dry mass and water content of adult male flies injected with DCV, measured over the 4 days prior to virus-induced mortality. DCV infection resulted in multiple pathologies, notably the depression of metabolic rate beginning 2 days post-infection as a response to physiological stress. Even in this depressed metabolic state, infected flies did not decrease their activity until 1 day prior to mortality, which further suggests that cellular processes and synthesis are disrupted because of viral infection. Growth rate was also reduced, indicating that energy partitioning is altered as infection progresses. Microbial infection in insects typically results in an increase in excretion; however, water appeared to be retained in DCV-infected flies. We hypothesise that this is due to a fluid intake-output imbalance due to disrupted transport signalling and a reduced rate of metabolic processing. Furthermore, infected flies had a reduced rate of respiration as a consequence of metabolic depression, which minimised water loss, and the excess mass as a result of water retention is concurrent with impaired locomotory ability. These findings contribute to developing a mechanistic understanding of how pathologies accumulate and lead to mortality in infected flies. 
",23685974
0,7227,"[Development of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in space flight].
The review deals with the available literary data on different aspects of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] vital functions in the conditions of real and modeled microgravity. The developmental stages, embryogenesis and aging, specifically, and behavioral reactions are discussed. The presented results of morphological as well as molecular genetic analyses are indicative of structural changes in early [START]Drosophila[END] embryos and their compensation during subsequent development, and formation of an adaptive gene-expression pattern in microgravity.
",25163332
0,7227,"Inbreeding effects on standard metabolic rate investigated at cold, benign and hot temperatures in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Inbreeding increases homozygosity, which is known to affect the mean and variance of fitness components such as growth, fecundity and mortality rate. Across inbred lines inbreeding depression is typically observed and the variance between lines is increased in inbred compared to outbred lines. It has been suggested that damage incurred from increased homozygosity entails energetic cost associated with cellular repair. However, little is known about the effects of inbreeding on standard metabolic rate. Using stop-flow respirometry we performed repeated measurements of metabolic rate in replicated lines of inbred and outbred [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] at stressful low, benign and stressful high temperatures. The lowest measurements of metabolic rate in our study are always associated with the low activity period of the diurnal cycle and these measurements therefore serve as good estimates of standard metabolic rate. Due to the potentially added costs of genetic stress in inbred lines we hypothesized that inbred individuals have increased metabolic rate compared to outbred controls and that this is more pronounced at stressful temperatures due to synergistic inbreeding by environment interactions. Contrary to our hypothesis we found no significant difference in metabolic rate between inbred and outbred lines and no interaction between inbreeding and temperature. Inbreeding however effected the variance; the variance in metabolic rate was higher between the inbred lines compared to the outbred control lines with some inbred lines having very high or low standard metabolic rate. Thus genetic drift and not inbreeding per se seem to explain variation in metabolic rate in populations of different size. 
",24456661
0,7227,"Effect of Thiovit(R) Jet on the structure of thoracic microtrichia/trichomes in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Widely used fungicides and pesticides are known to have profound effect on several nontarget organisms, which is a cause of concern. The present study aims to demonstrate the effect of a fungicide, Thiovit( ) Jet on the structure of epidermal microtrichia (trichome) of the dorsal thorax in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. External morphology and structural variations of thoracic appendages have been extensively studied using scanning electron microscope from flies treated with different concentrations of Thiovit Jet (20, 30, 40 or 200 mug/ml). Similar to the effect of other fungicides like captan and captafol which are reported to produce somatic mutations in the same organism, the present study successfully demonstrates variation in the trichome/microtrichia structure of the dorsal thorax of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Structural variations were observed to be associated with different concentrations of Thiovit Jet (30, 40 and 200 mug/ml), but the maximum notable change was found with 40 mug/ml treatment. The gross abnormality in the trichome structure may be due to mutation in proteins associated with normal cuticular deposition.
",22301816
0,7227,"Effects of mutations at the stambh A locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We report novel findings on the cytogenetic location, functional complexity and maternal and germline roles of the stambh A locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. stmA is localized to polytene bands 44D1.2 on 2R. stmA mutations are of two types: temperature-sensitive (ts) adult and larval paralytic or unconditional embryonic or larval lethal. Twelve alleles reported in this study fall into two intragenic complementing groups suggesting that stmA is a complex locus with more than one functional domain. Some unconditional embryonic lethal alleles show a 'neurogenic' phenotype of cuticle loss accompanied by neural hypertrophy. It is shown that embryos of ts paralytic alleles also show mild neural hypertrophy at permissive temperatures while short exposure to heat induces severe cuticle loss in these embryos. stmA exerts a maternal influence over heat-induced cuticle loss. Unconditional embryonic lethal alleles of stmA are also germline lethal.
",11910128
0,7227,"Latitudinal clines in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: body size, allozyme frequencies, inversion frequencies, and the insulin-signalling pathway.
Many latitudinal clines exist in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: in adult body size, in allele frequency at allozyme loci, and in frequencies of common cosmopolitan inversions. The question is raised whether these latitudinal clines are causally related. This review aims to connect data from two very different fields of study, evolutionary biology and cell biology, in explaining such natural genetic variation in [START]D. melanogaster[END] body size and development time. It is argued that adult body size clines, inversion frequency clines, and clines in allele frequency at loci involved in glycolysis and glycogen storage are part of the same adaptive strategy. Selection pressure is expected to differ at opposite ends of the clines. At high latitudes, selection on [START]D. melanogaster[END] would favour high larval growth rate at low temperatures, and resource storage in adults to survive winter. At low latitudes selection would favour lower larval critical size to survive crowding, and increased male activity leading to high male reproductive success. Studies of the insulin-signalling pathway in [START]D. melanogaster[END] point to the involvement of this pathway in metabolism and adult body size. The genes involved in the insulin-signalling pathway are associated with common cosmopolitan inversions that show latitudinal clines. Each chromosome region connected with a large common cosmopolitan inversion possesses a gene of the insulin transmembrane complex, a gene of the intermediate pathway and a gene of the TOR branch. The hypothesis is presented that temperate [START]D. melanogaster[END] populations have a higher frequency of a 'thrifty' genotype corresponding to high insulin level or high signal level, while tropical populations possess a more 'spendthrift' genotype corresponding to low insulin or low signal level.
",15133196
0,7227,"Male-Killing Spiroplasma Alters Behavior of the Dosage Compensation Complex during [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Embryogenesis.
Numerous arthropods harbor maternally transmitted bacteria that induce the preferential death of males [1-7]. This sex-specific lethality benefits the bacteria because males are ""dead ends"" regarding bacterial transmission, and their absence may result in additional resources for their viable female siblings who can thereby more successfully transmit the bacteria [5]. Although these symbionts disrupt a range of developmental processes [8-10], the underlying cellular mechanisms are largely unknown. It was previously shown that mutations in genes of the dosage compensation pathway of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] suppressed male killing caused by the bacterium, Spiroplasma [10]. This result suggested that dosage compensation is a target of Spiroplasma. However, it remains unclear how this pathway is affected, and whether the underlying interactions require the male-specific cellular environment. Here, we investigated the cellular basis of male embryonic lethality in [START]D. melanogaster[END] induced by Spiroplasma. We found that the dosage compensation complex (DCC), which acetylates X chromatin in males [11], becomes mis-localized to ectopic regions of the nucleus immediately prior to the killing phase. This effect was accompanied by inappropriate histone acetylation and genome-wide mis-regulation of gene expression. Artificially induced formation of the DCC in infected females, through transgenic expression of the DCC-specific gene msl-2, resulted in mis-localization of this complex to non-X regions and early Spiroplasma-induced death, mirroring the killing effects in males. These findings strongly suggest that Spiroplasma initiates male killing by targeting the dosage compensation machinery directly and independently of other cellular features characteristic of the male sex.
",27161498
0,7227,"Natural variation in differentiated hemocytes is related to parasitoid resistance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
As a measure of parasitoid resistance, hemocyte load and encapsulation ability were measured in lines collected from natural populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in Europe. Results show large geographic variation in resistance against the parasitoid wasp Asobara tabida among the field lines, but there was no clear correlation between resistance and total hemocyte load, neither before nor after parasitization. This was in contrast to the patterns that had been found in a comparison among species of [START]Drosophila[END], where total hemocyte counts were positively correlated to encapsulation rates. This suggests that the mechanisms underlying between-species variation in parasitoid resistance do not extend to the natural variation that exists within a species. Although hemocyte counts did not correspond to encapsulation ability within [START]D. melanogaster[END], the ratios of lamellocytes and crystal cells were very similar in lines with successful encapsulation responses. Apart from variation in the hemocytic response of the different hemocyte types, within-species variation was also observed for accurate targeting of the foreign body by the hemocytes. These results are discussed in the context of possible causes of variation in immune functions among natural populations.
",23123513
0,7227,"Enterococci Mediate the Oviposition Preference of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] through Sucrose Catabolism.
Sucrose, one of the main products of photosynthesis in plants, functions as a universal biomarker for nutritional content and maturity of different fruits across diverse ecological niches. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] congregates to lay eggs in rotting fruits, yet the factors that influence these decisions remains uncovered. Here, we report that lactic acid bacteria Enterococci are critical modulators to attract [START]Drosophila[END] to lay eggs on decaying food. [START]Drosophila[END]-associated Enterococci predominantly catabolize sucrose for growing their population in fly food, and thus generate a unique ecological niche with depleted sucrose, but enriched bacteria. Female flies navigate these favorable oviposition sites by probing the sucrose cue with their gustatory sensory neurons. Acquirement of indigenous microbiota facilitated the development and systemic growth of [START]Drosophila[END], thereby benefiting the survival and fitness of their offspring. Thus, our finding highlights the pivotal roles of commensal bacteria in influencing host behavior, opening the door to a better understanding of the ecological relationships between the microbial and metazoan worlds.
",29044155
0,7227,"Binucleation of Accessory Gland Lobe Contributes to Effective Ejection of Seminal Fluid in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The adult male accessory gland in insects is an internal reproductive organ analogous to the mammalian prostate, and secretes various components in the seminal fluid. Products of the accessory gland in the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] are known to control reproductive behaviors in mated females, such as food uptake, oviposition rate, and rejection of re-mating with other males, all of which increase male reproductive capacity. Production of larger amounts of accessory gland products is thus thought to result in higher male reproductive success. The epithelium of the [START]Drosophila[END] accessory gland lobe is composed of a unique population of binucleate cells. We previously predicted, based on measurements of cell size in mono/binucleate mosaic accessory glands, that binucleation results in a higher plasticity in cell shape, enabling more effective ejection of seminal fluid. However, the actual effect of binucleation on ejection of seminal fluid or reproductive capacity remained unclear, as we were unable to generate an organ with uniformly mononucleate cells. In the present study, we generated organs in which most of the epithelial cells are mononucleate by manipulating aurora B or fizzy-related to block binucleation. Mononucleation resulted in a less elastic accessory gland lobe, which decreased ejection volume and the oviposition of mated females; these effects were particularly pronounced over the long term. These results suggest that binucleation in accessory gland epithelial cells contributes to higher plasticity in the volume of this organ, and enhances male reproductive success through enabling ejection of larger amounts of seminal fluid.
",30298781
0,7227,"Spatial and temporal expression of the period gene in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The temporal and spatial expression of the period gene of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been analyzed by examining the expression of a per beta-galactosidase fusion gene in transformants and by in situ hybridization experiments with wild-type flies. Several strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], transformed with the fusion gene, have been generated. The gene is active in mid-late embryos in the midline of the nervous system. Thereafter, beta-galactosidase activity is undetectable until the pupal stage when the prothoracic gland-corpora allata and the optic lobes are beta-galactosidase positive. In adults a surprisingly large number of tissues stain positively, including antennae, proboscis, eyes, optic lobes, cells of the central brain, cells of the thoracic ganglia, gut, Malpighian tubules, and ovarian follicle cells. The temporal pattern of expression agrees well with previous estimates made from developmental Northern blots with RNA extracted from wild-type animals. We suggest that many of the tissues that express the per gene contain their own intrinsic oscillator activity.
",3129339
0,7227,"When neurobiology and genetics meet: the study of visual system development in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The visual system of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is an exceptionally well suited model to study the molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying inter- and intracellular signalling during nervous system development. This review highlights some of the recent advances in this field, that show not only the power of the combined neurobiological and genetical approaches in shedding new light into long standing questions regarding nervous system development but also uncover a striking evolutionary conservation, at the molecular level, of the basic developmental pathways and signal transduction cascades underlying metazoan ontogenesis.
",8729270
0,7227,"[Effects of diethylhexyl phthalate on lipid peroxidation and the life-span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]].
OBJECTIVE: To observe the effects of diethlhexyl phthalate (DEHP) on lipid peroxidation and the life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. METHODS: Fed [START]Drosophila[END] with the concentration 0.20% DEHP of exposure after 0, 14, 28 days, the activity of total superoxide dismutase (SOD), CuZn-SOD and the concentration of malondialdehyde were determined. At the same time, the longevity test was carried out to examine the effect of DEHP on the [START]Drosophila[END]'s lifespan. RESULTS: The lifespan of [START]Drosophila[END] was shortened in a dose of DEHP exposed groups. The indexes of mean life span (MLS), 50% lethal time and mean maximum life span in three DEHP-treated groups (concentration of 0.05%, 0.10% and 0.20%) were lower than those of the controlled group respectively (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). The MLS of both [START]Drosophila[END] sexes were reduced from the control of 64 days and 59 days to the test 60 days-52 days and 54 days-49 days respectively. DEHP decreased the activity of SOD (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05), and lead to a time-dependent relation and an increase in the concentration of malondialdehyde (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05) in the DEHP-exposed [START]Drosophila[END] groups. CONCLUSION: DEHP might promote the process of lipid peroxidation and shorten the life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. It should be one of the reasons in the senescence of [START]Drosophila[END].
",15842832
0,7227,"Acrylamide is genotoxic to the somatic and germ cells of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The genotoxic effects of acrylamide, a recently detected carcinogen, have been studied in the somatic (wing primordia) and germ cells of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by the wing mosaic assay and the sex-linked recessive lethal test respectively. Larvae, 72 +/- 4 h old, were exposed to 6 different concentrations of acrylamide ranging between 0.25 mM and 5.0 mM in instant medium for 48 h. It is observed that acrylamide is both mutagenic and recombinogenic in the wing disc cells and induces sex-linked recessive lethals.
",1899131
0,7227,"Ecdysone control of developmental transitions: lessons from [START]Drosophila[END] research.
The steroid hormone ecdysone is the central regulator of insect developmental transitions. Recent new advances in our understanding of ecdysone action have relied heavily on the application of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] molecular genetic tools to study insect metamorphosis. In this review, we focus on three major aspects of [START]Drosophila[END] ecdysone biology: (a) factors that regulate the timing of ecdysone release, (b) molecular basis of stage- and tissue-specific responses to ecdysone, and (c) feedback regulation and coordination of ecdysone signaling.
",23072462
0,7227,"The effect of deleterious mutations and age on recombination in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
At the population level, recombination mediates the efficiency with which selection can eliminate deleterious mutations. At the individual level, deleterious alleles may influence recombination, which would change the rate at which linkage disequilibrium is eroded and thereby alter the efficiency with which deleterious alleles are purged. Here, we test whether the presence of a deleterious allele on one autosome affects recombination on another autosome. We find that deleterious alleles not only alter the rate but also the pattern of recombination. However, there is little support that different deleterious alleles affect recombination in a consistent manner. Because we have detailed information on individual females across their lifetimes, we are able to examine how recombination patterns change with age and find that these patterns are also affected by the presence of deleterious alleles. The differences among genotypes or among age classes are large enough to add substantial noise to genetic mapping experiments that do not consider these sources of variation.
",22276549
0,7227,"Heritability, evolvability, phenotypic plasticity and temporal variation in sperm-competition success of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Sperm-competition success (SCS) is seen as centrally important for evolutionary change: superior fathers sire superior sons and thereby inherit the traits that make them superior. Additional hypotheses, that phenotypic plasticity in SCS and sperm ageing explain variation in paternity, are less considered. Even though various alleles have individually been shown to be correlated with variation in SCS, few studies have addressed the heritability, or evolvability, of overall SCS. Those studies that have addressed found low or no heritability and have not examined evolvability. They have further not excluded phenotypic plasticity, and temporal effects on SCS, despite their known dramatic effects on sperm function. In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], we found that both standard components of sperm competition, sperm defence and sperm offence, showed nonsignificant heritability across several offspring cohorts. Instead, our analysis revealed, for the first time, the existence of phenotypic plasticity in SCS across an extreme environment (5% CO2 ), and an influence of sperm ageing. Evolvability of SCS was substantial for sperm defence but weak for sperm offence. Our results suggest that the paradigm of explaining evolution by sperm competition is more complex and will benefit from further experimental work on the heritability or evolvability of SCS, measuring phenotypic plasticity, and separating the effects of sperm competition and sperm ageing.
",26990919
0,7227,"[Symbiotic bacteria, which modify reproduction processes of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]].
Cytoplasmic bacteria-symbionts are actively investigated all over the world for the last ten years. The scale of their spreading in natural and laboratory populations of invertebrates, especially arthropods, is impressing scientists' imagination. Ways of their intraspecific and interspecific transmission are various. The nature and mechanisms of their interaction both between themselves and with their hosts are extremely diverse. Cytoplasmic incompatibility, parthenogenesis, male-killing, feminization, tissue degeneration and others are those phenotypic effects, which intracellular bacteria can cause in their hosts. Moreover, the same bacterium can have diverse influences on different hosts. So it is possible to talk about many-sidedness of endosymbiont interaction with a host, which is determined both by bacterium and host biology. However, majority of phenotypic effects is directed to the successful colonization of hosts' populations by increasing the number of infected females. Alas, the mechanisms of interaction are still not enough investigated. Besides, intracellular bacteria-symbionts can be one of the factors of the so-called ""infectious species formation"". In any investigation, model organisms, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] belonging to them, take a special place. Among [START]drosophila[END]'s endosymbionts, only bacteria from genera Wolbachia, Spiroplasma and Cardinium were broadly investigated: their spreading in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations all over the world, the infecting level and those phenotypic effects, which they can cause. So this review is dedicated to analysis of these studies.
",21598659
0,7227,"The effects of microgravity on the character of progeny of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
To study how the microgravitational environment influences the character of the progeny of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], the S1 insects produced during the 8-days of space flight were self-bred for four generations. Higher variational rate was found in S2. After removing the variant flies, the variational rate of the remaining [START]Drosophila[END] progeny decreased generation by generation. There was no notable sex-linked recessive lethal mutation of parent flies and no gene mutation found in their test-cross examination. It indicates that the germ-cell of parent adult flies were not much influenced by microgravity, but the embryo of filial generation bred in space were greatly influenced by microgravity. Therefore, the mutagenesis during the embryogenic development should be taken into account in the bio-breeding under the space microgravitational environment.
",11541480
0,7227,"Bacteria-induced sexual isolation in [START]Drosophila[END].
Commensal bacteria can induce sexual isolation between populations of [START]Drosophila[END]. This phenomenon has implications for speciation, and raises questions about its behavioral and developmental mechanisms, which are not yet known. In this Extra View, we discuss related work by others, bearing directly on these issues, and we speculate about how bacteria might influence fly behavior. There are many reports of interaction between [START]Drosophila[END] and their microbiota that significantly impacts mating preferences. Sexual isolation can be enhanced or reduced by altering the culture media, or the microbiota inhabiting those media. More dramatically, the endoparasite Wolbachia has induced strong mate preferences in some instances. While a sudden, ecologically induced shift in mating preferences falls far short of the changes required for speciation, it might be a first step in that direction. We hypothesize that bacteria-induced sexual isolation is caused by chemosensory cues. In our experiments, bacteria altered the profile of cuticular hydrocarbons, which function as sex pheromones. Commensal bacteria may act directly on these hydrocarbons, or they may affect their synthesis. Alternatively, bacterial metabolites might perfume the flies in ways that affect mate choice. In that event, habituation or conditioning likely plays a role.
",21525789
0,7227,"Can [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] represent a model system for the detection of reproductive adverse drug reactions?
Once a molecule is identified as a potential drug, the detection of adverse drug reactions is one of the key components of its development and the FDA approval process. We propose using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to screen for reproductive adverse drug reactions in the early stages of drug development. Compared with other non-mammalian models, [START]D. melanogaster[END] has many similarities to the mammalian reproductive system, including putative sex hormones and conserved proteins involved in genitourinary development. Furthermore, the [START]D. melanogaster[END] model would present significant advantages in time efficiency and cost-effectiveness compared with mammalian models. We present data on methotrexate (MTX) reproductive adverse events in multiple animal models, including [START]fruit flies[END], as proof-of-concept for the use of the [START]D. melanogaster[END] model.
",19482095
0,7227,"There and back again: The mechanisms of differentiation and transdifferentiation in [START]Drosophila[END] blood cells.
Transdifferentiation is a conversion of an already differentiated cell type into another cell type without the involvement of stem cells. This transition is well described in the case of vertebrate immune cells, as well as in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], which therefore serves as a suitable model to study the process in detail. In the [START]Drosophila[END] larva, the latest single-cell sequencing methods enabled the clusterization of the phagocytic blood cells, the plasmatocytes, which are capable of transdifferentiation into encapsulating cells, the lamellocytes. Here we summarize the available data of the past years on the plasmatocyte-lamellocyte transition, and make an attempt to harmonize them with transcriptome-based blood cell clustering to better understand the underlying mechanisms of transdifferentiation in [START]Drosophila[END], and in general.
",33131706
0,7227,"Larval competition in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. I. Estimation of larval growth parameters.
Despite extensive research into the competitive interactions between the larvae of [START]Drosophila[END] for food, there have been few studies of the biological characteristics of the larvae which might underly competition. Here we present a sensitive method for estimating the larval feeding rate, larval gut capacity, larval conversion efficiency and larva-adult conversion efficiency, using radioactively labelled yeast. Two developmental stages, defined by the time since oviposition, were investigated in eight genetically distinct strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Significant genetic variation was recovered for all parameters at the second instar but only for conversion efficiency at the third instar. Feeding rate and the gut capacity had large and heterogenous error variances, especially in the third instar, while conversion efficiencies were relatively more stable.
",3130339
0,7227,"Dynamic changes in ejaculatory bulb size during [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] aging and mating.
The ejaculatory bulb of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] males produces proteins and pheromones that play important roles in reproduction. This tissue is also the final mixing site for the ejaculate before transfer to the female. The ejaculatory bulb's dynamics remain largely unstudied. By microscopy of the ejaculatory bulb in maturing adult males, we observed that the ejaculatory bulb expands in size as males age. Moreover, we document that when males mate, their ejaculatory bulb expands further as ejaculate transfer begins, and then contracts halfway through the course of mating as ejaculate transfer finishes. Although there is some male-to-male variation in the timing of these changes, ultimately the tissue changes in a predictable pattern that gives insight into the active mating process in [START]Drosophila[END].
",29634921
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a model organism of brain diseases.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been utilized to model human brain diseases. In most of these invertebrate transgenic models, some aspects of human disease are reproduced. Although investigation of rodent models has been of significant impact, invertebrate models offer a wide variety of experimental tools that can potentially address some of the outstanding questions underlying neurological disease. This review considers what has been gleaned from invertebrate models of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, metabolic diseases such as Leigh disease, Niemann-Pick disease and ceroid lipofuscinoses, tumor syndromes such as neurofibromatosis and tuberous sclerosis, epilepsy as well as CNS injury. It is to be expected that genetic tools in [START]Drosophila[END] will reveal new pathways and interactions, which hopefully will result in molecular based therapy approaches.
",19333415
0,7227,"Determinants of electrical properties in developing neurons.
The regulatory mechanisms that orchestrate the developmental acquisition of electrical properties in embryonic neurons are poorly understood. Progress in this important area is dependent on the availability of preparations that allow electrophysiology to be married with genetics. The powerful genetics of the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has long been exploited to describe fundamental mechanisms associated with structural neuronal development (i.e. axon guidance). It has not, however, been fully employed to study the final stages of embryonic neural development and in particular the acquisition of electrical activity. This review focuses on the recent development of a [START]Drosophila[END] preparation that allows central neurons to be accessed by patch electrodes at both embryonic and larval stages. This preparation, which allows electrophysiology to be coupled with genetics, offers the prospect of making significant advances in our understanding of functional neuron development.
",16337413
0,7227,"Life-history traits of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations exhibiting early and late eclosion chronotypes.
BACKGROUND: The hypothesis that circadian clocks confer adaptive advantage to organisms has been proposed based on its ubiquity across almost all levels of complexity and organization of life-forms. This thought has received considerable attention, and studies employing diverse strategies have attempted to investigate it. However, only a handful of them have examined how selection for circadian clock controlled rhythmic behaviors influences life-history traits which are known to influence Darwinian fitness. The 'early' and 'late' chronotypes are amongst the most widely studied circadian phenotypes; however, life-history traits associated with these chronotypes, and their consequences on Darwinian fitness remain largely unexplored, primarily due to the lack of a suitable model system. Here we studied several life-history traits of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations that were subjected to laboratory selection for morning (early) and evening (late) emergence. RESULTS: We report that the late eclosion chronotypes evolved longer pre-adult duration as compared to the early eclosion chronotypes both under light/dark (LD) and constant dark (DD) conditions, and these differences appear to be mediated by both clock dependent and independent mechanisms. Furthermore, longer pre-adult duration in the late chronotypes does not lead to higher body-mass at pupariation or eclosion, but the late females were significantly more fecund and lived significantly shorter as compared to the early females. CONCLUSIONS: Coevolution of multiple life-history traits in response to selection on timing of eclosion highlights correlations of the genetic architecture governing timing of eclosion with that of fitness components which suggests that timing ecologically relevant behaviors at specific time of the day might confer adaptive advantage.
",26922082
0,7227,"Variation in the male pheromones and mating success of wild caught [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] males express two primary cuticular hydrocarbons (male-predominant hydrocarbons). These act as sex pheromones by influencing female receptivity to mating. The relative quantities of these hydrocarbons vary widely among natural populations and can contribute to variation in mating success. We tested four isofemale lines collected from a wild population to assess the effect of intrapopulation variation in male-predominant hydrocarbons on mating success. The receptivity of laboratory females to males of the four wild-caught lines varied significantly, but not consistently in the direction predicted by variation in male-predominant hydrocarbons. Receptivity of the wild-caught females to laboratory males also varied significantly, but females from lines with male-predominant hydrocarbon profiles closer to a more cosmopolitan one did not show a correspondingly strong mating bias toward a cosmopolitan male. Among wild-caught lines, the male-specific ejaculatory bulb lipid, cis-vaccenyl acetate, varied more than two-fold, but was not associated with variation in male mating success. We observed a strong inverse relationship between the receptivity of wild-caught females and the mating success of males from their own lines, when tested with laboratory flies of the opposite sex.
",21858189
0,7227,"Measuring thermal behavior in smaller insects: A case study in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] demonstrates effects of sex, geographic origin, and rearing temperature on adult behavior.
Measuring thermal behavior in smaller insects is particularly challenging. In this study, we describe a new horizontal thermal gradient apparatus designed to study adult thermal behavior in small insects and apply it using [START]D. melanogaster[END] as a model and case study. Specifically, we used this apparatus and associated methodology to examine the effects of sex, geographic origin, and developmental rearing temperature on temperature preferences exhibited by adults in a controlled laboratory environment. The thermal gradient established by the apparatus was stable over diurnal and calendar time. Furthermore, the distribution of adult flies across thermal habitats within the apparatus remained stable following the period of acclimation, as evidenced by the high degree of repeatability across both biological and technical replicates. Our data demonstrate significant and predictable variation in temperature preference for all 3 assayed variables. Behaviorally, females were more sensitive than males to higher temperatures. Flies originating from high latitude, temperate populations exhibited a greater preference for cooler temperatures; conversely, flies originating from low latitude, tropical habitats demonstrated a relative preference for higher temperatures. Similarly, larval rearing temperature was positively associated with adult thermal behavior: low culture temperatures increased the relative adult preference for cooler temperatures, and this response was distinct between the sexes and for flies from the temperate and subtropical geographic regions. Together, these results demonstrate that the temperature chamber apparatus elicits robust, predictable, and quantifiable thermal preference behavior that could readily be applied to other taxa to examine the role of temperature-mediated behavior in a variety of contexts.
",27230726
0,7227,"Growth and size control during development.
The size and shape of organs are characteristic for each species. Even when organisms develop to different sizes due to varying environmental conditions, such as nutrition, organ size follows species-specific rules of proportionality to the rest of the body, a phenomenon referred to as allometry. Therefore, for a given environment, organs stop growth at a predictable size set by the species's genotype. How do organs stop growth? How can related species give rise to organs of strikingly different size? No definitive answer has been given to date. One of the major models for the studies of growth termination is the vinegar fly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Therefore, this review will focus mostly on work carried out in [START]Drosophila[END] to try to tease apart potential mechanisms and identify routes for further investigation. One general rule, found across the animal kingdom, is that the rate of growth declines with developmental time. Therefore, answers to the problem of growth termination should explain this seemingly universal fact. In addition, growth termination is intimately related to the problems of robustness (i.e. precision) and plasticity in organ size, symmetric and asymmetric organ development, and of how the 'target' size depends on extrinsic, environmental factors.
",29142108
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and the future of 'evo-devo' biology in space. Challenges and problems in the path of an eventual colonization project outside the earth.
Space exploration, especially its future phase involving the International Space Station (ISS) makes possible the study of the effects on living systems of long-term expositions to such a strange environment. This phase is being initiated when Biological Sciences are crossing a no-return line into a new territory where the connection between phenotype and genotype may be finally made. We briefly review the paradoxical results obtained in Space experiments performed during the last third of the XX Century. They reveal that simple unicellular systems sense the absence of gravity changing their cytoskeletal organization and the signal transduction pathways, while animal development proceeds unaltered in these conditions, in spite of the fact that these processes are heavily involved in embryogenesis. Longer-term experiments possible in the ISS may solve this apparent contradiction. On the other hand, the current constraints on the scientific use of the ISS makes necessary the development of new hardware and the modification of current techniques to start taking advantage of this extraordinary technological facility. We discuss our advances in this direction using one of the current key biological model systems, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. In addition, the future phase of Space exploration, possibly leading to the exploration and, may be, the colonization of another planet, will provide the means of performing interesting evolutionary experiments, studying how the terrestrial biological systems will change in their long-term adaptation to new, very different environments. In this way, Biological Research in Space may contribute to the advancement of the new Biology, in particular to the branch known as ""Evo-Devo"". On the other hand, as much as the Space Adventure will continue involving human beings as the main actors in the play, long-term multi-generation experiments using a fast reproducing species, such as [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], capable of producing more than 300 generations in 15 years, the useful life foreseen for ISS, will be important. Among other useful information, they will help in detecting the possible changes that a biological species may undergo in such an environment, preventing the uncontrolled occurrence of irreversible deleterious effects with catastrophic consequences on the living beings participating in this endeavour.
",14631629
0,7227,"The immune response of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The response of the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to various microorganism infections relies on a multilayered defense. The epithelia constitute a first and efficient barrier. Innate immunity is activated when microorganisms succeed in entering the body cavity of the fly. Invading microorganisms are killed by the combined action of cellular and humoral processes. They are phagocytosed by specialized blood cells, surrounded by toxic melanin, or lysed by antibacterial peptides secreted into the hemolymph by fat body cells. During the last few years, research has focused on the mechanisms of microbial recognition by various pattern recognition receptors and of the subsequent induction of antimicrobial peptide expression. The cellular arm of the [START]Drosophila[END] innate immune system, which was somehow neglected, now constitutes the new frontier.
",15199954
0,7227,"Hybrid lethal systems in the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] species complex. II. The Zygotic hybrid rescue (Zhr) gene of [START]D. melanogaster[END].
Hybrid females from Drosophila simulans females x [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] males die as embryos while hybrid males from the reciprocal cross die as larvae. We have recovered a mutation in melanogaster that rescues the former hybrid females. It was located on the X chromosome at a position close to the centromere, and it was a zygotically acting gene, in contrast with mhr (maternal hybrid rescue) in simulans that rescues the same hybrids maternally. We named it Zhr (Zygotic hybrid rescue). The gene also rescues hybrid females from embryonic lethals in crosses of Drosophila mauritiana females x [START]D. melanogaster[END] males and of Drosophila sechellia females x [START]D. melanogaster[END] males. Independence of the hybrid embryonic lethality and the hybrid larval lethality suggested in a companion study was confirmed by employing two rescue genes, Zhr and Hmr (Hybrid male rescue), in doubly lethal hybrids. A model is proposed to explain the genetic mechanisms of hybrid lethalities as well as the evolutionary pathways.
",8436277
0,7227,"Genome-wide approaches to understanding behaviour in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Understanding how an organism exhibits specific behaviours remains a major and important biological question. Studying behaviour in a simple model organism like the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has the advantages of advanced molecular genetics approaches along with well-defined anatomy and physiology. With advancements in functional genomic technologies, researchers are now attempting to uncover genes and pathways involved in complex behaviours on a genome-wide scale. A systems-level network approach, which will include genomic approaches, to study behaviour will be key to understanding the regulation and modulation of behaviours and the importance of context in regulating them.
",22843979
0,7227,"The adult component of selection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: some aspects of early-remating activity of females.
As an important factor of the adult component of selection, mating behaviour was studied in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], with emphasis on non-virgin females. We found that 30-50 per cent of the females in a laboratory population will remate within 6 h of first mating under no-choice conditions. This high percentage of early rematings was not due to the continuous confinement of the females with males but indicated a rapid return of receptivity of a significant proportion of the females. Remating behaviour was significantly influenced by both the genotype of the female and the genotype of her two successive partners. Age of females was only important insofar as it concerned young, 1 or 2-day old, females. These females showed less remating than older females. Willingness to remate was also affected by the number of sperm stored. Females that had been inseminated by less fertile males, i.e. males that had already mated two or three times, showed higher remating percentages than females inseminated by more fertile males. Notwithstanding this sperm effect, females were estimated to remate approximately every second day. It is suggested that a high frequency of remating and the resulting sperm competition are significant components of [START]Drosophila[END] life-history.
",8407356
0,7227,"Sexual isolation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: a possible case of incipient speciation.
It is generally believed that [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has no closely related species with which it can produce the viable and fertile hybrids that are essential for the genetic analysis of speciation. Following the recent report of molecular differentiation between a Zimbabwe, Africa, population and two United States populations, we provide evidence that strong sexual isolation exists between the [START]D. melanogaster[END] population in Zimbabwe and populations of other continents. In the presence of males of their own kind, females from most isofemale lines of Zimbabwe would not mate with males from elsewhere; the reciprocal mating is also significantly reduced, but to a lesser degree. The genes for sexual behaviors are apparently polymorphic in Zimbabwe and postmating reproductive isolation between this and other populations has not yet evolved. Whole chromosome substitutions indicate significant genetic contributions to male mating success by both major autosomes, whereas the X chromosome effect is too weak to measure. In addition, the relative mating success between hybrid and pure line males supports the interpretation of strong female choice. These observations suggest that we are seeing the early stages of speciation in this group and that it is driven by sexual selection. The genetic and molecular tractability of [START]D. melanogaster[END] offers great promise for the detailed analysis of this apparent case of incipient speciation.
",7708677
0,7227,"Fungal genotype determines survival of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] when competing with Aspergillus nidulans.
Fungi produce an astonishing variety of secondary metabolites, some of which belong to the most toxic compounds in the living world. Several fungal metabolites have anti-insecticidal properties which may yield advantages to the fungus in competition with insects for exploitation of environmental resources. Using the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]/Aspergillus nidulans ecological model system to assess secondary metabolite mutant genotypes, we find a major role for the veA allele in insect/fungal confrontations that exceeds the influence of other factors such as LaeA. VeA along with LaeA is a member of a transcriptional complex governing secondary metabolism in A. nidulans. However, historically a mutant veA allele, veA1 reduced in secondary metabolite output, has been used in many studies of this model organism. To test the significance of this allele in our system, Aspergillus nidulans veA wild type, veA1, DeltaveA and DeltalaeA were evaluated in confrontation assays to analyze egg laying activity, and the survival rate of larvae. The veA1 genetic background led to a significant increase of larval survival. Adult flies were observed almost exclusively on veA1, DeltaveA or DeltalaeA genetic backgrounds, suggesting a role for the velvet complex in insect/fungal interactions. This effect was most profound using the veA1 mutant. Hence, larval survival in confrontations is highly affected by the fungal genotype.
",29293643
0,7227,"Evolution of starvation resistance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: measurement of direct and correlated responses to artificial selection.
Laboratory selection for resistance to starvation has been conducted under relatively controlled conditions to investigate direct and correlated responses to artificial selection. With regard to starvation resistance, there are three physiological routes by which the trait can evolve: resource accumulation, energy conservation and starvation tolerance. A majority of energetic compounds and macromolecules including triglycerides, trehalose and other sugars, and soluble protein increased in abundance as a result of selection. Movement was additionally investigated with selected males moving less than control males and selected females exhibiting a similar response to selection. Results obtained from this study supported two of the possible evolutionary mechanisms for adaptation to starvation: energy compound storage and conservation. If the response to selection is based on an evolutionarily conserved pattern of genetic correlations (elevated lipid, elevated sugars and reduced movement), then the response to selection is medically relevant and the genetic architecture should be investigated in depth.
",22151916
0,7227,"Microbial influence on [START]Drosophila[END] biology.
Commensal bacteria profoundly affect the biology of their animal partners. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been broadly used to study microbiota effects on invertebrates, whose findings are frequently applicable to translational studies. The beneficial role of commensal microbes on [START]Drosophila[END] biology is extensively described, ranging from growth to metabolism, immunity and even behaviour. However, the mechanisms underlying these effects are not well understood. Studies continue to discover new layers of complexity in the host-bacteria partnership that constantly changes depending on a plethora of different variables. This review discusses the latest advances in understanding the molecular bases of microbiota impact on [START]Drosophila[END] physiology and behaviour, emphasizing its broad influence and the intricate interdependence of the two partners in shaping their biology.
",28668769
0,7227,"External control of the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] egg to imago development period by specific combinations of 3D low-frequency electric and magnetic fields.
We report that the duration of the egg-to-imago development period of the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], and the imago longevity, are both controllable by combinations of external 3-dimensional (3D) low-frequency electric and magnetic fields (LFEMFs). Both these periods may be reduced or increased by applying an appropriate configuration of external 3D LFEMFs. We report that the longevity of [START]D. melanogaster[END] imagoes correlates with the duration of the egg-to-imago development period of the respective eggs. We infer that metabolic processes in both eggs and imago are either accelerated (resulting in reduced time periods) or slowed down (resulting in increased time periods). We propose that external 3D LFEMFs induce electric currents in live systems as well as mechanical vibrations on sub-cell, whole-cell and cell-group levels. These external fields induce media polarization due to ionic motion and orientation of electric dipoles that could moderate the observed effects. We found that the longevity of [START]D. melanogaster[END] imagoes is affected by action of 3D LFEMFs on the respective eggs in the embryonic development period (EDP). We interpret this effect as resulting from changes in the regulation mechanism of metabolic processes in [START]D. melanogaster[END] eggs, inherited by the resulting imagoes. We also tested separate effects of either 3D electric or 3D magnetic fields, which were significantly weaker. 
",25259623
0,7227,"Persistence of a Wolbachia infection frequency cline in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and the possible role of reproductive dormancy.
Field populations of arthropods are often polymorphic for Wolbachia but the factors maintaining intermediate Wolbachia frequencies are generally not understood. In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], Wolbachia frequencies are highly variable across the globe. We document the persistence of a Wolbachia infection frequency cline in [START]D. melanogaster[END] populations from eastern Australia across at least 20 years, with frequencies generally high in the tropics but lower in cool temperate regions. The results are interpreted using a model of frequency dynamics incorporating cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), imperfect maternal transmission and Wolbachia effects on fitness. Clinal variation is less pronounced in eastern North America which may reflect annual recolonization at higher latitudes. Limited samples from Africa from latitudes matching our tropical and subtropical samples from Australia and North America show comparably high infection frequencies, but some equatorial samples show lower frequencies. Adult dormancy across cold periods may contribute to the Australian Wolbachia cline. Infected flies exposed to cold conditions for an extended period had reduced fecundity and viability, an effect not evident in unexposed controls. These fitness costs may contribute to the relatively low Wolbachia frequencies in Australian temperate areas; whereas different processes, including CI induced by young males, may contribute to higher frequencies in tropical locations.
",27076356
0,7227,"Evidences for circadian rhythmicity in the per0 mutant of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
per0 Mutants of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] which are exposed to light-dark cycles (LD) with different Zeitgeber period (T) have a limited range of entrainment. Entrained flies show a characteristic phase relationship of activity to the LD which depends on the period of the driving cycle as expected by oscillator theory. Both facts are taken as evidence that per. possesses endogenous oscillators and that the per gene product is not concerned with central clock structures but rather might be responsible for the mutual coupling between the individual oscillators in a multioscillatory system controlling locomotor activity.
",2966505
0,7227,"Geographic differentiation in wing shape in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Genetic variation of a suite of 12 morphometric wing characters was examined in 16 natural populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] from Eastern Europe and Central Asia using principal component analysis. The posterior wing compartment was found to differ in shape between the Eastern European and Central Asian populations. This result in agreement with data on wing shape variation from exposure to high and low temperatures under laboratory conditions.
",8522169
0,7227,"Preadult parental diet affects offspring development and metabolism in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
When [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae are reared on isocaloric diets differing in their amounts of protein relative to sugar, emerging adults exhibit significantly different development times and metabolic pools of protein, glycogen and trigylcerides. In the current study, we show that the influence of larval diet experienced during just one generation extends into the next generation, even when that subsequent generation had been shifted to a standard diet during development. Offspring of flies that were reared on high protein relative to sugar underwent metamorphosis significantly faster, had higher reproductive outputs, and different metabolic pool contents compared to the offspring of adults from low protein relative to sugar diets. In addition, isofemale lines differed in the degree to which parental effects were observed, suggesting a genetic component to the observed transgenerational influences.
",23555695
0,7227,"The origin of the second centriole in the zygote of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles surrounded by pericentriolar material (PCM). However, the sperm and the oocyte modify or lose their centrosomes. Consequently, how the zygote establishes its first centrosome, and in particular, the origin of the second zygotic centriole, is uncertain. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] spermatids contain a single centriole called the Giant Centriole (GC) and a Proximal centriole-like (PCL) structure whose function is unknown. We found that, like the centriole, the PCL loses its protein markers at the end of spermiogenesis. After fertilization, the first two centrioles are observed via the recruitment of the zygotic PCM proteins and are seen in asterless mutant embryos that cannot form centrioles. The zygote's centriolar proteins label only the daughter centrioles of the first two centrioles. These observations demonstrate that the PCL is the origin for the second centriole in the [START]Drosophila[END] zygote and that a paternal centriole precursor, without centriolar proteins, is transmitted to the egg during fertilization. 
",24532732
0,7227,"Impact of Potential Probiotic Lactobacillus Strains on Host Growth and Development in a [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Model.
Lactobacillus paracasei SD1, Lactobacillus rhamnosus SD11, and Lactobacillus gasseri SD12 were proposed as potential probiotics for oral health. However, the effects of them on host physiology are still unknown. This study aimed to select strains that can promote host growth and development in monocolonized [START]Drosophila[END] model compared with axenic and the commercial Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG-treated flies. The morphogenesis and growth of axenic [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] were assessed from embryo to adult stage when provided with each probiotic strain-supplemented food. The colonization and persistence of probiotic in fly gut were also evaluated. The results indicated that axenic condition caused the lowest adult weight and emergence rate. All probiotic groups had higher weight than axenic group. Lact. rhamnosus SD11 group presented high adult emergence rate equivalent to Lact. rhamnosus GG group, which is significantly higher than the others. However, Lact. gasseri SD12 group had significantly lower adult weight and emergence rate when compared with Lact. rhamnosus GG group. The gut probiotics levels were rapidly increased within the first day after receiving probiotics. After probiotic cessation, their number in gut decreased and was maintained at low level, except for Lact. gasseri SD12, which completely vanished since day one. In conclusion, Lact. paracasei SD1, Lact. rhamnosus SD11, and Lact. rhamnosus GG can affect morphogenesis and weight of flies when fed since immature stage and have short period gut colonization. The findings of this study could possibly imply comparable health-promoting effects between Lact. paracasei SD1 and Lact. rhamnosus SD11 to commercial strain in [START]Drosophila[END] model.
",32875521
0,7227,"Chronic exposure to dim artificial light at night decreases fecundity and adult survival in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The presence of artificial light at night is expanding in geographical range and increasing in intensity to such an extent that species living in urban environments may never experience natural darkness. The negative ecological consequences of artificial night lighting have been identified in several key life history traits across multiple taxa (albeit with a strong vertebrate focus); comparable data for invertebrates is lacking. In this study, we explored the effect of chronic exposure to different night-time lighting intensities on growth, reproduction and survival in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. We reared three generations of flies under identical daytime light conditions (2600lx) and one of four ecologically relevant ALAN treatments (0, 1, 10 or 100lx), then explored variation in oviposition, number of eggs produced, juvenile growth and survival and adult survival. We found that, in the presence of light at night (1, 10 and 100lx treatments), the probability of a female commencing oviposition and the number of eggs laid was significantly reduced. This did not translate into differences at the juvenile phase: juvenile development times and the probability of eclosing as an adult were comparable across all treatments. However, we demonstrate for the first time a direct link between chronic exposure to light at night (greater than 1lx) and adult survival. Our data highlight that ALAN has the capacity to cause dramatic shifts in multiple life history traits at both the individual and population level. Such shifts are likely to be species-specific, however a more in depth understanding of the broad-scale impact of ALAN and the relevant mechanisms driving biological change is urgently required as we move into an increasing brightly lit future.
",28499591
0,7227,"Relationship between genotypes of longevity genes and developmental speed in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Hatching time (the period between egg-laying and hatching) and emerging time were surveyed and their relationship with the adult life span was investigated. A relationship between emerging time and adult life span was clearly evident: early emergers were often long-lived. This relation is considered to have a genetic basis because all the larvae in a group were bred in the same culture bottle. Thus, the longevity genes involved also appear to have control over the rate of development. No significant relation was observed between hatching time and adult life span or between hatching time and emerging time. These results suggest that the function of the longevity genes begins at the larval or pupal stage before emergence, and that adult life spans differentiate at this time.
",1901302
0,7227,"Sensitivity differences displayed by [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae of different ages to the toxic effects of growth on media containing aflatoxin B1.
Using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], the relative sensitivities of various larval stages to the toxic effects of growth on media supplemented with either 0.44 or 0.88 ppm aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were determined. Two strains of [START]fruit flies[END] were tested: strain A-11 which is relatively resistant to AFB1 induced toxicity, and strain A-9 which is quite sensitive. Eggs, mid-first, mid-second and early-, mid- and late-third instar larvae were transferred onto AFB1 media and allowed to complete larval and pupal development and eclose as adults. At the 0.44 ppm concentration, strain A-11 showed no effect, while only first instar larvae of strain A-9 showed significant mortality rates for first instar larvae, but the A-9 larvae die at higher rates than the A-11 larvae. In addition, second and third instar larvae of strain A-9 show significant mortality rates when grown at 0.88 ppm AFB1, while these stages are not affected in strain A-11.
",106976
0,7227,"Infection of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by Tubulinosema kingi: stage-specific susceptibility and within-host proliferation.
Despite its importance as a model organism very little is known about the interaction between [START]Drosophila[END] and its microsporidian pathogens. Here we report on the relative susceptibility of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] life history stages to infection by Tubulinosema kingi, and on patterns of pathogen proliferation. We find that only larvae can be infected, and that this susceptibility decreases with larval age. Following infection, the pathogen shows little subsequent proliferation in larvae, a limited amount in pupae while it replicates greatly in adults. We present evidence that the host launches a cellular immune response after infection with the pathogen, although its effectiveness remains to be demonstrated.
",18394642
0,7227,"Quantitative Bioimaging to Investigate the Uptake of Mercury Species in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The uptake of mercury species in the model organism [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was investigated by elemental bioimaging using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS). The mercury distribution in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was analyzed for the three species mercury(II) chloride, methylmercury chloride, and thimerosal after intoxication. A respective analytical method was developed and applied to the analysis of the entire [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] first, before a particular focus was directed to the cerebral areas of larvae and adult flies. For quantification of mercury, matrix-matched standards based on gelatin were prepared. Challenges of spatially dissolved mercury determination, namely, strong evaporation issues of the analytes and an inhomogeneous distribution of mercury in the standards due to interactions with cysteine containing proteins of the gelatin were successfully addressed by complexation with meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). No mercury was detected in the cerebral region for mercury(II) chloride, whereas both organic species showed the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Quantitatively, the mercury level in the brain exceeded the fed concentration indicating mercury enrichment, which was approximately 3 times higher for methylmercury chloride than for thimerosal. 
",26424032
0,7227,"Cell Sheet Morphogenesis: Dorsal Closure in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a Model System.
Dorsal closure is a key process during [START]Drosophila[END] morphogenesis that models cell sheet movements in chordates, including neural tube closure, palate formation, and wound healing. Closure occurs midway through embryogenesis and entails circumferential elongation of lateral epidermal cell sheets that close a dorsal hole filled with amnioserosa cells. Signaling pathways regulate the function of cellular structures and processes, including Actomyosin and microtubule cytoskeletons, cell-cell/cell-matrix adhesion complexes, and endocytosis/vesicle trafficking. These orchestrate complex shape changes and movements that entail interactions between five distinct cell types. Genetic and laser perturbation studies establish that closure is robust, resilient, and the consequence of redundancy that contributes to four distinct biophysical processes: contraction of the amnioserosa, contraction of supracellular Actomyosin cables, elongation (stretching?) of the lateral epidermis, and zipping together of two converging cell sheets. What triggers closure and what the emergent properties are that give rise to its extraordinary resilience and fidelity remain key, extant questions.
",28992442
0,7227,"The effects of genetic background on exercise performance in [START]Drosophila[END].
The use of the [START]Drosophila[END] model for studying the broad beneficial effects of exercise training has grown over the past decade. As work using [START]Drosophila[END] as an exercise model becomes more widespread, the influence of genetic background on performance should be examined in order to better understand its influence on assessments used to quantitatively measure and compare exercise phenotypes. In this article, we review the various methods of exercise training [START]Drosophila[END], and the performance of different wild-type [START]Drosophila[END] strains on various physiological assessments of exercise response. We conclude by summarizing the performance trends of commonly used strains.
",33100141
0,7227,"Ecdysone signaling cascade and regulation of Drosophila metamorphosis.
Pulses of the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (ecdysone) regulate diverse biological responses during the life history of insects. Studies of the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], have provided significant insights into the mechanisms underlying ecdysone mediated regulation of development. During the dramatic metamorphosis of [START]Drosophila[END], ecdysone induces the histolysis of nearly all of the larval tissues and differentiation and morphogenesis of the structures composing the adult fly. These changes are mediated by a genetic signaling cascade that was first recognized as puffs in the giant polytene chromosomes of the salivary gland. This genetic regulatory cascade is composed of early and late genes that are intricately coordinated by changes in hormone titer. Early genes encode regulatory proteins that are involved in the proper regulation of late genes, which are thought to play a more direct role in development. The regulation and function of these genes is discussed in the context of the cell- and tissue-specific changes required for the reorganization of a larva to form an adult fly.
",8913033
0,7227,"Genome-wide analysis of genes associated with moderate and high DDT resistance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Moderate to high DDT resistance in generally associated with overexpression of multiple genes and therefore has been considered to be polygenic. However, very little information is available about the molecular mechanisms that insect populations employ when evolving increased levels of resistance. The presence of common regulatory motifs among resistance-associated genes may help to explain how and why certain suites of genes are preferentially represented in genomic-scale analyses. RESULTS: A set of commonly differentially expressed genes associated with DDT resistance in the [START]fruit fly[END] was identified on the basis of genome-wide microarray analysis followed by qRT-PCR verification. More genes were observed to be overtranscribed in the highly resistant strain (91-R) than in the moderately resistant strain (Wisconsin) and susceptible strain (Canton-S). Furthermore, possible transcription factor binding sites that occurred in coexpressed resistance-associated genes were discovered by computational motif discovery methods. CONCLUSION: A glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-like putative transcription factor binding motif (TFBM) was observed to be associated with genes commonly differentially transcribed in both the 91-R and Wisconsin lines of DDT-resistant [START]Drosophila[END].
",23371854
0,7227,"Sexual conflict in wing size and shape in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Intralocus sexual conflict occurs when opposing selection pressures operate on loci expressed in both sexes, constraining the evolution of sexual dimorphism and displacing one or both sexes from their optimum. We eliminated intralocus conflict in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by limiting transmission of all major chromosomes to males, thereby allowing them to win the intersexual tug-of-war. Here, we show that this male-limited (ML) evolution treatment led to the evolution (in both sexes) of masculinized wing morphology, body size, growth rate, wing loading, and allometry. In addition to more male-like size and shape, ML evolution resulted in an increase in developmental stability for males. However, females expressing ML chromosomes were less developmentally stable, suggesting that being ontogenetically more male-like was disruptive to development. We suggest that sexual selection over size and shape of the imago may therefore explain the persistence of substantial genetic variation in these characters and the ontogenetic processes underlying them.
",20695965
0,7227,"Hybrid dysgenesis in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: a new type of gonadal dysgenic sterility expressed at the pre-pupal stage.
Two sublines, B-202 and B-207, which were derived from crosses between Or-R (M) females and Cy/Pm (P) males were found to cause a new type of gonadal dysgenic sterility, designated as the GD-3. GD-3 sterility showed a typical reciprocal cross effect under the P-M system. It was caused at the frequency close to 100% in dysgenic offsprings reared above 25 degrees C, of which gonads were morphologically clearly different from those of usual GD sterility, whereas there was no indication of GD-3 sterility at temperatures below 24 degrees C. Temperature sensitive period of GD-3 sterility was estimated to the prepupal stage by shift-down experiment. In the B-202 subline, the 2nd chromosomes marked with Pm alone carried GD-3 elements. Those of the B-207 subline, however, were estimated to locate both on the 2nd and 3rd chromosomes, acting synergistically with each other.
",1910874
0,7227,"Chemical communication in insects: the peripheral odour coding system of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Animals use their chemosensory systems to detect and discriminate among chemical cues in the environment. Remarkable progress has recently been made in our knowledge of the molecular and cellular basis of chemosensory perception in insects, based largely on studies in the vinegar fly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. This progress has been possible due to the identification of gene families for olfactory receptors, the use of electro-physiological recording techniques on sensory neurons, the manifold of genetic manipulations that are available in this species and insights from several insect model systems. The superfamilies of olfactory receptor proteins, the Or genes and the more recently discovered IR genes, represent the essential elements in olfactory coding, endowing olfactory receptor neurons with their abilities to respond to specific sets of odorants or pheromones. General odorants activate receptors in a combinatorial fashion, but some receptors are narrowly tuned to pheromones or to carbon dioxide. Surprisingly, olfactory receptors in insects are biochemically quite different to those in mammals and do not appear to signal via classical G protein pathways but rather via ionotropic mechanisms. Here we review the past decade of intensive research since the discovery of the first insect olfactory receptors in 1999, focusing on the molecules and cells that underly peripheral olfactory perception in [START]Drosophila[END].
",22399395
0,7227,"Target genes of homeodomain proteins.
Homeodomain proteins are transcription factors that share a related DNA binding domain, the homeodomain. This class of proteins was first recognized in the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] where they cause homeotic transformations such as a fly with four wings instead of two (Lewis EB. A gene complex controlling segmentation in [START]Drosophila[END]. Nature 1978;276:565-570 [Ref. 18]). They are now known to exist in all eukaryotes where they perform important functions during development. Given that homeodomain proteins are transcription factors, they control the expression of downstream genes to regulate development. Which genes are controlled by homeodomain proteins and how many of them are there? This review focuses on a recent paper by Liang and Biggin (Liang Z, Biggin MD. Eve and Ftz regulate a wide array of genes in blastoderm embryos: the selector homeoproteins directly or indirectly regulate most genes in [START]Drosophila[END]. Development 1998; 125:4471-4482 [Ref. 1]), which proposes that the [START]Drosophila[END] homeodomain proteins Even-skipped and Fushi-tarazu directly control the expression of the majority of genes in the [START]Drosophila[END] genome. An alternative view, that most genes are only indirectly affected by homeodomain proteins is also discussed.
",10377888
0,7227,"Analysis of [START]Drosophila[END] nervous system development following an early, brief exposure to ethanol.
The effects of ethanol on neural function and development have been studied extensively, motivated in part by the addictive properties of alcohol and the neurodevelopmental deficits that arise in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Absent from this research area is a genetically tractable system to study the effects of early ethanol exposure on later neurodevelopmental and behavioral phenotypes. Here, we used embryos of the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], as a model system to investigate the neuronal defects that arise after an early exposure to ethanol. We found several disruptions of neural development and morphology following a brief ethanol exposure during embryogenesis and subsequent changes in larval behavior. Altogether, this study establishes a new system to examine the effects of alcohol exposure in embryos and the potential to conduct large-scale genetics screens to uncover novel factors that sensitize or protect neurons to the effects of alcohol.
",31472090
0,7227,"How commensal microbes shape the physiology of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The interactions between animals and their commensal microbes profoundly influence the host's physiology. In the last decade, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been extensively used as a model to study host-commensal microbes interactions. Here, we review the most recent advances in this field. We focus on studies that extend our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of commensal microbes on [START]Drosophila[END]'s development and lifespan. We emphasize how commensal microbes influence nutrition and the intestinal epithelium homeostasis; how they elicit immune tolerance mechanisms and how these physiological processes are interconnected. Finally, we discuss the importance of diets and microbial strains and show how they can be confounding factors of microbe mediated host phenotypes.
",32836177
0,7227,"Drosophotoxicology: An Emerging Research Area for Assessing Nanoparticles Interaction with Living Organisms.
The rapid development of nanotechnology allowed the fabrication of a wide range of different nanomaterials, raising many questions about their safety and potential risks for the human health and environment. Most of the current nanotoxicology research is not standardized, hampering any comparison or reproducibility of the obtained results. Drosophotoxicology encompasses the plethora of methodological approaches addressing the use of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a choice organism in toxicology studies. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] model offers several important advantages, such as a relatively simple genome structure, short lifespan, low maintenance cost, readiness of experimental manipulation comparative to vertebrate models from both ethical and technical points of view, relevant gene homology with higher organisms, and ease of obtaining mutant phenotypes. The molecular pathways, as well as multiple behavioral and developmental parameters, can be evaluated using this model in lower, medium or high throughput type assays, allowing a systematic classification of the toxicity levels of different nanomaterials. The purpose of this paper is to review the current research on the applications of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] model for the in vivo assessment of nanoparticles toxicity and to reveal the huge potential of this model system to provide results that could enable a proper selection of different nanostructures for a certain biomedical application.
",26907252
0,7227,"Combined expression patterns of QTL-linked candidate genes best predict thermotolerance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Knockdown resistance to high temperature (KRHT) is a thermal adaptation trait in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Here we used quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) to test for possible associations between KRHT and the expression of candidate genes within quantitative trait loci (QTL) in eight recombinant inbred lines (RIL). hsp60 and hsc70-3 map within an X-linked QTL, while CG10383, catsup, ddc, trap1, and cyp6a13 are linked in a KRHT-QTL on chromosome 2. hsc70-3 expression increased by heat-hardening. Principal Components analysis revealed that catsup, ddc and trap1 were either co-expressed or combined in their expression levels. This composite expression variable (e-PC1) was positively associated to KRHT in non-hardened RIL. In heat-hardened flies, hsp60 was negatively related to hsc70-3 on e-PC2, with effects on KRHT. These results are consistent with the notion that QTL can be shaped by expression variation in combined candidate loci. We found composite variables of gene expression (e-PCs) that best correlated to KRHT. Network effects with other untested linked loci are apparent because, in spite of their associations with KRHT phenotypes, e-PCs were sometimes uncorrelated with their QTL genotype.
",19651134
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: a model organism for controlling Dipteran vectors and pests.
Beta-carbonic anhydrases (beta-CAs) have been recently reported to be present in many protozoan and metazoan species, whereas it is absent in mammals. In this review, we introduce beta-CA from [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a model enzyme for pesticide development. These enzymes can be targeted with various enzyme inhibitors, which can have deleterious effects on pathogenic and other harmful organisms. Therefore, beta-CAs represent a new potential target to fight against Dipteran vectors and pests relevant to medicine, veterinary medicine, and agriculture. 
",25198895
0,7227,"Analysis of neurotransmitter tissue content of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in different life stages.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is a widely used model organism for studying neurological diseases with similar neurotransmission to mammals. While both larva and adult [START]Drosophila[END] have central nervous systems, not much is known about how neurotransmitter tissue content changes through development. In this study, we quantified tyramine, serotonin, octopamine, and dopamine in larval, pupal, and adult fly brains using capillary electrophoresis coupled to fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Tyramine and octopamine content varied between life stages, with almost no octopamine being present in the pupa, while tyramine levels in the pupa were very high. Adult females had significantly higher dopamine content than males, but no other neurotransmitters were dependent on sex in the adult. Understanding the tissue content of different life stages will be beneficial for future work comparing the effects of diseases on tissue content throughout development.
",25437353
0,7227,"Determination of blastoderm cells in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A method for culturing blastoderm cells of [START]Drosophila[END] in vivo has been developed that allows these cells to differentiate into larval or adult structures. By intermixture of genetically marked cells from bisected and whole embryos, it was shown that blastoderm cells are restricted in their potential for forming adult epidermal structures. Cells isolated from anterior-half embryos are determined for forming head and thoracic structures, whereas cells from posterior-half embryos are determined for forming thoracic and abdominal structures. The specificity of determination and the localization of determinative factors is discussed.
",5002429
0,7227,"Insights from intoxicated [START]Drosophila[END].
Our understanding of alcohol use disorder (AUD), particularly alcohol's effects on the nervous system, has unquestionably benefited from the use of model systems such as [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Here, we briefly introduce the use of flies in alcohol research, and highlight the genetic accessibility and neurobiological contribution that flies have made to our understanding of AUD. Future fly research offers unique opportunities for addressing unresolved questions in the alcohol field, such as the neuromolecular and circuit basis for cravings and alcohol-induced neuroimmune dysfunction. This review strongly advocates for interdisciplinary approaches and translational collaborations with the united goal of confronting the major health problems associated with alcohol abuse and addiction.
",29980341
0,7227,"Modelling the Bicoid gradient.
Morphogen gradients provide embryonic tissues with positional information by inducing target genes at different concentration thresholds and thus at different positions. The Bicoid morphogen gradient in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] embryos has recently been analysed quantitatively, yet how it forms remains a matter of controversy. Several biophysical models that rely on production, diffusion and degradation have been formulated to account for the observed dynamics of the Bicoid gradient, but no one model can account for all its characteristics. Here, we discuss how existing data on this gradient fit the various proposed models and what aspects of gradient formation these models fail to explain. We suggest that knowing a few additional parameters, such as the lifetime of Bicoid, would help to identify and develop better models of Bicoid gradient formation.
",20570935
0,7227,"Natural genetic variation in social environment choice: context-dependent gene-environment correlation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Gene-environment correlation (rGE) occurs when an individual's genotype determines its choice of environment, generating a correlation between environment and genotype frequency. In particular, social rGE, caused by genetic variation in social environment choice, can critically determine both individual development and the course of social selection. Despite its foundational role in social evolution and developmental psychology theory, natural genetic variation in social environment choice has scarcely been examined empirically. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] provides an ideal system for investigating social rGE. Flies live socially in nature and have many opportunities to make social decisions; and natural, heterozygous genotypes may be replicated, enabling comparisons between genotypes across environments. Using this approach, I show that all aspects of social environment choice vary among natural genotypes, demonstrating pervasive social rGE. Surprisingly, genetic variation in group-size preference was density dependent, indicating that the behavioral and evolutionary consequences of rGE may depend on the context in which social decisions are made. These results provide the first detailed investigation of social rGE, and illustrate that that genetic variation may influence organismal performance by specifying the environment in which traits are expressed.
",21790578
0,7227,"Commensal bacteria play a role in mating preference of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Development of mating preference is considered to be an early event in speciation. In this study, mating preference was achieved by dividing a population of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and rearing one part on a molasses medium and the other on a starch medium. When the isolated populations were mixed, ""molasses flies"" preferred to mate with other molasses flies and ""starch flies"" preferred to mate with other starch flies. The mating preference appeared after only one generation and was maintained for at least 37 generations. Antibiotic treatment abolished mating preference, suggesting that the fly microbiota was responsible for the phenomenon. This was confirmed by infection experiments with microbiota obtained from the fly media (before antibiotic treatment) as well as with a mixed culture of Lactobacillus species and a pure culture of Lactobacillus plantarum isolated from starch flies. Analytical data suggest that symbiotic bacteria can influence mating preference by changing the levels of cuticular hydrocarbon sex pheromones. The results are discussed within the framework of the hologenome theory of evolution.
",21041648
0,7227,"Rapid divergence and convergence of life-history in experimentally evolved [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Laboratory selection experiments are alluring in their simplicity, power, and ability to inform us about how evolution works. A longstanding challenge facing evolution experiments with metazoans is that significant generational turnover takes a long time. In this work, we present data from a unique system of experimentally evolved laboratory populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that have experienced three distinct life-history selection regimes. The goal of our study was to determine how quickly populations of a certain selection regime diverge phenotypically from their ancestors, and how quickly they converge with independently derived populations that share a selection regime. Our results indicate that phenotypic divergence from an ancestral population occurs rapidly, within dozens of generations, regardless of that population's evolutionary history. Similarly, populations sharing a selection treatment converge on common phenotypes in this same time frame, regardless of selection pressures those populations may have experienced in the past. These patterns of convergence and divergence emerged much faster than expected, suggesting that intermediate evolutionary history has transient effects in this system. The results we draw from this system are applicable to other experimental evolution projects, and suggest that many relevant questions can be sufficiently tested on shorter timescales than previously thought.
",27431916
0,7227,"The neuroarchitecture of the circadian clock in the brain of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Neuroethologists try to assign behavioral functions to certain brain centers, if possible down to individual neurons and to the expression of specific genes. This approach has been successfully applied for the control of circadian rhythmic behavior in the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Several so-called ""clock genes"" are expressed in specific neurons in the lateral and dorsal brain where they generate cell-autonomous molecular circadian oscillations. These clusters are connected with each other and contribute differentially to the control of behavioral rhythmicity. This report reviews the latest work on characterizing individual circadian pacemaker neurons in the [START]fruit fly[END]'s brain that control activity and pupal eclosion, leading to the questions by which neuronal pathways they are synchronized to the external light-dark cycle, and how they impose periodicity on behavior.
",12966496
0,7227,"Molecular genetics of Drosophila vision.
The fruitfly, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], is an excellent organism for dissecting the components of vision genetically. Many mutations have been generated that affect a diversity of processes important in vision. Through a combined application of molecular and genetic approaches many of the genes important in Drosophila vision are now being identified.
",2511836
0,7227,"Intraspecific competition favours niche width expansion in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Ecologists have proposed that when interspecific competition is reduced, competition within a species becomes a potent evolutionary force leading to rapid diversification. This view reflects the observation that populations invading species-poor communities frequently evolve broader niches. Niche expansion can be associated with an increase in phenotypic variance (known as character release), with the evolution of polymorphisms, or with divergence into many species using distinct resources (adaptive radiation). The relationship between intraspecific competition and diversification is known from theory, and has been used as the foundation for some models of speciation. However, there has been little empirical proof that niches evolve in response to intraspecific competition. To test this hypothesis, I introduced cadmium-intolerant [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations to environments containing both cadmium-free and cadmium-laced resources. Here I show that populations experiencing high competition adapted to cadmium more rapidly than low competition populations. This provides experimental confirmation that competition in a population can drive niche expansion onto new resources for which competition is less severe.
",11260712
0,7227,"Differential effects of genetic vs. environmental quality in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] suggest multiple forms of condition dependence.
Condition is a central concept in evolutionary ecology, but the roles of genetic and environmental quality in condition-dependent trait expression remain poorly understood. Theory suggests that condition integrates genetic, epigenetic and somatic factors, and therefore predicts alignment between the phenotypic effects of genetic and environmental quality. To test this key prediction, we manipulated both genetic (mutational) and environmental (dietary) quality in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and examined responses in morphological and chemical (cuticular hydrocarbon, CHC) traits in both sexes. While the phenotypic effects of diet were consistent among genotypes, effects of mutation load varied in magnitude and direction. Average effects of diet and mutation were aligned for most morphological traits, but non-aligned for the male sexcombs and CHCs in both sexes. Our results suggest the existence of distinct forms of condition dependence, one integrating both genetic and environmental effects and the other purely environmental. We propose a model to account for these observations. 
",25649176
0,7227,"External control of the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] lifespan by combination of 3D oscillating low-frequency electric and magnetic fields.
We demonstrate that the lifespan of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] population is controllable by a combination of external three-dimensional oscillating low-frequency electric and magnetic fields (3D OLFEMFs). The lifespan was decreased or increased in dependence of the parameters of the external 3D OLFEMFs. We propose that metabolic processes in [START]D. melanogaster[END]'s body are either accelerated (in the case of reduced lifespan) or slowed down (in the case of increased lifespan) in function of 3D OLFEMFs that induce vibrational motions on sub-cellular and larger scales.
",23977947
0,7227,"The regulation of organ size in [START]Drosophila[END]: physiology, plasticity, patterning and physical force.
The correct regulation of organ size is a fundamental developmental process, the failure of which can compromise organ function and organismal integrity. Consequently, the mechanisms that regulate organ size have been subject to intense research. This research has highlighted four classes of mechanism that are involved in organ size regulation: physiology, plasticity, patterning and physical force. Nevertheless, how these mechanisms are integrated and converge on the cellular process that regulate organ growth is unknown. One group of animals where this integration is beginning to be achieved is in the insects. Here, I review the different mechanisms that regulate organ size in insects, and describe our current understanding of how these mechanisms interact. The genes and hormones involved are remarkably conserved in all animals, so these studies in insects provide a precedent for future research on organ size regulation in mammals.
",20885854
0,7227,"Cell lines from imaginal discs of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
New cell lines, designated as ML-DmD1-10, were established from dissociated imaginal discs of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. The culture medium was prepared by mixing in a 1:1 ratio Cross and Sang's M3(BF) medium, supplemented with 10% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS), with the supernatant of a primary embryonic cell culture made in the M3(BF) medium and supplementing this mixture with insulin. One cell line was established in the medium containing larval hemolymph instead of the primary culture supernatant, and another was established in fresh M3(BF) medium supplemented with insulin and FBS. In these mediums, imaginal disc cells first formed aggregates and cellular vesicles within a few weeks followed by the proliferation of thin-layered cells around them after about 1 mo. Ten cell lines have so far been established from two kinds of imaginal discs and disc mixtures. The ploidy of these cell lines was predominantly diploid. Population doubling time was about 50 to 70 h at 3 to 10 mo. after initiation of the culture. When the cell aggregates formed in vitro were implanted in metamorphosing larvae, they differentiated at high frequency into adult cuticular structures in the early phase of the primary culture. This differentiation of aggregates was also observed, though at low frequency, in a culture maintained by dilution-transfer for 6 to 15 mo. in vitro.
",3117765
0,7227,"Dissection of oenocytes from adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], as in other insects, a waxy layer on the outer surface of the cuticle, composed primarily of hydrocarbon compounds, provides protection against desiccation and other environmental challenges. Several of these cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) compounds also function as semiochemical signals, and as such mediate pheromonal communications between members of the same species, or in some instances between different species, and influence behavior. Specialized cells referred to as oenocytes are regarded as the primary site for CHC synthesis. However, relatively little is known regarding the involvement of the oenocytes in the regulation of the biosynthetic, transport, and deposition pathways contributing to CHC output. Given the significant role that CHCs play in several aspects of insect biology, including chemical communication, desiccation resistance, and immunity, it is important to gain a greater understanding of the molecular and genetic regulation of CHC production within these specialized cells. The adult oenocytes of [START]D. melanogaster[END] are located within the abdominal integument, and are metamerically arrayed in ribbon-like clusters radiating along the inner cuticular surface of each abdominal segment. In this video article we demonstrate a dissection technique used for the preparation of oenocytes from adult [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Specifically, we provide a detailed step-by-step demonstration of (1) how to fillet prepare an adult [START]Drosophila[END] abdomen, (2) how to identify the oenocytes and discern them from other tissues, and (3) how to remove intact oenocyte clusters from the abdominal integument. A brief experimental illustration of how this preparation can be used to examine the expression of genes involved in hydrocarbon synthesis is included. The dissected preparation demonstrated herein will allow for the detailed molecular and genetic analysis of oenocyte function in the adult [START]fruit fly[END].
",20689503
0,7227,"A rehabilitation of the genetic map of the 84B-D region in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A reanalysis of the 84B3 to 84D3,5 region of the polytene chromosomes of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has led to the identification and localization of 16 genes. These genes include 11 vital loci, four genes exhibiting nonlethal visible mutant phenotypes and one gene encoding a nonessential enzyme. The identity of the gene products of two of the vital genes has been determined to be alpha-tubulin and glucose dehydrogenase (Gld). Three newly identified genes, sticking (stk), half out (hat) and trapped (ted), as well as Gld are required for eclosion. Among the nonessential genes are roughened eye (roe) and ruffed eye (rue), which affect eye texture. The roe phenotype is greatly enhanced by deletions that simultaneously remove roe and an unidentified locus in 84E. Mutations in another nonessential gene, rotund (rn), are characterized by pattern deletions of most adult appendages.
",3095179
0,7227,"Endosymbiont-based immunity in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] against parasitic nematode infection.
Associations between endosymbiotic bacteria and their hosts represent a complex ecosystem within organisms ranging from humans to protozoa. [START]Drosophila[END] species are known to naturally harbor Wolbachia and Spiroplasma endosymbionts, which play a protective role against certain microbial infections. Here, we investigated whether the presence or absence of endosymbionts affects the immune response of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae to infection by Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes carrying or lacking their mutualistic Gram-negative bacteria Xenorhabdus nematophila (symbiotic or axenic nematodes, respectively). We find that the presence of Wolbachia alone or together with Spiroplasma promotes the survival of larvae in response to infection with S. carpocapsae symbiotic nematodes, but not against axenic nematodes. We also find that Wolbachia numbers are reduced in Spiroplasma-free larvae infected with axenic compared to symbiotic nematodes, and they are also reduced in Spiroplasma-containing compared to Spiroplasma-free larvae infected with axenic nematodes. We further show that S. carpocapsae axenic nematode infection induces the Toll pathway in the absence of Wolbachia, and that symbiotic nematode infection leads to increased phenoloxidase activity in [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae devoid of endosymbionts. Finally, infection with either type of nematode alters the metabolic status and the fat body lipid droplet size in [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae containing only Wolbachia or both endosymbionts. Our results suggest an interaction between Wolbachia endosymbionts with the immune response of [START]D. melanogaster[END] against infection with the entomopathogenic nematodes S. carpocapsae. Results from this study indicate a complex interplay between insect hosts, endosymbiotic microbes and pathogenic organisms.
",29466376
0,7227,"Conjugated Linoleic Acid Regulates Body Composition and Locomotor Activity in a Sex-Dependent Manner in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been reported to be a bioactive food component. However, there is limited knowledge on the sex-dependent effects of CLA on energy metabolism. In the present study, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was used to investigate the sex-dependent effects of CLA with respect to body fat, muscle, locomotion, and a key metabolic regulator, AMP-activated protein kinase alpha (AMPKalpha). Adult flies were fed a cornmeal-based fly food with 0.5% of CLA oil (50:50 of cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 CLA isomers in triacylglycerol (TAG) form), 0.5% safflower oil (high in linoleic acid [LNA] as control), or 0.5% water (as blank) for 5 days. Accumulation of CLA in tissue was verified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. CLA-fed flies had reduced TAG and increased locomotor activity when compared to LNA-fed control flies. In addition, CLA increased the muscle content when compared to the blank. Moreover, following CLA supplementation, increased AMPKalpha activity was observed in females, but not in males. These sex-dependent metabolic effects of CLA may be due to physiological differences in lipid metabolism and nutrient requirements. In conclusion, CLA promoted the body composition and locomotion behavior in [START]D. melanogaster[END] and regulated the sex-specific metabolism in part via AMPKalpha. As key physiological processes are conserved between fly and human, information obtained from this research could provide valuable insights into sex-dependent responses to CLA in humans.
",30334268
0,7227,"Aging of the innate immune response in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Increased activation of the innate immune system is a common feature of aging animals, including mammals and [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. With age, [START]D. melanogaster[END] progressively express higher levels of many antimicrobial peptides. It is unknown, however, whether this pattern reflects age-dependent changes in the function of the immune system itself or arises simply because aged adults have greater cumulative exposure to pathogens. Here we demonstrate that aged [START]D. melanogaster[END] transcribe more antimicrobial diptericin when experimentally exposed to septic bacterial infections. This strong net response in older females is the result of persistent diptericin transcription upon septic exposure, whereas young females rapidly terminate this induction. In contrast to their response to septic exposure, when exposed to killed bacteria aged females have less capacity to induce diptericin. Because this functional capacity of innate immunity declines with age, we conclude that female [START]Drosophila[END] undergo immune senescence. Furthermore, we show that fecundity is reduced by induction of innate immunity via the immune deficiency pathway. Consequently, maximum reproduction will occur when the immune response is tightly controlled in young females, even if this increases infection risk at later ages.
",15771614
0,7227,"Genetic variability of the interpulse interval of courtship song among some European populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The interpulse interval of the courtship song of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is a character which may play a significant role in mating success and reproductive isolation. Here we examine the variability of interpulse interval among replicated laboratory strains of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. There is no significant variation among populations of different geographical origin. This suggests that interpulse interval is subject to strong selection, as the populations are known to differ for other characters. One population, however, was sufficiently different to allow a genetic analysis. Reciprocal F1s and backcrosses implied that the variance was predominantly additive and autosomal. Possible sources of selection on interpulse interval are discussed.
",8014057
0,7227,"Longevity for free? Increased reproduction with limited trade-offs in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] selected for increased life span.
Selection for increased life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been shown to correlate with decreased early fecundity and increased fecundity later in life. This phenomenon has been ascribed to the existence of trade-offs in which limited resources can be invested in either somatic maintenance or reproduction. In our longevity selection lines, we did not find such a trade-off. Rather, we find that females have similar or higher fecundity throughout life compared to non-selected controls. To determine whether increased longevity affects responses in other traits, we looked at several stress resistance traits (chill coma recovery, heat knockdown, desiccation and starvation), geotactic behaviour, egg-to-adult viability, body size, developmental time as well as metabolic rate. Longevity selected flies were more starvation resistant. However, in females longevity and fecundity were not negatively correlated with the other traits assayed. Males from longevity selected lines were slower at recovering from a chill induced coma and resting metabolic rate increased with age, but did not correlate with life span.
",23353929
0,7227,"Spectral sensitivity of wild-type and mutant [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae.
Wild-type (Canton-S) [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae are generally repelled by white light. Mutant larval photokinesis A (lphA) larvae are less strongly repelled than controls. Mutant Larval photokinesis B (LphB) larvae are unresponsive to light, as are larvae from LI2, an isofemale line whose progenitors were recently derived from a natural population. To characterize the behavior of larvae from the mutant stocks and the isofemale line more precisely, we determined the range of wavelengths that repel wild-type (Canton-S) [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae and identified wavelengths to which larvae are most sensitive. In comparison to adult flies, Canton-S larvae are much less sensitive to white light and respond to a narrower range of wavelengths. The wavelengths to which Canton-S larvae are maximally sensitive are 500 nm (green), 420 nm (indigo), and 380 nm (ultraviolet). Mutant lphA larvae respond abnormally to green and indigo light but are as strongly repelled by ultraviolet light as controls. In contrast, mutant LphB larvae and larvae from the LI2 isofemale line are unresponsive to green, indigo, or ultraviolet light. Thus, lphA larvae have a wavelength-specific defect, while LphB and LI2 larvae are generally unresponsive to wavelengths that repel wild-type larvae.
",10928215
0,7227,"Large-scale selective sweep among Segregation Distorter chromosomes in African populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Segregation Distorter (SD) is a selfish, coadapted gene complex on chromosome 2 of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that strongly distorts Mendelian transmission; heterozygous SD/SD(+) males sire almost exclusively SD-bearing progeny. Fifty years of genetic, molecular, and theory work have made SD one of the best-characterized meiotic drive systems, but surprisingly the details of its evolutionary origins and population dynamics remain unclear. Earlier analyses suggested that the SD system arose recently in the Mediterranean basin and then spread to a low, stable equilibrium frequency (1-5%) in most natural populations worldwide. In this report, we show, first, that SD chromosomes occur in populations in sub-Saharan Africa, the ancestral range of [START]D. melanogaster[END], at a similarly low frequency (approximately 2%), providing evidence for the robustness of its equilibrium frequency but raising doubts about the Mediterranean-origins hypothesis. Second, our genetic analyses reveal two kinds of SD chromosomes in Africa: inversion-free SD chromosomes with little or no transmission advantage; and an African-endemic inversion-bearing SD chromosome, SD-Mal, with a perfect transmission advantage. Third, our population genetic analyses show that SD-Mal chromosomes swept across the African continent very recently, causing linkage disequilibrium and an absence of variability over 39% of the length of the second chromosome. Thus, despite a seemingly stable equilibrium frequency, SD chromosomes continue to evolve, to compete with one another, or evade suppressors in the genome.
",19412335
0,7227,"Care and feeding of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The information provided here should allow you to begin working with [START]Drosophila[END]. Mine your colleagues for alternative approaches, improvements, and refinements and develop your own. If you find a new and better way to do any aspect of fly work, take the time to share it with your colleagues through bionet.[START]drosophila[END] or DIN.
",7707948
0,7227,"Deleterious mutations show increasing negative effects with age in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: In order for aging to evolve in response to a declining strength of selection with age, a genetic architecture that allows for mutations with age-specific effects on organismal performance is required. Our understanding of how selective effects of individual mutations are distributed across ages is however poor. Established evolutionary theories assume that mutations causing aging have negative late-life effects, coupled to either positive or neutral effects early in life. New theory now suggests evolution of aging may also result from deleterious mutations with increasing negative effects with age, a possibility that has not yet been empirically explored. RESULTS: To directly test how the effects of deleterious mutations are distributed across ages, we separately measure age-specific effects on fecundity for each of 20 mutations in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. We find that deleterious mutations in general have a negative effect that increases with age and that the rate of increase depends on how deleterious a mutation is early in life. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that aging does not exclusively depend on genetic variants assumed by the established evolutionary theories of aging. Instead, aging can result from deleterious mutations with negative effects that amplify with age. If increasing negative effect with age is a general property of deleterious mutations, the proportion of mutations with the capacity to contribute towards aging may be considerably larger than previously believed.
",32993647
0,7227,"Alternative measures of response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Studies of invertebrate immune defence often measure genetic variation either for the fitness cost of infection or for the ability of the host to clear the parasite. These studies assume that variation in measures of resistance is related to variation in fitness costs of infection. To test this assumption, we infected strains of the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], with a pathogenic bacterium. We then measured the correlation between host bacterial load and the ability to survive infection. Despite the presence of genotypic variation for both traits, bacterial load and survival post-infection were not correlated. Our results support previous arguments that individual measures of immune function and the host's ability to survive infection may be decoupled. In light of these results, we suggest that the difference between tolerance and resistance to infection, a distinction commonly found in the plant literature, may also be of value in studies of invertebrate immunity.
",17305818
0,7227,"Locomotor performance of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: interactions among developmental and adult temperatures, age, and geography.
We explored the extent to which a phenotypic trait (walking speed) of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is influenced by population, developmental temperature, adult temperature, and age. Our goals were to estimate the importance of these factors and to test the beneficial acclimation hypothesis. We measured speed of flies from two populations (the Congo and France) that developed at different temperatures (18, 25, and 29 degrees C) and were tested at different temperatures (18, 25, and 29 degrees C) and ages (2, 7, 13 days). Not surprisingly, speed increased strongly with test temperature. Speed was generally greatest for flies reared at an intermediate developmental temperature, contrary to the beneficial acclimation hypothesis, which predicts that speed would be greatest when influenced by interactions involving population. For example, speed was greatest for flies from France that developed at a low temperature, but for flies from the Congo that developed at a high temperature. The impact of developmental temperature declined with age. Surprisingly, speed actually increased with age for flies raised and maintained at a low temperature, but decreased with age for flies raised and maintained at an intermediate or at a high temperature. Thus, walking performance is highly dynamic phenotypically, complicating potential attempts to predict responses to selection on performance.
",11263741
0,7227,"Physiological Maturation Lags Behind Behavioral Maturation in Newly Eclosed [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Males.
The accessory gland (AG) produces seminal fluid proteins that are transferred to the female upon mating in many insects. These seminal fluid proteins often promote a male's post-copulatory reproductive success. Despite its crucial function many males eclose with a small gland not yet containing the full set of proteins. Thus, they need a physiological maturation period. Using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], we tested whether this physiological maturation is linked to behavioral maturation in males and to what extent seminal fluid allocation patterns are influenced by physiological maturation. To that end, we measured AG protein content (as a proxy for physiological maturation) of young, immature males that were either successful in gaining a mating, but prevented from transferring seminal fluid proteins, or unsuccessful, thus using mating success as a proxy for behavioral maturation. Furthermore, we compared ejaculate allocation in immature and mature males in a single mating. Though mating success and gland maturation increase with male age, we found no evidence for a fine-tuned synchronization of behavioral and physiological maturation in males. This is especially surprising since we found reduced ejaculate allocation in very young, immature males, hinting at reduced fitness benefits from early matings in [START]D. melanogaster[END].
",30588207
0,7227,"The digestive tract of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The digestive tract plays a central role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients. Far from being a passive tube, it provides the first line of defense against pathogens and maintains energy homeostasis by exchanging neuronal and endocrine signals with other organs. Historically neglected, the gut of the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has recently come to the forefront of [START]Drosophila[END] research. Areas as diverse as stem cell biology, neurobiology, metabolism, and immunity are benefitting from the ability to study the genetics of development, growth regulation, and physiology in the same organ. In this review, we summarize our knowledge of the [START]Drosophila[END] digestive tract, with an emphasis on the adult midgut and its functional underpinnings. 
",24016187
0,7227,"Incipient speciation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] involves chemical signals.
The sensory and genetic bases of incipient speciation between strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] from Zimbabwe and those from elsewhere are unknown. We studied mating behaviour between eight strains - six from Zimbabwe, together with two cosmopolitan strains. The Zimbabwe strains showed significant sexual isolation when paired with cosmopolitan males, due to Zimbabwe females discriminating against these males. Our results show that flies' cuticular hydrocarbons (CHs) were involved in this sexual isolation, but that visual and acoustic signals were not. The mating frequency of Zimbabwe females was highly significantly negatively correlated with the male's relative amount of 7-tricosene (%7-T), while the mating of cosmopolitan females was positively correlated with %7-T. Variation in transcription levels of two hydrocarbon-determining genes, desat1 and desat2, did not correlate with the observed mating patterns. Our study represents a step forward in our understanding of the sensory processes involved in this classic case of incipient speciation.
",22355738
0,7227,"Transcriptional effects of a positive feedback circuit in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Synthetic systems that use positive feedback have been developed to control human disease vectors and crop pests. The tTAV system, which has been deployed in several insect species, relies on a positive feedback circuit that can be inhibited via dietary tetracycline. Although insects carrying tTAV fail to survive until adulthood in the absence of tetracycline, the exact reason for its lethality, as well as the transcriptomic effects of an active positive feedback circuit, remain unknown. RESULTS: We engineered the tTAV system in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and investigated the effects of tTAV genome integration locus on the whole fly transcriptome during larval and adult life stages in four transgenic fly strains using gene expression microarrays. We found that while there were widespread effects on the transcriptome, the gene expression differences after removal of tetracycline were not consistent between integration sites. No specific region of the genome was affected, no common set of genes or pathways, nor did the integration site affect the transcripts in cis. CONCLUSION: Although the positive feedback tTAV system is effective at killing insect larvae regardless of where it is inserted in the genome, it does not exhibit a specific, consistent transcriptional signature. Instead, each insertion site is associated with broad, but different, transcriptional effects. Our results suggest that lethality may not be caused by a direct effect on transcription of a set of key genes or pathways. Instead, we propose that rather than a specific action of a tTAV protein, it is the stochastic transcriptional effects specific to each insertion site that contribute to the tTAV-induced mortality.
",29281970
0,7227,"Visuomotor control: [START]Drosophila[END] bridges the gap.
[START]Fruit flies[END] with genetic lesions disrupting the structure of a brain region known as the protocerebral bridge fail to aim their movements correctly when crossing gaps, implicating this central brain neuropile in the visual control of goal-directed behaviour.
",20392418
0,7227,"The indole alkaloid tryptamine impairs reproduction in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The plant-produced indole alkaloid tryptamine is one of a large array of neuroactive substances that may affect insect behavior, development, and physiology. We tested the role of tryptamine on insect reproduction using the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] (Meigen), as a model system. Measurements were made of reproductive success, oviposition rate, and preadult survival of insects on artificial diets containing tryptamine, its precursor tryptophan, as well as glycine and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). [START]Drosophila[END] reproduction was reduced to 15% of controls when adult insects mated and the young were allowed to develop on medium containing 75 mM tryptamine. Tryptamine-induced depression in reproductive success was due to decreased oviposition rate and preadult survival. Serotonin, but not tryptophan or glycine, also reduced oviposition rate. Preference tests indicated that tryptamine may act as an antiattractant or antifeedant in this species. The accumulation of the indole alkaloid tryptamine in plants may provide a mechanism for reducing insect reproduction, which is potentially useful in protecting crop plants.
",9725032
0,7227,"The east gene of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is expressed in the developing embryonic nervous system and is required for normal olfactory and gustatory responses of the adult.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae and adults respond to a wide range of chemosensory stimuli. We describe the genetics and developmental expression of the east gene, mutations which result in adult-specific chemosensory defects. The original isolate of east is semidominant for the behavioral phenotype. Several mutations have been generated, some of which are recessive lethals and others that are viable alleles that show a recessive, adult-specific, chemosensory defect. No larval chemosensory defects were observed. The east gene is expressed in the neurogenic region at the time of neuroblast segregation and in cells in the peripheral and central nervous system. Our results suggest that east+ expression in the nervous system is required for a normal adult chemosensory response and both increases and decreases in levels of the gene product result in a mutant phenotype.
",1426631
0,7227,"Measuring the fitness benefits of male mate choice in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
It is increasingly realized that the potential for male mate choice is widespread across many taxa. However, measurements of the relative magnitude of the fitness benefits that such choice can confer are lacking. Here, we directly measured, in a comprehensive set of tests that manipulated key variables, the fitness benefits of male mate choice in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by measuring egg production in females that were chosen or rejected by males. The results provided significant evidence for male mate choice. In absolute terms, the observed degree of choice increased male fitness by an average of only 1.59 eggs. However, using a novel technique we show that this benefit of choice represented 14.5% of the maximum potential fitness benefit of choice. The magnitude of mate choice was not significantly altered by variation in (1) mate compatibility, (2) phenotypic plasticity in male mate choice, or (3) whether choosing males were preferred or nonpreferred by females. Overall, we show that male mate choice represents a subtle but significant opportunity for sexual selection, and we offer a novel and widely applicable method for quantifying mate choice.
",22834761
0,7227,"Neuronal homeostasis through translational control.
Translational repression is a key component of the mechanism that establishes segment polarity during early embryonic development in the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Two proteins, Pumilio (Pum) and Nanos, block the translation of hunchback messenger RNA in only the posterior segments, thereby promoting an abdominal fate. More recent studies focusing on postembryonic neuronal function have shown that Pum is also integral to numerous mechanisms that allow neurons to adapt to the changing requirements placed on them in a dynamic nervous system. These mechanisms include those contributing to dendritic structure, synaptic growth, neuronal excitability, and formation of long-term memory. This article describes these new studies and highlights the role of translational repression in regulation of neuronal processes that compensate for change.
",16215276
0,7227,"Reproductive fitness of [START]Drosophila[END] is maximised by optimal developmental temperature.
Whether the character of developmental plasticity is adaptive or non-adaptive has often been a matter of controversy. Although thermal developmental plasticity has been studied in [START]Drosophila[END] for several traits, it is not entirely clear how it affects reproductive fitness. We, therefore, investigated how developmental temperature affects reproductive performance (early fecundity and egg-to-adult viability) of wild-caught [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] We tested competing hypotheses on the character of developmental thermal plasticity using a full-factorial design with three developmental and adulthood temperatures within the natural thermal range of this species. To account for potential intraspecific differences, we examined flies from tropical (India) and temperate (Slovakia) climate zones. Our results show that flies from both populations raised at an intermediate developmental temperature (25 C) have comparable or higher early fecundity and fertility at all tested adulthood temperatures, while lower (17 C) or higher developmental temperatures (29 C) did not entail any advantage under the tested thermal regimes. Importantly, the superior thermal performance of flies raised at 25 C is apparent even after taking two traits positively associated with reproductive output into account: body size and ovariole number. Thus, in [START]D. melanogaster[END], development at a given temperature does not necessarily provide any advantage in this thermal environment in terms of reproductive fitness. Our findings strongly support the optimal developmental temperature hypothesis, which states that in different thermal environments, the highest fitness is achieved when an organism is raised at its optimal developmental temperature.
",31064855
0,7227,"The morphogenesis of spermathecae and spermathecal glands in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Sperm storage in female insects is important for reproductive success and sperm competition. In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] females, sperm viability during storage is dependent upon secretions produced by spermathecae and parovaria. Class III dermal glands are present in both structures. Spermathecal glands are initially comprised of a three-cell unit that is refined to a single secretory cell in the adult. It encapsulates an end-apparatus joining to a cuticular duct passing secretions to the spermathecal lumen. We have examined spermatheca morphogenesis using DIC and fluorescence microscopy. In agreement with a recent study, cell division ceases by 36 h after puparium formation (APF). Immunostaining of the plasma membrane at this stage demonstrates that gland cells wrap around the developing end-apparatus and each other. By 48-60 h APF, the secretory cell exhibits characteristic adult morphology of an enlarged nucleus and extracellular reservoir. A novel finding is the presence of an extracellular reservoir in the basal support cell that is continuous with the secretory cell reservoir. Some indication of early spermathecal gland formation is evident in the division of enlarged cells lying adjacent to the spermathecal lumen at 18 h APF and in cellular processes that bind clusters of cells between 24 and 30 h APF.
",23872109