label,species,text,pmid
1,7399,"Subdivisions of [START]hymenopteran[END] mushroom body calyces by their afferent supply.
The mushroom bodies are regions in the insect brain involved in processing complex multimodal information. They are composed of many parallel sets of intrinsic neurons that receive input from and transfer output to extrinsic neurons that connect the mushroom bodies with the surrounding neuropils. Mushroom bodies are particularly large in social [START]Hymenoptera[END] and are thought to be involved in the control of conspicuous orientation, learning, and memory capabilities of these insects. The present account compares the organization of sensory input to the mushroom body's calyx in different [START]Hymenoptera[END]. Tracer and conventional neuronal staining procedures reveal the following anatomic characteristics: The calyx comprises three subdivisions, the lip, collar, and basal ring. The lip receives antennal lobe afferents, and these olfactory input neurons can terminate in two or more segregated zones within the lip. The collar receives visual afferents that are bilateral with equal representation of both eyes in each calyx. Visual inputs provide two to three layers of processes in the collar subdivision. The basal ring is subdivided into two modality-specific zones, one receiving visual, the other antennal lobe input. Some overlap of modality exists between calycal subdivisions and within the basal ring, and the degree of segregation of sensory input within the calyx is species-specific. The data suggest that the many parallel channels of intrinsic neurons may each process different aspects of sensory input information.
",11406827
1,50557,"Ground plan of the [START]insect[END] mushroom body: functional and evolutionary implications.
In most [START]insects[END] with olfactory glomeruli, each side of the brain possesses a mushroom body equipped with calyces supplied by olfactory projection neurons. Kenyon cells providing dendrites to the calyces supply a pedunculus and lobes divided into subdivisions supplying outputs to other brain areas. It is with reference to these components that most functional studies are interpreted. However, mushroom body structures are diverse, adapted to different ecologies, and likely to serve various functions. In [START]insects[END] whose derived life styles preclude the detection of airborne odorants, there is a loss of the antennal lobes and attenuation or loss of the calyces. Such taxa retain mushroom body lobes that are as elaborate as those of mushroom bodies equipped with calyces. Antennal lobe loss and calycal regression also typify taxa with short nonfeeding adults, in which olfaction is redundant. Examples are cicadas and mayflies, the latter representing the most basal lineage of winged [START]insects[END]. Mushroom bodies of another basal taxon, the Odonata, possess a remnant calyx that may reflect the visual ecology of this group. That mushroom bodies persist in brains of secondarily anosmic [START]insects[END] suggests that they play roles in higher functions other than olfaction. Mushroom bodies are not ubiquitous: the most basal living [START]insects[END], the wingless Archaeognatha, possess glomerular antennal lobes but lack mushroom bodies, suggesting that the ability to process airborne odorants preceded the acquisition of mushroom bodies. Archaeognathan brains are like those of higher malacostracans, which lack mushroom bodies but have elaborate olfactory centers laterally in the brain.
",19152379
1,85823,"Multimodal efferent and recurrent neurons in the medial lobes of [START]cockroach[END] mushroom bodies.
Previous electrophysiological studies of [START]cockroach[END] mushroom bodies demonstrated the sensitivity of efferent neurons to multimodal stimuli. The present account describes the morphology and physiology of several types of efferent neurons with dendrites in the medial lobes. In general, efferent neurons respond to a variety of modalities in a context-specific manner, responding to specific combinations or specific sequences of multimodal stimuli. Efferent neurons that show endogenous activity have dendritic specializations that extend to laminae of Kenyon cell axons equipped with many synaptic vesicles, termed ""dark"" laminae. Efferent neurons that are active only during stimulation have dendritic specializations that branch mainly among Kenyon cell axons having few vesicles and forming the ""pale"" laminae. A new category of ""recurrent"" efferent neuron has been identified that provides feedback or feedforward connections between different parts of the mushroom body. Some of these neurons are immunopositive to antibodies raised against the inhibitory transmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Feedback pathways to the calyces arise from satellite neuropils adjacent to the medial lobes, which receive axon collaterals of efferent neurons. Efferent neurons are uniquely identifiable. Each morphological type occurs at the same location in the mushroom bodies of different individuals. Medial lobe efferent neurons terminate in the lateral protocerebrum among the endings of antennal lobe projection neurons. It is suggested that information about the sensory context of olfactory (or other) stimuli is relayed by efferent neurons to the lateral protocerebrum where it is integrated with information about odors relayed by antennal lobe projection neurons.
",10376745
1,50557,"What [START]insects[END] can tell us about the origins of consciousness.
How, why, and when consciousness evolved remain hotly debated topics. Addressing these issues requires considering the distribution of consciousness across the animal phylogenetic tree. Here we propose that at least one invertebrate clade, the [START]insects[END], has a capacity for the most basic aspect of consciousness: subjective experience. In vertebrates the capacity for subjective experience is supported by integrated structures in the midbrain that create a neural simulation of the state of the mobile animal in space. This integrated and egocentric representation of the world from the animal's perspective is sufficient for subjective experience. Structures in the [START]insect[END] brain perform analogous functions. Therefore, we argue the [START]insect[END] brain also supports a capacity for subjective experience. In both vertebrates and [START]insects[END] this form of behavioral control system evolved as an efficient solution to basic problems of sensory reafference and true navigation. The brain structures that support subjective experience in vertebrates and [START]insects[END] are very different from each other, but in both cases they are basal to each clade. Hence we propose the origins of subjective experience can be traced to the Cambrian.
",27091981
1,50557,"Evolution of complex higher brain centers and behaviors: behavioral correlates of mushroom body elaboration in [START]insects[END].
Large, complex higher brain centers have evolved many times independently within the vertebrates, but the selective pressures driving these acquisitions have been difficult to pinpoint. It is well established that sensory brain centers become larger and more structurally complex to accommodate processing of a particularly important sensory modality. When higher brain centers such as the cerebral cortex become greatly expanded in a particular lineage, it is likely to support the coordination and execution of more complex behaviors, such as those that require flexibility, learning, and social interaction, in response to selective pressures that made these new behaviors advantageous. Vertebrate studies have established a link between complex behaviors, particularly those associated with sociality, and evolutionary expansions of telencephalic higher brain centers. Enlarged higher brain centers have convergently evolved in groups such as the [START]insects[END], in which multimodal integration and learning and memory centers called the mushroom bodies have become greatly elaborated in at least four independent lineages. Is it possible that similar selective pressures acting on equivalent behavioral outputs drove the evolution of large higher brain centers in all bilaterians? Sociality has greatly impacted brain evolution in vertebrates such as primates, but it has not been a major driver of higher brain center enlargement in [START]insects[END]. However, feeding behaviors requiring flexibility and learning are associated with large higher brain centers in both phyla. Selection for the ability to support behavioral flexibility appears to be a common thread underlying the evolution of large higher brain centers, but the precise nature of these computations and behaviors may vary.
",23979452
1,50557,"The neurobiology of [START]insect[END] olfaction: sensory processing in a comparative context.
The simplicity and accessibility of the olfactory systems of [START]insects[END] underlie a body of research essential to understanding not only olfactory function but also general principles of sensory processing. As [START]insect[END] olfactory neurobiology takes advantage of a variety of species separated by millions of years of evolution, the field naturally has yielded some conflicting results. Far from impeding progress, the varieties of [START]insect[END] olfactory systems reflect the various natural histories, adaptations to specific environments, and the roles olfaction plays in the life of the species studied. We review current findings in [START]insect[END] olfactory neurobiology, with special attention to differences among species. We begin by describing the olfactory environments and olfactory-based behaviors of [START]insects[END], as these form the context in which neurobiological findings are interpreted. Next, we review recent work describing changes in olfactory systems as adaptations to new environments or behaviors promoting speciation. We proceed to discuss variations on the basic anatomy of the antennal (olfactory) lobe of the brain and higher-order olfactory centers. Finally, we describe features of olfactory information processing including gain control, transformation between input and output by operations such as broadening and sharpening of tuning curves, the role of spiking synchrony in the antennal lobe, and the encoding of temporal features of encounters with an odor plume. In each section, we draw connections between particular features of the olfactory neurobiology of a species and the animal's life history. We propose that this perspective is beneficial for [START]insect[END] olfactory neurobiology in particular and sensory neurobiology in general.
",21963552
1,50557,"Tritocerebral tract input to the [START]insect[END] mushroom bodies.
[START]Insect[END] mushroom bodies, best known for their role in olfactory processing, also receive sensory input from other modalities. In crickets and grasshoppers, a tritocerebral tract containing afferents from palp mechanosensory and gustatory centers innervates the accessory calyx. The accessory calyx is uniquely composed of Class III Kenyon cells, and was shown by immunohistochemistry to be present sporadically across several [START]insect[END] orders. Neuronal tracers applied to the source of tritocerebral tract axons in several species of [START]insects[END] demonstrated that tritocerebral tract innervation of the mushroom bodies targeted the accessory calyx when present, the primary calyces when an accessory calyx was not present, or both. These results suggest that tritocerebral tract input to the mushroom bodies is likely ubiquitous, reflecting the importance of gustation for [START]insect[END] behavior. The scattered phylogenetic distribution of Class III Kenyon cells is also proposed to represent an example of generative homology, in which the developmental program for forming a structure is retained in all members of a lineage, but the program is not ""run"" in all branches.
",18590832
1,50557,"Organization and functional roles of the central complex in the [START]insect[END] brain.
The central complex is a group of modular neuropils across the midline of the [START]insect[END] brain. Hallmarks of its anatomical organization are discrete layers, an organization into arrays of 16 slices along the right-left axis, and precise inter-hemispheric connections via chiasmata. The central complex is connected most prominently with the adjacent lateral complex and the superior protocerebrum. Its developmental appearance corresponds with the appearance of compound eyes and walking legs. Distinct dopaminergic neurons control various forms of arousal. Electrophysiological studies provide evidence for roles in polarized light vision, sky compass orientation, and integration of spatial information for locomotor control. Behavioral studies on mutant and transgenic flies indicate roles in spatial representation of visual cues, spatial visual memory, directional control of walking and flight, and place learning. The data suggest that spatial azimuthal directions (i.e., where) are represented in the slices, and cue information (i.e., what) are represented in different layers of the central complex. 
",24160424
1,7003,"Functional analysis of a higher olfactory center, the lateral horn.
The lateral horn (LH) of the insect brain is thought to play several important roles in olfaction, including maintaining the sparseness of responses to odors by means of feedforward inhibition, and encoding preferences for innately meaningful odors. Yet relatively little is known of the structure and function of LH neurons (LHNs), making it difficult to evaluate these ideas. Here we surveyed >250 LHNs in [START]locusts[END] using intracellular recordings to characterize their responses to sensory stimuli, dye-fills to characterize their morphologies, and immunostaining to characterize their neurotransmitters. We found a great diversity of LHNs, suggesting this area may play multiple roles. Yet, surprisingly, we found no evidence to support a role for these neurons in the feedforward inhibition proposed to mediate olfactory response sparsening; instead, it appears that another mechanism, feedback inhibition from the giant GABAergic neuron, serves this function. Further, all LHNs we observed responded to all odors we tested, making it unlikely these LHNs serve as labeled lines mediating specific behavioral responses to specific odors. Our results rather point to three other possible roles of LHNs: extracting general stimulus features such as odor intensity; mediating bilateral integration of sensory information; and integrating multimodal sensory stimuli.
",22699895
1,50557,"Development and evolution of the [START]insect[END] mushroom bodies: towards the understanding of conserved developmental mechanisms in a higher brain center.
The [START]insect[END] mushroom bodies are prominent higher order neuropils consisting of thousands of approximately parallel projecting intrinsic neurons arising from the minute basophilic perikarya of globuli cells. Early studies described these structures as centers for intelligence and other higher functions; at present, the mushroom bodies are regarded as important models for the neural basis of learning and memory. The [START]insect[END] mushroom bodies share a similar general morphology, and the same basic sequence of developmental events is observed across a wide range of [START]insect[END] taxa. Globuli cell progenitors arise in the embryo and proliferate throughout the greater part of juvenile development. Discrete morphological and functional subpopulations of globuli cells (or Kenyon cells, as they are called in [START]insects[END]) are sequentially produced at distinct periods of development. Kenyon cell somata are arranged by age around the center of proliferation, as are their processes in the mushroom body neuropil. Other aspects of mushroom body development are more variable from species to species, such as the origin of specific Kenyon cell populations and neuropil substructures, as well as the timing and pace of the general developmental sequence.
",18088997
1,7460,"Modality-specific segregation of input to ant mushroom bodies.
The mushroom bodies are central brain neuropils involved in the control of complex behavior. In ants, the mushroom bodies are relatively large compared to those of [START]honey bees[END], whereas the optic lobes of ants are considerably smaller. The general morphology of ant mushroom bodies is similar to that of [START]honey bees[END]. As in other Hymenoptera, the main input region of the mushroom bodies, the calyx, is subdivided into three compartments: the lip, the collar, and the basal ring. In many ant species this compartmentalization is not obvious and can only be visualized using neuronal tracers. The lip region receives antennal input and is large in all ant species. It appears to be composed of at least two different regions that have not yet been characterized in detail. The collar is large in other Hymenoptera, yet in ant workers it varies in size and is always much smaller than the lip region. The collar receives visual input and is relatively larger in males, which generally are more dependant on vision than are workers. The basal ring receives input from both the optic and antennal lobes. In one ant tribe, the Ponerini, the collar region appears to have changed its position, but based on afferent input it appears to be homologous to the hymenopteran collar. Generally, the composition of the mushroom body calyx correlates with the living conditions of ants, reflecting the great importance of olfaction and the lesser and more variable significance of vision for workers of the observed ant species.
",10529521
1,36668,"Modality-specific segregation of input to [START]ant[END] mushroom bodies.
The mushroom bodies are central brain neuropils involved in the control of complex behavior. In [START]ants[END], the mushroom bodies are relatively large compared to those of honey bees, whereas the optic lobes of [START]ants[END] are considerably smaller. The general morphology of [START]ant[END] mushroom bodies is similar to that of honey bees. As in other Hymenoptera, the main input region of the mushroom bodies, the calyx, is subdivided into three compartments: the lip, the collar, and the basal ring. In many [START]ant[END] species this compartmentalization is not obvious and can only be visualized using neuronal tracers. The lip region receives antennal input and is large in all [START]ant[END] species. It appears to be composed of at least two different regions that have not yet been characterized in detail. The collar is large in other Hymenoptera, yet in [START]ant[END] workers it varies in size and is always much smaller than the lip region. The collar receives visual input and is relatively larger in males, which generally are more dependant on vision than are workers. The basal ring receives input from both the optic and antennal lobes. In one [START]ant[END] tribe, the Ponerini, the collar region appears to have changed its position, but based on afferent input it appears to be homologous to the hymenopteran collar. Generally, the composition of the mushroom body calyx correlates with the living conditions of [START]ants[END], reflecting the great importance of olfaction and the lesser and more variable significance of vision for workers of the observed [START]ant[END] species.
",10529521
1,7399,"Modality-specific segregation of input to ant mushroom bodies.
The mushroom bodies are central brain neuropils involved in the control of complex behavior. In ants, the mushroom bodies are relatively large compared to those of honey bees, whereas the optic lobes of ants are considerably smaller. The general morphology of ant mushroom bodies is similar to that of honey bees. As in other [START]Hymenoptera[END], the main input region of the mushroom bodies, the calyx, is subdivided into three compartments: the lip, the collar, and the basal ring. In many ant species this compartmentalization is not obvious and can only be visualized using neuronal tracers. The lip region receives antennal input and is large in all ant species. It appears to be composed of at least two different regions that have not yet been characterized in detail. The collar is large in other [START]Hymenoptera[END], yet in ant workers it varies in size and is always much smaller than the lip region. The collar receives visual input and is relatively larger in males, which generally are more dependant on vision than are workers. The basal ring receives input from both the optic and antennal lobes. In one ant tribe, the Ponerini, the collar region appears to have changed its position, but based on afferent input it appears to be homologous to the hymenopteran collar. Generally, the composition of the mushroom body calyx correlates with the living conditions of ants, reflecting the great importance of olfaction and the lesser and more variable significance of vision for workers of the observed ant species.
",10529521
1,7460,"Multimodal interactions in insect navigation.
Animals travelling through the world receive input from multiple sensory modalities that could be important for the guidance of their journeys. Given the availability of a rich array of cues, from idiothetic information to input from sky compasses and visual information through to olfactory and other cues (e.g. gustatory, magnetic, anemotactic or thermal) it is no surprise to see multimodality in most aspects of navigation. In this review, we present the current knowledge of multimodal cue use during orientation and navigation in insects. Multimodal cue use is adapted to a species' sensory ecology and shapes navigation behaviour both during the learning of environmental cues and when performing complex foraging journeys. The simultaneous use of multiple cues is beneficial because it provides redundant navigational information, and in general, multimodality increases robustness, accuracy and overall foraging success. We use examples from sensorimotor behaviours in mosquitoes and flies as well as from large scale navigation in ants, [START]bees[END] and insects that migrate seasonally over large distances, asking at each stage how multiple cues are combined behaviourally and what insects gain from using different modalities.
",32323027
1,36668,"Multimodal interactions in insect navigation.
Animals travelling through the world receive input from multiple sensory modalities that could be important for the guidance of their journeys. Given the availability of a rich array of cues, from idiothetic information to input from sky compasses and visual information through to olfactory and other cues (e.g. gustatory, magnetic, anemotactic or thermal) it is no surprise to see multimodality in most aspects of navigation. In this review, we present the current knowledge of multimodal cue use during orientation and navigation in insects. Multimodal cue use is adapted to a species' sensory ecology and shapes navigation behaviour both during the learning of environmental cues and when performing complex foraging journeys. The simultaneous use of multiple cues is beneficial because it provides redundant navigational information, and in general, multimodality increases robustness, accuracy and overall foraging success. We use examples from sensorimotor behaviours in mosquitoes and flies as well as from large scale navigation in [START]ants[END], bees and insects that migrate seasonally over large distances, asking at each stage how multiple cues are combined behaviourally and what insects gain from using different modalities.
",32323027
1,68878,"Multimodal interactions in insect navigation.
Animals travelling through the world receive input from multiple sensory modalities that could be important for the guidance of their journeys. Given the availability of a rich array of cues, from idiothetic information to input from sky compasses and visual information through to olfactory and other cues (e.g. gustatory, magnetic, anemotactic or thermal) it is no surprise to see multimodality in most aspects of navigation. In this review, we present the current knowledge of multimodal cue use during orientation and navigation in insects. Multimodal cue use is adapted to a species' sensory ecology and shapes navigation behaviour both during the learning of environmental cues and when performing complex foraging journeys. The simultaneous use of multiple cues is beneficial because it provides redundant navigational information, and in general, multimodality increases robustness, accuracy and overall foraging success. We use examples from sensorimotor behaviours in [START]mosquitoes[END] and flies as well as from large scale navigation in ants, bees and insects that migrate seasonally over large distances, asking at each stage how multiple cues are combined behaviourally and what insects gain from using different modalities.
",32323027
1,7147,"Multimodal interactions in insect navigation.
Animals travelling through the world receive input from multiple sensory modalities that could be important for the guidance of their journeys. Given the availability of a rich array of cues, from idiothetic information to input from sky compasses and visual information through to olfactory and other cues (e.g. gustatory, magnetic, anemotactic or thermal) it is no surprise to see multimodality in most aspects of navigation. In this review, we present the current knowledge of multimodal cue use during orientation and navigation in insects. Multimodal cue use is adapted to a species' sensory ecology and shapes navigation behaviour both during the learning of environmental cues and when performing complex foraging journeys. The simultaneous use of multiple cues is beneficial because it provides redundant navigational information, and in general, multimodality increases robustness, accuracy and overall foraging success. We use examples from sensorimotor behaviours in mosquitoes and [START]flies[END] as well as from large scale navigation in ants, bees and insects that migrate seasonally over large distances, asking at each stage how multiple cues are combined behaviourally and what insects gain from using different modalities.
",32323027
1,7460,"Multimodal Information Processing and Associative Learning in the Insect Brain.
The study of sensory systems in insects has a long-spanning history of almost an entire century. Olfaction, vision, and gustation are thoroughly researched in several robust insect models and new discoveries are made every day on the more elusive thermo- and mechano-sensory systems. Few specialized senses such as hygro- and magneto-reception are also identified in some insects. In light of recent advancements in the scientific investigation of insect behavior, it is not only important to study sensory modalities individually, but also as a combination of multimodal inputs. This is of particular significance, as a combinatorial approach to study sensory behaviors mimics the real-time environment of an insect with a wide spectrum of information available to it. As a fascinating field that is recently gaining new insight, multimodal integration in insects serves as a fundamental basis to understand complex insect behaviors including, but not limited to navigation, foraging, learning, and memory. In this review, we have summarized various studies that investigated sensory integration across modalities, with emphasis on three insect models ([START]honeybees[END], ants and flies), their behaviors, and the corresponding neuronal underpinnings.
",35447774
1,36668,"Multimodal Information Processing and Associative Learning in the Insect Brain.
The study of sensory systems in insects has a long-spanning history of almost an entire century. Olfaction, vision, and gustation are thoroughly researched in several robust insect models and new discoveries are made every day on the more elusive thermo- and mechano-sensory systems. Few specialized senses such as hygro- and magneto-reception are also identified in some insects. In light of recent advancements in the scientific investigation of insect behavior, it is not only important to study sensory modalities individually, but also as a combination of multimodal inputs. This is of particular significance, as a combinatorial approach to study sensory behaviors mimics the real-time environment of an insect with a wide spectrum of information available to it. As a fascinating field that is recently gaining new insight, multimodal integration in insects serves as a fundamental basis to understand complex insect behaviors including, but not limited to navigation, foraging, learning, and memory. In this review, we have summarized various studies that investigated sensory integration across modalities, with emphasis on three insect models (honeybees, [START]ants[END] and flies), their behaviors, and the corresponding neuronal underpinnings.
",35447774
1,7147,"Multimodal Information Processing and Associative Learning in the Insect Brain.
The study of sensory systems in insects has a long-spanning history of almost an entire century. Olfaction, vision, and gustation are thoroughly researched in several robust insect models and new discoveries are made every day on the more elusive thermo- and mechano-sensory systems. Few specialized senses such as hygro- and magneto-reception are also identified in some insects. In light of recent advancements in the scientific investigation of insect behavior, it is not only important to study sensory modalities individually, but also as a combination of multimodal inputs. This is of particular significance, as a combinatorial approach to study sensory behaviors mimics the real-time environment of an insect with a wide spectrum of information available to it. As a fascinating field that is recently gaining new insight, multimodal integration in insects serves as a fundamental basis to understand complex insect behaviors including, but not limited to navigation, foraging, learning, and memory. In this review, we have summarized various studies that investigated sensory integration across modalities, with emphasis on three insect models (honeybees, ants and [START]flies[END]), their behaviors, and the corresponding neuronal underpinnings.
",35447774
1,85823,"Development of laminar organization in the mushroom bodies of the [START]cockroach[END]: Kenyon cell proliferation, outgrowth, and maturation.
The mushroom bodies of the insect brain are lobed integration centers made up of tens of thousands of parallel-projecting axons of intrinsic (Kenyon) cells. Most of the axons in the medial and vertical lobes of adult [START]cockroach[END] mushroom bodies derive from class I Kenyon cells and are organized into regular, alternating pairs (doublets) of pale and dark laminae. Organization of Kenyon cell axons into the adult pattern of laminae occurs gradually over the course of nymphal development. Newly hatched nymphs possess tiny mushroom bodies with lobes containing a posterior lamina of ingrowing axons, followed by a single doublet, which is flanked anteriorly by a gamma layer composed of class II Kenyon cells. Golgi impregnations show that throughout nymphal development, regardless of the number of doublets present, the most posterior lamina serves as the ""ingrowth lamina"" for axons of newborn Kenyon cells. Axons of the ingrowth lamina are taurine- and synaptotagmin-immunonegative. They produce fine growth cone tipped filaments and long perpendicularly oriented collaterals along their length. The maturation of these Kenyon cells and the formation of a new lamina are marked by the loss of filaments and collaterals, as well as the onset of taurine and synaptotagmin expression. Class I Kenyon cells thus show plasticity in both morphology and transmitter expression during development. In a hemimetabolous insect such as the [START]cockroach[END], juvenile stages are morphologically and behaviorally similar to the adult. The mushroom bodies of these insects must be functional from hatching onward, while thousands of new neurons are added to the existing structure. The observed developmental plasticity may serve as a mechanism by which extensive postembryonic development of the mushroom bodies can occur without disrupting function. This contrasts with the more evolutionarily derived holometabolous insects, such as the honey bee and the fruit fly, in which nervous system development is accomplished in a behaviorally simple larval stage and a quiescent pupal stage.
",11596058
1,7460,"Integrative properties of the Pe1 neuron, a unique mushroom body output neuron.
A mushroom body extrinsic neuron, the Pe1 neuron, connects the peduncle of the mushroom body (MB) with two areas of the protocerebrum in the [START]honeybee[END] brain, the lateral protocerebral lobe (LPL) and the ring neuropil around the alpha-lobe. Each side of the bee brain contains only one Pe1 neuron. Using a combination of intracellular recording and neuroanatomical techniques we analyzed its properties of integrative processing of the different sensory modalities. The Pe1 neuron responds to visual, mechanosensory, and olfactory stimuli. The responses are broadly tuned, consisting of a sustained increase of spike frequency to the onset and offset of light flashes, to horizontal and vertical movements of extended objects, to mechanical stimuli applied to the antennae or mouth parts, and to all olfactory stimuli tested (29 chemicals). These multisensory properties are reflected in its dendritic organization. Serial reconstructions of intracellularly stained Pe1 neurons using confocal microscopy reveal that the Pe1 neuron arborizes throughout all layers of MB peduncle with finger-like, vertically oriented dendrites. The peduncle of the MB is formed by the axons of Kenyon cells, whose dendritic inputs are organized in modality-specific subcompartments of the calyx region. The peduncular arborization indicates that the Pe1 neuron receives input from Kenyon cells of all calycal subcompartments. Because the Pe1 neuron changes its odor responses transiently as a consequence of olfactory learning, we hypothesize that the multimodal response properties might have a role in memory consolidation and help to establish contextual references in the long-term trace.
",10454378
1,6978,"Organization of olfactory and multimodal afferent neurons supplying the calyx and pedunculus of the cockroach mushroom bodies.
The mushroom bodies of neopteran insects are considered to be higher olfactory centers because their calyces receive abundant collaterals of projection neurons from the antennal lobes. However, intracellular recordings of mushroom body efferent neurons demonstrate that they respond to multimodal stimuli, implying that the mushroom bodies receive a variety of sensory cues. The present account describes new features of the organization of afferent neurons supplying the calyces of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Afferent terminals segment the calyces into discrete zones, I, II, III, and IIIA, which receive afferents from 1) two discrete populations of sexually isomorphic olfactory glomeruli, 2) two types of male-specific olfactory glomeruli, 3) the optic lobes, and 4) multimodal interneurons that originate in protocerebral neuropils. In addition, intracellular recordings and dye fills show that at least four morphologically distinct GABAergic elements link many regions of the protocerebrum to the calyces. A new type of touch-sensitive centrifugal neuron has been identified terminating in the pedunculus. The dendrites of this afferent reside in satellite neuropil, beneath the mushroom body's medial lobe, which is supplied by collaterals from medial lobe efferent neurons and by terminals from the central complex. The role of this centrifugal cell in odorant sampling is considered. Golgi impregnation identifies other afferents in proximal regions of the calyx (zone IIIA) that also originate from satellite neuropils, suggesting major reafference from the medial lobes channeled through this region. The relevance of multimodal supply to the calyx in odorant discrimination is discussed as are comparisons between mushroom body organization in this phylogenetically basal neopteran and other taxa.
",10376743
1,6978,"Visual and olfactory input segregation in the mushroom body calyces in a basal neopteran, the [START]American cockroach[END].
The cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] is an evolutionary basal neopteran insect, equipped with one of the largest and most elaborate mushroom bodies among insects. Using intracellular recording and staining in the protocerebrum, we discovered two new types of neurons that receive direct input from the optic lobe in addition to the neuron previously reported. These neurons have dendritic processes in the optic lobe, projection sites in the optic tracts, and send axonal terminals almost exclusively to the innermost layer of the MB calyces (input site of MB). Their responses were excitatory to visual but inhibitory to olfactory stimuli, and weak excitation occurred in response to mechanosensory stimuli to cerci. In contrast, interneurons with dendrites mainly in the antennal lobe projection sites send axon terminals to the middle to outer layers of the calyces. These were excited by various olfactory stimuli and mechanosensory stimuli to the antenna. These results suggest that there is general modality-specific terminal segregation in the MB calyces and that this is an early event in insect evolution. Possible postsynaptic and presynaptic elements of these neurons are discussed.
",22001372
1,6978,"Morphology and sensory modality of mushroom body extrinsic neurons in the brain of the cockroach, [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Mushroom bodies are paired centers in insect brains that are thought to be crucial in olfactory learning and memory. Early neuroanatomical descriptions suggested that the mushroom bodies comprise rather simple arrangements of nerve cells. Intrinsic neurons within each mushroom body were believed to receive olfactory afferents and to supply long, branched axons to extrinsic neurons that lead from the mushroom body into the protocerebrum. More recent suggestions that the mushroom bodies integrate several sensory modalities find support from intracellular and extracellular recordings of extrinsic neurons in the brains of crickets, honey bees, and cockroaches. Here, we describe two major classes of extrinsic neurons, simple and complex cells, in the mushroom bodies of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Each class is defined by its pattern of branching in the brain. Simple neurons correspond to extrinsic neurons described from other species that have one set of dendrites only within the mushroom bodies. Complex extrinsic neurons possess dendrite-like branches within and outside the mushroom bodies. This arrangement may account in part for their observed multimodality, as might newly identified afferent neurons that terminate in the mushroom body lobes among the dendrites of extrinsic neurons and that respond to multimodal stimuli. Organizational complexity within the mushroom bodies is suggested by the grouping of intrinsic cell axons into discrete laminae. These are intersected by the block-like arrangements of dendritic fields of extrinsic neurons in a manner reminiscent of Purkinje cell dendrites intersecting parallel fibers in the cerebellum. The present results demonstrate that the cockroach mushroom body processes multimodal sensory information and that its neural arrangements contribute to a precise architecture consisting of discrete longitudinal and transverse subdivisions.
",9373016
1,7460,"Morphology and sensory modality of mushroom body extrinsic neurons in the brain of the cockroach, Periplaneta americana.
Mushroom bodies are paired centers in insect brains that are thought to be crucial in olfactory learning and memory. Early neuroanatomical descriptions suggested that the mushroom bodies comprise rather simple arrangements of nerve cells. Intrinsic neurons within each mushroom body were believed to receive olfactory afferents and to supply long, branched axons to extrinsic neurons that lead from the mushroom body into the protocerebrum. More recent suggestions that the mushroom bodies integrate several sensory modalities find support from intracellular and extracellular recordings of extrinsic neurons in the brains of crickets, [START]honey bees[END], and cockroaches. Here, we describe two major classes of extrinsic neurons, simple and complex cells, in the mushroom bodies of the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Each class is defined by its pattern of branching in the brain. Simple neurons correspond to extrinsic neurons described from other species that have one set of dendrites only within the mushroom bodies. Complex extrinsic neurons possess dendrite-like branches within and outside the mushroom bodies. This arrangement may account in part for their observed multimodality, as might newly identified afferent neurons that terminate in the mushroom body lobes among the dendrites of extrinsic neurons and that respond to multimodal stimuli. Organizational complexity within the mushroom bodies is suggested by the grouping of intrinsic cell axons into discrete laminae. These are intersected by the block-like arrangements of dendritic fields of extrinsic neurons in a manner reminiscent of Purkinje cell dendrites intersecting parallel fibers in the cerebellum. The present results demonstrate that the cockroach mushroom body processes multimodal sensory information and that its neural arrangements contribute to a precise architecture consisting of discrete longitudinal and transverse subdivisions.
",9373016
1,7010,"Widespread sensitivity to looming stimuli and small moving objects in the central complex of an insect brain.
In many situations animals are confronted with approaching objects. Depending on whether the approach represents a potential threat or is intended during a goal-oriented approach, the adequate behavioral strategies differ. In all of these cases the visual system experiences an expanding or looming shape. The neuronal machinery mediating looming elicited behavioral responses has been studied most comprehensively in insects but is still far from being fully understood. It is particularly unknown how insects adjust their behavior to objects approaching from different directions. A brain structure that is thought to play an important role in spatial orientation in insects is the central complex (CC). We investigated whether CC neurons process information about approaching objects on a collision course. We recorded intracellularly from CC neurons in the locust [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] during visual stimulation via lateral LCD screens. Many neurons in the locust CC, including columnar and tangential neurons, were sensitive to looming stimuli. Some of the neurons also responded to small moving targets. Several cell types showed binocular responses to looming objects, and some neurons were excited or inhibited depending on which eye was stimulated. These neurons may, therefore, detect the gross azimuthal direction of approaching objects and may mediate directional components of escape or steering movements.
",23658153
1,7010,"Neurons of the central complex of the locust [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] are sensitive to polarized light.
The central complex is a topographically ordered neuropil structure in the center of the insect brain. It consists of three major subdivisions, the upper and lower divisions of the central body and the protocerebral bridge. To further characterize the role of this brain structure, we have recorded the responses of identified neurons of the central complex of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] to visual stimuli. We report that particular types of central complex interneurons are sensitive to polarized light. Neurons showed tonic responses to linearly polarized light with spike discharge frequencies depending on e-vector orientation. For all neurons tested, e-vector response curves showed polarization opponency. Receptive fields of the recorded neurons were in the dorsal field of view with some neurons receiving input from both compound eyes and others, only from the ipsilateral eye. In addition to responses to polarized light, certain neurons showed tonic spike discharges to unpolarized light. Most polarization-sensitive neurons were associated with the lower division of the central body, but one type of neuron with arborizations in the upper division of the central body was also polarization-sensitive. Visual pathways signaling polarized light information to the central complex include projections via the anterior optic tubercle. Considering the receptive fields of the neurons and the biological significance of polarized light in insects, the central complex might serve a function in sky compass-mediated spatial navigation of the animals.
",11826140
1,7227,"The wiring diagram of a glomerular olfactory system.
The sense of smell enables animals to react to long-distance cues according to learned and innate valences. Here, we have mapped with electron microscopy the complete wiring diagram of the [START]Drosophila[END] larval antennal lobe, an olfactory neuropil similar to the vertebrate olfactory bulb. We found a canonical circuit with uniglomerular projection neurons (uPNs) relaying gain-controlled ORN activity to the mushroom body and the lateral horn. A second, parallel circuit with multiglomerular projection neurons (mPNs) and hierarchically connected local neurons (LNs) selectively integrates multiple ORN signals already at the first synapse. LN-LN synaptic connections putatively implement a bistable gain control mechanism that either computes odor saliency through panglomerular inhibition, or allows some glomeruli to respond to faint aversive odors in the presence of strong appetitive odors. This complete wiring diagram will support experimental and theoretical studies towards bridging the gap between circuits and behavior.
",27177418
1,7227,"The connectome of the adult [START]Drosophila[END] mushroom body provides insights into function.
Making inferences about the computations performed by neuronal circuits from synapse-level connectivity maps is an emerging opportunity in neuroscience. The mushroom body (MB) is well positioned for developing and testing such an approach due to its conserved neuronal architecture, recently completed dense connectome, and extensive prior experimental studies of its roles in learning, memory, and activity regulation. Here, we identify new components of the MB circuit in [START]Drosophila[END], including extensive visual input and MB output neurons (MBONs) with direct connections to descending neurons. We find unexpected structure in sensory inputs, in the transfer of information about different sensory modalities to MBONs, and in the modulation of that transfer by dopaminergic neurons (DANs). We provide insights into the circuitry used to integrate MB outputs, connectivity between the MB and the central complex and inputs to DANs, including feedback from MBONs. Our results provide a foundation for further theoretical and experimental work.
",33315010
1,7227,"Neuroarchitecture and neuroanatomy of the [START]Drosophila[END] central complex: A GAL4-based dissection of protocerebral bridge neurons and circuits.
Insects exhibit an elaborate repertoire of behaviors in response to environmental stimuli. The central complex plays a key role in combining various modalities of sensory information with an insect's internal state and past experience to select appropriate responses. Progress has been made in understanding the broad spectrum of outputs from the central complex neuropils and circuits involved in numerous behaviors. Many resident neurons have also been identified. However, the specific roles of these intricate structures and the functional connections between them remain largely obscure. Significant gains rely on obtaining a comprehensive catalog of the neurons and associated GAL4 lines that arborize within these brain regions, and on mapping neuronal pathways connecting these structures. To this end, small populations of neurons in the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] central complex were stochastically labeled using the multicolor flip-out technique and a catalog was created of the neurons, their morphologies, trajectories, relative arrangements, and corresponding GAL4 lines. This report focuses on one structure of the central complex, the protocerebral bridge, and identifies just 17 morphologically distinct cell types that arborize in this structure. This work also provides new insights into the anatomical structure of the four components of the central complex and its accessory neuropils. Most strikingly, we found that the protocerebral bridge contains 18 glomeruli, not 16, as previously believed. Revised wiring diagrams that take into account this updated architectural design are presented. This updated map of the [START]Drosophila[END] central complex will facilitate a deeper behavioral and physiological dissection of this sophisticated set of structures.
",25380328
1,7227,"How does the insect central complex use mushroom body output for steering?
Research on central brain areas in [START]Drosophila[END] and other insects is revealing the highly conserved neural circuitries in the central complex that are responsible for course control using visual, ideothetic and compass cues [1,2], and in the mushroom bodies that hold long-term visual and olfactory memories [3,4]. Interactions between these areas are likely to be particularly important for navigation in which long-term memories determine an insect's course. Many ants, for example, use long-term visual memories for guidance along routes between their nest and food sites. But the interactions remain a puzzle: both because there are no known direct connections between mushroom body and central complex, and because the output from the mushroom body, where the route memories are probably stored [5], may simply signal whether a sensory input is attractive or aversive [4]. Extrapolating from a recent behavioural finding [6], we propose one way that the long-term memories in the mushroom body may be transformed into central complex steering commands. This answer, if correct, may reconcile two apparently conflicting ways of thinking about route following - suggesting how steering along a route can use a feedback controller based on a few prominent features [7], while the route memories themselves are holistic memories of the entire panorama [5]. It also suggests how visual navigation is related to (and possibly evolved from) visual targeting and olfactory-based guidance.
",29990452
1,7227,"Neurogenetic dissection of the [START]Drosophila[END] lateral horn reveals major outputs, diverse behavioural functions, and interactions with the mushroom body.
Animals exhibit innate behaviours to a variety of sensory stimuli including olfactory cues. In [START]Drosophila[END], one higher olfactory centre, the lateral horn (LH), is implicated in innate behaviour. However, our structural and functional understanding of the LH is scant, in large part due to a lack of sparse neurogenetic tools for this region. We generate a collection of split-GAL4 driver lines providing genetic access to 82 LH cell types. We use these to create an anatomical and neurotransmitter map of the LH and link this to EM connectomics data. We find ~30% of LH projections converge with outputs from the mushroom body, site of olfactory learning and memory. Using optogenetic activation, we identify LH cell types that drive changes in valence behavior or specific locomotor programs. In summary, we have generated a resource for manipulating and mapping LH neurons, providing new insights into the circuit basis of innate and learned olfactory behavior.
",31112130
1,7227,"Complete Connectomic Reconstruction of Olfactory Projection Neurons in the Fly Brain.
Nervous systems contain sensory neurons, local neurons, projection neurons, and motor neurons. To understand how these building blocks form whole circuits, we must distil these broad classes into neuronal cell types and describe their network connectivity. Using an electron micrograph dataset for an entire [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] brain, we reconstruct the first complete inventory of olfactory projections connecting the antennal lobe, the insect analog of the mammalian olfactory bulb, to higher-order brain regions in an adult animal brain. We then connect this inventory to extant data in the literature, providing synaptic-resolution ""holotypes"" both for heavily investigated and previously unknown cell types. Projection neurons are approximately twice as numerous as reported by light level studies; cell types are stereotyped, but not identical, in cell and synapse numbers between brain hemispheres. The lateral horn, the insect analog of the mammalian cortical amygdala, is the main target for this olfactory information and has been shown to guide innate behavior. Here, we find new connectivity motifs, including axo-axonic connectivity between projection neurons, feedback, and lateral inhibition of these axons by a large population of neurons, and the convergence of different inputs, including non-olfactory inputs and memory-related feedback onto third-order olfactory neurons. These features are less prominent in the mushroom body calyx, the insect analog of the mammalian piriform cortex and a center for associative memory. Our work provides a complete neuroanatomical platform for future studies of the adult [START]Drosophila[END] olfactory system.
",32619485
1,7227,"Functional and anatomical specificity in a higher olfactory centre.
Most sensory systems are organized into parallel neuronal pathways that process distinct aspects of incoming stimuli. In the insect olfactory system, second order projection neurons target both the mushroom body, required for learning, and the lateral horn (LH), proposed to mediate innate olfactory behavior. Mushroom body neurons form a sparse olfactory population code, which is not stereotyped across animals. In contrast, odor coding in the LH remains poorly understood. We combine genetic driver lines, anatomical and functional criteria to show that the [START]Drosophila[END] LH has ~1400 neurons and >165 cell types. Genetically labeled LHNs have stereotyped odor responses across animals and on average respond to three times more odors than single projection neurons. LHNs are better odor categorizers than projection neurons, likely due to stereotyped pooling of related inputs. Our results reveal some of the principles by which a higher processing area can extract innate behavioral significance from sensory stimuli.
",31112127
1,7385,"The central complex of the flesh fly, [START]Neobellieria bullata[END]: recordings and morphologies of protocerebral inputs and small-field neurons.
The central complex in the brains of insects is a series of midline neuropils involved in motor control, sensory integration, and associative learning. To understand better the role of this center and its supply of sensory information, intracellular recordings and dye fills were made of central complex neurons in the fly, [START]Neobellieria bullata[END]. Recordings were obtained from 24 neurons associated with the ellipsoid body, fan-shaped body, and protocerebral bridge, all of which receive both visual and mechanosensory information from protocerebral centers. One neuron with dendrites in an area of the lateral protocerebrum associated with motion-sensitive outputs from the optic lobes invades the entire protocerebral bridge and was driven by visual motion. Inputs to the fan-shaped body and ellipsoid body responded both to visual stimuli and to air puffs directed at the head and abdomen. Intrinsic neurons in both of these structures respond to changes in illumination. A putative output neuron connecting the protocerebral bridge, the fan-shaped body, and one of the lateral accessory lobes showed opponent responses to moving visual stimuli. These recordings identify neurons with response properties previously known only from extracellular recordings in other species. Dye injections into neurons connecting the central complex with areas of the protocerebrum suggest that some classes of inputs into the central complex are electrically coupled.
",22528883
1,7460,"Parallel Processing of Olfactory and Mechanosensory Information in the [START]Honey Bee[END] Antennal Lobe.
In insects, neuronal responses to clean air have so far been reported only episodically in moths. Here we present results obtained by fast two-photon calcium imaging in the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END], indicating a substantial involvement of the antennal lobe, the first olfactory neuropil, in the processing of mechanical stimuli. Clean air pulses generate a complex pattern of glomerular activation that provides a code for stimulus intensity and dynamics with a similar level of stereotypy as observed for the olfactory code. Overlapping the air pulses with odor stimuli reveals a superposition of mechanosensory and odor response codes with high contrast. On the mechanosensitive signal, modulations were observed in the same frequency regime as the oscillatory motion of the antennae, suggesting a possible way to detect odorless airflow directions. The transduction of mechanosensory information via the insect antennae has so far been attributed primarily to Johnston's organ in the pedicel of the antenna. The possibility that the antennal lobe activation by clean air originates from Johnston's organ could be ruled out, as the signal is suppressed by covering the surfaces of the otherwise freely moving and bending antennae, which should leave Johnston's organ unaffected. The tuning curves of individual glomeruli indicate increased sensitivity at low-frequency mechanical oscillations as produced by the abdominal motion in waggle dance communication, suggesting a further potential function of this mechanosensory code. The discovery that the olfactory system can sense both odors and mechanical stimuli has recently been made also in mammals. The results presented here give hope that studies on insects can make a fundamental contribution to the cross-taxa understanding of this dual function, as only a few thousand neurons are involved in their brains, all of which are accessible by in vivo optical imaging.
",34950059
1,7460,"Representation of the calyces in the medial and vertical lobes of cockroach mushroom bodies.
Previous studies of [START]honey bee[END] and cockroach mushroom bodies have proposed that afferent terminals and intrinsic neurons (Kenyon cells) in the calyces are arranged according to polar coordinates. It has been suggested that there is a transformation by Kenyon cell axons of the polar arrangements of their dendrites in the calyces to laminar arrangements of their terminals in the lobes. Findings presented here show that cellular organization in the calyx of an evolutionarily basal neopteran, Periplaneta americana, is instead rectilinear, as it is in the lobes. It is shown that each calyx is divided into two halves (hemicalyces), each supplied by its own set of Kenyon cells. Each calyx is separately represented in the medial lobe where the dendritic trees of some efferent neurons receive inputs from one calyx only. Kenyon cell dendrites are arranged as narrow elongated fields, organized as rows in each hemicalyx. Dendritic fields arise from 14 to 16 sheets of Kenyon cell axons stacked on top of each other lining the inner surface of the calyx cup. A sheet consists of approximately 60 small bundles, each containing 5-15 axons that converge from the rim of the calyx to its neck. Each sheet contributes to a pair oflaminae, one dark one pale, called a doublet, that extends through the mushroom body. Dark laminae contain Kenyon cell axons packed with synaptic vesicles. Axons in pale laminae are sparsely equipped with vesicles. By analogy with photoreceptors, and with reference to field potential recordings, it is speculated that dark laminae are continuously active, being modulated by odor stimuli, whereas pale laminae are intermittently activated. Timm's silver staining and immunocytology reveal a second type of longitudinal division of the lobes. Five layers extend through the pedunculus and lobes, each composed of subsets of doublets. Four layers represent zones of afferent endings in the calyces. A fifth (the y layer) represents a specific type of Kenyon cell. It is concluded that the mushroom bodies comprise two independent modular systems, doublets and layers. Developmental studies show that new doublets are added at each instar to layers that are already present early in second instar nymphs. There are profound similarities between the mushroom bodies of Periplaneta, an evolutionarily basal taxon, and those of Drosophila melanogaster and the [START]honey bee[END].
",10376744
1,6978,"Representation of the calyces in the medial and vertical lobes of cockroach mushroom bodies.
Previous studies of honey bee and cockroach mushroom bodies have proposed that afferent terminals and intrinsic neurons (Kenyon cells) in the calyces are arranged according to polar coordinates. It has been suggested that there is a transformation by Kenyon cell axons of the polar arrangements of their dendrites in the calyces to laminar arrangements of their terminals in the lobes. Findings presented here show that cellular organization in the calyx of an evolutionarily basal neopteran, [START]Periplaneta americana[END], is instead rectilinear, as it is in the lobes. It is shown that each calyx is divided into two halves (hemicalyces), each supplied by its own set of Kenyon cells. Each calyx is separately represented in the medial lobe where the dendritic trees of some efferent neurons receive inputs from one calyx only. Kenyon cell dendrites are arranged as narrow elongated fields, organized as rows in each hemicalyx. Dendritic fields arise from 14 to 16 sheets of Kenyon cell axons stacked on top of each other lining the inner surface of the calyx cup. A sheet consists of approximately 60 small bundles, each containing 5-15 axons that converge from the rim of the calyx to its neck. Each sheet contributes to a pair oflaminae, one dark one pale, called a doublet, that extends through the mushroom body. Dark laminae contain Kenyon cell axons packed with synaptic vesicles. Axons in pale laminae are sparsely equipped with vesicles. By analogy with photoreceptors, and with reference to field potential recordings, it is speculated that dark laminae are continuously active, being modulated by odor stimuli, whereas pale laminae are intermittently activated. Timm's silver staining and immunocytology reveal a second type of longitudinal division of the lobes. Five layers extend through the pedunculus and lobes, each composed of subsets of doublets. Four layers represent zones of afferent endings in the calyces. A fifth (the y layer) represents a specific type of Kenyon cell. It is concluded that the mushroom bodies comprise two independent modular systems, doublets and layers. Developmental studies show that new doublets are added at each instar to layers that are already present early in second instar nymphs. There are profound similarities between the mushroom bodies of [START]Periplaneta[END], an evolutionarily basal taxon, and those of Drosophila melanogaster and the honey bee.
",10376744
1,7227,"Representation of the calyces in the medial and vertical lobes of cockroach mushroom bodies.
Previous studies of honey bee and cockroach mushroom bodies have proposed that afferent terminals and intrinsic neurons (Kenyon cells) in the calyces are arranged according to polar coordinates. It has been suggested that there is a transformation by Kenyon cell axons of the polar arrangements of their dendrites in the calyces to laminar arrangements of their terminals in the lobes. Findings presented here show that cellular organization in the calyx of an evolutionarily basal neopteran, Periplaneta americana, is instead rectilinear, as it is in the lobes. It is shown that each calyx is divided into two halves (hemicalyces), each supplied by its own set of Kenyon cells. Each calyx is separately represented in the medial lobe where the dendritic trees of some efferent neurons receive inputs from one calyx only. Kenyon cell dendrites are arranged as narrow elongated fields, organized as rows in each hemicalyx. Dendritic fields arise from 14 to 16 sheets of Kenyon cell axons stacked on top of each other lining the inner surface of the calyx cup. A sheet consists of approximately 60 small bundles, each containing 5-15 axons that converge from the rim of the calyx to its neck. Each sheet contributes to a pair oflaminae, one dark one pale, called a doublet, that extends through the mushroom body. Dark laminae contain Kenyon cell axons packed with synaptic vesicles. Axons in pale laminae are sparsely equipped with vesicles. By analogy with photoreceptors, and with reference to field potential recordings, it is speculated that dark laminae are continuously active, being modulated by odor stimuli, whereas pale laminae are intermittently activated. Timm's silver staining and immunocytology reveal a second type of longitudinal division of the lobes. Five layers extend through the pedunculus and lobes, each composed of subsets of doublets. Four layers represent zones of afferent endings in the calyces. A fifth (the y layer) represents a specific type of Kenyon cell. It is concluded that the mushroom bodies comprise two independent modular systems, doublets and layers. Developmental studies show that new doublets are added at each instar to layers that are already present early in second instar nymphs. There are profound similarities between the mushroom bodies of Periplaneta, an evolutionarily basal taxon, and those of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and the honey bee.
",10376744
1,7460,"Multimodal integration and stimulus categorization in putative mushroom body output neurons of the [START]honeybee[END].
Flowers attract pollinating insects like [START]honeybees[END] by sophisticated compositions of olfactory and visual cues. Using [START]honeybees[END] as a model to study olfactory-visual integration at the neuronal level, we focused on mushroom body (MB) output neurons (MBON). From a neuronal circuit perspective, MBONs represent a prominent level of sensory-modality convergence in the insect brain. We established an experimental design allowing electrophysiological characterization of olfactory, visual, as well as olfactory-visual induced activation of individual MBONs. Despite the obvious convergence of olfactory and visual pathways in the MB, we found numerous unimodal MBONs. However, a substantial proportion of MBONs (32%) responded to both modalities and thus integrated olfactory-visual information across MB input layers. In these neurons, representation of the olfactory-visual compound was significantly increased compared with that of single components, suggesting an additive, but nonlinear integration. Population analyses of olfactory-visual MBONs revealed three categories: (i) olfactory, (ii) visual and (iii) olfactory-visual compound stimuli. Interestingly, no significant differentiation was apparent regarding different stimulus qualities within these categories. We conclude that encoding of stimulus quality within a modality is largely completed at the level of MB input, and information at the MB output is integrated across modalities to efficiently categorize sensory information for downstream behavioural decision processing.
",29515886
1,7460,"Different Roles for [START]Honey Bee[END] Mushroom Bodies and Central Complex in Visual Learning of Colored Lights in an Aversive Conditioning Assay.
The [START]honey bee[END] is an excellent visual learner, but we know little about how and why it performs so well, or how visual information is learned by the bee brain. Here we examined the different roles of two key integrative regions of the brain in visual learning: the mushroom bodies and the central complex. We tested [START]bees[END]' learning performance in a new assay of color learning that used electric shock as punishment. In this assay a light field was paired with electric shock. The other half of the conditioning chamber was illuminated with light of a different wavelength and not paired with shocks. The unrestrained bee could run away from the light stimulus and thereby associate one wavelength with punishment, and the other with safety. We compared learning performance of [START]bees[END] in which either the central complex or mushroom bodies had been transiently inactivated by microinjection of the reversible anesthetic procaine. Control [START]bees[END] learned to escape the shock-paired light field and to spend more time in the safe light field after a few trials. When ventral lobe neurons of the mushroom bodies were silenced, [START]bees[END] were no longer able to associate one light field with shock. By contrast, silencing of one collar region of the mushroom body calyx did not alter behavior in the learning assay in comparison to control treatment. [START]Bees[END] with silenced central complex neurons did not leave the shock-paired light field in the middle trials of training, even after a few seconds of being shocked. We discussed how mushroom bodies and the central complex both contribute to aversive visual learning with an operant component.
",28611605
1,28641,"[START]Bumble bees[END] display cross-modal object recognition between visual and tactile senses.
Many animals can associate object shapes with incentives. However, such behavior is possible without storing images of shapes in memory that are accessible to more than one sensory modality. One way to explore whether there are modality-independent internal representations of object shapes is to investigate cross-modal recognition-experiencing an object in one sensory modality and later recognizing it in another. We show that [START]bumble bees[END] trained to discriminate two differently shaped objects (cubes and spheres) using only touch (in darkness) or vision (in light, but barred from touching the objects) could subsequently discriminate those same objects using only the other sensory information. Our experiments demonstrate that [START]bumble bees[END] possess the ability to integrate sensory information in a way that requires modality-independent internal representations.
",32079771
1,7055,"Structural, functional and developmental convergence of the insect mushroom bodies with higher brain centers of vertebrates.
Convergence of higher processing centers has been proposed for insects and vertebrates, but the extent of these similarities remains controversial. The present study demonstrates that one higher brain center of insects, the mushroom bodies, displays a number of similarities with mammalian higher brain centers that are arguably the products of adaptation to common behavioral ecologies, despite their deeply divergent origins. Quantitative neuroanatomy, immunohistochemistry, fluorescent tract tracing and BrdU labeling are employed to investigate the relationships among behavioral ecology and mushroom body size, sensory input and mode of development in one taxon, the [START]scarab beetles[END] (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Comparisons are extended to a taxon in which similar mushroom body architectures have arisen independently, the cockroaches (Dictyoptera), and to published accounts of vertebrate brain evolution. This study demonstrates that evolutionary increases in higher brain center size and intrinsic neuron number are associated with flexibility in food acquisition behaviors in both vertebrates and insects. These evolutionarily expanded higher brain centers are divided into novel structural subcompartments that acquire novel processing functions. Increased numbers of neurons comprising enlarged higher brain centers are generated by expanded neural precursor pools, and the time for development of these brain centers is protracted. Taken together, these findings extend our understanding of how evolutionarily constrained neural substrates might converge under shared adaptive landscapes, even after 600 million years of divergence, and even at the level of higher brain centers that generate complex behaviors.
",18560208
1,6970,"Structural, functional and developmental convergence of the insect mushroom bodies with higher brain centers of vertebrates.
Convergence of higher processing centers has been proposed for insects and vertebrates, but the extent of these similarities remains controversial. The present study demonstrates that one higher brain center of insects, the mushroom bodies, displays a number of similarities with mammalian higher brain centers that are arguably the products of adaptation to common behavioral ecologies, despite their deeply divergent origins. Quantitative neuroanatomy, immunohistochemistry, fluorescent tract tracing and BrdU labeling are employed to investigate the relationships among behavioral ecology and mushroom body size, sensory input and mode of development in one taxon, the scarab beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Comparisons are extended to a taxon in which similar mushroom body architectures have arisen independently, the cockroaches ([START]Dictyoptera[END]), and to published accounts of vertebrate brain evolution. This study demonstrates that evolutionary increases in higher brain center size and intrinsic neuron number are associated with flexibility in food acquisition behaviors in both vertebrates and insects. These evolutionarily expanded higher brain centers are divided into novel structural subcompartments that acquire novel processing functions. Increased numbers of neurons comprising enlarged higher brain centers are generated by expanded neural precursor pools, and the time for development of these brain centers is protracted. Taken together, these findings extend our understanding of how evolutionarily constrained neural substrates might converge under shared adaptive landscapes, even after 600 million years of divergence, and even at the level of higher brain centers that generate complex behaviors.
",18560208
1,6981,"Multi-unit recording of antennal mechano-sensitive units in the central complex of the cockroach, [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END].
The central complex (CC) is a group of midline neuropils in the protocerebrum of all insects (Williams, J Zool, 176:67-86, 1975; Strausfeld, Prog Brain Res, 123:273-284, 1999). Its columnar organization coupled with the anatomical tracts to and from this region suggests that the CC may supervise various forms of locomotion. In cockroach, lesions of the CC affect turning and controlled climbing over blocks (Ridgel et al., J Comp Physiol A, 193:385-402, 2007). Since these behaviors are largely directed by tactile cues detected by antennae, we predicted that some neurons in the CC respond to mechanical antennal stimulation. We used 16-channel probes to record from broad regions within the CC, while mechanically stimulating one or the other antenna. Using cluster cutting procedures, we examined 277 units in 31 preparations. Many of these units responded to mechanical stimulation of the antennae, and of these, most responded equally well to medial or lateral stimulation of either antenna. However, several units either responded to only one antenna or responded significantly more strongly to one of them. Most of the units responding to antennal stimulation were sensitive to changes in the velocity as well as changes in light. Our data reveal a large population of mult-sensory neurons in the CC that could contribute to locomotion control.
",18180927
1,7227,"Multimodal Integration Across Spatiotemporal Scales to Guide Invertebrate Locomotion.
Locomotion is a hallmark of organisms which has enabled adaptive radiation to an extraordinarily diverse class of ecological niches, and allows animals to move across vast distances. Sampling from multiple sensory modalities enables animals to acquire rich information to guide locomotion. Locomotion without sensory feedback is haphazard; therefore, sensory and motor systems have evolved complex interactions to generate adaptive behavior. Notably, sensory-guided locomotion acts over broad spatial and temporal scales to permit goal-seeking behavior, whether to localize food by tracking an attractive odor plume or to search for a potential mate. How does the brain integrate multimodal stimuli over different temporal and spatial scales to effectively control behavior? In this review, we classify locomotion into three ordinally ranked hierarchical layers that act over distinct spatiotemporal scales: stabilization, motor primitives, and higher-order tasks, respectively. We discuss how these layers present unique challenges and opportunities for sensorimotor integration. We focus on recent advances in invertebrate locomotion due to their accessible neural and mechanical signals from the whole brain, limbs, and sensors. Throughout, we emphasize neural-level description of computations for multimodal integration in genetic model systems, including the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], and the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. We identify that summation (e.g., gating) and weighting-which are inherent computations of spiking neurons-underlie multimodal integration across spatial and temporal scales, therefore suggesting collective strategies to guide locomotion.
",34009312
1,7159,"Multimodal Integration Across Spatiotemporal Scales to Guide Invertebrate Locomotion.
Locomotion is a hallmark of organisms which has enabled adaptive radiation to an extraordinarily diverse class of ecological niches, and allows animals to move across vast distances. Sampling from multiple sensory modalities enables animals to acquire rich information to guide locomotion. Locomotion without sensory feedback is haphazard; therefore, sensory and motor systems have evolved complex interactions to generate adaptive behavior. Notably, sensory-guided locomotion acts over broad spatial and temporal scales to permit goal-seeking behavior, whether to localize food by tracking an attractive odor plume or to search for a potential mate. How does the brain integrate multimodal stimuli over different temporal and spatial scales to effectively control behavior? In this review, we classify locomotion into three ordinally ranked hierarchical layers that act over distinct spatiotemporal scales: stabilization, motor primitives, and higher-order tasks, respectively. We discuss how these layers present unique challenges and opportunities for sensorimotor integration. We focus on recent advances in invertebrate locomotion due to their accessible neural and mechanical signals from the whole brain, limbs, and sensors. Throughout, we emphasize neural-level description of computations for multimodal integration in genetic model systems, including the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, and the [START]yellow fever mosquito[END], [START]Aedes aegypti[END]. We identify that summation (e.g., gating) and weighting-which are inherent computations of spiking neurons-underlie multimodal integration across spatial and temporal scales, therefore suggesting collective strategies to guide locomotion.
",34009312
1,7227,"Convergence of multimodal sensory pathways to the mushroom body calyx in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Detailed structural analyses of the mushroom body which plays critical roles in olfactory learning and memory revealed that it is directly connected with multiple primary sensory centers in [START]Drosophila[END]. Connectivity patterns between the mushroom body and primary sensory centers suggest that each mushroom body lobe processes information on different combinations of multiple sensory modalities. This finding provides a novel focus of research by [START]Drosophila[END] genetics for perception of the external world by integrating multisensory signals.
",27404960
1,7460,"Segregation of visual input to the mushroom bodies in the [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Insect mushroom bodies are brain regions that receive multisensory input and are thought to play an important role in learning and memory. In most neopteran insects, the mushroom bodies receive direct olfactory input. In addition, the calyces of Hymenoptera receive substantial direct input from the optic lobes. We describe visual inputs to the calyces of the mushroom bodies of the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END], the neurons' dendritic fields in the optic lobes, the medulla and lobula, and the organization of their terminals in the calyces. Medulla neurons terminate in the collar region of the calyx, where they segregate into five layers that receive alternating input from the dorsal or ventral medulla, respectively. A sixth, innermost layer of the collar receives input from lobula neurons. In the basal ring region of the calyx, medulla neuron terminals are restricted to a small, distal part. Lobula neurons are more prominent in the basal ring, where they terminate in its outer half. Although the collar and basal ring layers generally receive segregated input from both optic neuropils, some overlap occurs at the borders of the layers. At least three different types of mushroom body input neurons originate from the medulla: (a) neurons with narrow dendritic fields mainly restricted to the vicinity of the medulla's serpentine layer and found throughout the medulla; (b) neurons restricted to the ventral half of the medulla and featuring long columnar dendritic branches in the outer medulla; and (c) a group of neurons whose dendrites are restricted to the most ventral part of the medulla and whose axons form the anterior inferior optic tract. Most medulla neurons (groups a and b) send their axons via the anterior superior optic tract to the mushroom bodies. Neurons connecting the lobula with the mushroom bodies have their dendrites in a defined dorsal part of the lobula. Their axons form a third tract to the mushroom bodies, here referred to as the lobula tract. Our findings match the anatomy of intrinsic mushroom body neurons (Strausfeld, 2002) and together indicate that the mushroom bodies may be composed of many more functional subsystems than previously suggested.
",12210130
1,7460,"Organization of the [START]honey bee[END] mushroom body: representation of the calyx within the vertical and gamma lobes.
Studies of the mushroom bodies of Drosophila melanogaster have suggested that their gamma lobes specifically support short-term memory, whereas their vertical lobes are essential for long-term memory. Developmental studies have demonstrated that the Drosophila gamma lobe, like its equivalent in the cockroach Periplaneta americana, is supplied by a special class of intrinsic neuron-the clawed Kenyon cells-that are the first to differentiate during early development. To date, however, no account identifies a corresponding lobe in the [START]honey bee[END], another taxon used extensively for learning and memory research. Received opinion is that, in this taxon, each of the mushroom body lobes comprises three parallel divisions representing one of three concentric zones of the calyces, called the lip, collar, and basal ring. The present account shows that, although these zones are represented in the lobes, they occupy only two thirds of the vertical lobe. Its lowermost third receives the axons of the clawed class II Kenyon cells, which are the first to differentiate during early development and which represent the whole calyx. This component of the lobe is anatomically and developmentally equivalent to the gamma lobe of Drosophila and has been here named the gamma lobe of the [START]honey bee[END]. A new class of intrinsic neurons, originating from perikarya distant from the mushroom body, provides a second system of parallel fibers from the calyx to the gamma lobe. A region immediately beneath the calyces, called the neck, is invaded by these neurons as well as by a third class of intrinsic cell that provides connections within the neck of the pedunculus and the basal ring of the calyces. In the [START]honey bee[END], the gamma lobe is extensively supplied by afferents from the protocerebrum and gives rise to a distinctive class of efferent neurons. The terminals of these efferents target protocerebral neuropils that are distinct from those receiving efferents from divisions of the vertical lobe that represent the lip, collar, and basal ring. The identification of a gamma lobe unites the mushroom bodies of evolutionarily divergent taxa. The present findings suggest the need for critical reinterpretation of studies that have been predicated on early descriptions of the mushroom body's lobes.
",12124764
1,7227,"Organization of the honey bee mushroom body: representation of the calyx within the vertical and gamma lobes.
Studies of the mushroom bodies of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] have suggested that their gamma lobes specifically support short-term memory, whereas their vertical lobes are essential for long-term memory. Developmental studies have demonstrated that the [START]Drosophila[END] gamma lobe, like its equivalent in the cockroach Periplaneta americana, is supplied by a special class of intrinsic neuron-the clawed Kenyon cells-that are the first to differentiate during early development. To date, however, no account identifies a corresponding lobe in the honey bee, another taxon used extensively for learning and memory research. Received opinion is that, in this taxon, each of the mushroom body lobes comprises three parallel divisions representing one of three concentric zones of the calyces, called the lip, collar, and basal ring. The present account shows that, although these zones are represented in the lobes, they occupy only two thirds of the vertical lobe. Its lowermost third receives the axons of the clawed class II Kenyon cells, which are the first to differentiate during early development and which represent the whole calyx. This component of the lobe is anatomically and developmentally equivalent to the gamma lobe of [START]Drosophila[END] and has been here named the gamma lobe of the honey bee. A new class of intrinsic neurons, originating from perikarya distant from the mushroom body, provides a second system of parallel fibers from the calyx to the gamma lobe. A region immediately beneath the calyces, called the neck, is invaded by these neurons as well as by a third class of intrinsic cell that provides connections within the neck of the pedunculus and the basal ring of the calyces. In the honey bee, the gamma lobe is extensively supplied by afferents from the protocerebrum and gives rise to a distinctive class of efferent neurons. The terminals of these efferents target protocerebral neuropils that are distinct from those receiving efferents from divisions of the vertical lobe that represent the lip, collar, and basal ring. The identification of a gamma lobe unites the mushroom bodies of evolutionarily divergent taxa. The present findings suggest the need for critical reinterpretation of studies that have been predicated on early descriptions of the mushroom body's lobes.
",12124764
1,6978,"Organization of the honey bee mushroom body: representation of the calyx within the vertical and gamma lobes.
Studies of the mushroom bodies of Drosophila melanogaster have suggested that their gamma lobes specifically support short-term memory, whereas their vertical lobes are essential for long-term memory. Developmental studies have demonstrated that the Drosophila gamma lobe, like its equivalent in the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END], is supplied by a special class of intrinsic neuron-the clawed Kenyon cells-that are the first to differentiate during early development. To date, however, no account identifies a corresponding lobe in the honey bee, another taxon used extensively for learning and memory research. Received opinion is that, in this taxon, each of the mushroom body lobes comprises three parallel divisions representing one of three concentric zones of the calyces, called the lip, collar, and basal ring. The present account shows that, although these zones are represented in the lobes, they occupy only two thirds of the vertical lobe. Its lowermost third receives the axons of the clawed class II Kenyon cells, which are the first to differentiate during early development and which represent the whole calyx. This component of the lobe is anatomically and developmentally equivalent to the gamma lobe of Drosophila and has been here named the gamma lobe of the honey bee. A new class of intrinsic neurons, originating from perikarya distant from the mushroom body, provides a second system of parallel fibers from the calyx to the gamma lobe. A region immediately beneath the calyces, called the neck, is invaded by these neurons as well as by a third class of intrinsic cell that provides connections within the neck of the pedunculus and the basal ring of the calyces. In the honey bee, the gamma lobe is extensively supplied by afferents from the protocerebrum and gives rise to a distinctive class of efferent neurons. The terminals of these efferents target protocerebral neuropils that are distinct from those receiving efferents from divisions of the vertical lobe that represent the lip, collar, and basal ring. The identification of a gamma lobe unites the mushroom bodies of evolutionarily divergent taxa. The present findings suggest the need for critical reinterpretation of studies that have been predicated on early descriptions of the mushroom body's lobes.
",12124764
1,7460,"Multisensory integration in Lepidoptera: Insights into flower-visitor interactions.
As most work on flower foraging focuses on [START]bees[END], studying Lepidoptera can offer fresh perspectives on how sensory capabilities shape the interaction between flowers and insects. Through a combination of innate preferences and learning, many Lepidoptera persistently visit particular flower species. Butterflies tend to rely on their highly developed sense of colour to locate rewarding flowers, while moths have evolved sophisticated olfactory systems towards the same end. However, these modalities can interact in complex ways; for instance, butterflies' colour preference can shift depending on olfactory context. The mechanisms by which such cross-modal interaction occurs are poorly understood, but the mushroom bodies appear to play a central role. Because of the diversity seen within Lepidoptera in terms of their sensory capabilities and the nature of their relationships with flowers, they represent a fruitful avenue for comparative studies to shed light on the co-evolution of flowers and flower-visiting insects.
",28169433
1,7446,"Increased complexity of mushroom body Kenyon cell subtypes in the brain is associated with behavioral evolution in hymenopteran insects.
In insect brains, the mushroom bodies (MBs) are a higher-order center for sensory integration and memory. Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) MBs comprise four Kenyon cell (KC) subtypes: class I large-, middle-, and small-type, and class II KCs, which are distinguished by the size and location of somata, and gene expression profiles. Although these subtypes have only been reported in the honeybee, the time of their acquisition during evolution remains unknown. Here we performed in situ hybridization of tachykinin-related peptide, which is differentially expressed among KC subtypes in the honeybee MBs, in four hymenopteran species to analyze whether the complexity of KC subtypes is associated with their behavioral traits. Three class I KC subtypes were detected in the MBs of the eusocial hornet [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] and the nidificating scoliid wasp Campsomeris prismatica, like in A. mellifera, whereas only two class I KC subtypes were detected in the parasitic wasp Ascogaster reticulata. In contrast, we were unable to detect class I KC subtype in the primitive and phytophagous sawfly Arge similis. Our findings suggest that the number of class I KC subtypes increased at least twice - first with the evolution of the parasitic lifestyle and then with the evolution of nidification.
",29062138
1,7460,"Increased complexity of mushroom body Kenyon cell subtypes in the brain is associated with behavioral evolution in hymenopteran insects.
In insect brains, the mushroom bodies (MBs) are a higher-order center for sensory integration and memory. [START]Honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) MBs comprise four Kenyon cell (KC) subtypes: class I large-, middle-, and small-type, and class II KCs, which are distinguished by the size and location of somata, and gene expression profiles. Although these subtypes have only been reported in the [START]honeybee[END], the time of their acquisition during evolution remains unknown. Here we performed in situ hybridization of tachykinin-related peptide, which is differentially expressed among KC subtypes in the [START]honeybee[END] MBs, in four hymenopteran species to analyze whether the complexity of KC subtypes is associated with their behavioral traits. Three class I KC subtypes were detected in the MBs of the eusocial hornet Vespa mandarinia and the nidificating scoliid wasp Campsomeris prismatica, like in [START]A. mellifera[END], whereas only two class I KC subtypes were detected in the parasitic wasp Ascogaster reticulata. In contrast, we were unable to detect class I KC subtype in the primitive and phytophagous sawfly Arge similis. Our findings suggest that the number of class I KC subtypes increased at least twice - first with the evolution of the parasitic lifestyle and then with the evolution of nidification.
",29062138
1,7227,"The organization of extrinsic neurons and their implications in the functional roles of the mushroom bodies in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Meigen.
Although the importance of the [START]Drosophila[END] mushroom body in olfactory learning and memory has been stressed, virtually nothing is known about the brain regions to which it is connected. Using Golgi and GAL4-UAS techniques, we performed the first systematic attempt to reveal the anatomy of its extrinsic neurons. A novel presynaptic reporter construct, UAS-neuronal synaptobrevin-green fluorescent protein (n-syb-GFP), was used to reveal the direction of information in the GAL4-labeled neurons. Our results showed that the main target of the output neurons from the mushroom body lobes is the anterior part of the inferior medial, superior medial, and superior lateral protocerebrum. The lobes also receive afferents from these neuropils. The lack of major output projections directly to the deutocerebrum's premotor pathways discourages the view that the role of the mushroom body may be that of an immediate modifier of behavior. Our data, as well as a critical evaluation of the literature, suggest that the mushroom body may not by itself be a ""center"" for learning and memory, but that it can equally be considered as a preprocessor of olfactory signals en route to ""higher"" protocerebral regions.
",10454372
1,7227,"Sensory integration and neuromodulatory feedback facilitate [START]Drosophila[END] mechanonociceptive behavior.
Nociception is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to encode and process harmful environmental stimuli. Like most animals, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae respond to a variety of nociceptive stimuli, including noxious touch and temperature, with stereotyped escape responses through activation of multimodal nociceptors. How behavioral responses to these different modalities are processed and integrated by the downstream network remains poorly understood. By combining trans-synaptic labeling, ultrastructural analysis, calcium imaging, optogenetics and behavioral analyses, we uncovered a circuit specific for mechanonociception but not thermonociception. Notably, integration of mechanosensory input from innocuous and nociceptive sensory neurons is required for robust mechanonociceptive responses. We further show that neurons integrating mechanosensory input facilitate primary nociceptive output by releasing short neuropeptide F, the [START]Drosophila[END] neuropeptide Y homolog. Our findings unveil how integration of somatosensory input and neuropeptide-mediated modulation can produce robust modality-specific escape behavior.
",28604684
1,7227,"Olfactory processing in the lateral horn of [START]Drosophila[END].
Sensing olfactory signals in the environment represents a crucial and significant task of sensory systems in almost all organisms to facilitate survival and reproduction. Notably, the olfactory system of diverse animal phyla shares astonishingly many fundamental principles with regard to anatomical and functional properties. Binding of odor ligands by chemosensory receptors present in the olfactory peripheral organs leads to a neuronal activity that is conveyed to first and higher-order brain centers leading to a subsequent odor-guided behavioral decision. One of the key centers for integrating and processing innate olfactory behavior is the lateral horn (LH) of the protocerebrum in insects. In recent years the LH of [START]Drosophila[END] has garnered increasing attention and many studies have been dedicated to elucidate its circuitry. In this review we will summarize the recent advances in mapping and characterizing LH-specific cell types, their functional properties with respect to odor tuning, their neurotransmitter profiles, their connectivity to pre-synaptic and post-synaptic partner neurons as well as their impact for olfactory behavior as known so far.
",33475851
1,6997,"Development of cricket mushroom bodies.
Mushroom bodies are recognized as a multimodal integrator for sensorial stimuli. The present study analyzes cricket mushroom body development from embryogenesis to adulthood. In the [START]house cricket[END], Kenyon cells were born from a group of neuroblasts located at the apex of mushroom bodies. Our results demonstrate the sequential generation of Kenyon cells: The more external they are, the earlier they were produced. BrdU treatment on day 8 (57% stage) of embryonic life results, at the adult stage, in the labelling of the large Kenyon cells at the periphery of the mushroom body cortex. These cells have specific projections into the posterior calyx, the gamma lobe, and an enlargement at the inner part of the vertical lobe; they represent a part of mushroom bodies of strictly embryonic origin. The small Kenyon cells were formed from day 9 (65% stage) of the embryonic stage onward, and new interneurons are produced throughout the entire life of the insect. They send their projections into the anterior calyx and into the vertical and medial lobes. Mushroom body development of Acheta should be considered as a primitive template, and cross-taxonomic comparisons of the mushroom body development underscore the precocious origin of the gamma lobe. As a result of continuous neurogenesis, cricket mushroom bodies undergo remodeling throughout life, laying the foundation for future studies of the functional role of this developmental plasticity.
",12353218
1,7227,"The complete connectome of a learning and memory centre in an insect brain.
Associating stimuli with positive or negative reinforcement is essential for survival, but a complete wiring diagram of a higher-order circuit supporting associative memory has not been previously available. Here we reconstruct one such circuit at synaptic resolution, the [START]Drosophila[END] larval mushroom body. We find that most Kenyon cells integrate random combinations of inputs but that a subset receives stereotyped inputs from single projection neurons. This organization maximizes performance of a model output neuron on a stimulus discrimination task. We also report a novel canonical circuit in each mushroom body compartment with previously unidentified connections: reciprocal Kenyon cell to modulatory neuron connections, modulatory neuron to output neuron connections, and a surprisingly high number of recurrent connections between Kenyon cells. Stereotyped connections found between output neurons could enhance the selection of learned behaviours. The complete circuit map of the mushroom body should guide future functional studies of this learning and memory centre.
",28796202
1,7227,"Useful road maps: studying [START]Drosophila[END] larva's central nervous system with the help of connectomics.
The larva of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is emerging as a powerful model system for comprehensive brain-wide understanding of the circuit implementation of neural computations. With an unprecedented amount of tools in hand, including synaptic-resolution connectomics, whole-brain imaging, and genetic tools for selective targeting of single neuron types, it is possible to dissect which circuits and computations are at work behind behaviors that have an interesting level of complexity. Here we present some of the recent advances regarding multisensory integration, learning, and action selection in [START]Drosophila[END] larva.
",33242722
1,7227,"Visual Input into the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Mushroom Body.
The patterns of neuronal connectivity underlying multisensory integration, a fundamental property of many brains, remain poorly characterized. The [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] mushroom body-an associative center-is an ideal system to investigate how different sensory channels converge in higher order brain centers. The neurons connecting the mushroom body to the olfactory system have been described in great detail, but input from other sensory systems remains poorly defined. Here, we use a range of anatomical and genetic techniques to identify two types of input neuron that connect visual processing centers-the lobula and the posterior lateral protocerebrum-to the dorsal accessory calyx of the mushroom body. Together with previous work that described a pathway conveying visual information from the medulla to the ventral accessory calyx of the mushroom body, our study defines a second, parallel pathway that is anatomically poised to convey information from the visual system to the dorsal accessory calyx.
",32937130
1,7227,"Functional architecture of reward learning in mushroom body extrinsic neurons of larval [START]Drosophila[END].
The brain adaptively integrates present sensory input, past experience, and options for future action. The insect mushroom body exemplifies how a central brain structure brings about such integration. Here we use a combination of systematic single-cell labeling, connectomics, transgenic silencing, and activation experiments to study the mushroom body at single-cell resolution, focusing on the behavioral architecture of its input and output neurons (MBINs and MBONs), and of the mushroom body intrinsic APL neuron. Our results reveal the identity and morphology of almost all of these 44 neurons in stage 3 [START]Drosophila[END] larvae. Upon an initial screen, functional analyses focusing on the mushroom body medial lobe uncover sparse and specific functions of its dopaminergic MBINs, its MBONs, and of the GABAergic APL neuron across three behavioral tasks, namely odor preference, taste preference, and associative learning between odor and taste. Our results thus provide a cellular-resolution study case of how brains organize behavior.
",29549237
1,7070,"An atlas of the developing [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] brain reveals conservation in anatomy and divergence in timing to Drosophila melanogaster.
Insect brains are formed by conserved sets of neural lineages whose fibers form cohesive bundles with characteristic projection patterns. Within the brain neuropil, these bundles establish a system of fascicles constituting the macrocircuitry of the brain. The overall architecture of the neuropils and the macrocircuitry appear to be conserved. However, variation is observed, for example, in size, shape, and timing of development. Unfortunately, the developmental and genetic basis of this variation is poorly understood, although the rise of new genetically tractable model organisms such as the [START]red flour beetle[END] [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] allows the possibility to gain mechanistic insights. To facilitate such work, we present an atlas of the developing brain of [START]T. castaneum[END], covering the first larval instar, the prepupal stage, and the adult, by combining wholemount immunohistochemical labeling of fiber bundles (acetylated tubulin) and neuropils (synapsin) with digital 3D reconstruction using the TrakEM2 software package. Upon comparing this anatomical dataset with the published work in Drosophila melanogaster, we confirm an overall high degree of conservation. Fiber tracts and neuropil fascicles, which can be visualized by global neuronal antibodies like antiacetylated tubulin in all invertebrate brains, create a rich anatomical framework to which individual neurons or other regions of interest can be referred to. The framework of a largely conserved pattern allowed us to describe differences between the two species with respect to parameters such as timing of neuron proliferation and maturation. These features likely reflect adaptive changes in developmental timing that govern the change from larval to adult brain.
",35535818
1,7227,"An atlas of the developing Tribolium castaneum brain reveals conservation in anatomy and divergence in timing to [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Insect brains are formed by conserved sets of neural lineages whose fibers form cohesive bundles with characteristic projection patterns. Within the brain neuropil, these bundles establish a system of fascicles constituting the macrocircuitry of the brain. The overall architecture of the neuropils and the macrocircuitry appear to be conserved. However, variation is observed, for example, in size, shape, and timing of development. Unfortunately, the developmental and genetic basis of this variation is poorly understood, although the rise of new genetically tractable model organisms such as the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum allows the possibility to gain mechanistic insights. To facilitate such work, we present an atlas of the developing brain of T. castaneum, covering the first larval instar, the prepupal stage, and the adult, by combining wholemount immunohistochemical labeling of fiber bundles (acetylated tubulin) and neuropils (synapsin) with digital 3D reconstruction using the TrakEM2 software package. Upon comparing this anatomical dataset with the published work in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], we confirm an overall high degree of conservation. Fiber tracts and neuropil fascicles, which can be visualized by global neuronal antibodies like antiacetylated tubulin in all invertebrate brains, create a rich anatomical framework to which individual neurons or other regions of interest can be referred to. The framework of a largely conserved pattern allowed us to describe differences between the two species with respect to parameters such as timing of neuron proliferation and maturation. These features likely reflect adaptive changes in developmental timing that govern the change from larval to adult brain.
",35535818
1,7460,"Larval and pupal development of the mushroom bodies in the [START]honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END].
The mushroom bodies are paired neuropils in the insect brain that act as multimodal sensory integration centers and are involved in learning and memory. Our studies, by using 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine incorporation and the Feulgen technique, show that immediately before pupation, the brain of the developing [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) contains approximately 2,000 neuroblasts devoted to the production of the mushroom body intrinsic neurons (Kenyon cells). These neuroblasts are descended from four clusters of 45 or fewer neuroblasts each already present in the newly hatched larva. Subpopulations of Kenyon cells, distinct in cytoarchitecture, position, and immunohistochemical traits, are born at different, but overlapping, periods during the development of the mushroom bodies, with the final complement of these neurons in place by the mid-pupal stage. The mushroom bodies of the adult [START]honey bee[END] have a concentric arrangement of Kenyon cell types, with the outer layers born first and pushed to the periphery by later born neurons that remain nearer the center of proliferation. This concentricity is further reflected in morphologic and immunohistochemical traits of the adult neurons, and is demonstrated clearly by the pattern of expression of Drosophila myocyte enhancer factor 2 (DMEF2)-like immunoreactivity. This is the first comprehensive study of larval and pupal development of the [START]honey bee[END] mushroom bodies. Similarities to patterns of neurogenesis observed in the mushroom bodies of other insects and in the vertebrate cerebral cortex are discussed.
",10494081
1,278856,"Postembryonic brain development in the monarch butterfly,[START]Danaus plexippus plexippus[END], L. : I. Cellular events during brain morphogenesis.
1. Cellular morphogenesis during postembryonic brain development inDanaus plexippus plexippus L. was examined using histological techniques including radioautography. 2. The production of new neurones is continuous throughout larval and pupal stages and shows no fluctuations corresponding to ecdysis. Glial cell production, on the other hand, occurs at the time of molting. 3. New ganglion cells are formed by the division of neuroblasts found in aggregates or isolated among larval ganglion cells. Asymmetrical neuroblast divisions yield one neuroblast and one ganglion-mother cell which then divides at least once to form the new ganglion cells. Such divisions begin earlier inDanaus than in other investigated Lepidoptera. Symmetrical divisions yielding two neuroblasts also occur, but only among aggregated neuroblasts. 4. Radioautographs of brains fixed at progressive intervals after Tritiated Thymidine (H3TdR) injection have permitted description of the basic pattern by which cells of the adult brain cortex are laid out and progressive changes in the relationship of new ganglion cells derived from a single neuroblast. Ganglion-mother cells are deposited between the neuroblast and the neuropile, thus forming a row of cells which move the neuroblast progressively farther from the neuropile. New ganglion cells produced by ganglion-mother cell mitoses, which usually are oriented at 45  angles to the neuropile, expand the cell cluster. Differentiating fibers of these cells are apparent within a few days of their production and seem to enter the neuropile in one bundle. Later with increased neuropile volume and further cell differentiation the cells are no longer clumped and thus are not recognizable as offspring of a single neuroblast. 5. Neuroblasts found scattered among the larval ganglion cells arise from cells near the neuropile. These cells, at first indistinguishable from their neighbors, gradually assume the size and ready stainability of neuroblasts and subsequently divide according to the pattern described above. 6. Scattered neuroblasts degenerate beginning shortly after pupation and have completely disappeared by the end of the fourth day. 7. Except in the developing optic lobe, glial cell numbers increase through the proliferation of already existing glial cells. All glial cells show H3TdR uptake during a 12 hour period surrounding each larval-larval molt and for a somewhat longer period after pupation. However, in the larval stages mitotic figures were seen only among glial I, II, and IV. Glial I cells divide through the entire last larval stage and for two days following pupation. Large irregular mitoses seen among glial III cells at pupation indicate that these cells are probably polyploid. 8. In the newly forming adult optic lobe glial II, III, and IV cells appear to develop from preganglion cells or cells indistinguishable from them. These cells gradually stain more and more darkly, segregate into the normal glial positions, and subsequently divide in accord with other glial cells. 9. At the end of the fifth instar the perineurium (glial I cells), which begins to thicken during the third larval instar, is multilayered and contains many vacuolar cells. Just prior to pupation the neurilemma begins to disintegrate and during the next five days all but the cells closest to the brain disappear. Hemocytes are seen to engulf portions of the disintegrating neurilemma and already degenerating perineurial cells, but do not seem to engulf live cells. The glial I cells remaining adjacent to the brain secrete a new neurilemma. 10. There is no evidence for mass destruction of larval ganglion cells by either autolysis or phagocytosis, and only in the antennal center is there evidence of degeneration of larval cells (NORDLANDER andEDWARDS, in press).
",28304450
1,13037,"Postembryonic brain development in the [START]monarch butterfly[END],Danaus plexippus plexippus, L. : I. Cellular events during brain morphogenesis.
1. Cellular morphogenesis during postembryonic brain development inDanaus plexippus plexippus L. was examined using histological techniques including radioautography. 2. The production of new neurones is continuous throughout larval and pupal stages and shows no fluctuations corresponding to ecdysis. Glial cell production, on the other hand, occurs at the time of molting. 3. New ganglion cells are formed by the division of neuroblasts found in aggregates or isolated among larval ganglion cells. Asymmetrical neuroblast divisions yield one neuroblast and one ganglion-mother cell which then divides at least once to form the new ganglion cells. Such divisions begin earlier inDanaus than in other investigated Lepidoptera. Symmetrical divisions yielding two neuroblasts also occur, but only among aggregated neuroblasts. 4. Radioautographs of brains fixed at progressive intervals after Tritiated Thymidine (H3TdR) injection have permitted description of the basic pattern by which cells of the adult brain cortex are laid out and progressive changes in the relationship of new ganglion cells derived from a single neuroblast. Ganglion-mother cells are deposited between the neuroblast and the neuropile, thus forming a row of cells which move the neuroblast progressively farther from the neuropile. New ganglion cells produced by ganglion-mother cell mitoses, which usually are oriented at 45  angles to the neuropile, expand the cell cluster. Differentiating fibers of these cells are apparent within a few days of their production and seem to enter the neuropile in one bundle. Later with increased neuropile volume and further cell differentiation the cells are no longer clumped and thus are not recognizable as offspring of a single neuroblast. 5. Neuroblasts found scattered among the larval ganglion cells arise from cells near the neuropile. These cells, at first indistinguishable from their neighbors, gradually assume the size and ready stainability of neuroblasts and subsequently divide according to the pattern described above. 6. Scattered neuroblasts degenerate beginning shortly after pupation and have completely disappeared by the end of the fourth day. 7. Except in the developing optic lobe, glial cell numbers increase through the proliferation of already existing glial cells. All glial cells show H3TdR uptake during a 12 hour period surrounding each larval-larval molt and for a somewhat longer period after pupation. However, in the larval stages mitotic figures were seen only among glial I, II, and IV. Glial I cells divide through the entire last larval stage and for two days following pupation. Large irregular mitoses seen among glial III cells at pupation indicate that these cells are probably polyploid. 8. In the newly forming adult optic lobe glial II, III, and IV cells appear to develop from preganglion cells or cells indistinguishable from them. These cells gradually stain more and more darkly, segregate into the normal glial positions, and subsequently divide in accord with other glial cells. 9. At the end of the fifth instar the perineurium (glial I cells), which begins to thicken during the third larval instar, is multilayered and contains many vacuolar cells. Just prior to pupation the neurilemma begins to disintegrate and during the next five days all but the cells closest to the brain disappear. Hemocytes are seen to engulf portions of the disintegrating neurilemma and already degenerating perineurial cells, but do not seem to engulf live cells. The glial I cells remaining adjacent to the brain secrete a new neurilemma. 10. There is no evidence for mass destruction of larval ganglion cells by either autolysis or phagocytosis, and only in the antennal center is there evidence of degeneration of larval cells (NORDLANDER andEDWARDS, in press).
",28304450
1,7460,"Experience- and age-related outgrowth of intrinsic neurons in the mushroom bodies of the adult worker [START]honeybee[END].
A worker [START]honeybee[END] performs tasks within the hive for approximately the first 3 weeks of adult life. After this time, it becomes a forager, flying repeatedly to collect food outside of the hive for the remainder of its 5-6 week life. Previous studies have shown that foragers have an increased volume of neuropil associated with the mushroom bodies, a brain region involved in learning, memory, and sensory integration. We report here that growth of the mushroom body neuropil in adult [START]bees[END] occurs throughout adult life and continues after [START]bees[END] begin to forage. Studies using Golgi impregnation asked whether the growth of the collar region of the mushroom body neuropil was a result of growth of the dendritic processes of the mushroom body intrinsic neurons, the Kenyon cells. Branching and length of dendrites in the collar region of the calyces were strongly correlated with worker age, but when age-matched [START]bees[END] were directly compared, those with foraging experience had longer, more branched dendrites than [START]bees[END] that had foraged less or not at all. The density of Kenyon cell dendritic spines remained constant regardless of age or behavioral state. Older and more experienced foragers therefore have a greater total number of dendritic spines in the mushroom body neuropil. Our findings indicate that, under natural conditions, the cytoarchitectural complexity of neurons in the mushroom bodies of adult [START]honeybees[END] increases as a function of increasing age, but that foraging experience promotes additional dendritic branching and growth.
",11487663
1,7227,"Building the central complex in [START]Drosophila[END]: the generation and development of distinct neural subsets.
The distinctive midline neuropil, the central complex (CX), is one of the most prominent features of the insect brain. We investigated the development of the four CX structures and several sets of CX neurons in the [START]Drosophila[END] brain using immunostaining for two cell adhesion molecules, DN-cadherin and Echinoid, and a set of seven enhancer trap lines. Our results showed that the CX is first identifiable in the third instar larva and that it elaborates over the first 48 hours of metamorphosis. The first identifiable structures to appear in their immature form are the protocerebral bridge and fan-shaped body, which are present in the brain of the third instar larva, followed by the noduli (from P12h), and finally the ellipsoid body (from P24h). We observed that neurons are added incrementally to the developing CX structure, with sets of small-field neurons projecting to the CX prior to the large-field neurons. The small-field neurons first project to the developing fan-shaped body, before arborizing or extending to the other structures. We found evidence to suggest that small-field neurons exist in sets of 16 and that they originate from eight common clusters of perikarya in the cortex, suggesting a common origin. We also identified a novel set of pontine neurons that connect contralateral segments in the fan-shaped body.
",20187144
1,7130,"Serotonin-immunoreactive neurons in the brain of [START]Manduca sexta[END] during larval development and larval-pupal metamorphosis.
The developing serotonergic system of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END], has been studied immunocytochemically in whole mount preparations of brain-retrocerebral complexes. The distribution of serotonin-immunoreactive cell bodies, fibers and terminal fields has been analysed during larval and larval-pupal development using a specific rabbit antiserum against serotonin-hemocyanin conjugates. The serotonergic system was conserved from the fourth to the fifth larval stadium, with minimal changes occurring until the onset of pupal development. At this time, alterations in the distribution of serotonin-immunoreactive cells and processes were observed, including the apparent disappearance of some cell bodies and terminals. Nevertheless, the overall appearance of this system in the pupal brain was not significantly different from that in the larva. The larval pattern was characterized by eight bilateral groups of cell bodies which sent thick bridges of fibers across the midline, a feature strikingly similar to the serotonergic system in vertebrate embryos. In addition, three bilateral immunoreactive fields of arborization were observed around and ventral to these cell groups, together with regions of serotonin immunoreactivity in the medial and lateral protocerebral lobes. The central body, larval antennal centers, larval accessory lobes, and the tritocerebrum were also immunoreactive. Fibrous networks of serotonergic processes were usually observed around nerves emanating from the brain, including the connectives from the brain to the corpus cardiacum and corpus allatum. Smaller varicosities were observed in the interior of these neurohemal and glandular organs, and a network of 5-HT fibers was occasionally found around the corpus cardiacum and corpus allatum. The possible relationship of serotonin to cerebral neuroendocrine functions during the postembryonic development of [START]M. sexta[END] is discussed.
",2711869
1,7130,"Postembryonic development of gamma-aminobutyric acid-like immunoreactivity in the brain of the sphinx moth [START]Manduca sexta[END].
We have investigated the distribution of immunocytochemical staining for the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain of the sphinx moth [START]Manduca sexta[END] during larval, pupal, and adult development. In the larval brain, about 300 neurons are GABA-immunoreactive. All neuropil areas except the mushroom bodies and central complex show intense immunostaining. Only minor changes in the pattern of immunoreactivity occur during larval development. During metamorphosis, changes in immunostaining occur in two phases. Beginning in wandering fifth-instar larvae (stage W2), immunoreactivity appears in numerous neurons of the central body and optic lobe and becomes more intense during early pupal stages. At the same time, GABA-like immunoreactivity disappears in most neuropil areas of the brain and becomes faint in many immunoreactive somata. Neurons with arborizations in the ventrolateral protocerebrum, however, continue to exhibit intense immunostaining during this period, and strongly immunolabeled fibers connect these areas with the ventral nerve cord. The second phase of transformation begins around pupal stage P5/P6, when faint immunostaining appears in many previously nonimmunoreactive somata and most neuropil areas of the brain. In subsequent stages (P8-P10), this immunoreactivity disappears again in most somata, but in certain cell groups, it becomes more intense and gradually develops to the adult pattern. Most larval GABA-immunoreactive neurons appear to survive through metamorphosis into the adult. Neurons in the midbrain that acquire GABA-like immunoreactivity during metamorphosis usually lie adjacent to larval immunostained neurons, suggesting common lineages. The onsets of the two developmental phases of GABA-like immunoreactivity correlate with sharp rises in hemolymph titers of ecdysteroid hormones, suggesting a role for ecdysteroids in the regulation of GABA synthesis. We hypothesize that the disappearance of GABA in many areas of the brain starting 2 days prior to pupation dramatically alters its functional circuitry and thus may account for profound changes in the behavior of the animal.
",8106658
1,7067,"Development of locustatachykinin immunopositive neurons in the central complex of the beetle [START]Tenebrio molitor[END].
Locustatachykinin-immunoreactive (LomTK-IR) interneurons were found to be associated with the central complex, a prominent neuropil region of the insect brain. The structures and development of this set of brain interneurons was studied from the embryo onward in the beetle [START]Tenebrio molitor[END], showing individual neurons that persist from the late embryo to the adult stage. Their essential structural characteristics were already present in the late embryo, but distinct parts of their arborization patterns became newly formed throughout development. Using a combination of immunohistochemistry and single-cell injection, we demonstrated minute structural changes, allowing a characterization of structural plasticity of identifiable, persistent, neuropeptidergic neurons throughout ontogenesis. Furthermore, this study has provided new information about basic principles of central brain neuroanatomy and the development of a distinct midbrain region of the insect brain, the central complex. The development of its basic connections, the connections between the fan-shaped body and the protocerebral bridge, and the compartmentation of these neuropil regions were shown, using LomTK-IR neurons as marker structures. These basic features of the central complex-associated LomTK-immunopositive neurons were formed in the embryonic brain, whereas in metamorphosis, reorganization of these persistent interneurons was restricted to the formation of a precisely defined projection of their side branches.
",8913899
1,7227,"Circuits for integrating learned and innate valences in the insect brain.
Animal behavior is shaped both by evolution and by individual experience. Parallel brain pathways encode innate and learned valences of cues, but the way in which they are integrated during action-selection is not well understood. We used electron microscopy to comprehensively map with synaptic resolution all neurons downstream of all mushroom body (MB) output neurons (encoding learned valences) and characterized their patterns of interaction with lateral horn (LH) neurons (encoding innate valences) in [START]Drosophila[END] larva. The connectome revealed multiple convergence neuron types that receive convergent MB and LH inputs. A subset of these receives excitatory input from positive-valence MB and LH pathways and inhibitory input from negative-valence MB pathways. We confirmed functional connectivity from LH and MB pathways and behavioral roles of two of these neurons. These neurons encode integrated odor value and bidirectionally regulate turning. Based on this, we speculate that learning could potentially skew the balance of excitation and inhibition onto these neurons and thereby modulate turning. Together, our study provides insights into the circuits that integrate learned and innate valences to modify behavior.
",34755599
1,6978,"Projection neurons originating from thermo- and hygrosensory glomeruli in the antennal lobe of the cockroach.
Most insects are equipped with specialized thermo- and hygroreceptors to locate a permissible range of ambient temperature and distant water sources, respectively. In the cockroach, [START]Periplaneta americana[END], cold, moist, and dry receptor cells in the antennae send axons to particular sets of two or three glomeruli in the dorsocentral part of the antennal lobe (primary olfactory center), designated DC1-3 glomeruli. However, it is not known how thermo- and hygrosensory signals from these glomeruli are represented in higher-order centers, the protocerebrum, in any insect species. With the use of intracellular recording and staining techniques, we identified a new class of interneurons with dendrites almost exclusively in the DC1, DC2, or DC3 glomeruli and axons projecting to the protocerebrum in the cockroach. Remarkably, terminals of all these projection neurons (PNs) covered almost identical areas in the lateral protocerebrum (LP), although their termination areas outside the LP differed from neuron to neuron. The termination areas within the LP were distinct from, but close to, those of uniglomerular and macroglomerular PNs that transmitted signals concerning general odors and female sex pheromones, respectively. PNs originating from DC1, DC2, and DC3 glomeruli exhibited excitatory responses to cold, moist, and dry stimuli, respectively, probably due to excitatory synaptic input from cold, moist, and dry receptor cells, respectively, whereas their responses were often modulated by olfactory stimuli. These findings suggested that dorsocentral PNs participate in neural pathways that lead to behavioral responses to temperature or humidity changes.
",12454995
0,7399,"Dolichochorus Strobl 1904: a valid genus of Mesochorinae ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Ichneumonidae: Mesochorinae).
Dolichochorus Strobl 1904, is shown to be a valid genus of the ichneumonid subfamily Mesochorinae, and a senior synonym of Thamester Wahl 1993 (syn. nov.). Dolichochorus japonicus (Wahl 1993) is a new combination. Dolichochorus longiceps (Strobl 1904) is shown to be a senior synonym of Astiphromma elongatum Nakanishi 1969, syn. nov. The genus Dolichochorus is defined, a revised diagnosis provided for the genus and the two included species are provisionally separated.
",30790934
0,7399,"Checklist of Iranian Encyrtids ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Chalcidoidea) with descriptions of new species.
A list of Iranian Encyrtidae ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Chalcidoidea) is given for the first time. It includes 93 species representing 32 genera. Host information from Iran and distributional data are also provided. Three genera and 7 species are first recorded from Iran. New host records are provided for three species. Two new species, Gyranusoidea iranica sp. n. and Microterys iranicus sp. n., are described and diagnostic characters are provided for them.
",20672988
0,7399,"A new species of Cerroneuroterus Melika Pujade-Villar from the Eastern Palaearctic ([START]Hymenoptera[END], Cynipidae, Cynipini).
A new gall wasp species, Cerroneuroterus yukawamasudai Pujade-Villar Melika sp. nov., is described from China. The asexual generation induces leaf lenticular galls, and the sexual generation induces catkin galls on Q. acutissima and Q. variabilis. Sexual females and males are not described yet. Data on the diagnosis, distribution, and biology of the new species are provided, including a key to sexual and asexual females of all described Cerroneuroterus species. Previous misidentifications of host galls recorded in Japan are commented on. Molecular analyses were performed to assess the validity of the genus Cerroneuroterus and the affiliation of the new species.
",33311343
0,7399,"New and unusual host records for North American and South American spider wasps ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Pompilidae).
New and unusual host records for 133 species and subspecies of Pompilidae predominantly from the southwestern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America are presented in modified taxonomic order. First-time species host records are given for Calopompilus Ashmead, Pepsis Fabricius, Hemipepsis Dahlbom, Priocnessus Banks, Entypus Dahlbom, Pompilocalus Roig-Alsina, Sphictostethus Kohl, Auplopus Spinola, Ageniella Banks, Eragenia Banks, Aporus Spinola, Poecilopompilus Ashmead, Tachypompilus Ashmead, Anoplius Dufour, Priochilus (Fabricius) and Notocyphus Smith. New host spider families are introduced for Calopompilus, Pepsis, Hemipepsis, Priocnessus, Entypus, Cryptocheilus Panzer, Priocnemis Schiodte, Auplopus, Ageniella, Eragenia, Aporus, Tachypompilus, Anoplius, Priochilus and Notocyphus. Eight host spider families are reported from the Western Hemisphere for the first time: Halonoproctidae (Notocyphus dorsalis dorsalis Cresson); Dipluridae (Pepsis pretiosa Dahlbom, P. montezuma Smith, P. infuscate Spinola, P. atripennis Fabricius, P. martini Vardy, Priocnessus vancei Waichert and Pitts); Nemesiidae (Pepsis pallidolimbata Lucas, P. viridis Lepeletier, P. spp., Pompilocalus hirticeps (Guerin), Sphictostethus gravesii (Haliday), S. striatulus Roig-Alsina, Priocnemis oregona Banks); Barychelidae (Eragenia sp.); Paratropididae (Pepsis stella Montet); Trechaleidae (Hemipepsis toussainti (Banks), Entypus unifasciatus cressoni (Banks), Tachypompilus ferrugineus (Say), Tachypompilus unicolor cerinus Evans, Priochilus gloriosum (Cresson); Desidae (Ageniella accepta (Cresson), Sphictostethus isodontus Roig-Alsina) and Selenopidae (Priochilus scrupulum (Fox), Tachypompilus erubescens (Taschenberg) or xanthopterus (Rohwer)). The first known host records for the rare South American pompilid genera Chirodamus (Lycosidae: Lycosa sp.) and Herbstellus (Nemesiidae: Diplothelopsis cf bonariensis Mello-Leitao) are presented.
",33311100
0,7399,"A total-evidence approach to dating with fossils, applied to the early radiation of the [START]hymenoptera[END].
Phylogenies are usually dated by calibrating interior nodes against the fossil record. This relies on indirect methods that, in the worst case, misrepresent the fossil information. Here, we contrast such node dating with an approach that includes fossils along with the extant taxa in a Bayesian total-evidence analysis. As a test case, we focus on the early radiation of the [START]Hymenoptera[END], mostly documented by poorly preserved impression fossils that are difficult to place phylogenetically. Specifically, we compare node dating using nine calibration points derived from the fossil record with total-evidence dating based on 343 morphological characters scored for 45 fossil (4--20 complete) and 68 extant taxa. In both cases we use molecular data from seven markers (~5 kb) for the extant taxa. Because it is difficult to model speciation, extinction, sampling, and fossil preservation realistically, we develop a simple uniform prior for clock trees with fossils, and we use relaxed clock models to accommodate rate variation across the tree. Despite considerable uncertainty in the placement of most fossils, we find that they contribute significantly to the estimation of divergence times in the total-evidence analysis. In particular, the posterior distributions on divergence times are less sensitive to prior assumptions and tend to be more precise than in node dating. The total-evidence analysis also shows that four of the seven [START]Hymenoptera[END] calibration points used in node dating are likely to be based on erroneous or doubtful assumptions about the fossil placement. With respect to the early radiation of [START]Hymenoptera[END], our results suggest that the crown group dates back to the Carboniferous, ~309 Ma (95% interval: 291--347 Ma), and diversified into major extant lineages much earlier than previously thought, well before the Triassic. [Bayesian inference; fossil dating; morphological evolution; relaxed clock; statistical phylogenetics.].
",22723471
0,7399,"New and little-known species of Arachnospila (subgenus Ammosphex) ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Pompilidae) from East Siberia.
Seventeen species are listed. Five new species: Arachnospila (Ammosphex) kasparyani sp. nov. (Tuva), A. (A.) maxim sp. nov. (Tuva, Khakassia), A. (A.) moczari sp. nov. (Tuva), A. (A.) scythia sp. nov. (Tuva), A. (A.) sibirica sp. nov. (Tuva, Republic of Altai) are described and illustrated. Arachnospila (Ammosphex) eoabnormis Lelej, 1995, A. (A.) orientausa Loktionov & Lelej, 2011, and A. (A.) mongolopinata Wolf, 1981 are newly recorded from East Siberia. The distribution of eight species in East Siberia is enlarged. The revised key of 24 species in males from East Siberia and Russian Far East is given. 
",25661607
0,7399,"Sawflies of Ethiopia ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Argidae, Tenthredinidae).
Sawflies were collected in Ethiopia during 2010-2013. Three species represent new records for the country: Arge deckerti Koch, 2005, Athalia excisa Koch, 2006 and Xenapates nigrifrons Koch, 2012. Arge flavifrons Mocsary, 1909, syn. n. and A. transvaalensis Cameron, 1911, syn. n. are subjective synonyms of A. micheli (Buysson, 1900) that is re-described here. Athalia fumosa Gribodo, 1879 sp. rev. is recognized as a valid species and is removed from synonymy with A. scioensis Gribodo, 1879. Distega braunsi Enslin, 1911 syn. n. and D. brunniventris Enslin, 1913 syn. n. are subjective synonyms of D. montium Konow, 1907. Pseudoneacidiophora Koch, 1998 is a new junior synonym of Kivua Forsius, 1934 (syn. n.), resulting in the new combination Kivua pleuritica (comb. n.) for Athalia pleuritica Forsius, 1927. Kivua camerunensis nom. n. is proposed for P. bicolor Koch, 1998 (preoccupied in Kivua by K. bicolor (Pasteels, 1949) (Bicrista bicolor Pasteels)), the second species formerly included in Pseudoneacidiophora. The female of Distega abyssinica Pasteels, 1955 is described for the first time. An annotated and illustrated list including six distribution maps is given for Ethiopian sawflies. It is composed of 34 species belonging to the genus Arge (Argidae), and seven genera of Tenthredinidae: Athalia (Athaliinae), Kivua, Neacidiophora, Xenapates (Allantinae), Distega, Trisodontophyes (Blennocampinae), and Dulophanes (Selandriinae). Some ecological aspects of Athalia species are discussed, especially for the most abundantly collected A. vollenhoveni Gribodo, 1879. 
",26624122
0,7399,"Application of DNA barcoding to the identification of [START]Hymenoptera[END] parasitoids from the soybean aphid (Aphis glycines) in China.
Aphis glycines Matsumura is an important pest of soybean in Asia and North America. [START]Hymenoptera[END] parasitoids play a key role in the control of the soybean aphid. The correct identification of parasitoids is a critical step that precedes the assessment of their potential biological control agents. Accurate identification of the majority of the species attacking the soybean aphid often requires elaborate specimen preparation and expert taxonomic knowledge. In this study, we facilitated the identification of soybean aphid parasitoids by applying a DNA barcoding approach following a preliminary morphological identification. We generated DNA sequence data from the mitochondrial COI gene and the D2 region of 28S rDNA to assess the genetic variation within and between parasitoid species emerging from the soybean aphid in China. Fifteen [START]Hymenoptera[END] parasitoid species belonging to 10 genera of five families were identified with little intra-specific variation (0.09% +- 0.06% for 28S and 0.36% +- 0.18% for COI) and large inter-specific divergence (30.46% +- 3.42% for 28S and 20.4% +- 1.20% for COI). 
",24339363
0,7399,"First record and new species of the parasitoid wasp Chaenotetrastichus Graham ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Eulophidae) for the Neotropical Region, with notes on its biology and a key for the species of the genus.
Chaenotetrastichus neotropicalis sp. nov. from the Atlantic Forest, Brazil, is described and illustrated. This new species is associated with a species of the pompilid wasp Auplopus Spinola ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Pompilidae) and it represents the first record of the genus for the Neotropics. A key for the extant species of the genus Chaenotetrastichus Graham is also presented.
",31717195
0,7399,"Factors influencing Nosema bombi infections in natural populations of Bombus terrestris ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Apidae).
Bumblebees are of profound ecological importance because of the pollination services they provide in natural and agricultural ecosystems. Any decline of these pollinators is therefore of great concern for ecosystem functioning. Increased parasite pressures have been discussed as a major factor for the loss of pollinators. One of the main parasites of bumblebees is Nosema bombi, an intracellular microsporidian parasite with considerable impact on the vitality of the host. Here we study the effect of host colony density and host genetic variability on N. bombi infections in natural populations of the bumblebee Bombus terrestris. We sampled males and workers from six B. terrestris populations located in an agricultural landscape in Middle Sweden to determine the prevalence and degree of N. bombi infections. All individuals were genotyped with five microsatellite markers to infer the colony densities in the sampled populations and the genetic variability of the host population. We confirmed that genetic variability and sex significantly correlate with the degree of infection with N. bombi. Males and workers with lower genetic variability had significantly higher infection levels than average. Also colony density had a significant impact on the degree of infection, with high density populations having higher infected individuals.
",22349145
0,7399,"A test of the sympatric host race formation hypothesis in Neodiprion ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Diprionidae).
Theory suggests that sympatric speciation is possible; however, its prevalence in nature remains unknown. Because Neodiprion sawflies are host specialists and mate on their hosts, sympatric speciation via host shifts may be common in this genus. Here, we test this hypothesis using near-complete taxonomic sampling of a species group, comprehensive geographical and ecological data, and multiple comparative methods. Host-use data suggest that host shifts contributed to the evolution of reproductive isolation in Neodiprion and previous work has shown that gene flow accompanied divergence. However, geographical data provide surprisingly little support for the hypothesis that host shifts occurred in sympatry. While these data do not rule out sympatric host race formation in Neodiprion, they suggest that this speciation mode is uncommon in the genus and possibly in nature.
",20504811
0,7399,"A new species of Trisecodes from the Afrotropics ([START]Hymenoptera[END], Eulophidae) .
The first Afrotropical species of Trisecodes Delvare & LaSalle, 2000, T. africanum Gumovsky, sp. n., is described from localities in Uganda, Guinea and Cameroon. The new species differs from the type species of the genus, T. agromyzae, which was described from the Neotropical region in Belize, mostly by having longitudinally strigate sculpture on the mesosoma dorsally and by the fore wing being somewhat darkened in its basal three-fifths. A possible Gondwanan origin of the genus is postulated.  
",25284417
0,7399,"Revision of the Amphibolips species of the 'nassa' complex from Mexico and central America ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Cynipidae).
The cynipid gall wasp species of Amphibolips (Cynipidae: Cynipini) belonging to the ""nassa"" complex are reviewed for Mexico and Central America. Five new species are described: A. bassae Cuesta-Porta Pujade-Villar n. sp., A. bromus Pujade-Villar Cuesta-Porta n. sp., A. kinseyi Cuesta-Porta Pujade-Villar n. sp., A. rulli Pujade-Villar Cuesta-Porta n. sp., and A. turulli Pujade-Villar Cuesta-Porta n. sp. Amphibolips quercuspomiformis (Bassett) comb. nov. is redescribed and Amphibolips malinche Nieves-Aldrey Maldonado is proposed as a new synonym of A. hidalgoensis Pujade-Villar Melika. The validity of A. dampfi is discussed. Diagnostic characters, distribution, host-plant relationships, and biology are provided. Also new diagnostic characters and new distribution data for earlier described species are given. Keys to adults and galls for all known ""nassa"" complex species from Mexico and Central America are presented.
",33311324
0,7399,"Life history and biocontrol potential of the first female-producing parthenogenetic species of Diglyphus ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Eulophidae) against agromyzid leafminers.
Diglyphus species are dominant biocontrol agents for suppressing outbreaks of agromyzid leafminers in fields. In July 2015, we collected a new thelytokous species of Diglyphus in Qinghai, China. The wasp is here named as D. wani Liu, Zhu & Yefremova sp. nov., based on morphological and molecular analyses. The life history and biocontrol potential of the wasp were studied in the laboratory and by providing Liriomyza sativae larvae. The intrinsic rate of increase, finite rate of increase, and mean generation time were 0.2373 d-1, 1.2678 d-1, and 15.9 d, respectively. The wasps showed three types of host-killing behaviour, namely parasitism, host feeding and host stinging, resulting in 47.6, 94.4 and 3.4 host larvae killed per wasp over a lifetime, respectively. The finite total host-killing rate was 1.0071 and the wasp showed strong synovigeny. The wasp may be a crucial biocontrol agent against agromyzid leafminers.
",29459647
0,7399,"Mirolydidae, a new family of Jurassic pamphilioid sawfly ([START]Hymenoptera[END]) highlighting mosaic evolution of lower [START]Hymenoptera[END].
We describe Pamphilioidea: Mirolydidae Wang, Rasnitsyn et Ren, fam. n., containing Mirolyda hirta Wang, Rasnitsyn et Ren, gen. et sp. n., from the late Middle Jurassic Jiulongshan Formation of Daohugou, Inner Mongolia, China. The new taxon is characterized by unique forewing venation with the presence of forewing SC, 1-RS almost as long as 1-M, M + Cu straight, 2r-rs strongly reclival, and antenna with homonomous flagellum, revealing new and important details in antennal evolutionary transformations. Thus, M. hirta with a combination of primitive and more derived characters highlights its transitional state in the Pamphilioidea and complex mosaic evolution within Pamphilioidea in the late Middle Jurassic. The body of this species is densely covered with thin and long setae, suggesting its possible habit of visiting gymnosperm reproductive organs for pollen feeding and/or pollination during the late Middle Jurassic, much earlier than the appearance of angiosperm flowers.
",28266631
0,7399,"A review of Deuterixys Mason from China, with description of three new species ([START]Hymenoptera[END], Braconidae, Microgastrinae).
The genus Deuterixys Mason, 1981 ([START]Hymenoptera[END], Braconidae, Microgastrinae) is revised for China, with three new species described: D. jilinensis Zheng Song, sp. nov., D. longitarsus Zheng Song, sp. nov. and D. shennongensis Zheng Song, sp. nov. A key to the Old World species of Deuterixys is presented.
",32229888
0,7399,"A new species of spider wasps ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Pompilidae) from Panama: Mystacagenia kimseyae sp. nov.
Mystacagenia Evans, 1973 is a strictly Neotropical genus of pompilid wasps (Pepsinae: Ageniellini), restricted to rain forest areas. The genus comprises four described species: M. albiceps Evans, 1973 (Peru, Brazil), M. bellula Evans, 1973 (Peru), M. variegata Evans, 1973 (Brazil), and M. elegantula Evans, 1980 (Panama). Mystacagenia is scarce in collections, with only eight specimens registered, all of these females (Evans 1973, 1977, 1980; Cambra 1993; Corro Cambra 2011).
",32229880
0,7399,"Review of Afrotropical species of Goetheana Girault ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Eulophidae), with description of a new species.
Three species of Goetheana Girault ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Eulophidae, Entedoninae) are recorded from the Afrotropical biogeographic realm: G. shakespearei Girault (cosmopolitan), G. incerta Annecke (Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Uganda, Senegal) and G. kobzari Gumovsky sp. n. (South Africa, Uganda, Central African Republic). Goetheana incerta is re-described based on its type series, which is discussed. Males of G. shakespearei and G. incerta are easily separated by antennal scape structure, but females barely differ in morphology. New geographical records and a discussion of morphology of Goetheana are also provided. 
",27515634
0,7399,"A new species of Stenodynerus ([START]Hymenoptera[END], Vespidae, Eumeninae) from Pakistan.
A new species of Eumeninae, Stenodynerus punjabensis Qasim, Carpenter et Rafi, is described from Pakistan. A key to the Stenodynerus species of Pakistan is also included.
",29689846
0,7399,"Body and Wing Allometries Reveal Flight-Fecundity Tradeoff in Response to Larval Provisioning in Osmia lignaria ([START]Hymenoptera[END]: Megachilidae).
Variation in body size has important implications for physical performance and fitness. For insects, adult size and morphology are determined by larval growth and metamorphosis. Female blue orchard bees, Osmia lignaria, (Say) provision a finite quantity of food to their offspring. In this study, we asked how provision-dependent variation in size changes adult morphology. We performed a diet manipulation in which some larvae were starved in the final instar and some were given unlimited food. We examined the consequences on adult morphology in two ways. First, allometric relationships between major body regions (head, thorax, abdomen) and total body mass were measured to determine relative growth of these structures. Second, morphometrics that are critical for flight (wing area, wing loading, and extra flight power index) were quantified. Head and thorax mass had hyperallometric relationships with body size, indicating these parts become disproportionately large in adults when larvae are given copious provisions. However, abdominal mass and wing area increased hypoallometrically with body size. Thus, large adults had disproportionately lighter abdomens and smaller wing areas than smaller adults. Though both males and females followed these general patterns, allometric patterns were affected by sex. For flight metrics, small adults had reduced wing loading and an increased extra flight power index. These results suggest that diet quantity alters development in ways that affect the morphometric trait relationships in adult O. lignaria and may lead to functional differences in performance.
",34113998
0,50557,"Nanoformulations and their mode of action in [START]insects[END]: a review of biological interactions.
While nanoparticles (NPs) can be used as insecticides by themselves, they can also be carriers for insecticidal chemicals. Existing literature suggests that the smaller the NP size, the greater the toxicity and penetration into the [START]insect[END]'s body. Nonetheless, there is a lack of literature pertaining to the mode of action within [START]insects[END]. This review article summarizes the currently available entomological studies on the mechanisms of NP-[START]insect[END] interactions. Externally, NPs affect pigmentation and integrity of the cuticle, while internally they induce immune responses and alter gene expression leading to altered protein, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism along with cellular toxicity that impairs development and reproduction of the [START]insect[END]. Consequently, [START]insects[END] are incapacitated due to the disruption of the nutrient intake, production of reactive oxygen species and altered biochemical activity while some NPs can promote growth and development as well as diminish the effects of nontarget toxicity.
",30760084
0,50557,"Sexually antagonistic coevolution in [START]insects[END] is associated with only limited morphological diversity.
Morphological traits involved in male-female sexual interactions, such as male genitalia, often show rapid divergent evolution. This widespread evolutionary pattern could result from sustained sexually antagonistic coevolution, or from other types of selection such as female choice or selection for species isolation. I reviewed the extensive but under-utilized taxonomic literature on a selected subset of [START]insects[END], in which male-female conflict has apparently resulted in antagonistic coevolution in males and females. I checked the sexual morphology of groups comprising 500-1000 species in six orders for three evolutionary trends predicted by the sexually antagonistic coevolution hypothesis: males with species-specific differences and elaborate morphology in structures that grasp or perforate females in sexual contexts; corresponding female structures with apparently coevolved species-specific morphology; and potentially defensive designs of female morphology. The expectation was that the predictions were especially likely to be fulfilled in these groups. A largely qualitative overview revealed several surprising patterns: sexually antagonistic coevolution is associated with frequent, relatively weak species-specific differences in males, but male designs are usually relatively simple and conservative (in contrast to the diverse and elaborate designs common in male structures specialized to contact and hold females in other species, and also in weapons such as horns and pincers used in intra-specific battles); coevolutionary divergence of females is not common; and defensive female divergence is very uncommon. No cases were found of female defensive devices that can be facultatively deployed. Coevolutionary morphological races may have occurred between males and females of some bugs with traumatic insemination, but apparently as a result of female attempts to control fertilization, rather than to reduce the physical damage and infections resulting from insertion of the male's hypodermic genitalia. In sum, the sexually antagonistic coevolution that probably occurs in these groups has generally not resulted in rapid, sustained evolutionary divergence in male and female external sexual morphology. Several limitations of this study, and directions for further analyses are discussed.
",16674564
0,50557,"Descriptions and records of Cladiopsocidae and Dolabellopsocidae ([START]Insecta[END]: Psocodea: 'Psocoptera') from Valle del Cauca and National Natural Park Gorgona, Colombia.
The results of a survey on the species diversity of the families Cladiopsocidae and Dolabellopsocidae (Psocodea: 'Psocoptera': Psocomorpha: Epipsocetae) in Valle del Cauca and in the National Natural Park (NNP) Gorgona, Colombia, are presented. The specimens studied were collected in the context of two scientific projects, in which 12 species in the two families were identified, five in Cladiopsocidae and seven in Dolabellopsocidae. In the first family, Cladiopsocus presented a new record in the country and four new species; in the latter, two genera were identified, Dolabellopsocus, with three new species and two new records, and Isthmopsocus, with two new species. This study presents the description of the nine new species from Valle del Cauca and NNP Gorgona, the new records for Colombia and identification keys to the neotropical species of both families. 
",25544130
0,50557,"Evolutionary drivers of parasite-induced changes in [START]insect[END] life-history traits from theory to underlying mechanisms.
Many hosts are able to tolerate infection by altering life-history traits that are traded-off one against another. Here the reproductive fitness of [START]insect[END] hosts and vectors is reviewed in the context of theories concerning evolutionary mechanisms driving such alterations. These include the concepts that changes in host reproductive fitness are by-products of infection, parasite manipulations, host adaptations, mafia-like strategies or host compensatory responses. Two models are examined in depth, a tapeworm/beetle association, Hymenolepis diminuta/Tenebrio molitor and malaria infections in anopheline mosquitoes. Parasite-induced impairment of vitellogenesis ultimately leads to a decrease in female reproductive success in both cases, though by different means. Evidence is put forwards for both a manipulator molecule of parasite origin and for host-initiated regulation. These models are backed by other examples in which mechanisms underlying fecundity reduction or fecundity compensation are explored. It is concluded that evolutionary theories must be supported by empirical evidence gained from studying molecular, biochemical and physiological mechanisms underlying changes in host life-history traits, ideally using organisms that have evolved together and that are in their natural environment.
",19289191
0,50557,"The evolution of parental care in [START]insects[END]: A test of current hypotheses.
Which sex should care for offspring is a fundamental question in evolution. Invertebrates, and [START]insects[END] in particular, show some of the most diverse kinds of parental care of all animals, but to date there has been no broad comparative study of the evolution of parental care in this group. Here, we test existing hypotheses of [START]insect[END] parental care evolution using a literature-compiled phylogeny of over 2000 species. To address substantial uncertainty in the [START]insect[END] phylogeny, we use a brute force approach based on multiple random resolutions of uncertain nodes. The main transitions were between no care (the probable ancestral state) and female care. Male care evolved exclusively from no care, supporting models where mating opportunity costs for caring males are reduced-for example, by caring for multiple broods-but rejecting the ""enhanced fecundity"" hypothesis that male care is favored because it allows females to avoid care costs. Biparental care largely arose by males joining caring females, and was more labile in Holometabola than in Hemimetabola. [START]Insect[END] care evolution most closely resembled amphibian care in general trajectory. Integrating these findings with the wealth of life history and ecological data in [START]insects[END] will allow testing of a rich vein of existing hypotheses. 
",25825047
0,50557,"Genomic and morphological evidence converge to resolve the enigma of Strepsiptera.
The phylogeny of [START]insects[END], one of the most spectacular radiations of life on earth, has received considerable attention. However, the evolutionary roots of one intriguing group of [START]insects[END], the twisted-wing parasites (Strepsiptera), remain unclear despite centuries of study and debate. Strepsiptera exhibit exceptional larval developmental features, consistent with a predicted step from direct (hemimetabolous) larval development to complete metamorphosis that could have set the stage for the spectacular radiation of metamorphic (holometabolous) [START]insects[END]. Here we report the sequencing of a Strepsiptera genome and show that the analysis of sequence-based genomic data (comprising more than 18 million nucleotides from nearly 4,500 genes obtained from a total of 13 insect genomes), along with genomic metacharacters, clarifies the phylogenetic origin of Strepsiptera and sheds light on the evolution of holometabolous insect development. Our results provide overwhelming support for Strepsiptera as the closest living relatives of beetles (Coleoptera). They demonstrate that the larval developmental features of Strepsiptera, reminiscent of those of hemimetabolous [START]insects[END], are the result of convergence. Our analyses solve the long-standing enigma of the evolutionary roots of Strepsiptera and reveal that the holometabolous mode of insect development is more malleable than previously thought.
",22704986
0,50557,"The origins of [START]insect[END] metamorphosis.
[START]Insect[END] metamorphosis is a fascinating and highly successful biological adaptation, but there is much uncertainty as to how it evolved. Ancestral [START]insect[END] species did not undergo metamorphosis and there are still some existing species that lack metamorphosis or undergo only partial metamorphosis. Based on endocrine studies and morphological comparisons of the development of [START]insect[END] species with and without metamorphosis, a novel hypothesis for the evolution of metamorphosis is proposed. Changes in the endocrinology of development are central to this hypothesis. The three stages of the ancestral [START]insect[END] species-pronymph, nymph and adult-are proposed to be equivalent to the larva, pupa and adult stages of insects with complete metamorphosis. This proposal has general implications for [START]insect[END] developmental biology.
",10519548
0,50557,"Taxonomist's Nightmare ... Evolutionist's Delight : An Integrative Approach Resolves Species Limits in Jumping Bristletails Despite Widespread Hybridization and Parthenogenesis.
Accurate species delimitation is fundamental to biology. Traditionally, species were delimited based on morphological characters, sometimes leading to taxonomic uncertainty in morphologically conserved taxa. Recently, multiple taxonomically challenging cases have benefited from integrative taxonomy-an approach that highlights congruence among different disciplines and invokes evolutionary explanations for incongruence, acknowledging that different methods can mirror different stages of the speciation continuum. Here, we used a cohesive protocol for integrative taxonomy to revise species limits in 20 nominal species and 4 morphospecies of an ancestrally wingless [START]insect[END] group, the jumping bristletail genus Machilis from the European Eastern Alps. Even though morphologically conserved, several small-scale endemic species have been described from the Eastern Alps based on variation in hypodermal pigmentation patterns-a highly questionable character. As valuable as these endemics are for conservation, they have never been verified by alternative methods. Using traditional morphometrics, mitochondrial DNA, ribosomal DNA, and amplified fragment-length polymorphism markers, we identify six nominal species as taxonomic junior synonyms (Machilis alpicola Janetschek, 1953 syn. n. under M. vagans Wygodzinsky, 1941; M. ladensis Janetschek, 1950 syn. n., M. robusta Wygodzinsky, 1941 syn. n., and M. vicina Wygodzinsky, 1941 syn. n. under M. inermis Wygodzinsky, 1941; M. aleamaculata Wygodzinsky, 1941 syn. n. under M. montana Wygodzinsky, 1941; M. pulchra Janetschek, 1950 syn. n. under M. helleri Verhoeff, 1910) and describe two new species (Machilis cryptoglacialis sp. n. and Machilis albida sp. n.), one uncovered from morphological crypsis and one never sampled before. Building on numerous cases of incongruence among data sources, we further shed light on complex evolutionary histories including hybrid speciation, historical and recent hybridization, and ongoing speciation. We hypothesize that an inherent affinity to hybridization, combined with parallel switches to parthenogenesis and repeated postglacial colonization events may have boosted endemicity in Eastern Alpine Machilis We thus emphasize the importance of integrative taxonomy for rigorous species delimitation and its implication for evolutionary research and conservation in taxonomically challenging taxa.
",26869489
0,50557,"[START]Insect[END] vision: a few tricks to regulate flight altitude.
A recent study sheds new light on the visual cues used by Drosophila to regulate flight altitude. The striking similarity with previously identified steering mechanisms provides a coherent basis for novel models of vision-based flight control in [START]insects[END] and robots.
",20937471
0,50557,"Family Panorpodidae ([START]Insecta[END], Mecoptera) from Baltic amber (upper Eocene): new species, redescription and palaeogeographic remarks of relict scorpionflies.
The history of the species-poor family Panorpodidae is very interesting due to its uneven present distribution. The only fossils of the genus Panorpodes are two species known from Baltic amber, described in 1856 and 1954. A third species, Panorpodes weitschati sp. nov., is herein described. New diagnoses and descriptions as well as new drawings of all fossil species of Panorpodes are provided, including the first illustration of the wing of P. hageni. Fossil Panorpodes display three diametrically opposed patterns of wings markings, from the highly transparent wings of P. brevicauda, through transparent wings with dark bands and spots of P. weitschati sp. nov., to the dark wings with only narrow transparent bands of P. hageni. The fossil specimens are characterized by a great variability in wing venation, even in a single specimen, similar to that of living species.
",26042307
0,50557,"The histology of the cerebral neurosecretory system in several representatives of Cleroidea (Coleoptera, [START]Insecta[END]).
In Thymalus sp. (Peltidae), Melambia tekkensi (Trogositidae), Trichodes apiarius and Thanasimus formicarius (Cleridae), the composition of cerebral neurosecretory cells (NSC) is similar to that found earlier in Meloidae (Panov 1985a) and Tenebrionidae (Melnikova and Panov 1981; Melnikova 1983). 20 type I NSCs, 16 type II NSCs, 4 type III NSCs, several type IV NSCs and 4 type V NSCs are characteristic of their pars intercerebralis. On the other hand, a reduction of type I and II NSC number to 10 and 12 cells, respectively, was revealed in Malachius affinis, Malachius viridis and Malachius bipustulatus (Melyridae). There are 6 large dorsolateral NSCs and 2 lateral ones in each brain hemisphere of most Cleroidea studied. Their retrocerebral endocrine complex is similar to that of most polyphagous coleopterans: a single nervus corporis cardiaci leaves each brain side, the corpora cardiaca are fused with lateral aorta walls and corresponding corpora allata.
",2723412
0,50557,"[START]Insects[END] as test systems for assessing the potential role of microgravity in biological development and evolution.
Gravity and radiation are undoubtedly the two major environmental factors altered in space.  Gravity is a weak force, which creates a permanent potential field acting on the mass of biological systems and their cellular components, strongly reduced in space flights.  Developmental systems, particularly at very early stages, provide the larger cellular compartments known, where the effects of alterations in the size of the gravity vector on living organisms can be more effectively tested.  The [START]insects[END], one of the more highly evolved classes of animals in which early development occurs in a syncytial embryo, are systems particularly well suited to test these effects and the specific developmental mechanisms affected.  Furthermore, they share some basic features such as small size, short life cycles, relatively high radio-resistance, etc. and show a diversity of developmental strategies and tempos advantageous in experiments of this type in space.  Drosophila melanogaster, the current biological paradigm to study development, with so much genetic and evolutionary background available, is clearly the reference organism for these studies.  The current evidence on the effects of the physical parameters altered in space flights on [START]insect[END] development indicate a surprising correlation between effects seen on the fast developing and relatively small Drosophila embryo and the more slowly developing and large Carausius morosus system.  In relation to the issue of the importance of developmental and environmental constraints in biological evolution, still the missing link in current evolutionary thinking, [START]insects[END] and space facilities for long-term experiments could provide useful experimental settings where to critically assess how development and evolution may be interconnected.  Finally, it has to be pointed out that since there are experimental data indicating a possible synergism between microgravity and space radiation, possible effects of space radiation should be taken into account in the planning and evaluation of experiments designed to test the potential role of microgravity on biological developmental and evolution.
",11537327
0,50557,"Terrestrial [START]insects[END] along elevation gradients: species and community responses to altitude.
The literature on the response of [START]insect[END] species to the changing environments experienced along altitudinal gradients is diverse and widely dispersed. There is a growing awareness that such responses may serve as analogues for climate warming effects occurring at a particular fixed altitude or latitude over time. This review seeks, therefore, to synthesise information on the responses of [START]insects[END] and allied groups to increasing altitude and provide a platform for future research. It focuses on those functional aspects of [START]insect[END] biology that show positive or negative reaction to altitudinal changes but avoids emphasising adaptation to high altitude per se. Reactions can be direct, with [START]insect[END] characteristics or performance responding to changing environmental parameters, or they can be indirect and mediated through the [START]insect[END]'s interaction with other organisms. These organisms include the host plant in the case of herbivorous [START]insects[END], and also competitor species, specific parasitoids, predators and pathogens. The manner in which these various factors individually and collectively influence the morphology, behaviour, ecophysiology, growth and development, survival, reproduction, and spatial distribution of [START]insect[END] species is considered in detail. Resultant patterns in the abundance of individual species populations and of community species richness are examined. Attempts are made throughout to provide mechanistic explanations of trends and to place each topic, where appropriate, into the broader theoretical context by appropriate reference to key literature. The paper concludes by considering how montane [START]insect[END] species will respond to climate warming.
",16094810
0,50557,"Structure, development, and evolution of [START]insect[END] auditory systems.
This paper provides an overview of [START]insect[END] peripheral auditory systems focusing on tympanate ears (pressure detectors) and emphasizing research during the last 15 years. The theme throughout is the evolution of hearing in insects. Ears have appeared independently no fewer than 19 times in the class Insecta and are located on various thoracic and abdominal body segments, on legs, on wings, and on mouth parts. All have fundamentally similar structures-a tympanum backed by a tracheal sac and a tympanal chordotonal organ-though they vary widely in size, ancillary structures, and number of chordotonal sensilla. Novel ears have recently been discovered in praying mantids, two families of beetles, and two families of flies. The tachinid flies are especially notable because they use a previously unknown mechanism for sound localization. Developmental and comparative studies have identified the evolutionary precursors of the tympanal chordotonal organs in several insects; they are uniformly chordotonal proprioceptors. Tympanate species fall into clusters determined by which of the embryologically defined chordotonal organ groups in each body segment served as precursor for the tympanal organ. This suggests that the many appearances of hearing could arise from changes in a small number of developmental modules. The nature of those developmental changes that lead to a functional [START]insect[END] ear is not yet known.
",10607379
0,50557,"Molecular genetic diversity within Myrmeleontidae family.
Antlions are [START]insects[END] which feed on ants, [START]insect[END] which dig a pit and lies in wait for ants and other [START]insects[END]. Twelve species of Myrmeleontidae family as antlions and many specimens were identified in different locations in Fars province in Iran. To unveil the genetic similarity between these species, their DNA was extracted by modified CTAB method and with the use of seventeen 10-nucleotides primers of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD); the genetic analysis of them was investigated. After PCR, agarose 1.5 % was used for electrophoresis. The obtained electrophoresis bands had base pairs range between 150 and 1,000 bp. The maximum of polymorphic bands belonged to OPH5, N13, and the minimum of polymorphic bands belonged to OPA7 primers. Different genetic similarity indices were found between eight species of antlions. Possibility of use of RAPD marker together with morphological studies for classification and identification of antlions is discussed.
",23065226
0,50557,"Climate Change and Tritrophic Interactions: Will Modifications to Greenhouse Gas Emissions Increase the Vulnerability of Herbivorous Insects to Natural Enemies?
Insects are highly dependent on odor cues released into the environment to locate conspecifics or food sources. This mechanism is particularly important for [START]insect[END] predators that rely on kairomones released by their prey to detect them. In the context of climate change and, more specifically, modifications in the gas composition of the atmosphere, chemical communication-mediating interactions between phytophagous [START]insect[END] pests, their host plants, and their natural enemies is likely to be impacted. Several reports have indicated that modifications to plants caused by elevated carbon dioxide and ozone concentrations might indirectly affect [START]insect[END] herbivores, with community-level modifications to this group potentially having an indirect influence on higher trophic levels. The vulnerability of agricultural [START]insect[END] pests toward their natural enemies under elevated greenhouse gases concentrations has been frequently reported, but conflicting results have been obtained. This literature review shows that the higher levels of carbon dioxide, as predicted for the coming century, do not enhance the abundance or efficiency of natural enemies to locate hosts or prey in most published studies. Increased ozone levels lead to modifications in herbivore-induced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by damaged plants, which may impact the attractiveness of these herbivores to the third trophic level. Furthermore, other oxidative gases (such as SO2 and NO2) tend to reduce the abundance of natural enemies. The impact of changes in atmospheric gas emissions on plant-[START]insect[END] and [START]insect[END]-insect chemical communication has been under-documented, despite the significance of these mechanisms in tritrophic interactions. We conclude by suggesting some further prospects on this topic of research yet to be investigated. 
",26313181
0,50557,"Same host-plant, different sterols: variation in sterol metabolism in an [START]insect[END] herbivore community.
[START]Insects[END] lack the ability to synthesize sterols de novo, which are required as cell membrane inserts and as precursors for steroid hormones. Herbivorous [START]insects[END] typically utilize cholesterol as their primary sterol. However, plants rarely contain cholesterol, and herbivorous [START]insects[END] must, therefore, produce cholesterol by metabolizing plant sterols. Previous studies have shown that [START]insects[END] generally display diversity in phytosterol metabolism. Despite the biological importance of sterols, there has been no investigation of their metabolism in a naturally occurring herbivorous [START]insect[END] community. Therefore, we determined the neutral sterol profile of Solidago altissima L., six taxonomically and ecologically diverse herbivorous [START]insect[END] associates, and the fungal symbiont of one herbivore. Our results demonstrated that S. altissima contained Delta(7)-sterols (spinasterol, 22-dihydrospinasterol, avenasterol, and 24-epifungisterol), and that 85% of the sterol pool existed in a conjugated form. Despite feeding on a shared host plant, we observed significant variation among herbivores in terms of their qualitative tissue sterol profiles and significant variation in the cholesterol content. Cholesterol was absent in two dipteran gall-formers and present at extremely low levels in a beetle. Cholesterol content was highly variable in three hemipteran phloem feeders; even species of the same genus showed substantial differences in their cholesterol contents. The fungal ectosymbiont of a dipteran gall former contained primarily ergosterol and two ergosterol precursors. The larvae and pupae of the symbiotic gall-former lacked phytosterols, phytosterol metabolites, or cholesterol, instead containing an ergosterol metabolite in addition to unmetabolized ergosterol and erogsterol precursors, thus demonstrating the crucial role that a fungal symbiont plays in their nutritional ecology. These data are discussed in the context of sterol physiology and metabolism in [START]insects[END], and the potential ecological and evolutionary implications.
",19943186
0,50557,"[Generic diversity of Trichoptera ([START]Insecta[END]) of Paramo Rabanal (Cundinamarca-Boyaca, Colombia)].
Trichopterans are considered an important and diverse biotic element in continental aquatic ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the assemblages of the order Trichoptera in two subwatersheds with a gradient of disturbance. Four sampling events were conducted in two subwatersheds in the Eastern Mountain Range of the Colombian Andes. For the analysis we used rarefaction curves, Bray-Curtis Index and Partitioning Diversity and total richness and Shannon's diversity as metrics. Although total richness was similar between both subwatersheds, abundance was always highest in streams within the conserved subwatershed. Each subwatershed was dominated by different genera, except Ochrotrichia, which was abundant at all sites. Alpha diversity was similar among streams in the conserved watershed, while a reduction in diversity potentially associated with the disturbance gradient was observed in streams of the disturbed subwatershed. Beta diversity (0Dbeta and 1Dbeta) between subwatersheds and among conserved streams was similar, while in disturbed streams a similar gradient to that of alpha diversity was found. The similitude analysis clustered streams according to their conservation status. Differences found in trichopteran assemblages do confirm that the use of their attributes is adequate to assess the conservation status of stream ecosystems. Rev. Biol. Trop. 62 (Suppl. 2): 97-110. Epub 2014 April 01.
",25189072
0,50557,"[START]Insect[END] wings: the world's smallest, smartest aerofoils.
[START]Insect[END] wings are extraordinary examples of small-scale biological engineering: smart, flexible aerofoils with virtually no parallels in technology--so far. This may well be about to change. Engineers are becoming increasingly aware of, and interested in, the remarkable qualities of [START]insects[END] as flying machines.
",12097710
0,50557,"[Effect of the destruction of the pars intercerebralis on molting in Aeshne cyanes Mull. larva ([START]Insecta[END], Odonata)].
The cauterization of the pars intercerebralis blocks the moulting process in Aeshna. The critical period for this experiment has been determined in the 2 last instars. After this period brain cautery only delays moulting without preventing this process. Cauterization of the pars intercerebralis after the critical period of the prothoracic gland activity does not affect moulting in any way.
",813856
0,50557,"Fossil evidence for key innovations in the evolution of [START]insect[END] diversity.
Explaining the taxonomic richness of the [START]insects[END], comprising over half of all described species, is a major challenge in evolutionary biology. Previously, several evolutionary novelties (key innovations) have been posited to contribute to that richness, including the [START]insect[END] bauplan, wings, wing folding and complete metamorphosis, but evidence over their relative importance and modes of action is sparse and equivocal. Here, a new dataset on the first and last occurrences of fossil hexapod ([START]insects[END] and close relatives) families is used to show that basal families of winged [START]insects[END] (Palaeoptera, e.g. dragonflies) show higher origination and extinction rates in the fossil record than basal wingless groups (Apterygota, e.g. silverfish). Origination and extinction rates were maintained at levels similar to Palaeoptera in the more derived Polyneoptera (e.g. cockroaches) and Paraneoptera (e.g. true bugs), but extinction rates subsequently reduced in the very rich group of [START]insects[END] with complete metamorphosis (Holometabola, e.g. beetles). Holometabola show evidence of a recent slow-down in their high net diversification rate, whereas other winged taxa continue to diversify at constant but low rates. These data suggest that wings and complete metamorphosis have had the most effect on family-level [START]insect[END] macroevolution, and point to specific mechanisms by which they have influenced [START]insect[END] diversity through time. 
",25165766
0,50557,"The genus Triozocera Pierce, 1909 ([START]Insecta[END]: Strepsiptera: Corioxenidae) in South America.
A new species of Triozocera from the Brazilian Amazon basin was found in a sample of male Strepsiptera from the collection of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia (INPA-Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil). Triozocera buehrheimi sp.n. is described and the status of T. paulistana Kogan, 1958, the first strepsipteran described from Brazil, is reviewed, with additional diagnostic characters used to reinstate the species based on comparative analyses to the other three species occurring in southern US, Mexico, and Central America: T. mexicana Pierce, 1909, T. tecpanensis Brailowsky and Marquez, 1974, and T. vernalis Kifune and Brailowsky, 1987. A key to those species is included. 
",24871713
0,50557,"New genus and new species of Chauliodinae ([START]Insecta[END]: Megaloptera: Corydalidae) from Brazil.
A new genus and new species of Chauliodinae are described and illustrated, Puri gen. nov. and P. aleca sp. nov. The material was collected in the Mantiqueira Mountain Range, Itamonte Municipality, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. This is the first report of adults of this subfamily from Brazil. In the male, the new genus is diagnosed by the short subserrate antennae, length less than 1/2 of forewing; wings alternating dark and pale venation; forewings with crossvein between 1A and 2A placed between footstalks of 1A and 2A; hindwings with basal r-m crossvein connected to M by an additional short branch; dorsally, ninth tergum anteriorly truncate; laterally, ventral margin acutely produced; ninth sternum with membranous apical process; laterally tenth tergum with proximal margin vertical; tenth gonocoxite with bifurcation indistinct; lateral lobes connected by a broad and feebly sclerotized plate. The female is unknown.
",24698926
0,50557,"[Nymphal feeding of Leptophlebiidae ([START]Insecta[END]: Ephemeroptera) in the Cano Paso del Diablo, Venezuela].
The food habits of aquatic nymphs of 12 species of the family Leptophlebiidae were determined in a tropical intermittent stream in Venezuela. Three monthly samples of aquatic [START]insects[END] were taken from January to June in 1989. Two hundred and twenty-five stomach contents were analyzed. The results obtained were compared by the functional feeding groups classification. Species of the Thraulodes and Farrodes genera show significant differences in their diets.
",12189832
0,50557,"Magnetic resonance imaging in entomology: a critical review.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enables in vivo imaging of organisms. The recent development of the magnetic resonance microscope (MRM) has enabled organisms within the size range of many [START]insects[END] to be imaged. Here, we introduce the principles of MRI and MRM and review their use in entomology. We show that MRM has been successfully applied in studies of parasitology, development, metabolism, biomagnetism and morphology, and the advantages and disadvantages relative to other imaging techniques are discussed. In addition, we illustrate the images that can be obtained using MRM. We conclude that although MRM has significant potential, further improvements to the technique are still desirable if it is to become a mainstream imaging technology in entomology.
",15841222
0,50557,"The promise of [START]insect[END] genomics.
Insects are the largest animal group in the world and are ecologically and economically extremely important. This importance of insects is reflected by the existence of currently 24 [START]insect[END] genome projects. Our perspective discusses the state-of-the-art of these genome projects and the impacts that they have on basic [START]insect[END] science and pest control.
",17377971
0,50557,"The earliest known holometabolous [START]insects[END].
The Eumetabola (Endopterygota (also known as Holometabola) plus Paraneoptera) have the highest number of species of any clade, and greatly contribute to animal species biodiversity. The palaeoecological circumstances that favoured their emergence and success remain an intriguing question. Recent molecular phylogenetic analyses have suggested a wide range of dates for the initial appearance of the Holometabola, from the Middle Devonian epoch (391 million years (Myr) ago) to the Late Pennsylvanian epoch (311 Myr ago), and Hemiptera (310 Myr ago). Palaeoenvironments greatly changed over these periods, with global cooling and increasing complexity of green forests. The Pennsylvanian-period crown-eumetabolan fossil record remains notably incomplete, particularly as several fossils have been erroneously considered to be stem Holometabola (Supplementary Information); the earliest definitive beetles are from the start of the Permian period. The emergence of the hymenopterids, sister group to other Holometabola, is dated between 350 and 309 Myr ago, incongruent with their current earliest record (Middle Triassic epoch). Here we describe five fossils--a Gzhelian-age stem coleopterid, a holometabolous larva of uncertain ordinal affinity, a stem hymenopterid, and early Hemiptera and Psocodea, all from the Moscovian age--and reveal a notable penecontemporaneous breadth of early eumetabolan [START]insects[END]. These discoveries are more congruent with current hypotheses of clade divergence. Eumetabola experienced episodes of diversification during the Bashkirian-Moscovian and the Kasimovian-Gzhelian ages. This cladogenetic activity is perhaps related to notable episodes of drying resulting from glaciations, leading to the eventual demise in Euramerica of coal-swamp ecosystems, evidenced by floral turnover during this interval. These ancient species were of very small size, living in the shadow of Palaeozoic-era 'giant' [START]insects[END]. Although these discoveries reveal unexpected Pennsylvanian eumetabolan diversity, the lineage radiated more successfully only after the mass extinctions at the end of the Permian period, giving rise to the familiar crown groups of their respective clades.
",24132233
0,50557,"Three new caddisflies species of the fossil genus Archaeotinodes ([START]Insecta[END]: Trichoptera: Ecnomidae) from the Baltic Amber.
Three new caddisflies species of the fossil genus Archaeotinodes: Archaeotinodes petropolitana sp. nov., Archaeotinodes regiomontana sp. nov., and Archaeotinodes rossica sp. nov. from the Baltic amber (Upper Eocene, 40 million years old), are described and illustrated.
",26097947
0,50557,"Notes on the Rhyacophila angulata Species Group with descriptions of two new species ([START]Insecta[END], Trichoptera, Rhyacophilidae).
Two new species of the Rhyacophila angulata Species Group are diagnosed, described and illustrated. Rhyacophila asymmetra n. sp. from Guang-dong Province can be separated from other members of the group by asymmetrical parameres and by the apicodorsal lobe abruptly narrowed in the apical one-third. Rhyacophila dentalis n. sp. from Guang-xi resembles R. longistyla in male genitalia, but can be diagnosed by the sinuate anterior margin of segment IX, by the absence of apicolateral teeth on the apicodorsal lobe of segment IX, and by the presence of a blunt tooth on the upper margin of the basal segment of each inferior appendage. New collection data are added for R. longistyla, extending its distribution southward to Guang-dong and Guang-xi Provinces. Rhyacophila tetraphylla has been transferred from the R. naviculata Species Group to the R. angulata Group with new collection data. A checklist of the species group is provided, and its distribution is discussed. 
",27515655
0,50557,"Evolution of [START]insect[END] wings and development - new details from Palaeozoic nymphs.
The nymphal stages of Palaeozoic [START]insects[END] differ significantly in morphology from those of their modern counterparts. Morphological details for some previously reported species have recently been called into question. Palaeozoic [START]insect[END] nymphs are important, however - their study could provide key insights into the evolution of wings, and complete metamorphosis. Here we review past work on these topics and juvenile [START]insects[END] in the fossil record, and then present both novel and previously described nymphs, documented using new imaging methods. Our results demonstrate that some Carboniferous nymphs - those of Palaeodictyopteroidea - possessed movable wing pads and appear to have been able to perform simple flapping flight. It remains unclear whether this feature is ancestral for Pterygota or an autapomorphy of Palaeodictyopteroidea. Further characters of nymphal development which were probably in the ground pattern of Pterygota can be reconstructed. Wing development was very gradual (archimetaboly). Wing pads did not protrude from the tergum postero-laterally as in most modern nymphs, but laterally, and had well-developed venation. The modern orientation of wing pads and the delay of wing development into later developmental stages (condensation) appears to have evolved several times independently within Pterygota: in Ephemeroptera, Odonatoptera, Eumetabola, and probably several times within Polyneoptera. Selective pressure appears to have favoured a more pronounced metamorphosis between the last nymphal and adult stage, ultimately reducing exploitation competition between the two. We caution, however, that the results presented herein remain preliminary, and the reconstructed evolutionary scenario contains gaps and uncertainties. Additional comparative data need to be collected. The present study is thus seen as a starting point for this enterprise. 
",25400084
0,50557,"With or without pheromone habituation: possible differences between [START]insect[END] orders?
BACKGROUND: Habituation to sex pheromones is one of the key mechanisms in mating disruption, an [START]insect[END] control tactic. Male moths often show reduced sexual response after pre-exposure to female sex pheromone. Mating disruption is relatively rare in [START]insect[END] orders other than Lepidoptera. RESULTS: As a positive control we confirmed habituation in a moth (Epiphyas postvittana) using 24 h pre-exposure to sex pheromone to reduce subsequent activation behaviour. We then tested the impact of pre-exposure to sex or trail pheromone on subsequent behavioural response with [START]insects[END] from three other orders. Similar pre-exposure for 24 h to either sex pheromone [Pseudococcus calceolariae (Homoptera) and apple leaf curling midge Dasineura mali (Diptera), or trail pheromone of Argentine ants (Linepithema humile (Hymenoptera)], followed by behavioural assay in clean air provided no evidence of habituation after pre-exposure in these latter cases. CONCLUSIONS: The moths alone were affected by pre-exposure to pheromone. For pests without habituation, sustained attraction to a point source may make lure and kill more economical. Improved knowledge of behavioural processes should lead to better success in pest management and mechanisms should be investigated further to inform studies and practical efforts generally enhancing effectiveness of pheromone-based management.   2017 Society of Chemical Industry.
",29239513
0,50557,"The evolution of Strepsiptera (Hexapoda).
An evolutionary scenario for the enigmatic group Strepsiptera is provided, based on the results of a comprehensive cladistic analysis of characters of all life stages. A recently described fossil--+Protoxenos janzeni--the most archaic strepsipteran, sheds new light on the early evolution of the group and reduces the ""morphological gap"" between Strepsiptera and other [START]insects[END]. It weakens both current hypotheses--Coleoptera+Strepsiptera and Diptera+Strepsiptera (=""Halteria""). The splitting into +Protoxenos (Protoxenidae) and the remaining Strepsiptera was linked with a distinct size reduction and many morphological changes. Unlike males of extant strepsipteran species, +Protoxenos was still able to process food. Mengeidae (+Mengea), with two small species, is the sister group of extant Strepsiptera. A unique characteristic of extant males (Strepsiptera s. str.) is the mouthfield sclerite. It is part of an air uptake apparatus which belongs to an extremely modified air-filled ""balloon gut"". Besides this, male strepsipterans possess specialised antennae and compound eyes, a strongly developed flight apparatus, large testes, and a sperm pump, whereas other organ systems are strongly reduced (e.g., fat body, malpighian tubules). Males are designed to find females within a few hours and to copulate. A dramatic change is linked with the split into Mengenillidae and Stylopidia. The change to pterygote hosts and the permanent endoparasitism of the females are evolutionary novelties acquired by the latter clade, and linked with far-reaching morphological transformations, e.g. the presence of unique brood organs. Hairy tarsal adhesive devices are present in males and guarantee efficient attachment to the host during copulation. A well-founded clade within Stylopidia is Stylopiformia, which are characterised by a unique fissure-shaped birth opening. The evolutionary development towards the most specialised and successful forms (parasites of aculeate Hymenoptera [e.g., Xenidae+Stylopidae], ca. 46% of the species) is a stepwise process. The presented evolutionary scenario comprises a complex network of functionally correlated morphological changes in primary larvae, secondary larvae, females and males.
",18356032
0,50557,"A second new species of ice crawlers from China ([START]Insecta[END]: Grylloblattodea), with thorax evolution and the prediction of potential distribution.
Modern grylloblattids are one of the least diverse of the modern [START]insect[END] orders. The thorax changes in morphology might be associated with the changes of the function of the forelegs, wing loss, changes in behavior and adaptation to habitat. As temperature is the main barrier for migration of modern grylloblattids, the range of each species is extremely limited. The potential distribution areas of grylloblattids remain unclear. A second new species of ice crawlers ([START]Insecta[END]: Grylloblattodea), Grylloblattella cheni Bai, Wang et Yang sp. nov., is described from China. The distribution map and key to species of Grylloblattella are given. A comparison of the thorax of extant and extinct Grylloblattodea is presented, with an emphasis on the pronotum using geometric morphometric analysis, which may reflect thorax adaptation and the evolution of Grylloblattodea. Potential global distribution of grylloblattids is inferred. Highly diversified pronota of extinct Grylloblattodea may reflect diverse habitats and niches. The relatively homogeneous pronota of modern grylloblattids might be explained by two hypotheses: synapomorphy or convergent evolution. Most fossils of Grylloblattodea contain an obviously longer meso- and metathorax than prothorax. The length of the meso- and metathorax of modern grylloblattids is normally shorter than the prothorax. This may be associated with the wing loss, which is accompanied by muscle reduction and changes to the thoracic skeleton system. Threats to grylloblattids and several conservation comments are also provided.
",20877572
0,50557,"A new genus of Saucrosmylinae ([START]Insecta[END], Neuroptera) from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, Inner Mongolia, China.
A new genus and new species of Saucrosmylinae ([START]Insecta[END], Neuroptera) is described as Huiyingosmylus bellus gen. et sp. nov., based on a well-preserved forewing from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, Inner Mongolia, China. Huiyingosmylus gen. nov. is characterized by the large size of forewing, relatively wide R1 space with several rows of cells, anteriorly bent Rs, dense crossveins over the entire wing and undulate outer margin. A key to the genera of Saucrosymylinae is provided. 
",25112637
0,50557,"A new species of Charassothrips Hood from Colombia ([START]Insecta[END], Thysanoptera, Thripidae) with an updated key to the known species.
Charassothrips macroseta sp.n. is described and illustrated from Colombia. A key is provided to the five species now recognised in the Neotropical genus Charassothrips, each of which has the head and pronotum, mesonotum and metanotum prominently sculptured and the abdominal tergites with a craspedum on the posterior margins.
",20672990
0,50557,"Embryonic development of Galloisiana yuasai Asahina, with special reference to external morphology ([START]insecta[END]: Grylloblattodea).
The embryogenesis of Grylloblattodea, one of the most primitive of the polyneopteran orders, is described using Galloisiana yuasai with special reference to external morphology. The egg membranes are characterized by an endochorion crossed by numerous vertical aeropyles and a fairly thin vitelline membrane, features shared by Mantophasmatodea. The inner layer formation is of the fault type. Serosal elements in the amnioserosal fold differentiate into hydropylar cells, to function in water absorption together with specialized amniotic structures, i.e., an amniotic strand and a thickened amnion. The germ band is of the short germ type. The germ band immerses deep into the yolk after its full elongation along the egg surface, and in this respect blastokinesis closely resembles that of Mantophasmatodea. The embryological features, i.e., those on egg membranes and blastokinesis, may suggest a closer affinity of Grylloblattodea and Mantophasmatodea. Appendages, ectodermal invaginations, and sternal and pleural sclerites are discussed in the light of serial homology, to provide a new basis for elucidating the [START]insect[END] body plan. Appendages are divided into the proximal coxopodite and distal telopodite, the former being divided further into the subcoxa and coxa. Subcoxal and coxal elements are identified in the mandible as well as in the abdominal appendages. The subcoxa is divided into the epimeron and episternum by the pleural suture in thoracic segments. Likewise, in the abdominal segments the subcoxa is divided into two, although the homologs of the epimeron and episternum are not sclerotized, and in the labial segment the subcoxal derivative or the postmentum is divided into the submentum and mentum. Two coxal endites bulge out from the medial side of the gnathal appendages. The mandibular molar and incisor, maxillary lacinia and galea, and labial glossa and paraglossa are serially homologous with each other. In the thoracic segments the original embryonic sternum or ""protosternum"" is largely replaced by subcoxal elements, and merely remains as a small anterior presternum and a posterior spinasternum. A major part of the venter is represented by the derivatives of the episternum such as an extensive basisternum, katepisternum, and trochantin and the medial element of the epimeron. The pleuron is derived from the episternal elements or the anepisternum and preepisternum, which bears a spiracle in the mesothorax and metathorax, and the lateral element of the epimeron. The homolog of the preepisternum in the prothorax is the cervical sclerite, but with no spiracle developed. A median ventral invagination arises in the thoracic segments as a spina, and the homolog of the spina develops into the eversible sac in the first abdominal segment.
",16155878
0,50557,"Diversification through multitrait evolution in a coevolving interaction.
Mutualisms between species are interactions in which reciprocal exploitation results in outcomes that are mutually beneficial. This reciprocal exploitation is evident in the more than a thousand plant species that are pollinated exclusively by [START]insects[END] specialized to lay their eggs in the flowers they pollinate. By pollinating each flower in which she lays eggs, an [START]insect[END] guarantees that her larval offspring have developing seeds on which to feed, whereas the plant gains a specialized pollinator at the cost of some seeds. These mutualisms are often reciprocally obligate, potentially driving not only ongoing coadaptation but also diversification. The lack of known intermediate stages in most of these mutualisms, however, makes it difficult to understand whether these interactions could have begun to diversify even before they became reciprocally obligate. Experimental studies of the incompletely obligate interactions between woodland star (Lithophragma; Saxifragaceae) plants and their pollinating floral parasites in the moth genus Greya (Prodoxidae) show that, as these lineages have diversified, the moths and plants have evolved in ways that maintain effective oviposition and pollination. Experimental assessment of pollination in divergent species and quantitative evaluation of time-lapse photographic sequences of pollination viewed on surgically manipulated flowers show that various combinations of traits are possible for maintaining the mutualism. The results suggest that at least some forms of mutualism can persist and even diversify when the interaction is not reciprocally obligate. 
",23801764
0,50557,"Oligoneuria macabaiba sp. nov. ([START]Insecta[END]: Ephemeroptera) from Brazil.
The former monotypic genus Oligoneuria Pictet was known solely by a female subimago of the type-species Oligoneuria anomala Pictet. A new species of the genus Oligoneuria from the Atlantic rainforest of Macae, Rio de Janeiro is described. The description was based in males and females imagos of Oligoneuria macabaiba sp. nov. caught with light traps. This species presents similar wing venation, abdominal posterolateral spines, as well as a membranous extension on anterior portion of the head as seen in the genus. Based on features of the new species, the genus is herein redefined. The species represents the first record of the genus from Southeastern Brazil.
",22208073
0,50557,"Parental care trade-offs and life-history relationships in [START]insects[END].
[START]Insect[END] parental care is extensive and varied, but its life-history implications have never been comparatively tested. Using original and literature data, we tested predictions about egg size, egg number (lifetime fecundity), and body size under different parental care modes across a phylogeny of 287 [START]insect[END] species. Life-history theory and both comparative and intraspecific evidence from ectotherms suggest parental care should select for bigger, fewer eggs, but that allometric scaling of egg size and lifetime fecundity may depend on whether care consists of provisioning (density-dependent offspring survival) or merely guarding (density-independent offspring survival). Against expectation, egg size was indistinguishable among parental care modes, covarying only with body size. This refutes most theory of egg size evolution under parental care. Lifetime fecundity scaled differently depending on parental investment-positively under no care and guarding, as in most ectotherms, but negatively under provisioning. Reproductive allocation in provisioning [START]insects[END] resembled that in mammals and birds, also groups with obligate provisioning. We propose that the metabolic demands of multiple offspring must scale with species body size more steeply than the parent's provisioning capacity, resulting in larger females laying fewer eggs. These patterns lay the groundwork for a more general understanding of parental care and life history.
",20528469
0,50557,"Fossil record of stem groups employed in evaluating the chronogram of insects (Arthropoda: Hexapoda).
[START]Insecta[END] s. str. (=Ectognatha), comprise the largest and most diversified group of living organisms, accounting for roughly half of the biodiversity on Earth. Understanding [START]insect[END] relationships and the specific time intervals for their episodes of radiation and extinction are critical to any comprehensive perspective on evolutionary events. Although some deeper nodes have been resolved congruently, the complete evolution of insects has remained obscure due to the lack of direct fossil evidence. Besides, various evolutionary phases of insects and the corresponding driving forces of diversification remain to be recognized. In this study, a comprehensive sample of all [START]insect[END] orders was used to reconstruct their phylogenetic relationships and estimate deep divergences. The phylogenetic relationships of [START]insect[END] orders were congruently recovered by Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood analyses. A complete timescale of divergences based on an uncorrelated log-normal relaxed clock model was established among all lineages of winged insects. The inferred timescale for various nodes are congruent with major historical events including the increase of atmospheric oxygen in the Late Silurian and earliest Devonian, the radiation of vascular plants in the Devonian, and with the available fossil record of the stem groups to various [START]insect[END] lineages in the Devonian and Carboniferous.
",27958352
0,50557,"A New Fossil of Necrotauliidae ([START]Insecta[END]: Trichoptera) from the Jiulongshan Formation of China and Its Taxonomic Significance.
BACKGROUND: Acisarcuatus variradius gen. et sp. nov., an extinct new species representing a new genus, is described from the Middle Jurassic Jiulongshan Formation in Daohugou Village, Inner Mongolia, China. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this paper, we revised the diagnosis of Necrotauliidae Handlirsch, 1906. One new genus and species of Necrotauliidae is described. An analysis based on the fossil morphological characters clarified the taxonomic status of the new taxa. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: New fossil evidence supports the viewpoint that the family Necrotauliidae belongs to the Integripalpia.
",25494387
0,50557,"A new species of Enderleina Jewett (Plecoptera, Perlidae) from Amazonas State, Brazil.
Enderleina Jewett, 1960 is one of the least-known Perlidae genera in northern South America, including six species. During an aquatic [START]insect[END] survey of the northern portion of Amazonas State, Brazil, we collected a male Enderleina with a distinct pronotum pattern and genitalic morphology. The objectives of this study are to describe a new species of Enderleina based on male morphology. The new species can be distinguished from all other Enderleina species in the male by the presence of a paired thin dark band on the mesal region of pronotum and by the structure of the penial armature. 
",27394593
0,50557,"Divergent Gene Expression Following Duplication of Meiotic Genes in the Stick [START]Insect[END] Clitarchus hookeri.
Some animal groups, such as stick [START]insects[END] (Phasmatodea), have repeatedly evolved alternative reproductive strategies, including parthenogenesis. Genomic studies have found modification of the genes underlying meiosis exists in some of these animals. Here we examine the evolution of copy number, evolutionary rate, and gene expression in candidate meiotic genes of the New Zealand geographic parthenogenetic stick [START]insect[END] Clitarchus hookeri. We characterized 101 genes from a de novo transcriptome assembly from female and male gonads that have homology with meiotic genes from other arthropods. For each gene we determined copy number, the pattern of gene duplication relative to other arthropod orthologs, and the potential for meiosis-specific expression. There are five genes duplicated in C. hookeri, including one also duplicated in the stick [START]insect[END] Timema cristinae, that are not or are uncommonly duplicated in other arthropods. These included two sister chromatid cohesion associated genes (SA2 and SCC2), a recombination gene (HOP1), an RNA-silencing gene (AGO2) and a cell-cycle regulation gene (WEE1). Interestingly, WEE1 and SA2 are also duplicated in the cyclical parthenogenetic aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum and Daphnia duplex, respectively, indicating possible roles in the evolution of reproductive mode. Three of these genes (SA2, SCC2, and WEE1) have one copy displaying gonad-specific expression. All genes, with the exception of WEE1, have significantly different nonsynonymous/synonymous ratios between the gene duplicates, indicative of a shift in evolutionary constraints following duplication. These results suggest that stick insects may have evolved genes with novel functions in gamete production by gene duplication.
",33885769
0,50557,"Evolutionary origin and status of two [START]insect[END] acetylcholinesterases and their structural conservation and differentiation.
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) plays a pivotal role in synaptic transmission in the cholinergic nervous system of most animals, including [START]insects[END]. [START]Insects[END] possess duplicated AChE gene loci (ace1 vs. ace2) encoding two distinct AChEs (AChE1 and AChE2). A phylogenetic analysis suggested that the last common ancestor of two aces shared its origin with Platyhelminthes. In addition, the ace duplication event likely occurred after the divergence of Protostomian but before the split of Ecdysozoa. The ace1 lineage exhibited a significantly lower evolutionary rate (d and dN/dS ratio) than the ace2 lineage, suggesting that the ace1 lineage has retained the essential function of synaptic transmission following its duplication. Therefore, the putative functional transition from ace1 to ace2 observed in some Hymenopteran [START]insects[END] appears to be a local and relatively recent event. The amino acid sequence comparison and three-dimensional modeling of [START]insect[END] AChEs identified a few consistent differences in the amino acid residues in functionally crucial domains between two AChEs, which are likely responsible for the functional differentiation between two AChEs. A unique amino acid substitution causing a dramatic reduction in the catalytic activity of AChE1 in some Hymenopteran [START]insects[END] was suggested to be responsible for the aforementioned functional transition of ace. 
",25627717
0,50557,"Zorotypus weiweii (Zoraptera: Zorotypidae), a new species of angel [START]insects[END], from Sabah, East Malaysia.
A new species of the [START]insect[END] order Zoraptera, Zorotypus weiweii, is described and figured from Sabah, East Malaysia. The new species represents the second angel insect from Borneo. Z. caudelli Karny was also collected near the type locality of Z. weiweii. Methods of specimen collection and a brief note of angel [START]insects[END] in Malaysia were provided based on new materials and biological observations. 
",27615990
0,50557,"New species and records of Anacroneuria (Plecoptera: Perlidae) from the northeastern semi-arid region of Brazil.
The genus Anacroneuria is widely distributed in the Neotropical Region. There are about 80 species listed from Brazil, five of which are recorded from the northeastern semi-arid region of Brazil, an area characterized by irregular and low precipitation. Examination of adult Anacroneuria material from this including areas of Caatinga desert vegetation and Atlantic forest revealed two new species records, A. debilis (Pictet) and A. terere Righi-Cavallaro & Lecci. Additionally, two new species, A. calori n. sp. and A. singela n. sp., are described from this material. These new records and new species reflect a major effort to document the biodiversity of the aquatic [START]insects[END] of the northeastern semi-arid region of Brazil by the Research Program in Semi-arid Biodiversity. 
",27396007
0,50557,"Strategies of genomic integration within [START]insect[END]-bacterial mutualisms.
[START]Insects[END], the most diverse group of macroorganisms with 900,000 known species, have been a rich playground for the evolution of symbiotic associations. Symbionts of this enormous animal group include a range of microbial partners. [START]Insects[END] are prone to establishing relationships with intracellular bacteria, which include the most intimate, highly integrated mutualisms known in the biological world. In recent years, an explosion of genomic studies has offered new insights into the molecular, functional, and evolutionary consequences of these [START]insect[END]-bacterial partnerships. In this review, I highlight some insights from genome sequences of bacterial endosymbionts and select [START]insect[END] hosts. Notably, comparisons between facultative and obligate bacterial mutualists have revealed distinct genome features representing different stages along a shared trajectory of genome reduction. Bacteria associated with the cedar aphid offer a snapshot of a transition from facultative to obligate mutualism, illustrating the genomic basis of this key step along the symbiotic spectrum. In addition, genomes of stable, dual bacterial symbionts reflect independent instances of astonishing metabolic integration. In these systems, synthesis of key nutrients, and perhaps basic cellular processes, require collaboration among co-residing bacteria and their [START]insect[END] host. These findings provide a launching point for a new era of genomic explorations of bacterial-animal symbioses. Future studies promise to reveal symbiotic strategies across a broad ecological and phylogenetic range, to clarify key transitions along a spectrum of interaction types, and to fuel new experimental approaches to dissect the mechanistic basis of intimate host-symbiont associations.
",22983037
0,50557,"Revision of Chinese Dilaridae ([START]Insecta[END]: Neuroptera) (Part I): species of the genus Dilar Rambur from northern China.
The pleasing lacewing genus Dilar Rambur is a dominant group of the family Dilaridae in Asia and is diverse in China with 18 described species. Herein we record five species of Dilar. Three species, i.e. Dilar hastatus sp.nov., Dilar spectabilis sp.nov. and Dilar taibaishanus sp.nov. are described as new to science. Dilar sinicus Nakahara and Dilar septentrionalis Navas are also redescribed. A key to the species of Dilar from northern China is given.  
",24872276
0,50557,"Trichadenotecnum species from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore ([START]Insecta[END]: Psocodea: 'Psocoptera': Psocidae).
Species of the bark louse genus Trichadenotecnum Enderlein ([START]Insecta[END]: Psocodea) from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore are revised with illustrations and identification keys. Twenty species are here recognised, with four new species and ten recorded for the first time from this region, together with an unnamed species represented by a single female. The previously described species T. marginatum New & Thornton is not included because its generic assignment is questionable. Females of T. cinnamonum Endang & New, T. imrum New & Thornton and T. sibolangitense Endang, Thornton & New, and the male of T. kerinciense Endang & New are described for the first time. A new species group is defined for T. krucilense Endang, Thornton & New. 
",25081466
0,50557,"Name-bearing type specimens in the Canadian National Collection of [START]Insects[END], Arachnids Nematodes (CNC): Blattodea, Dermaptera, Notoptera, Mecoptera, Megaloptera, Myriapoda, Neuroptera, Odonata, Orthoptera, Phthiraptera, Pseudoscorpiones, Psocoptera, Raphidioptera Siphonaptera.
A catalogue is provided for the name-bearing types of most of the less diverse arthropod groups deposited in the Canadian National Collection of [START]Insects[END], Arachnids Nematodes (CNC). There are 90 name-bearing types of Myriapoda [Chilopoda (3 types), Diplopoda (2)], Arachnida [Pseudoscorpiones (1)], and Insecta [Blattodea (1), Dermaptera (1), Notoptera (3), Mecoptera (3), Megaloptera (2), Neuroptera (11), Odonata (2), Orthoptera (5), Phthiraptera (2), Psocoptera (10), Raphidioptera (1) and Siphonaptera (43)]. Three myriapod syntypes are represented by an unknown number of specimens. Holotypes for Plesiorobius canadensis Klimaszewski Kevan (Neuroptera) and Sphaeropsocoides canadensis Grimaldi Engel (Psocoptera) are amber-preserved fossils. Portions of the holotype of Chaetospania assamensis Sakai are considered lost, as are an unknown number of syntype specimens for the centipede species Ethopolys alaskanus Chamberlin and E. integer Chamberlin. Collembola types were treated in Stebaeva et al. (2016), and Araneae, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera will be treated in future catalogues, completing inventories for the orders without associated research staff in the CNC. Definitions of relevant type specimens are provided, as is a preliminary summary of all 16,710 name-bearing type specimens held by the CNC, including those of the more diverse orders for which there are associated research staff: Nematoda, Acari, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera/Thysanoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera.
",30651520
0,50557,"Wing serial homologs and the origin and evolution of the [START]insect[END] wing.
The origin and evolution of [START]insect[END] wings has been the subject of extensive debate. The issue has remained controversial largely because of the absence of definitive fossil evidence or direct developmental evidence of homology between wings and a putative wing origin. Recent identification of wing serial homologs (WSHs) has provided researchers with a potential strategy for identifying WSHs in other species. Future comparative developmental analyses between wings and WSHs may clarify the important steps underlying the evolution of [START]insect[END] wings. 
",24360127
0,50557,"Description of an endemic and endangered new Sympetrum species (Odonata: Libellulidae) from the subtropical area of Taiwan.
Sympetrum nantouensis sp. nov. collected from Nantou, Central Taiwan, is described and figured, with remarks on its ecology and oviposition behaviour. Judging from penile structure, it is considered to belong to the infuscatum-group, whose members are defined here by penile characters. In the infuscatum-group, S. nantouensis is most similar to S. risi Bartenev, but they are probably not very closely related to each other. Sympetrum nantouensis differs from S. risi mainly in having beak-like cerci, well-lineated black and pale yellow pterothorax, and penile 4th segment with longer and apically upcurved cornua. This new species is distinct among its congeners in view of both biogeography and morphology because of its confined and peripheral existence and the odd shape of its cerci. All type specimens will be deposited at the [START]Insect[END] Collection of TFRI.
",26185853
0,50557,"Energetic basis of colonial living in social [START]insects[END].
Understanding the ecology and evolution of [START]insect[END] societies requires greater knowledge of how sociality affects the performance of whole colonies. Metabolic scaling theory, based largely on the body mass scaling of metabolic rate, has successfully predicted many aspects of the physiology and life history of individual (or unitary) organisms. Here we show, using a diverse set of social [START]insect[END] species, that this same theory predicts the size dependence of basic features of the physiology (i.e., metabolic rate, reproductive allocation) and life history (i.e., survival, growth, and reproduction) of whole colonies. The similarity in the size dependence of these features in unitary organisms and whole colonies points to commonalities in functional organization. Thus, it raises an important question of how such evolutionary convergence could arise through the process of natural selection.
",20133582
0,50557,"Mid-Mesozoic flea-like ectoparasites of feathered or haired vertebrates.
Parasite-host associations among [START]insects[END] and mammals or birds are well attended by neontological studies [1]. An Eocene bird louse compression fossil [2, 3] and several flea specimens from Eocene and Oligocene ambers [4-8], reported to date, are exceptionally similar to living louse and flea taxa. But the origin, morphology, and early evolution of parasites and their associations with hosts are poorly known [9, 10] due to sparse records of putative ectoparasites with uncertain classification in the Mesozoic, most lacking mouthpart information and other critical details of the head morphology [11-15]. Here we present two primitive flea-like species assigned to the Pseudopulicidae Gao, Shih et Ren familia nova (fam. nov.), Pseudopulex jurassicus Gao, Shih et Ren genus novum et species nova (gen. et sp. nov) from the Middle Jurassic [16] and P. magnus Gao, Shih et Ren sp. nov. from the Early Cretaceous in China [17]. They exhibit many features of ectoparasitic [START]insects[END]. Large body size and long serrated stylets for piercing tough and thick skin or hides of hosts suggest that these primitive ectoparasites might have lived on and sucked the blood of relatively large hosts, such as contemporaneous feathered dinosaurs and/or pterosaurs or medium-sized mammals (found in the Early Cretaceous, but not the Middle Jurassic).
",22445298
0,50557,"Metabolic scaling in [START]insects[END] supports the predictions of the WBE model.
The functional association between body size and metabolic rate (BS-MR) is one of the most intriguing issues in ecological physiology. An average scaling exponent of 3/4 is broadly observed across animal and plant taxa. The numerical value of 3/4 is theoretically predicted under the optimized version of West, Brown, and Enquist's vascular resource supply network model. [START]Insects[END], however, have recently been proposed to express a numerically different scaling exponent and thus application of the WBE network model to [START]insects[END] has been rejected. Here, we re-analyze whether such variation is indeed supported by a global deviation across all [START]insect[END] taxa at the order and family levels to assess if specific taxa influence [START]insect[END] metabolic scaling. We show that a previous reported deviation is largely due to the effect of a single [START]insect[END] family (Termitidae). We conclude that the BS-MR relationship in [START]insects[END] broadly supports the core predictions of the WBE model. We suggest that the deviation observed within the termites warrants further investigation and may be due to either difficulty in accurately measuring termite metabolism and/or particularities of their life history. Future work on allometric scaling should assess the nature of variation around the central tendencies in scaling exponents in order to test if this variation is consistent with core assumptions and predictions of the WBE model that stem by relaxing its secondary optimizing assumptions that lead to the 3/4 exponent.
",21296084
0,50557,"Invertebrate neurobiology: brain control of [START]insect[END] walking.
Neurogenetic and lesion studies have identified regions of the [START]insect[END] brain that can modulate and direct locomotion. Activities of these neurons have now been recorded in cockroaches during walking.
",20504750
0,50557,"Revision of Chinese Dilaridae ([START]Insecta[END]: Neuroptera) (Part II): Species of the genus Dilar Rambur from Tibet.
Three species of the genus Dilar Rambur, 1838, are recorded and described from Tibet in southwestern China, including Dilar geometroides H. Aspock & U. Aspock, 1968, Dilar harmandi (Navas, 1909), and Dilar tibetanus Yang, 1987, with the former two species recorded in Tibet for the first time. All three species are redescribed. Dilar aspersus Yang, 1988, and Dilar pusillus Yang, 1992, are synonymized with Dilar geometroides Aspock & Aspock, 1968, and Dilar tibetanus Yang, 1987, respectively. A key to the Dilar species from Tibet is provided. 
",25544465
0,50557,"New species of Polycentropodidae (Trichoptera: Annulipalpia) from Northeast Region, Brazil.
Three new species of Polycentropodidae ([START]Insecta[END]: Trichoptera) from the Northeast Region of Brazil are diagnosed, described, and illustrated. Polycentropus brevicornutus n. sp. of the Polycentropus gertschi Group can be diagnosed mainly by its much reduced, almost vestigial intermediate appendages, and by the inferior appendages, which are deltoid and very linear in lateral aspect. The two new species of Polyplectropus are P. anchorus n. sp. and P. auriplicatus n. sp. in the P. annulicornis and P. bredini Groups, respectively. Polyplectropus anchorus n. sp. is very similar to P. annulicornis Ulmer 1905, but can be distinguished from its congener mainly by the endothecal spines without setae and with their apices directed dorsolaterad. Polyplectropus auriplicatus n. sp. resembles P. brasilensis but can be distinguished mainly by the shorter and deltoid intermediate appendages, the straighter dorsolateral processes of the preanal appendages, and the inferior appendages each with its mesoventral branch more developed and rounded. 
",26623792
0,50557,"Homologization of the flight musculature of zygoptera ([START]insecta[END]: odonata) and neoptera ([START]insecta[END]).
Among the winged [START]insects[END] (Pterygota) the Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata) are unique for several reasons. Behaviourally they are aerial predators that hunt and catch their prey in flight, only. Morphologically the flight apparatus of Odonata is significantly different from what is found in the remaining Pterygota. However, to understand the phylogenetic relationships of winged [START]insects[END] and the origin and evolution of [START]insect[END] flight in general, it is essential to know how the elements of the odonatan flight apparatus relate to those of the other Pterygota. Here we present a comprehensive, comparative morphological investigation of the thoracic flight musculature of damselflies (Zygoptera). Based on our new data we propose a homologization scheme for the thoracic musculature throughout Pterygota. The new homology hypotheses will allow for future comparative work and especially for phylogenetic analyses using characters of the thoracic musculature throughout all winged [START]insects[END]. This will contribute to understand the early evolution of pterygote [START]insects[END] and their basal phylogenetic relationship.
",23457479
0,50557,"Aligned 18S for Zoraptera ([START]Insecta[END]): phylogenetic position and molecular evolution.
The order Zoraptera (angel insects) is one of the least known [START]insect[END] groups, containing only 32 extant species. The phylogenetic position of Zoraptera is poorly understood, but it is generally thought to be closely related to either Paraneoptera (hemipteroid orders: booklice, lice, thrips, and bugs), Dictyoptera (blattoid orders: cockroaches, termites, and mantis), or Embioptera (web spinners). We inferred the phylogenetic position of Zoraptera by analyzing nuclear 18S rDNA sequences, which we aligned according to a secondary structure model. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses both supported a close relationship between Zoraptera and Dictyoptera with relatively high posterior probability. The 18S sequences of Zoraptera exhibited several unusual properties: (1) a dramatically increased substitution rate, which resulted in very long branches; (2) long insertions at helix E23; and (3) modifications of secondary structures at helices 12 and 18.
",16005647
0,50557,"[START]Insect[END] chemical ecology research in the United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service.
This multi-author paper reviews current work by USDA-ARS scientists in the field of chemical ecology. Work with pheromones, the discovery and development of the codling moth kairomone, studies on [START]insect[END]-plant interactions and chemically mediated tritrophic plant-[START]insect[END] interactions have led to practical methods for control of important [START]insect[END] pests.
",12846329
0,50557,"Feces production as a form of social immunity in an [START]insect[END] with facultative maternal care.
BACKGROUND: Social animals have the unique capability of mounting social defenses against pathogens. Over the last decades, social immunity has been extensively studied in species with obligatory and permanent forms of social life. However, its occurrence in less derived social systems and thus its role in the early evolution of group-living remains unclear. Here, we investigated whether lining nests with feces is a form of social immunity against microbial growth in the European earwig Forficula auricularia, an [START]insect[END] with temporary family life and facultative maternal care. RESULTS: Using a total of 415 inhibition zone assays, we showed that earwig feces inhibit the growth of two GRAM+ bacteria, two fungi, but not of a GRAM- bacteria. These inhibitions did not result from the consumed food or the nesting environment. We then demonstrated that the antimicrobial activity against fungus was higher in offspring than maternal feces, but that this difference was absent against bacteria. Finally, we showed that family interactions inhibited the antibacterial activity of maternal feces against one of the two GRAM+ bacteria, whereas it had no effect on the one of nymphal feces. By contrast, antifungal activities of the feces were independent of mother-offspring interactions. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that social immunity occurs in a species with simple and facultative social life, and thus shed light on the general importance of this process in the evolution of group-living. These results also emphasize that defecation can be under selection for other life-history traits than simple waste disposal.
",25888183
0,50557,"Developmental basis for vein pattern variations in [START]insect[END] wings.
The venation patterns characteristics of different [START]insect[END] orders and of families belonging to the same order possess enormous variation in vein number, position and differentiation. Although the developmental basis of changes in vein patterns during evolution is entirely unknown, the identification of the genes and developmental processes involved in Drosophila vein pattern formation facilitates the elaboration of construction rules. It is thus possible to identify the likely changes which may constitute a source of pattern variation during evolution. In this review, we discuss how actual patterns of venation could be accounted for by modifications in different Pterygota of a common set of developmental operations. We argue that the individual specification of each vein and the modular structure of the regulatory regions of the key genes identified in Drosophila offer candidate entry points for pattern modifications affecting individual veins or interveins independently. Assuming a general conservation of the processes involved in different species, the transitions between different patterns may require few changes in the regulatory gene networks involved.
",14756341
0,50557,"Optic flow enrichment via Drosophila head and retina motions to support inflight position regulation.
Developing a functional description of the neural control circuits and visual feedback paths underlying [START]insect[END] flight behaviors is an active research area. Feedback controllers incorporating engineering models of the [START]insect[END] visual system outputs have described some flight behaviors, yet they do not explain how [START]insects[END] are able to stabilize their body position relative to nearby targets such as neighbors or forage sources, especially in challenging environments in which optic flow is poor. The [START]insect[END] experimental community is simultaneously recording a growing library of in-flight head and eye motions that may be linked to increased perception. This study develops a quantitative model of the optic flow experienced by a flying [START]insect[END] or robot during head yawing rotations (distinct from lateral peering motions in previous work) with a single other target in view. This study then applies a model of [START]insect[END] visuomotor feedback to show via analysis and simulation of five species that these head motions sufficiently enrich the optic flow and that the output feedback can provide relative position regulation relative to the single target (asymptotic stability). In the simplifying case of pure rotation relative to the body, theoretical analysis provides a stronger stability guarantee. The results are shown to be robust to anatomical neck angle limits and body vibrations, persist with more detailed Drosophila lateral-directional flight dynamics simulations, and generalize to recent retinal motion studies. Together, these results suggest that the optic flow enrichment provided by head or pseudopupil rotation could be used in an [START]insect[END]'s neural processing circuit to enable position regulation.
",36681182
0,50557,"The evolution of host preference in allopatric vs. parapatric populations of Timema cristinae walking-sticks.
Divergent habitat preferences can contribute to speciation, as has been observed for host-plant preferences in phytophagous [START]insects[END]. Geographic variation in host preference can provide insight into the causes of preference evolution. For example, selection against maladaptive host-switching occurs only when multiple hosts are available in the local environment and can result in greater divergence in regions with multiple vs. a single host. Conversely, costs of finding a suitable host can select for preference even in populations using a single host. Some populations of Timema cristinae occur in regions with only one host-plant species present (in allopatry, surrounded by unsuitable hosts) whereas others occur in regions with two host-plant species adjacent to one another (in parapatry). Here, we use host choice and reciprocal-rearing experiments to document genetic divergence in host preference among 33 populations of T. cristinae. Populations feeding on Ceanothus exhibited a stronger preference for Ceanothus than did populations feeding on Adenostoma. Both allopatric and parapatric pairs of populations using the different hosts exhibited divergent host preferences, but the degree of divergence tended to be greater between allopatric pairs. Thus, gene flow between parapatric populations apparently constrains divergence. Host preferences led to levels of premating isolation between populations using alternate hosts that were comparable in magnitude to previously documented premating isolation caused by natural and sexual selection against migrants between hosts. Our findings demonstrate how gene flow and different forms of selection interact to determine the magnitude of reproductive isolation observed in nature.
",16674589
0,50557,"Why don't all termite species have a sterile worker caste?
No general theory explains why a sterile worker caste is not found in all species of both Hymenoptera and Isoptera ([START]Insecta[END]). Recent empirical finding show that, in the termites (Isoptera), feeding outside the nest correlates well with the evolution of the sterile (true) worker caste from the non-sterile (false) worker caste. Here we explain the connection between food-nest separation and true worker evolution in termites, providing a general theory on the restricted distribution of the sterile worker caste in the Isoptera. A cost-benefit model suggests that there is a critical level of nest stability above which natural selection favours true workers over false workers, irrespective of genetical relatedness. Because food-nest separation tends to increase nest stability, this theoretical result implies that the less a termite species consumes its nest as food, the more likely is its nest stability to fall above the critical level and a true worker caste will evolve.
",1684665
0,50557,"A nearly cryptic Scorpionfly, Panorpa cryptica n. sp. (Mecoptera: Panorpidae) from North America.
The first nearly cryptic species of scorpionfly from the United States, Panorpa cryptica Bicha and Schiff, n. sp., is described from northern Georgia, southwestern North Carolina and northwestern South Carolina. This [START]insect[END] was initially differentiated from the very similar Panorpa nebulosa Westwood by its unique cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) mitochondrial DNA. Habitat details, distribution, and biology are described. 
",26249880
0,50557,"Endocidal Regulation of Secondary Metabolites in the Producing Organisms.
Secondary metabolites are defined as organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development, and reproduction of an organism. They are widely believed to be responsible for interactions between the producing organism and its environment, with the producer avoiding their toxicities. In our experiments, however, none of the randomly selected 44 species representing different groups of plants and [START]insects[END] can avoid autotoxicity by its endogenous metabolites once made available. We coined the term endocides (endogenous biocides) to describe such metabolites that can poison or inhibit the parent via induced biosynthesis or external applications. Dosage-dependent endocides can selectively induce morphological mutations in the parent organism (e.g., shrubbiness/dwarfism, pleiocotyly, abnormal leaf morphogenesis, disturbed phyllotaxis, fasciated stems, and variegation in plants), inhibit its growth, development, and reproduction and cause death than non-closely related species. The propagule, as well as the organism itself contains or produces adequate endocides to kill itself.
",27389069
0,50557,"Pattern regulation and regeneration.
[START]Insect[END] legs develop from small regions of the embryonic thorax. In most [START]insects[END] they differentiate in the embryo, forming functional larval legs, which grow and moult through larval life. In Drosophila the presumptive legs invaginate to form imaginal discs, which grow through larval life but only differentiate in the pupal stage. Analysis of the structures formed after amputation, grafting and wounding experiments on larval legs and on mature and immature imaginal discs suggests that the same organization of positional information and cellular behaviour is involved in the response of tahe developing leg to disturbance at early stages (termed 'regulation') and at later stages (termed 'regeneration'). The results suggest that developing legs form pattern in accordance with positional information specified in two dimensions within the epidermis, along polar coordinates. A continuous sequence of positional values runs around the circumference and an independent sequence runs down the leg. Two rules govern cellular behaviour after a disturbance. The shortest intercalation rule: interaction between cells with different positional values provokes local growth, producing cells with intermediate values (by the shortest route in the case of the circumferential values). The distalization rule: if intercalated cells have positional values identical to those of adjacent pre-existing cells then the new cells adopt a more distal value. These rules will produce a complete distal regenerate from a complete circumference and may produce a symmetrical regenerate from a symmetrical wound surface. This regenerate may taper (converge) or widen (diverge) and branch into two distal tips, depending on the extent of the original wound and the way in which it heals. The polar coordinate model provides a simple and unified interpretation, in terms of only local interactions, of a wide range of experimentally produced and naturally occurring [START]insect[END] (and crustacean and amphibian) limbs showing regeneration of missing structures, duplication of structures, and the formation of complete, tapering or branching supernumeraries. It is not yet clear what molecular mechanisms could underlie a polar map of positional information, nor how such a map could be initially established at a particular site in the early embryo.
",6117914
0,50557,"Hydrocarbon divergence and reproductive isolation in Timema stick [START]insects[END].
BACKGROUND: Individuals commonly prefer certain trait values over others when choosing their mates. If such preferences diverge between populations, they can generate behavioral reproductive isolation and thereby contribute to speciation. Reproductive isolation in [START]insects[END] often involves chemical communication, and cuticular hydrocarbons, in particular, serve as mate recognition signals in many species. We combined data on female cuticular hydrocarbons, interspecific mating propensity, and phylogenetics to evaluate the role of cuticular hydrocarbons in diversification of Timema walking-sticks. RESULTS: Hydrocarbon profiles differed substantially among the nine analyzed species, as well as between partially reproductively-isolated T. cristinae populations adapted to different host plants. In no-choice trials, mating was more likely between species with similar than divergent hydrocarbon profiles, even after correcting for genetic divergences. The macroevolution of hydrocarbon profiles, along a Timema species phylogeny, fits best with a punctuated model of phenotypic change concentrated around speciation events, consistent with change driven by selection during the evolution of reproductive isolation. CONCLUSION: Altogether, our data indicate that cuticular hydrocarbon profiles vary among Timema species and populations, and that most evolutionary change in hydrocarbon profiles occurs in association with speciation events. Similarities in hydrocarbon profiles between species are correlated with interspecific mating propensities, suggesting a role for cuticular hydrocarbon profiles in mate choice and speciation in the genus Timema.
",23855797
0,85823,"The cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel gene superfamilies of the [START]cockroaches[END] Blattella germanica and Periplaneta americana.
BACKGROUND: [START]Cockroaches[END] are serious urban pests that can transfer disease-causing microorganisms as well as trigger allergic reactions and asthma. They are commonly managed by pesticides that act on cys-loop ligand-gated ion channels (cysLGIC). To provide further information that will enhance our understanding of how insecticides act on their molecular targets in [START]cockroaches[END], we used genome and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) data to characterize the cysLGIC gene superfamilies from Blattella germanica and Periplaneta americana. RESULTS: The B. germanica and P. americana cysLGIC superfamilies consist of 30 and 32 subunit-encoding genes, respectively, which are the largest insect cysLGIC superfamilies characterized to date. As with other insects, the [START]cockroaches[END] possess ion channels predicted to be gated by acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate and histamine, as well as orthologues of the drosophila pH-sensitive chloride channel (pHCl), CG8916 and CG12344. The large cysLGIC superfamilies of [START]cockroaches[END] are a result of an expanded number of divergent nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits, with B. germanica and P. americana, respectively, possessing eight and ten subunit genes. Diversity of the [START]cockroach[END] cysLGICs is also broadened by alternative splicing and RNA A-to-I editing. Unusually, both [START]cockroach[END] species possess a second glutamate-gated chloride channel as well as another CG8916 subunit. CONCLUSION: These findings on B. germanica and P. americana enhance our understanding of the evolution of the insect cysLGIC superfamily and provide a useful basis for the study of their function, the detection and management of insecticide resistance, and for the development of improved pesticides with greater specificity towards these major pests.   2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
",33347700
0,85823,"[START]Cockroach[END] fauna in the Ogasawara Chain Islands of Japan and analysis of their habitats.
A survey of [START]cockroach[END] fauna was carried out on the 3 inhabited islands of the Ogasawara chain island of Japan, namely, Chichijima island, Hahajima island and Iwo island. Seven species, namely, Periplaneta americana (Linnaeus, 1758), Periplaneta australasiae (Fabricius, 1775), Blattella lituricollis (Walker, 1868), Onychostylus vilis (Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1865), Supella longipalpa (Fabricius, 1798), Pycnoscelus surinamensis (Linnaeus, 1758) and Opisthoplatia orientalis (Burmeister, 1838), were collected on Chichijima island. Four species, namely, P. americana, P. australasiae, O. vilis and P. surinamensis were collected on Hahajima island and 6 species, namely, P. americana, P. australasiae, B. lituricollis, O. vilis, P. surinamensis and Neostylopyga rhombifolia were collected on Iwo island. This is the first record of N. rhombifolia and Onychostylus orientalis on the Ogasawara chain islands. Our study increases the recorded taxon of [START]cockroaches[END] on the Ogasawara from 3 families, 5 genera 10 species to 4 families, 7 genera, 12 species. A list of the [START]cockroach[END] species on Ogasawara islands reported to date as well as a key for their identification is also presented. Periplaneta americana and P. australasiae, being the dominant species, together with S. longipalpa, were collected mostly in the indoor environment, indicating their preference for this habitat. Pycnoscelus surinamensis, which is considered as an outdoor insect has been found in semi-household environments such as greenhouse and shed, indicating their new adaptation to the changing environment.
",23665720
0,85823,"Gut Bacterial Community of the Xylophagous [START]Cockroaches[END] Cryptocercus punctulatus and Parasphaeria boleiriana.
Cryptocercus punctulatus and Parasphaeria boleiriana are two distantly related xylophagous and subsocial [START]cockroaches[END]. Cryptocercus is related to termites. Xylophagous [START]cockroaches[END] and termites are excellent model organisms for studying the symbiotic relationship between the insect and their microbiota. In this study, high-throughput 454 pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA was used to investigate the diversity of metagenomic gut communities of C. punctulatus and P. boleiriana, and thereby to identify possible shifts in symbiont allegiances during [START]cockroaches[END] evolution. Our results revealed that the hindgut prokaryotic communities of both xylophagous [START]cockroaches[END] are dominated by members of four Bacteria phyla: Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. Other identified phyla were Spirochaetes, Planctomycetes, candidatus Saccharibacteria (formerly TM7), and Acidobacteria, each of which represented 1-2% of the total population detected. Community similarity based on phylogenetic relatedness by unweighted UniFrac analyses indicated that the composition of the bacterial community in the two species was significantly different (P < 0.05). Phylogenetic analysis based on the characterized clusters of Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes, and Deltaproteobacteria showed that many OTUs present in both [START]cockroach[END] species clustered with sequences previously described in termites and other [START]cockroaches[END], but not with those from other animals or environments. These results suggest that, during their evolution, those [START]cockroaches[END] conserved several bacterial communities from the microbiota of a common ancestor. The ecological stability of those microbial communities may imply the important functional role for the survival of the host of providing nutrients in appropriate quantities and balance. 
",27054320
0,85823,"Eusociality and the success of the termites: insights from a supertree of dictyopteran families.
Sociality in insects may negatively impact on species richness. We tested whether termites have experienced shifts in diversification rates through time. Supertree methods were used to synthesize family-level relationships within termites, [START]cockroaches[END] and mantids. A deep positive shift in diversification rate is found within termites, but not in the [START]cockroaches[END] from which they evolved. The shift is responsible for most of their extant species richness suggesting that eusociality is not necessarily detrimental to species richness, and may sometimes have a positive effect. Mechanistic studies of speciation and extinction in eusocial insects are advocated.
",19549138
0,85823,"Characterization of the juvenile hormone pathway in the viviparous [START]cockroach[END], Diploptera punctata.
Juvenile hormones (JHs) are key regulators of insect development and reproduction. The JH biosynthetic pathway is known to involve 13 discrete enzymatic steps. In the present study, we have characterized the JH biosynthetic pathway in the [START]cockroach[END] Diploptera punctata. The effect of exogenous JH precursors on JH biosynthesis was also determined. Based on sequence similarity, orthologs for the genes directly involved in the pathway were cloned, and their spatial and temporal transcript profiles were determined. The effect of shutting down the JH pathway in adult female [START]cockroaches[END] was studied by knocking down genes encoding HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR) and Juvenile hormone acid methyltransferase (JHAMT). As a result, oocyte development slowed as a consequence of reduction in JH biosynthesis. Oocyte length, fat body transcription of Vg and ovarian vitellin content significantly decreased. In addition, silencing HMGR and JHAMT resulted in a decrease in the transcript levels of other genes in the pathway. 
",25706877
0,85823,"Do Quiescence and Wasp Venom-Induced Lethargy Share Common Neuronal Mechanisms in [START]Cockroaches[END]?
The escape behavior of a [START]cockroach[END] may not occur when it is either in a quiescent state or after being stung by the jewel wasp (Ampulex compressa). In the present paper, we show that quiescence is an innate lethargic state during which the [START]cockroach[END] is less responsive to external stimuli. The neuronal mechanism of such a state is poorly understood. In contrast to quiescence, the venom-induced lethargic state is not an innate state in [START]cockroaches[END]. The Jewel Wasp disables the escape behavior of [START]cockroaches[END] by injecting its venom directly in the head ganglia, inside a neuropile called the central complex a 'higher center' known to regulate motor behaviors. In this paper we show that the coxal slow motoneuron ongoing activity, known to be involved in posture, is reduced in quiescent animals, as compared to awake animals, and it is further reduced in stung animals. Moreover, the regular tonic firing of the slow motoneuron present in both awake and quiescent [START]cockroaches[END] is lost in stung [START]cockroaches[END]. Injection of procaine to prevent neuronal activity into the central complex to mimic the wasp venom injection produces a similar effect on the activity of the slow motoneuron. In conclusion, we speculate that the neuronal modulation during the quiescence and venom-induced lethargic states may occur in the central complex and that both states could share a common neuronal mechanism.
",28045911
0,85823,"Origin of origami [START]cockroach[END] reveals long-lasting (11 Ma) phenotype instability following viviparity.
Viviparity evolved in bacteria, plants,  141 vertebrate lineages (ichthyosaurs, lizards, fishes, mammals, and others), and in 11 of 44 insect orders. Live-birth [START]cockroaches[END] preserved with brood sac (3D recovered two times optically) included Diploptera vladimir, Diploptera savba, Diploptera gemini spp.n., D. sp.1-2, and Stegoblatta irmgardgroehni from Green River, Colorado; Quilchena, Republic; McAbee, Canada; and Baltic amber, Russia (49, 54, and 45 Ma). They evolved from rare and newly evolved Blaberidae; they radiated circumtropically, later expanded into SE Asia, and have now spread to Hawaii and the SE USA. Association of autapomorphic characters that allow for passive and active protections from parasitic insects (unique wing origami pleating identical with its egg case-attacking wasp) suggest a response to high parasitic loads. Synchronized with global reorganization of the biota, morphotype destabilization in roaches lasted approximately 11-22 Ma, including both the adaptation of novel characters and the reduction of others. Thus, while viviparity can be disadvantageous, in association with new Bauplans and/or behaviors, it can contribute to the evolution of taxa with viviparous representatives that are slightly selectively preferred. 
",27614456
0,85823,"Static electric fields modify the locomotory behaviour of [START]cockroaches[END].
Static electric fields are found throughout the environment and there is growing interest in how electric fields influence insect behaviour. Here we have analysed the locomotory behaviour of [START]cockroaches[END] (Periplaneta americana) in response to static electric fields at levels equal to and above those found in the natural environment. Walking behaviour (including velocity, distance moved, turn angle and time spent walking) were analysed as [START]cockroaches[END] approached an electric field boundary in an open arena, and also when continuously exposed to an electric field. On approaching an electric field boundary, the greater the electric field strength the more likely a cockroach would be to turn away from, or be repulsed by, the electric field. [START]Cockroaches[END] completely exposed to electric fields showed significant changes in locomotion by covering less distance, walking slowly and turning more often. This study highlights the importance of electric fields on the normal locomotory behaviour of insects.
",21613518
0,85823,"Wing reduction influences male mating success but not female fitness in [START]cockroaches[END].
Although [START]cockroaches[END] ([START]Blattodea[END] s. str.) exhibit high proportion of species with reduced wings, the underlying evolutionary forces remain unclear. Wing reduction in insects is generally considered advantageous for females and a trade-off between investment into the flying apparatus and reproduction is predicted to explain its evolution. However, what if the wing maintenance is an important issue for males' fitness? Males raise wings during the ritualized courtship which is viewed as an unavoidable movement unveiling the tergal glands for female access. We, however, propose a novel male mating success hypothesis suggesting that male wings are essential for their successful mating. We tested these two competing, but not mutually exclusive hypotheses in the [START]cockroach[END] Eublaberus distanti. We found no effect of female wing loss on any of the measured fecundity characteristics despite that alatectomized females histolyzed flight muscles. On the contrary, alatectomized males did not histolyze wing muscles, but experienced a markedly decreased mating success. Our findings, therefore, provide the first evidence on the crucial mechanical role of wings on male mating success. Consequently, selection for the retention of wings in males rather than for their reduction in females can explain the evolution of sexual wing dimorphism in [START]cockroaches[END] and other insects.
",28539621
0,85823,"Identification of the intermediate host of Gongylonema sp., the etiological agent of the necrotic oropharyngeal disease of the Scops owl (Otus scops).
Since 1997, fledgling Scops owls (Chordata: Strigidae) have been brought to the Brinzal Owl Rescue Centre (Madrid, Spain) with severe lesions in their oral cavities. Lesions consist of the presence of proliferative necrotic material in the oral cavity resulting in white plaques, which can lead to death by starvation. This disease has been detected in owls only within the limits of the city of Madrid. The etiologic agent has been identified as Gongylonema sp. (Nematoda: Spirurida), a nematode genus that includes a coprophagous arthropod as intermediate host in its cycle. The aim of this study was to identify the intermediate host of the parasite. Our work was structured in four component phases: i) Diet study of newborn chicks; ii) trapping arthropods that could be intermediate hosts; iii) molecular detection of the parasite in the selected arthropods: and iv) molecular characterization of the detected parasites by amplifying the cox1 gene. Four male owls were radio-tagged in order to locate their nests and a camera trap was placed to identify the prey brought to the owlets. Secondly, the arthropods present in the hunting areas of the owls were sampled, identified and analyzed by real time PCR (rtPCR). Only oriental [START]cockroaches[END], B. orientalis (Arthropoda: [START]Blattodea[END]), were positive by rtPCR detection of Gongylonema sp. (66.7%). The nematodes obtained from [START]cockroaches[END] had a 99.8% identity of the cox1 gene with the Gongylonema sp. isolated for the first time in a Scops owl. Furthermore, these sequences only showed an <89% identity with all the other Gongylonema sequences available in the GenBank database. We conclude that the oriental [START]cockroach[END] should be considered as an intermediate host of the etiologic agent of NOD.
",34461282
0,85823,"Wasp voodoo rituals, venom-cocktails, and the zombification of [START]cockroach[END] hosts.
The parasitoid Jewel Wasp uses [START]cockroaches[END] as a live food supply for its developing larvae. The adult wasp uses mechanoreceptors on its stinger to locate the host's cerebral ganglia and injects venom directly into the [START]cockroach[END]'s ""brain,"" namely in the subesophageal ganglion and in and around the central complex in the supraesophageal ganglion. As a result, the [START]cockroach[END] first engages in continuous grooming for roughly 30 min. Dopamine identified in the wasp's venom is likely to cause this grooming, as injecting a dopamine-receptor antagonist into the [START]cockroach[END] hemolymph prior to a wasp's sting greatly reduced the venom-induced, excessive grooming. Conversely, injecting a dopamine-receptor agonist into the brain induces excessive grooming in normal [START]cockroaches[END]. A second effect of the head-sting is the induction of a long-lasting lethargic state, during which the [START]cockroach[END] demonstrates a dramatically reduced drive to self-initiate locomotion. Unlike most paralyzing venoms, Ampulex's venom seems to affect the ""motivation"" of its host to initiate locomotion, rather than affecting the motor centers directly. In fact, the venom specifically increases thresholds for the initiation of walking-related behaviors and, once such behaviors are initiated, affects their maintenance without affecting the walking-pattern generators. Thus, the venom manipulates neuronal centers within the cerebral ganglia that are specifically involved in the initiation and maintenance of walking. We have shown that in stung [START]cockroaches[END] focal injection of an octopaminergic receptor agonist around the central complex area in the brain partially restores walking. Another likely candidate target of the venom is the opioid system, which is known to affect responsiveness to stimuli in insects. Opioid receptor agonists increase startle threshold in control [START]cockroaches[END] and using a bioassay for opioid receptors, we found that the venom blocks opioid-like receptors. This effect is reversed with naloxone, an opioid antagonist. 
",24706086
0,85823,"Comparative insecticide susceptibility and detoxification enzyme activities among pestiferous [START]blattodea[END].
Topical bioassays using propoxur, chlorpyrifos, and lambda-cyhalothrin were conducted on eight [START]cockroach[END] species. Based on lethal dose values, the relative toxicities of the insecticide classes were generally pyrethroid > carbamate > organophosphorous. Lambda-Cyhalothrin and propoxur were more toxic toward the Blattidae as compared with the Blattellidae. The order of lambda-cyhalothrin toxicity was Periplaneta americana > Periplaneta brunnea = Periplaneta australasiae = Periplaneta fuliginosa = Blatta orientalis > Blattella asahinai = Blattella germanica > Blattella vaga. The order of propoxur toxicity was B. orientalis > P. americana > P. brunnea = P. australasiae > B. asahinai > P. fuliginosa = B. germanica > B. vaga. The order of chlorpyrifos toxicity was P. americana > B. asahinai = B. vaga > B. orientalis = P. australasiae = P. brunnea > B. germanica = P. fuliginosa. Detoxification enzyme activities for each species also were measured and compared with insecticide toxicity. Propoxur LD50 was significantly (P = 0.01; r = 0.81) correlated with glutathione S-transferase activity. Lambda-Cyhalothrin LD50 correlated with methoxyresorufin O-demethylase activity (P = 0.01; r = 0.81), carboxylesterase activity (P = 0.03; r = - 0.75), general esterase activity (P = 0.02; r = - 0.79), and [START]cockroach[END] weight (P = 0.01; r = -0.95).
",10661713
0,85823,"Spatial Distribution of German [START]Cockroaches[END] in a High-Rise Apartment Building During Building-Wide Integrated Pest Management.
The German cockroach Blattella germanica (L.) ([START]Blattodea[END], Ectobiidae) is one of the most common indoor pests in multifamily housing communities. Our objectives were to investigate the spatial distribution patterns of German cockroach infestations in a multiunit dwelling before and after building-wide integrated pest management (IPM) implementation. The study was conducted in a high-rise apartment building with 188 residential units in Paterson, New Jersey. All the identified infestations were treated by researchers using IPM implementation, and monitoring was repeated at 6 and 12 mo after the initial survey. We examined [START]cockroach[END] spatial distribution patterns within and between apartments. Traps placed by the stove and refrigerator caught significantly more [START]cockroaches[END] than traps placed in the kitchen cabinet under the sink or in the bathroom. At month 0, [START]cockroach[END] infestations within the building were spatially correlated. At 12 mo after implementation of IPM, only infestations cross the floors remained to be correlated. Therefore, IPM not only eliminates [START]cockroach[END] infestations in individual units, but also reduces [START]cockroach[END] dispersal between units.
",31120112
0,85823,"Histochemical demonstration of oxidoreductase activities in the fat body and symbionts of Blattella germanica ([START]Blattodea[END]) following chlortetracycline-treatment.
The metabolic apport of prokaryotic symbionts in the fat body of Blattella germanica was investigated by histoenzymatic methods, using chlortetracycline-treated and normal strains. In the experimental insects, bacteriocytes showed a decreased oxidoreductase activity, whereas the staining intensity of the other cell types was generally unchanged. Electron microscopic observations showed that some bacteria were still present in the bacteriocytes of the treated insects, but exhibited degeneration patterns to a different extent; therefore, they are not likely to carry on any enzymatic activity. Hence, chlortetracycline, an antibiotic that blocks the transovaric transmission of the symbionts, is active also on the endocellular symbionts of the fat body.
",3442552
0,85823,"Motor innervation within supernumerary legs of [START]cockroaches[END].
1. Clusters of legs having prothoracic and metathoracic origins were grown from the metathoracic coxa of the [START]cockroach[END]. 2. Or occasionally two, of the three major nerves innervating the [START]cockroach[END] leg. 3. Stimulation of a particular leg nerve (no. 3, 5 or 6) evoked movement at the same joints and in the same directions in a leg having only one nerve as in a normal leg. 4. Stimulation of a particular metathoracic nerve generally produced the same movements in a prothoracic leg transplanted to the metathoracic site as it did in a regenerated or intact metathoracic leg.
",1202136
0,85823,"Neurobehavioral and biochemical changes in Nauphoeta cinerea following dietary exposure to chlorpyrifos.
The present study aimed to increase our understanding about the mode of toxic action of organophosphate pesticides in insects by evaluating the biochemical and neurobehavioral characteristics in Nauphoeta cinerea exposed to chlorpyrifos (CPF)-contaminated diet. The insects were exposed for 35 consecutive days to CPF at 0.078, 0.15625, 0.3125 and 0.625mug/g feed. Locomotor behavior was assessed for a 10-min trial in a novel arena and subsequently, biochemical analyses were carried out using the [START]cockroaches[END]' heads. In comparison to control, CPF-exposed [START]cockroaches[END] showed significant decreases in the total distance traveled, body rotation, turn angle and meandering, along with significant increase in the number of falls, time and episodes of immobility. The marked decrease in the exploratory profiles of CPF-exposed [START]cockroaches[END] was confirmed by track plots, whereas occupancy plot analyses showed a progressive dispersion at 0.15625mug/g feed group. Moreover, the heads of CPF-exposed [START]cockroaches[END] showed marked decrease in acetylcholinesterase activity and antioxidant status with concomitant significant elevation in dichlorofluorescein oxidation and lipid peroxidation levels in CPF-treated [START]cockroaches[END]. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analyses revealed bioaccumulation of CPF in [START]cockroaches[END] exposed to concentrations above 0.078mug/g feed. The findings from this investigation showed N. cinerea as a value model organism for the risk assessment of environmental organophosphate contamination in insects. 
",27155480
0,85823,"Insecticidal Activity of Lamiaceae Plant Essential Oils and Their Constituents Against Blattella germanica L. Adult.
The insecticidal activities of 13 Lamiaceae plant oils and their components against adult German [START]cockroaches[END], Blattella germanica L. ([START]Blattodea[END]: Blattellidae), were evaluated using fumigant and contact bioassay. Among the tested oils, basil, pennyroyal, and spearmint showed the strongest insecticidal activities against adult B. germanica. Insecticidal activity of pennyroyal was 100% against male B. germanica at 1.25 mg concentration in fumigant bioassay. Basil and spearmint revealed 100% and 100% insecticidal activity against male B. germanica at 5 mg concentration, but their activities reduced to 80% and 25% at 2.5 mg concentration, respectively. In contact, toxicity bioassay, basil, pennyroyal, and spearmint oils exhibited 100%, 100%, and 98% mortality against female B. germanica at 1 mg/ , respectively. Among the constituents identified in basil, pennyroyal, and spearmint oils, insecticidal activity of pulegone was the strongest against male and female B. germanica.
",29474548
0,85823,"Allometry of resting metabolic rate in [START]cockroaches[END].
1. Resting VO2 at 22.7 degrees C was 0.217 +/- 0.007 ml O2/g/hr in Nauphoeta cinerea of 0.51 +/- 0.008 g body mass. 2. Whole animal resting metabolic rate for 11 [START]cockroach[END] species scaled allometrically: VO2 = 0.261 M0.776. 3. Allometry of resting VO2 among [START]cockroach[END] species is similar to that in vertebrates, and is consistent with models based on both ""elastic similarity"" and ""biological similitude.""
",2575943
0,85823,"The digestive system in Zygentoma as an insect model for high cellulase activity.
The digestive system of selected phytophagous insects has been examined as a potential prospecting resource for identification of novel cellulolytic enzymes with potential industrial applications. In contrast to other model species, however, limited detailed information is available that characterizes cellulolytic activity and systems in basal hexapod groups. As part of a screening effort to identify insects with highly active cellulolytic systems, we have for the first time, identified species of Zygentoma that displayed the highest relative cellulase activity levels when compared to all other tested insect groups under the experimental conditions, including model species for cellulolytic systems such as termite and [START]cockroach[END] species in Rhinotermitidae (formerly Isoptera) and Cryptocercidae (formerly [START]Blattodea[END]). The goal of the present study was to provide a morphohistological characterization of cellulose digestion and to identify highly active cellulase enzymes present in digestive fluids of Zygentoma species. Morphohistological characterization supported no relevant differences in the digestive system of firebrat (Thermobia domestica) and the gray silverfish (Ctenolepisma longicaudata). Quantitative and qualitative cellulase assays identified the foregut as the region with the highest levels of cellulase activity in both T. domestica and C. longicaudata. However, T. domestica was found to have higher endoglucanase, xylanase and pectinase activities compared to C. longicaudata. Using nano liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (nanoLC/MS/MS) and a custom gut transcriptome we identified cellulolytic enzymes from digestive fluids of T. domestica. Among the identified enzymes we report putative endoglucanases matching to insect or arthropod enzymes and glucan endo-1,6-beta-glucosidases matching bacterial enzymes. These findings support combined activities of endogenous and symbiont-derived plant cell wall degrading enzymes in lignocellulose digestion in Zygentoma and advance our understanding of cellulose digestion in a primitive insect group.
",30817757
0,85823,"Three-dimensional analysis of the heart function and effect cholinergic agonists in the [START]cockroach[END] Gromphadorhina portentosa.
Many relevant aspects of mammal's cardiac physiology have been mainly investigated in insect models such as Drosophila melanogaster and Periplaneta americana. Cardiac function has been poorly studied in the [START]cockroach[END] Gromphadorhina portentosa, which has some advantages for experimental purposes such as an easier culture, bigger organs and a robust physiology. On the other hand, the study of cardiac physiology in insects has been largely improved since the arrival of digital imaging technologies for recording purposes. In the present work, we introduce a methodology of video recording coupled to an isotonic transducer for a three-dimensional analysis of the heart and intracardiac valves of G. portentosa. We used this methodology for assessing the physiological responses of the [START]cockroach[END] heart upon the application of different cholinergic neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, nicotine and muscarine). We recorded in detail the relationship between intracardiac valves movement, hemolymph flow, diastole and systole. Acetylcholine and nicotine induced a biphasic effect on the cardiac frequency. Acetylcholine increased the diastolic opening. Nicotine at high concentration caused paralysis. Muscarine induced no major effects. These findings suggest a combined action of cholinergic agonists for a finely tuned the cardiac frequency, intracardiac valves function and cardiac cycle.
",32955634
0,7003,"Effects of a methanolic extract of the plant Haplophyllum tuberculatum and of teflubenzuron on female reproduction in the migratory locust, [START]Locusta[END] migratoria (Orthoptera: Oedipodinae).
The effects of a methanolic extract of the plant Haplophyllum tuberculatum (ME-Ht) and of teflubenzuron (TFB) were compared on several reproductive variables and ecdysteroid titers in the females of [START]Locusta[END] migratoria. The test products were administered orally to newly emerged females at doses of 1500 (ME-Ht) and 10mug/female (TFB). The methanolic extract and TFB had comparable effects on several of the variables examined. Both significantly delayed the first oviposition and reduced fecundity and fertility. ME-Ht and TFB also displayed similar effects on ovarian growth, vitellogenesis and ecdysteroid titers. Both treatments induced a drop in hemolymph protein levels as well as a reduction in vitellogenin uptake by oocytes. This delay in oogenesis was accompanied by a resorption of terminal oocytes. However, whereas TFB completely blocked egg hatch, ME-Ht only had a modest inhibitory effect on this variable. Hemolymph and ovarian ecdysteroid titers, as measured by radioimmunoassay, were similar and low in both control and treated females, except for a peak observed only in control females at the end of vitellogenesis. We discuss the functional significance of the observed effects in the context of the putative modes of action of the methanolic plant extract and TFB.
",22206884
0,7003,"Two distinctive beta subunits are separately involved in two binding sites of imidacloprid with different affinities in [START]Locusta[END] migratoria manilensis.
Due to great diversity of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes in insects, one beta subunit may be contained in numerous nAChR subtypes. In the locust [START]Locusta[END] migratoria, a model insect species with agricultural importance, the third beta subunits (Locbeta3) was identified in this study, which reveals at least three beta subunits in this insect species. Imidacloprid was found to bind nAChRs in L. migratoria central nervous system at two sites with different affinities, with Kd values of 0.16 and 10.31nM. The specific antisera (L1-1, L2-1 and L3-1) were raised against fusion proteins at the large cytoplasmic loop of Locbeta1, Locbeta2 and Locbeta3 respectively. Specific immunodepletion of Locbeta1 with antiserum L1-1 resulted in the selective loss of the low affinity binding site for imidacloprid, whereas the immunodepletion of Locbeta3 with L3-1 caused the selective loss of the high affinity site. Dual immunodepletion with L1-1 and L3-1 could completely abolish imidacloprid binding. In contrast, the immunodepletion of Locbeta2 had no significant effect on the specific [3H]imidacloprid binding. Taken together, these data indicated that Locbeta1 and Locbeta3 were respectively contained in the low- and high-affinity binding sites for imidacloprid in L. migratoria, which is different to the previous finding in Nilaparvata lugens that Nlbeta1 was in two binding sites for imidacloprid. The involvement of two beta subunits separately in two binding sites may decrease the risk of imidacloprid resistance due to putative point mutations in beta subunits in L. migratoria.
",28755692
0,7003,"Identification of representative genes of the central nervous system of the locust, [START]Locusta[END] migratoria manilensis by deep sequencing.
The shortage of available genomic and transcriptomic data hampers the molecular study on the migratory locust, [START]Locusta[END] migratoria manilensis (L.) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) central nervous system (CNS). In this study, locust CNS RNA was sequenced by deep sequencing. 41,179 unigenes were obtained with an average length of 570 bp, and 5,519 unigenes were longer than 1,000 bp. Compared with an EST database of another locust species Schistocerca gregaria Forsskai, 9,069 unigenes were found conserved, while 32,110 unigenes were differentially expressed. A total of 15,895 unigenes were identified, including 644 nervous system relevant unigenes. Among the 25,284 unknown unigenes, 9,482 were found to be specific to the CNS by filtering out the previous ESTs acquired from locust organs without CNS's. The locust CNS showed the most matches (18%) with Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) sequences. Comprehensive assessment reveals that the database generated in this study is broadly representative of the CNS of adult locust, providing comprehensive gene information at the transcriptional level that could facilitate research of the locust CNS, including various physiological aspects and pesticide target finding.
",23421689
0,7003,"Specific activity of a Bacillus thuringiensis strain against [START]Locusta[END] migratoria manilensis.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has played an important role in biocontrol of pests. However, insecticidal activity of B. thuringiensis against locusts has been rarely reported. Bt strain BTH-13 exhibiting specific activity to locusts was isolated from a soil sample in China and characterized. Its bipyramidal parasporal crystal is mainly composed of a protein of 129kDa, and produces a mature toxin of 64kDa after activation. The pattern of total DNA from BTH-13 showed a large and three small plasmid bands. Known delta-endotoxin genes, cry1Aa, cry1Ab, cry1Ac, cry1C, cry3, cry4 and cry7Aa were not found from strain BTH-13 by PCR amplification. The sequence analysis of a DNA fragment produced by PCR amplification with degenerate cry-selective primers revealed that the fragment encoded a delta-endotoxin segment, which exhibited some similarity to several Cry proteins (41% of the highest similarity to Cry7Ba1). Toxicity tests were performed against [START]Locusta[END] migratoria manilensis, and the results demonstrated that trypsin-treated sporulated cultures and crystal proteins had high toxicity to larval and adult locusts. Cry toxin of BTH-13 was detected on the midguts of treated locusts using immunofluorescent technology, which confirmed the site of action of the crystal proteins in their toxicity for locusts.
",18359040
0,7003,"Evidence of a central pattern generator regulating spermathecal muscle activity in [START]Locusta[END] migratoria and its coordination with oviposition.
Electrophysiological recordings were conducted to determine the control of spermathecal contractions during oviposition of interrupted egg-laying locusts, [START]Locusta[END] migratoria. Following transection of the central nervous system below the metathoracic ganglion, rhythmic patterned bursting was detected by extracellular recordings of the nerve N2B2 that innervates the muscles of the spermatheca. Subsequent transections at more posterior regions of the ventral nerve cord revealed more robust rhythmic bursting in N2B2. This rhythmic bursting pattern was found to be coordinated with bursting in the ventral opener nerve (N2B1) that innervates the ventral opener muscle. This muscle controls the ventral ovipositor valves. Electromyographic recordings from the spermathecal muscle and ventral opener muscle confirmed a rhythmic bursting pattern resulting in an increase in muscle activity. Taken together, the results indicate that there is probably a central pattern generator (CPG), which is regulated by descending inhibition, that controls the spermathecal muscle activity. This CPG appears to be located within the VIIth and VIIIth abdominal ganglia, and was found to integrate with the CPG that regulates oviposition digging in locusts. These results provide further insight into the intricate coordination and control of reproductive tissues underlying reproductive behaviours in locusts.
",21307061
0,7003,"Diversity, abundance, and sex-specific expression of chemosensory proteins in the reproductive organs of the locust [START]Locusta[END] migratoria manilensis.
Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) are small soluble proteins often associated with chemosensory organs in insects but include members involved in other functions, such as pheromone delivery and development. Although the CSPs of the sensory organs have been extensively studied, little is known on their functions in other parts of the body. A first screening of the available databases has identified 70 sequences encoding CSPs in the oriental locust [START]Locusta[END] migratoria manilensis. Applying proteomic analysis, we have identified 17 of them abundantly expressed in the female reproductive organs, but only one (CSP91) in male organs. Bacterially expressed CSP91 binds fatty acids with a specificity for oleic and linoleic acid, as well as medium-length alcohols and esters. The same acids have been detected as the main gas chromatographic peaks in the dichloromethane extracts of reproductive organs of both sexes. The abundance and the number of CSPs in female reproductive organs indicates important roles for these proteins. We cannot exclude that different functions can be associated with each of the 17 CSPs, including delivery of semiochemicals, solubilization of hormones, direct control of development, or other unknown tasks.
",23096575
0,7003,"Transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of pre-diapause and non-diapause eggs of migratory locust, [START]Locusta[END] migratoria L. (Orthoptera: Acridoidea).
Low temperature induces diapause in locusts. However, the physiological processes and initiation mechanism of diapause are not well understood. To understand the molecular basis of diapause, 'omics' analyses were performed to examine the differences between diapause and non-diapause eggs at both transcriptional and translational levels. Results indicated that a total of 62,241 mRNAs and 212 proteins were differentially expressed. Among them, 116 transcripts had concurrent transcription and translation profiles. Up-regulated genes related to diapause included glutathiones-S-transferase et al., and down-regulated genes including juvenile hormone esterase-like protein et al. KEGG analysis mapped 7,243 and 99 differentially expressed genes and proteins, to 83 and 25 pathways, respectively. Correlation enriched pathways indicated that there were nine identical pathways related to diapause. Gene Ontology analysis placed these genes and proteins into three categories, and a higher proportion of genes related to metabolism was up-regulated than down-regulated. Furthermore, three up-regulated pathways were linked to cryoprotection. This study demonstrates the applicability of high-throughput omics tools to identify molecules linked to diapause in the locust. In addition, it reveals cellular metabolism in diapause eggs is more active than in non-diapause eggs, and up-regulated enzymes may play roles in cryoprotection and storing energy for diapause and post-diapause stages. 
",26091374
0,7003,"Ecdysteroids are bound to vitellin in newly laid eggs of [START]Locusta[END].
The follicle cells of vitellogenic ovaries of [START]Locusta[END] migratoria have been reported to synthesize impressive amounts of ecdysteroids which accumulate inside the oocytes where they persist during egg-laying; these ecdysteroids are conjugated to more than 95%, and it is believed that their hydrolysis in the egg is the source of the peaks of free ecdysone observed in early embryonic development. The present paper shows that, in the eggs, the ecdysteroid conjugates are bound to a 520 000-dalton macromolecule which shares several characteristics with the major yolk protein vitellin and is precipitated by an anti-vitellin antibody. The physiological relevance of the binding of ovarian ecdysteroid conjugates is discussed in respect to the transfer of maternal ecdysteroids to the embryo.
",7035253
0,7003,"Scaling of resting and maximum hopping metabolic rate throughout the life cycle of the locust [START]Locusta[END] migratoria.
The hemimetabolous migratory locust [START]Locusta[END] migratoria progresses through five instars to the adult, increasing in size from 0.02 to 0.95 g, a 45-fold change. Hopping locomotion occurs at all life stages and is supported by aerobic metabolism and provision of oxygen through the tracheal system. This allometric study investigates the effect of body mass (Mb) on oxygen consumption rate (MO2, mumol h(-1)) to establish resting metabolic rate (MRO2), maximum metabolic rate during hopping (MMO2) and maximum metabolic rate of the hopping muscles (MMO2,hop) in first instar, third instar, fifth instar and adult locusts. Oxygen consumption rates increased throughout development according to the allometric equations MRO2=30.1Mb(0.83+-0.02), MMO2=155Mb(1.01+-0.02), MMO2,hop=120Mb(1.07+-0.02) and, if adults are excluded, MMO2,juv=136Mb(0.97+-0.02) and MMO2,juv,hop=103Mb(1.02+-0.02). Increasing body mass by 20-45% with attached weights did not increase mass-specific MMO2 significantly at any life stage, although mean mass-specific hopping MO2 was slightly higher (ca. 8%) when juvenile data were pooled. The allometric exponents for all measures of metabolic rate are much greater than 0.75, and therefore do not support West, Brown and Enquist's optimised fractal network model, which predicts that metabolism scales with a 3/4-power exponent owing to limitations in the rate at which resources can be transported within the body.
",21900469
0,7003,"Identification of genes differentially expressed by Metarhizium anisopliae growing on [START]Locusta[END] migratoria wings using suppression subtractive hybridization.
Insect-pathogenic fungi penetrate their hosts directly through the cuticle. To better understand this process, we identified genes that were up-regulated by Metarhizium anisopliae germinating and differentiating on [START]Locusta[END] migratoria wings using suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH). A total of 78 unique expressed sequence tags (ESTs) up-regulated more than twofold during fungal growth on locust wings were identified. Among these 78 ESTs, 30 (38.5%) shared significant similarity with NCBI annotated hypothetical proteins, 16 (20.5%) shared low similarity to known or predicted genes, might represent novel genes, and 32 (41.0%) shared significant similarity with known proteins that are involved in various cell and molecular processes such as cell metabolism, protein metabolism, stress response and defense, and cell structure and function. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis of six randomly selected genes confirmed the SSH results, verifying the fidelity of the SSH data. The results of this study provide novel information on genes expressed during early stages of infection with M. anisopliae, and improve current understanding of fungal pathogenesis.
",21380718
0,7460,"Impact of Nosema ceranae and Nosema apis on individual worker [START]bees[END] of the two host species (Apis cerana and [START]Apis mellifera[END]) and regulation of host immune response.
Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae are obligate intracellular microsporidian parasites infecting midgut epithelial cells of host adult [START]honey bees[END], originally [START]Apis mellifera[END] and Apis cerana respectively. Each microsporidia cross-infects the other host and both microsporidia nowadays have a worldwide distribution. In this study, cross-infection experiments using both N. apis and N. ceranae in both [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. cerana were carried out to compare pathogen proliferation and impact on hosts, including host immune response. Infection by N. ceranae led to higher spore loads than by N. apis in both host species, and there was greater proliferation of microsporidia in [START]A. mellifera[END] compared to A. cerana. Both N. apis and N. ceranae were pathogenic in both host Apis species. N. ceranae induced subtly, though not significantly, higher mortality than N. apis in both host species, yet survival of A. cerana was no different to that of [START]A. mellifera[END] in response to N. apis or N. ceranae. Infections of both host species with N. apis and N. ceranae caused significant up-regulation of AMP genes and cellular mediated immune genes but did not greatly alter apoptosis-related gene expression. In this study, A. cerana enlisted a higher immune response and displayed lower loads of N. apis and N. ceranae spores than [START]A. mellifera[END], suggesting it may be better able to defend itself against microsporidia infection. We caution against over-interpretation of our results, though, because differences between host and parasite species in survival were insignificant and because size differences between microsporidia species and between host Apis species may alternatively explain the differential proliferation of N. ceranae in [START]A. mellifera[END].
",29289505
0,7460,"Effects of Nosema apis, N. ceranae, and coinfections on [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) learning and memory.
Western [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) face an increasing number of challenges that in recent years have led to significant economic effects on apiculture, with attendant consequences for agriculture. Nosemosis is a fungal infection of [START]honey bees[END] caused by either Nosema apis or N. ceranae. The putative greater virulence of N. ceranae has spurred interest in understanding how it differs from N. apis. Little is known of effects of N. apis or N. ceranae on [START]honey bee[END] learning and memory. Following a Pavlovian model that relies on the proboscis extension reflex, we compared acquisition learning and long-term memory recall of uninfected (control) [START]honey bees[END] versus those inoculated with N. apis, N. ceranae, or both. We also tested whether spore intensity was associated with variation in learning and memory. Neither learning nor memory differed among treatments. There was no evidence of a relationship between spore intensity and learning, and only limited evidence of a negative effect on memory; this occurred only in the co-inoculation treatment. Our results suggest that if Nosema spp. are contributing to unusually high colony losses in recent years, the mechanism by which they may affect [START]honey bees[END] is probably not related to effects on learning or memory, at least as assessed by the proboscis extension reflex. 
",26961062
0,7460,"Assessing hygienic behavior of [START]Apis mellifera[END] unicolor (Hymenoptera: Apidae), the endemic [START]honey bee[END] from Madagascar.
Hygienic behavior (HB) is one of the natural mechanisms of [START]honey bee[END] for limiting the spread of brood diseases and Varroa destructor parasitic mite. Objective of our study was to measure HB of Apis mellifera unicolor colonies (N = 403) from three geographic regions (one infested and two free of V. destructor) in Madagascar. The pin-killing method was used for evaluation of the HB. Responses were measured from 3 h 30 min to 7 h after perforation of the cells. Colonies were very effective in detecting perforated cells. In the first 4 h, on average, they detected at least 50% of the pin-killed brood. Six hours after cell perforation, colonies tested (N = 91) showed a wide range of uncapped (0 to 100%) and cleaned cells (0 to 82%). Global distribution of the rate of cleaned cells at 6 h was multimodal and hygienic responses could be split in three classes. Colonies from the three regions showed a significant difference in HB responses. Three hypotheses (geographic, genetic traits, presence of V. destructor) are further discussed to explain variability of HB responses among the regions. Levels of HB efficiency of A. mellifera unicolor colonies are among the greatest levels reported for [START]A. mellifera subspecies[END]. Presence of highly hygienic colonies is a great opportunity for future breeding program in selection for HB. 
",26125787
0,7460,"Seasonality in telomerase activity in relation to cell size, DNA replication, and nutrients in the fat body of [START]Apis mellifera[END].
In [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]), the rate of aging is modulated through social interactions and according to caste differentiation and the seasonal (winter/summer) generation of workers. Winter generation workers, which hatch at the end of summer, have remarkably extended lifespans as an adaptation to the cold season when the resources required for the growth and reproduction of colonies are limited and the [START]bees[END] need to maintain the colony until the next spring. In contrast, the summer [START]bees[END] only live for several weeks. To better understand the lifespan differences between summer and winter [START]bees[END], we studied the fat bodies of [START]honeybee[END] workers and identified several parameters that fluctuate in a season-dependent manner. In agreement with the assumption that winter workers possess greater fat body mass, our data showed gradual increases in fat body mass, the size of the fat body cells, and Vg production as the winter season proceeded, as well as contrasting gradual decreases in these parameters in the summer season. The differences in the fat bodies between winter and summer [START]bees[END] are accompanied by respective increases and decreases in telomerase activity and DNA replication in the fat bodies. These data show that although the fat bodies of winter [START]bees[END] differ significantly from those of summer [START]bees[END], these differences are not a priori set when [START]bees[END] hatch at the end of summer or in early autumn but instead gradually evolve over the course of the season, depending on environmental factors.
",33436732
0,7460,"Nosema Tolerant Honeybees (Apis mellifera) Escape Parasitic Manipulation of Apoptosis.
Apoptosis is not only pivotal for development, but also for pathogen defence in multicellular organisms. Although numerous intracellular pathogens are known to interfere with the host's apoptotic machinery to overcome this defence, its importance for host-parasite coevolution has been neglected. We conducted three inoculation experiments to investigate in the apoptotic respond during infection with the intracellular gut pathogen Nosema ceranae, which is considered as potential global threat to the [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) and other bee pollinators, in sensitive and tolerant [START]honeybees[END]. To explore apoptotic processes in the gut epithelium, we visualised apoptotic cells using TUNEL assays and measured the relative expression levels of subset of candidate genes involved in the apoptotic machinery using qPCR. Our results suggest that N. ceranae reduces apoptosis in sensitive [START]honeybees[END] by enhancing inhibitor of apoptosis protein-(iap)-2 gene transcription. Interestingly, this seems not be the case in Nosema tolerant [START]honeybees[END]. We propose that these tolerant [START]honeybees[END] are able to escape the manipulation of apoptosis by N. ceranae, which may have evolved a mechanism to regulate an anti-apoptotic gene as key adaptation for improved host invasion. 
",26445372
0,7460,"Managed [START]European[END]-Derived [START]Honey Bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END] sspp, Colonies Reduce African-Matriline [START]Honey Bee[END], A. m. scutellata, Drones at Regional Mating Congregations.
African [START]honey bees[END] (Apis mellifera scutellata) dramatically changed the South American beekeeping industry as they rapidly spread through the Americas following their introduction into Brazil. In the present study, we aimed to determine if the management of [START]European[END]-derived [START]honey bees[END] ([START]A. mellifera[END] sspp.) could reduce the relative abundance of African-matriline drones at regional mating sites known as drone congregation areas (DCAs). We collected 2,400 drones at six DCAs either 0.25 km or >2.8 km from managed [START]European[END]-derived [START]honey bee[END] apiaries. The maternal ancestry of each drone was determined by Bgl II enzyme digestion of an amplified portion of the mitochondrial Cytochrome b gene. Furthermore, sibship reconstruction via nuclear microsatellites was conducted for a subset of 1,200 drones to estimate the number of colonies contributing drones to each DCA. Results indicate that DCAs distant to managed [START]European[END] apiaries (>2.8 km) had significantly more African-matriline drones (34.33% of the collected drones had African mitochondrial DNA) than did DCAs close (0.25 km) to managed [START]European[END] apiaries (1.83% of the collected drones had African mitochondrial DNA). Furthermore, nuclear sibship reconstruction demonstrated that the reduction in the proportion of African matriline drones at DCAs near apiaries was not simply an increase in the number of [START]European[END] matriline drones at the DCAs but also the result of fewer African matriline colonies contributing drones to the DCAs. Our data demonstrate that the management of [START]European honey bee[END] colonies can dramatically influence the proportion of drones with African matrilines at nearby drone congregation areas, and would likely decreasing the probability that virgin [START]European[END] queens will mate with African drones at those drone congregation areas. 
",27518068
0,7460,"Classic Hoarding Cages Increase Gut Bacterial Abundance and Reduce the Individual Immune Response of [START]Honey Bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) Workers.
Laboratory experiments have advanced our understanding of [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) responses to environmental factors, but removal from the hive environment may also impact physiology. To examine whether the laboratory environment alters the [START]honey bee[END] gut bacterial community and immune responses, we compared bacterial community structure (based on amplicon sequence variant relative abundance), total bacterial abundance, and immune enzyme (phenoloxidase and glucose oxidase) activity of cohort [START]honey bee[END] workers kept under laboratory and hive conditions. Workers housed in the laboratory showed differences in the relative abundance of their core gut taxa, an increase in total gut bacterial abundance, and reduced phenoloxidase activity, compared to [START]bees[END] housed in hives.
",35303101
0,7460,"[The morphological basis of conditioned reflex in the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] L].
A review. Works related to research into the neuroanatomical basis of associative learning in the [START]honeybee[END] (proboscis extension reflex) are summarized. Data on the brain organization of the [START]honeybee[END] are presented. The parallel neural pathways of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are shown. Contribution of different brain structures and identified neurons (VUMmx1, PE1) in the formation of the proboscis extension reflex are discussed.
",23530444
0,7460,"Magnetoreception system in [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
[START]Honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) undergo iron biomineralization, providing the basis for magnetoreception. We showed earlier the presence of superparamagnetic magnetite in iron granules formed in [START]honeybees[END], and subscribed to the notion that external magnetic fields may cause expansion or contraction of the superparamagnetic particles in an orientation-specific manner, relaying the signal via cytoskeleton (Hsu and Li 1994). In this study, we established a size-density purification procedure, with which quantitative amount of iron granules was obtained from [START]honey bee[END] trophocytes and characterized; the density of iron granules was determined to be 1.25 g/cm(3). While we confirmed the presence of superparamagnetic magnetite in the iron granules, we observed changes in the size of the magnetic granules in the trophycytes upon applying additional magnetic field to the cells. A concomitant release of calcium ion was observed by confocal microscope. This size fluctuation triggered the increase of intracellular Ca(+2) , which was inhibited by colchicines and latrunculin B, known to be blockers for microtubule and microfilament syntheses, respectively. The associated cytoskeleton may thus relay the magnetosignal, initiating a neural response. A model for the mechanism of magnetoreception in [START]honeybees[END] is proposed, which may be applicable to most, if not all, magnetotactic organisms.
",17460762
0,7460,"Nosema ceranae in European [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite described from the Asian [START]honey bee[END], Apis cerana. The parasite is cross-infective with the [START]European honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END]. It is not known when or where N. ceranae first infected European [START]bees[END], but N. ceranae has probably been infecting European [START]bees[END] for at least two decades. N. ceranae appears to be replacing Nosema apis, at least in some populations of European [START]honey bees[END]. This replacement is an enigma because the spores of the new parasite are less durable than those of N. apis. Virulence data at both the individual bee and at the colony level are conflicting possibly because the impact of this parasite differs in different environments. The recent advancements in N. ceranae genetics, with a draft assembly of the N. ceranae genome available, are discussed and the need for increased research on the impacts of this parasite on European [START]honey bees[END] is emphasized.
",19909977
0,7460,"Population genomics and morphometric assignment of western [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) in the Republic of South Africa.
BACKGROUNDS: Apis mellifera scutellata and A.m. capensis (the Cape [START]honey bee[END]) are [START]western honey bee subspecies[END] indigenous to the Republic of South Africa (RSA). Both [START]bees[END] are important for biological and economic reasons. First, A.m. scutellata is the invasive ""African [START]honey bee[END]"" of the Americas and exhibits a number of traits that beekeepers consider undesirable. They swarm excessively, are prone to absconding (vacating the nest entirely), usurp other [START]honey bee[END] colonies, and exhibit heightened defensiveness. Second, Cape [START]honey bees[END] are socially parasitic [START]bees[END]; the workers can reproduce thelytokously. Both [START]bees[END] are indistinguishable visually. Therefore, we employed Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS), wing geometry and standard morphometric approaches to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of these [START]bees[END] to search for diagnostic markers that can be employed to distinguish between the two subspecies. RESULTS: Apis mellifera scutellata possessed the highest mean number of polymorphic SNPs (among 2449 informative SNPs) with minor allele frequencies > 0.05 (Np = 88%). The RSA [START]honey bees[END] generated a high level of expected heterozygosity (Hexp = 0.24). The mean genetic differentiation (FST; 6.5%) among the RSA [START]honey bees[END] revealed that approximately 93% of the genetic variation was accounted for within individuals of these subspecies. Two genetically distinct clusters (K = 2) corresponding to both subspecies were detected by Model-based Bayesian clustering and supported by Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA) inferences. Selected highly divergent loci (n = 83) further reinforced a distinctive clustering of two subspecies across geographical origins, accounting for approximately 83% of the total variation in the PCoA plot. The significant correlation of allele frequencies at divergent loci with environmental variables suggested that these populations are adapted to local conditions. Only 17 of 48 wing geometry and standard morphometric parameters were useful for clustering A.m. capensis, A.m. scutellata, and hybrid individuals. CONCLUSIONS: We produced a minimal set of 83 SNP loci and 17 wing geometry and standard morphometric parameters useful for identifying the two RSA [START]honey bee subspecies[END] by genotype and phenotype. We found that genes involved in neurology/behavior and development/growth are the most prominent heritable traits evolved in the functional evolution of [START]honey bee[END] populations in RSA. These findings provide a starting point for understanding the functional basis of morphological differentiations and ecological adaptations of the two [START]honey bee subspecies[END] in RSA.
",30111292
0,7460,"The Heat Shock Response in the [START]Western Honey Bee[END] (Apis mellifera) is Antiviral.
[START]Honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) are an agriculturally important pollinator species that live in easily managed social groups (i.e., colonies). Unfortunately, annual losses of [START]honey bee[END] colonies in many parts of the world have reached unsustainable levels. Multiple abiotic and biotic stressors, including viruses, are associated with individual [START]honey bee[END] and colony mortality. [START]Honey bees[END] have evolved several antiviral defense mechanisms including conserved immune pathways (e.g., Toll, Imd, JAK/STAT) and dsRNA-triggered responses including RNA interference and a non-sequence specific dsRNA-mediated response. In addition, transcriptome analyses of virus-infected [START]honey bees[END] implicate an antiviral role of stress response pathways, including the heat shock response. Herein, we demonstrate that the heat shock response is antiviral in [START]honey bees[END]. Specifically, heat-shocked [START]honey bees[END] (i.e., 42  C for 4 h) had reduced levels of the model virus, Sindbis-GFP, compared with [START]bees[END] maintained at a constant temperature. Virus-infection and/or heat shock resulted in differential expression of six heat shock protein encoding genes and three immune genes, many of which are positively correlated. The heat shock protein encoding and immune gene transcriptional responses observed in virus-infected [START]bees[END] were not completely recapitulated by administration of double stranded RNA (dsRNA), a virus-associated molecular pattern, indicating that additional virus-host interactions are involved in triggering antiviral stress response pathways.
",32098425
0,7460,"The moment before touchdown: landing manoeuvres of the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Although landing is a crucial part of insect flight, it has attracted relatively little study. Here, we investigate, for the first time, the final moments of a [START]honeybee[END]'s (Apis mellifera) landing manoeuvre. Using high-speed video recordings, we analyse the behaviour of [START]bees[END] as they approach and land on surfaces of various orientations. The [START]bees[END] enter a stable hover phase, immediately prior to touchdown. We have quantified behaviour during this hover phase and examined whether it changes as the tilt of the landing surface is varied from horizontal (floor), through sloped (uphill) and vertical (wall), to inverted (ceiling). The [START]bees[END] hover at a remarkably constant distance from the surface, irrespective of its tilt. Body inclination increases progressively as the tilt of the surface is increased, and is accompanied by an elevation of the antennae. The tight correlation between the tilt of the surface, and the orientation of the body and the antennae, indicates that the bee's visual system is capable of inferring the tilt of the surface, and pointing the antennae toward it. Touchdown is initiated by extending the appendage closest to the surface, namely, the hind legs when landing on horizontal or sloping surfaces, and the front legs or antennae when landing on vertical surfaces. Touchdown on inverted surfaces is most likely triggered by a mechanosensory signal from the antennae. Evidently, [START]bees[END] use a landing strategy that is flexibly tailored to the varying topography of the terrain.
",20038660
0,7460,"Antibacterial immune competence of [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) is adapted to different life stages and environmental risks.
The development of all [START]honey bee[END] castes proceeds through three different life stages all of which encounter microbial infections to a various extent. We have examined the immune strength of [START]honey bees[END] across all developmental stages with emphasis on the temporal expression of cellular and humoral immune responses upon artificial challenge with viable Escherichia coli bacteria. We employed a broad array of methods to investigate defence strategies of infected individuals: (a) fate of bacteria in the haemocoel; (b) nodule formation and (c) induction of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Newly emerged adult worker [START]bees[END] and drones were able to activate efficiently all examined immune reactions. The number of viable bacteria circulating in the haemocoel of infected [START]bees[END] declined rapidly by more than two orders of magnitude within the first 4-6 h post-injection (p.i.), coinciding with the occurrence of melanised nodules. Antimicrobial activity, on the other hand, became detectable only after the initial bacterial clearance. These two temporal patterns of defence reactions very likely represent the constitutive cellular and the induced humoral immune response. A unique feature of [START]honey bees[END] is that a fraction of worker [START]bees[END] survives the winter season in a cluster mostly engaged in thermoregulation. We show here that the overall immune strength of winter [START]bees[END] matches that of young summer [START]bees[END] although nodulation reactions are not initiated at all. As expected, high doses of injected viable E.coli bacteria caused no mortality in larvae or adults of each age. However, drone and worker pupae succumbed to challenge with E.coli even at low doses, accompanied by a premature darkening of the pupal body. In contrast to larvae and adults, we observed no fast clearance of viable bacteria and no induction of AMPs but a rapid proliferation of E.coli bacteria in the haemocoel of bee pupae ultimately leading to their death. 
",23799099
0,7460,"Transcriptional markers of sub-optimal nutrition in developing [START]Apis mellifera[END] nurse workers.
BACKGROUND: [START]Honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) contribute substantially to the worldwide economy and ecosystem health as pollinators. Pollen is essential to the bee's diet, providing protein, lipids, and micronutrients. The dramatic shifts in physiology, anatomy, and behavior that accompany normal worker development are highly plastic and recent work demonstrates that development, particularly the transition from nurse to foraging roles, is greatly impacted by diet. However, the role that diet plays in the developmental transition of newly eclosed [START]bees[END] to nurse workers is poorly understood. To further understand [START]honey bee[END] nutrition and the role of diet in nurse development, we used a high-throughput screen of the transcriptome of 3 day and 8 day old worker [START]bees[END] fed either honey and stored pollen (rich diet) or honey alone (poor diet) within the hive. We employed a three factor (age, diet, age x diet) analysis of the transcriptome to determine whether diet affected nurse worker physiology and whether poor diet altered the developmental processes normally associated with aging. RESULTS: Substantial changes in gene expression occurred due to starvation. Diet-induced changes in gene transcription occurring in younger [START]bees[END] were largely a subset of those occurring in older [START]bees[END], but certain signatures of starvation were only evident 8 day old workers. Of the 18,542 annotated transcripts in the [START]A. mellifera[END] genome, 150 transcripts exhibited differential expression due to poor diet at 3d of age compared with 17,226 transcripts that differed due to poor diet at 8d of age, and poor diet caused more frequent down-regulation of gene expression in younger [START]bees[END] compared to older [START]bees[END]. In addition, the age-related physiological changes that accompanied early adult development differed due to the diet these young adult [START]bees[END] were fed. More frequent down-regulation of gene expression was observed in developing [START]bees[END] fed a poor diet compared to those fed an adequate diet. Functional analyses also suggest that the physiological and developmental processes occurring in well-fed [START]bees[END] are vastly different than those occurring in pollen deprived [START]bees[END]. Our data support the hypothesis that poor diet causes normal age-related development to go awry. CONCLUSION: Poor nutrition has major consequences for the expression of genes underlying the physiology and age-related development of nurse worker [START]bees[END]. More work is certainly needed to fully understand the consequences of starvation and the complex biology of nutrition and development in this system, but the genes identified in the present study provide a starting point for understanding the consequences of poor diet and for mitigating the economic costs of colony starvation.
",24529032
0,7460,"Histochemistry, immunohistochemistry and cytochemistry of the anterior midgut region of the stingless bee Melipona quadrifasciata and [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] (Hymenoptera: Apidae).
The anterior midgut region of stingless bees is anatomically differentiated with tall and narrow cells, whereas in other social and solitary [START]bees[END] this anatomical gut region is lacking. The objective of the present study was to describe the histochemistry, immunohistochemistry and cytochemistry of the anterior midgut region of the stingless bee Melipona quadrifasciata in comparison with the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END]. The anterior midgut region of both species was evaluated for identification of the enzymes beta- galactosidase, glucose-6-phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and alkaline phosphatase, the membrane transporter aquaporin, the hormone FMRF-amide, and lysosomes. Histology of the anterior midgut region showed that this region in M. quadrifasciata workers did not present external folds of the wall, whereas the following midgut wall presented many. In [START]A. mellifera[END], folds in the midgut wall occur starting from the fore- midgut transition region. Despite these morphological differences, the tests evaluated were similar in both species. beta-galactosidase was not found in the anterior midgut cells. Glucose-6-phosphatase and acid phosphatase occurred in the apical region of the gut epithelium. Alkaline phosphatase occurred in vesicles in apical cytoplasm and in the basal plasma membrane infoldings of the epithelial cells. Aquaporin was found in the basal region of the midgut epithelium and in the associated visceral muscles. FMRF-amide was found only in nerve endings in the anterior midgut region. All cells in the anterior midgut region were rich in lysosomes. These results suggest that in both bee species, although they have anatomically different anterior midgut regions, these regions present high metabolic activity and function in cellular homeostasis, lipid absorption and are under neurohormone control.
",30007857
0,7460,"Prevalence of Nosema species infections in Apis cerana japonica and [START]Apis mellifera[END] [START]honeybees[END] in the Tohoku region of Japan.
We investigated here, the prevalence of Nosema microsporidia infections in the [START]honeybees[END], Apis cerana japonica and [START]Apis mellifera[END], in the Tohoku region of Japan. We detected Nosema ceranae DNA in 14 (2.8%) of 509 A. cerana japonica and in 34 (21.9%) of 155 [START]A. mellifera[END] [START]honeybees[END] from Aomori, Iwate, Akita, Yamagata, and Fukushima prefectures. Nosema apis DNA was undetectable in A. cerana japonica and [START]A. mellifera[END]. The unidentifiable Nosema species that genetically differed from N. apis, N. ceranae, and N. neumanni in terms of small subunit (SSU) rDNA, large subunit rDNA, and internal transcribed spacer sequences was identified in 105 (20.6%) of 509 A. cerana japonica and in 1 (0.6%) of 155 [START]A. mellifera[END] [START]honeybees[END], and from Iwate prefecture. A phylogenetic tree based on SSU rDNA sequences showed that the Nosema sp. belonged to the same clade as N. thomsoni detected in moth and solitary [START]bees[END] in North America and N. pieriae found in cabbage butterfly in Turkey, which have not hitherto been detected in [START]honeybees[END]. The morphological characteristics of the spores should be analyzed to enable species identification of the Nosema sp.
",33894389
0,7460,"The Complex Demographic History and Evolutionary Origin of the [START]Western Honey Bee[END], [START]Apis Mellifera[END].
The [START]western honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], provides critical pollination services to agricultural crops worldwide. However, despite substantial interest and prior investigation, the early evolution and subsequent diversification of this important pollinator remain uncertain. The primary hypotheses place the origin of [START]A. mellifera[END] in either Asia or Africa, with subsequent radiations proceeding from one of these regions. Here, we use two publicly available whole-genome data sets plus newly sequenced genomes and apply multiple population genetic analysis methods to investigate the patterns of ancestry and admixture in native [START]honey bee[END] populations from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The combination of these data sets is critical to the analyses, as each contributes samples from geographic locations lacking in the other, thereby producing the most complete set of [START]honey bee[END] populations available to date. We find evidence supporting an origin of [START]A. mellifera[END] in the Middle East or North Eastern Africa, with the A and Y lineages representing the earliest branching lineages. This finding has similarities with multiple contradictory hypotheses and represents a disentangling of genetic relationships, geographic proximity, and secondary contact to produce a more accurate picture of the origins of [START]A. mellifera[END]. We also investigate how previous studies came to their various conclusions based on incomplete sampling of populations, and illustrate the importance of complete sampling in understanding evolutionary processes. These results provide fundamental knowledge about genetic diversity within Old World [START]honey bee[END] populations and offer insight into the complex history of an important pollinator.
",28164223
0,7460,"Control of the microsporidian parasite Nosema ceranae in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) using nutraceutical and immuno-stimulatory compounds.
Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite that causes nosemosis in the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). As alternatives to the antibiotic fumagillin, ten nutraceuticals (oregano oil, thymol, carvacrol, trans-cinnmaldehyde, tetrahydrocurcumin, sulforaphane, naringenin, embelin, allyl sulfide, hydroxytyrosol) and two immuno-stimulatory compounds (chitosan, poly I:C) were examined for controlling N. ceranae infections. Caged [START]bees[END] were inoculated with N. ceranae spores, and treatments were administered in sugar syrup. Only two compounds did not significantly reduce N. ceranae spore counts compared to the infected positive control, but the most effective were sulforaphane from cruciferous vegetables, carvacrol from oregano oil, and naringenin from citrus fruit. When tested at several concentrations, the highest sulforaphane concentration reduced spore counts by 100%, but also caused 100% bee mortality. For carvacrol, the maximum reduction in spore counts was 57% with an intermediate concentration and the maximum bee mortality was 23% with the highest concentration. For naringenin, the maximum reduction in spore counts was 64% with the highest concentration, and the maximum bee mortality was only 15% with an intermediate concentration. In the longevity experiment, naringenin-fed [START]bees[END] lived as long as Nosema-free control [START]bees[END], both of which lived significantly longer than infected positive control [START]bees[END]. While its antimicrobial properties may be promising, reducing sulforaphane toxicity to [START]bees[END] is necessary before it can be considered as a candidate for controlling N. ceranae. Although further work on formulation is needed with naringenin, its effect on extending longevity in infected [START]bees[END] may give it an additional value as a potential additive for bee feed in [START]honey bee[END] colonies.
",31923212
0,7460,"Allozyme polymorphisms in Spanish [START]honeybees[END] (Apis mellifera iberica).
Earlier studies have shown two types of mitochondrial DNA in Spanish [START]honeybees[END] (Apis mellifera iberica): a western European or A. m. mellifera type, which predominates in northern Spain, and a north African or A. m. intermissa type, which predominates in southern Spain. Adult workers from 28 colonies sampled in northern and southern Spain were surveyed for polymorphisms at eight allozyme loci. Polymorphisms were found in Mdh1 (two alleles) and Pgm (five alleles). Three of the Pgm alleles have not been described previously. The frequencies of Mdh1 alleles in northern and southern samples are significantly different: Mdh1(80) = 0.94 in the north and 0.75 in the south. The frequencies of Pgm alleles in northern and southern samples do not differ significantly. The Hk allele (Hk100) found in all Spanish samples is the same as that found in other European populations. The results are consistent with the presence of a hybrid zone between African and west European [START]honeybee subspecies[END] in the Iberian peninsula or north Africa. The high number and frequency of novel Pgm alleles in the Spanish [START]bees[END] resembles the ""rare allele"" phenomenon observed in other hybrid populations.
",7890926
0,7460,"Predicting acute contact toxicity of pesticides in [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) through a k-nearest neighbor model.
Ecological risk assessment of plant protection products (PPPs) requires an understanding of both the toxicity and the extent of exposure to assess risks for a range of taxa of ecological importance including target and non-target species. Non-target species such as [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]), solitary [START]bees[END] and bumble bees are of utmost importance because of their vital ecological services as pollinators of wild plants and crops. To improve risk assessment of PPPs in bee species, computational models predicting the acute and chronic toxicity of a range of PPPs and contaminants can play a major role in providing structural and physico-chemical properties for the prioritisation of compounds of concern and future risk assessments. Over the last three decades, scientific advisory bodies and the research community have developed toxicological databases and quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models that are proving invaluable to predict toxicity using historical data and reduce animal testing. This paper describes the development and validation of a k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) model using in-house software for the prediction of acute contact toxicity of pesticides on [START]honey bees[END]. Acute contact toxicity data were collected from different sources for 256 pesticides, which were divided into training and test sets. The k-NN models were validated with good prediction, with an accuracy of 70% for all compounds and of 65% for highly toxic compounds, suggesting that they might reliably predict the toxicity of structurally diverse pesticides and could be used to screen and prioritise new pesticides.
",27705831
0,7460,"Genome-Wide Association Study of a Varroa-Specific Defense Behavior in [START]Honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
[START]Honey bees[END] are exposed to many damaging pathogens and parasites. The most devastating is Varroa destructor, which mainly affects the brood. A promising approach for preventing its spread is to breed Varroa-resistant [START]honey bees[END]. One trait that has been shown to provide significant resistance against the Varroa mite is hygienic behavior, which is a behavioral response of [START]honeybee[END] workers to brood diseases in general. Here, we report the use of an Affymetrix 44K SNP array to analyze SNPs associated with detection and uncapping of Varroa-parasitized brood by individual worker [START]bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). For this study, 22 000 individually labeled [START]bees[END] were video-monitored and a sample of 122 cases and 122 controls was collected and analyzed to determine the dependence/independence of SNP genotypes from hygienic and nonhygienic behavior on a genome-wide scale. After false-discovery rate correction of the P values, 6 SNP markers had highly significant associations with the trait investigated (alpha < 0.01). Inspection of the genomic regions around these SNPs led to the discovery of putative candidate genes.
",26774061
0,7460,"Discrimination of the entomological origin of honey according to the secretions of the bee (Apis cerana or [START]Apis mellifera[END]).
The eastern honeybee Apis cerana and the western [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] are the two most economically valuable [START]honeybee[END] species used in apiculture. In market, the price of Apis cerana honey (ACH) is usually several times higher than that of [START]Apis mellifera[END] honey (AMH) due to the production limit, resulting in wide adulteration and counterfeiting of ACH by AMH. In the present study, we compared [START]honeybee[END] secretions in these two kinds of honey, and found significant differences in protein profiles and hydrocarbon components. The SDS-PAGE pattern showed three species-specific bands with molecular weights between 15.0 and 29.4 KDa in ACH, and six species-specific bands in AMH with molecular weights between 13.8 and 33.1 KDa. The GC-MS-MS detection of the petroleum ether extracts of the two kinds of honey showed that 17-Pentatriacontene and Hentriacontane were the characteristic constituents of ACH and AMH, respectively. These two methods constitute a system to satisfy different needs for entomological authentication of honey samples.
",30716957
0,7460,"Varying degrees of Apis mellifera ligustica introgression in protected populations of the black [START]honeybee[END], Apis mellifera mellifera, in northwest Europe.
The natural distribution of [START]honeybee subspecies[END] in Europe has been significantly affected by human activities during the last century. Non-native subspecies of [START]honeybees[END] have been introduced and propagated, so that native black [START]honeybee[END] (Apis mellifera mellifera) populations lost their identity by gene-flow or went extinct. After previous studies investigated the remaining gene-pools of native [START]honeybees[END] in France and Spain, we here assess the genetic composition of eight northwest European populations of the black [START]honeybee[END], using both mitochondrial (restriction fragment length polymorphisms of the intergenic transfer RNAleu-COII region) and nuclear (11 microsatellite loci) markers. Both data sets show that A. m. mellifera populations still exist in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, England, Scotland and Ireland, but that they are threatened by gene flow from commercial [START]honeybees[END]. Both Bayesian admixture analysis of the microsatellite data and DraI-RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) analysis of the intergenic region indicated that gene-flow had hardly occurred in some populations, whereas almost 10% introgression was observed in other populations. The most introgressed population was found on the Danish Island of Laeso, which is the last remaining native Danish population of A. m. mellifera and the only one of the eight investigated populations that is protected by law. We discuss how individual admixture analysis can be used to monitor the restoration of [START]honeybee[END] populations that suffer from unwanted hybridization with non-native subspecies.
",15643954
0,7460,"Post-embryonic development of the Malpighian tubules in [START]Apis mellifera[END] (Hymenoptera) workers: morphology, remodeling, apoptosis, and cell proliferation.
The [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] has ecological and economic importance; however, it experiences a population decline, perhaps due to exposure to toxic compounds, which are excreted by Malpighian tubules. During metamorphosis of [START]A. mellifera[END], the Malpighian tubules degenerate and are formed de novo. The objective of this work was to verify the cellular events of the Malpighian tubule renewal in the metamorphosis, which are the gradual steps of cell remodeling, determining different cell types and their roles in the excretory activity in [START]A. mellifera[END]. Immunofluorescence and ultrastructural analyses showed that the cells of the larval Malpighian tubules degenerate by apoptosis and autophagy, and the new Malpighian tubules are formed by cell proliferation. The ultrastructure of the cells in the Malpighian tubules suggest that cellular remodeling only occurs from dark-brown-eyed pupae, indicating the onset of excretion activity in pupal Malpighian tubules. In adult forager workers, two cell types occur in the Malpighian tubules, one with ultrastructural features (abundance of mitochondria, vacuoles, microvilli, and narrow basal labyrinth) for primary urine production and another cell type with dilated basal labyrinth, long microvilli, and absence of spherocrystals, which suggest a role in primary urine re-absorpotion. This study suggests that during the metamorphosis, Malpighian tubules are non-functional until the light-brown-eyed pupae, indicating that [START]A. mellifera[END] may be more vulnerable to toxic compounds at early pupal stages. In addition, cell ultrastructure suggests that the Malpighian tubules may be functional from dark-brown-eyed pupae and acquire greater complexity in the forager worker bee.
",28988368
0,7460,"Immunity and physiological changes in adult [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) infected with Nosema ceranae: The natural colony environment.
Nosema ceranae is a microsporidium that infects [START]Apis mellifera[END], causing diverse physiological and behavioral alterations. Given the existence of individual and social mechanisms to reduce infection and fungal spread in the colony, [START]bees[END] may respond differently to infection depending on their rearing conditions. In this study, we investigated the effect of N. ceranae in [START]honey bee[END] foragers naturally infected with different fungal loads in a tropical region. In addition, we explored the effects of N. ceranae artificially infected young [START]bees[END] placed in a healthy colony under field conditions. [START]Honey bees[END] naturally infected with higher loads of N. ceranae showed downregulation of genes from Toll and IMD immune pathways and antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes, but hemolymph total protein amount and Vitellogenin (Vg) titers were not affected. Artificially infected [START]bees[END] spread N. ceranae to the controls in the colony, but fungal loads were generally lower than those observed in cages, probably because of social immunity. Although no significant changes in mRNA levels of AMP-encoding were observed, N. ceranae artificially infected [START]bees[END] showed downregulation of miR-989 (an immune-related microRNA), lower vitellogenin gene expression, and decreased hemolymph Vg titers. Our results demonstrate for the first time that natural infection by N. ceranae suppresses the immune system of [START]honey bee[END] foragers in the field. This parasite is detrimental to the immune system of young and old [START]bees[END], and disease spread, mitigation and containment will depend on the colony environment.
",33831437
0,7460,"Comb construction in mixed-species colonies of [START]honeybees[END], Apis cerana and [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Comb building in mixed-species colonies of Apis cerana and [START]Apis mellifera[END] was studied. Two types of cell-size foundation were made from the waxes of these species and inserted into mixed colonies headed either by an A. cerana or an [START]A. mellifera[END] queen. The colonies did not discriminate between the waxes but the A. cerana cell-size foundation was modified during comb building by the workers of both species. In pure A. cerana colonies workers did not accept any foundation but secreted wax and built on foundation in mixed colonies. Comb building is performed by small groups of workers through a mechanism of self-organisation. The two species cooperate in comb building and construct nearly normal combs but they contain many irregular cells. In pure A. mellifera colonies, the A. cerana cell size was modified and the queens were reluctant to lay eggs on such combs. In pure A. cerana colonies, the [START]A. mellifera[END] cell size was built without any modification but these cells were used either for drone brood rearing or for food storing. The principal elements of comb-building behaviour are common to both species, which indicates that they evolved prior to and were conserved after speciation.
",20435816
0,7460,"Heritability estimates of the novel trait 'suppressed in ovo virus infection' in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
[START]Honey bees[END] are under pressure due to abnormal high colony death rates, especially during the winter. The infestation by the Varroa destructor mite and the viruses that this ectoparasite transmits are generally considered as the [START]bees[END]' most important biological threats. Almost all efforts to remedy this dual infection have so far focused on the control of the Varroa mite alone and not on the viruses it transmits. In the present study, the sanitary control of breeding queens was conducted on eggs taken from drone brood for 4 consecutive years (2015-2018). The screening was performed on the sideline of an ongoing breeding program, which allowed us to estimate the heritabilities of the virus status of the eggs. We used the term 'suppressed in ovo virus infection' (SOV) for this novel trait and found moderate heritabilities for the presence of several viruses simultaneously and for the presence of single viral species. Colonies that expressed the SOV trait seemed to be more resilient to virus infections as a whole with fewer and less severe Deformed wing virus infections in most developmental stages, especially in the male caste. The implementation of this novel trait into breeding programs is recommended.
",32868870
0,7460,"Interactions between Nosema microspores and a neonicotinoid weaken [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Global pollinators, like [START]honeybees[END], are declining in abundance and diversity, which can adversely affect natural ecosystems and agriculture. Therefore, we tested the current hypotheses describing [START]honeybee[END] losses as a multifactorial syndrome, by investigating integrative effects of an infectious organism and an insecticide on [START]honeybee[END] health. We demonstrated that the interaction between the microsporidia Nosema and a neonicotinoid (imidacloprid) significantly weakened [START]honeybees[END]. In the short term, the combination of both agents caused the highest individual mortality rates and energetic stress. By quantifying the strength of immunity at both the individual and social levels, we showed that neither the haemocyte number nor the phenoloxidase activity of individuals was affected by the different treatments. However, the activity of glucose oxidase, enabling [START]bees[END] to sterilize colony and brood food, was significantly decreased only by the combination of both factors compared with control, Nosema or imidacloprid groups, suggesting a synergistic interaction and in the long term a higher susceptibility of the colony to pathogens. This provides the first evidences that interaction between an infectious organism and a chemical can also threaten pollinators, interactions that are widely used to eliminate insect pests in integrative pest management.
",20050872
0,7460,"LC-MS/MS Quantification Reveals Ample Gut Uptake and Metabolization of Dietary Phytochemicals in [START]Honey Bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
The [START]honey bee[END] pollen/nectar diet is rich in bioactive phytochemicals and recent studies have demonstrated the potential of phytochemicals to influence [START]honey bee[END] disease resistance. To unravel the role of dietary phytochemicals in [START]honey bee[END] health it is essential to understand phytochemical uptake, bioavailability, and metabolism but presently limited knowledge exists. With this study we aim to build a knowledge foundation. For 5 days, we continuously fed [START]honey bees[END] on eight individual phytochemicals and measured the concentrations in whole and dissected [START]bees[END] by HPLC-MS/MS. Ample phytochemical metabolization was observed, and only 6-30% of the consumed quantities were recovered. Clear differences in metabolization rates were evident, with atropine, aucubin, and triptolide displaying significantly slower metabolism. Phytochemical gut uptake was also demonstrated, and oral bioavailability was 4-31%, with the highest percentages observed for amygdalin, triptolide, and aucubin. We conclude that differences in the chemical properties and structure impact phytochemical uptake and metabolism.
",33416324
0,7460,"Immunosenescence and resistance to parasite infection in the [START]honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Immunosenescence, the systemic reduction of immune efficiency with age, is increasingly recognised as having important implications for host-parasite dynamics. Changes in the immune response can impact on the ability of an individual to resist or moderate parasite infection, depending on how and when it encounters a parasite challenge. Using the [START]European honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] and its microsporidian parasite Nosema ceranae, we investigated the effects of host age on the ability to resist parasite infection and on baseline immunocompetence, assessed by quantifying constitutive (PO) and potential levels (PPO) of the phenoloxidase immune enzyme as general measures of immune function. There was a significant correlation between the level of general immune function and infection intensity, but not with survival, and changes in immune function with age correlated with the ability of individuals to resist parasite infection. Older individuals had better survival when challenged with a parasite than younger individuals, however they also had more intense infections and lower baseline immunocomptence. The ability of older individuals to have high infection intensities yet live longer, has potential consequences for parasite transmission. The results highlight the need to consider age in host-parasite studies and show the importance of choosing the correct measure when assaying invertebrate immunity. 
",24953460
0,7460,"Evidence of immunocompetence reduction induced by cadmium exposure in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
In the last decades a dramatic loss of [START]Apis mellifera[END] hives has been reported in both Europe and USA. Research in this field is oriented towards identifying a synergy of contributing factors, i.e. pathogens, pesticides, habitat loss and pollution to the weakening of the hive. Cadmium (Cd) is a hazardous anthropogenic pollutant whose effects are proving to be increasingly lethal. Among the multiple damages related to Cd contamination, some studies report that it causes immunosuppression in various animal species. The aim of this paper is to determine whether contamination by Cd, may have a similar effect on the [START]honey bees[END]' immunocompetence. Our results, obtained by immune challenge experiments and confirmed by structural and ultrastructural observations show that such metal causes a reduction in immunocompetence in 3 days Cd exposed [START]bees[END]. As further evidence of [START]honey bee[END] response to Cd treatment, Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (X-EDS) has revealed the presence of zinc (Zn) in peculiar electron-dense granules in fat body cells. Zn is a characteristic component of metallothioneins (MTs), which are usually synthesized as anti-oxidant and scavenger tools against Cd contamination. Our findings suggest that [START]honey bee[END] colonies may have a weakened immune system in Cd polluted areas, resulting in a decreased ability in dealing with pathogens.
",27528187
0,7460,"[START]Honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) larval pheromones may regulate gene expression related to foraging task specialization.
BACKGROUND: Foraging behavior in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) is a complex phenotype that is regulated by physiological state and social signals. How these factors are integrated at the molecular level to modulate foraging behavior has not been well characterized. The transition of worker [START]bees[END] from nursing to foraging behaviors is mediated by large-scale changes in brain gene expression, which are influenced by pheromones produced by the queen and larvae. Larval pheromones can also stimulate foragers to leave the colony to collect pollen. However, the mechanisms underpinning this rapid behavioral plasticity in foragers that specialize in collecting pollen over nectar, and how larval pheromones impact these different behavioral states, remains to be determined. Here, we investigated the patterns of gene expression related to rapid behavioral plasticity and task allocation among [START]honey bee[END] foragers exposed to two larval pheromones, brood pheromone (BP) and (E)-beta-ocimene (EBO). We hypothesized that both pheromones would alter expression of genes in the brain related to foraging and would differentially impact brain gene expression depending on foraging specialization. RESULTS: Combining data reduction, clustering, and network analysis methods, we found that foraging preference (nectar vs. pollen) and pheromone exposure are each associated with specific brain gene expression profiles. Furthermore, pheromone exposure has a strong transcriptional effect on genes that are preferentially expressed in nectar foragers. Representation factor analysis between our study and previous landmark [START]honey bee[END] transcriptome studies revealed significant overlaps for both pheromone communication and foraging task specialization. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that, as social signals, pheromones alter expression patterns of foraging-related genes in the bee's brain to increase pollen foraging at both long and short time scales. These results provide new insights into how social signals and task specialization are potentially integrated at the molecular level, and highlights the possible role that brain gene expression may play in [START]honey bee[END] behavioral plasticity across time scales.
",31324147
0,7460,"Resisting majesty: Apis cerana, has lower antennal sensitivity and decreased attraction to queen mandibular pheromone than [START]Apis mellifera[END].
In highly social [START]bees[END], queen mandibular pheromone (QMP) is vital for colony life. Both Apis cerana (Ac) and [START]Apis mellifera[END] (Am) share an evolutionarily conserved set of QMP compounds: (E)-9-oxodec-2-enoic acid (9-ODA), (E)-9-hydroxydec-2-enoic acid (9-HDA), (E)-10-hydroxy-dec-2-enoic acid (10-HDA), 10-hydroxy-decanoic acid (10-HDAA), and methyl p-hydroxybenzoate (HOB) found at similar levels. However, evidence suggests there may be species-specific sensitivity differences to QMP compounds because Ac workers have higher levels of ovarian activation than Am workers. Using electroantennograms, we found species-specific sensitivity differences for a blend of the major QMP compounds and three individual compounds (9-HDA, 10-HDAA, and 10-HDA). As predicted, Am was more sensitive than Ac in all cases (1.3- to 2.7- fold higher responses). There were also species differences in worker retinue attraction to three compounds (9-HDA, HOB, and 10-HDA). In all significantly different cases, Am workers were 4.5- to 6.2-fold more strongly attracted than Ac workers were. Thus, Ac workers responded less strongly to QMP than Am workers, and 9-HDA and 10-HDA consistently elicited stronger antennal and retinue formation responses [corrected].
",28294146
0,7460,"Methoprene does not affect juvenile hormone titers in [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) workers.
Methoprene, a juvenile hormone (JH) analog, is a widely used insecticide that also accelerates behavioral development in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). JH regulates the transition from nursing to foraging in adult worker [START]bees[END], and treatment with JH or methoprene have both been shown to induce precocious foraging. To determine how methoprene changes [START]honey bee[END] behavior, we compared JH titers of methoprene-treated and untreated [START]bees[END]. Behavioral observations confirmed that methoprene treatment significantly increased the number of precocious foragers in 3 out of 4 colonies. In only 1 out of 4 colonies, however, was there a significant difference in JH titers between the methoprene-treated and control [START]bees[END]. Further, in all 4 colonies, there was no significant differences in JH titers between precocious and normal-aged foragers. These results suggest that methoprene did not directly affect the endogenous JH secreted by corpora allata. Because methoprene caused early foraging without changing workers' JH titers, we conclude that methoprene most likely acts directly on the JH receptors as a substitute for JH.
",27763722
0,7460,"Sex-specific differences in pathogen susceptibility in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Sex-related differences in susceptibility to pathogens are a common phenomenon in animals. In the eusocial Hymenoptera the two female castes, workers and queens, are diploid and males are haploid. The haploid susceptibility hypothesis predicts that haploid males are more susceptible to pathogen infections compared to females. Here we test this hypothesis using adult male (drone) and female (worker) [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]), inoculated with the gut endoparasite Nosema ceranae and/or black queen cell virus (BQCV). These pathogens were chosen due to previously reported synergistic interactions between Nosema apis and BQCV. Our data do not support synergistic interactions between N. ceranae and BQCV and also suggest that BQCV has limited effect on both drone and worker health, regardless of the infection level. However, the data clearly show that, despite lower levels of N. ceranae spores in drones than in workers, Nosema-infected drones had both a higher mortality and a lower body mass than non-infected drones, across all treatment groups, while the mortality and body mass of worker [START]bees[END] were largely unaffected by N. ceranae infection, suggesting that drones are more susceptible to this pathogen than workers. In conclusion, the data reveal considerable sex-specific differences in pathogen susceptibility in [START]honey bees[END] and highlight the importance of ultimate measures for determining susceptibility, such as mortality and body quality, rather than mere infection levels. 
",24465518
0,7460,"Silencing the [START]Honey Bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) Naked Cuticle Gene (nkd) Improves Host Immune Function and Reduces Nosema ceranae Infections.
Nosema ceranae is a new and emerging microsporidian parasite of European [START]honey bees[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], that has been implicated in colony losses worldwide. RNA interference (RNAi), a posttranscriptional gene silencing mechanism, has emerged as a potent and specific strategy for controlling infections of parasites and pathogens in [START]honey bees[END]. While previous studies have focused on the silencing of parasite/pathogen virulence factors, we explore here the possibility of silencing a host factor as a mechanism for reducing parasite load. Specifically, we used an RNAi strategy to reduce the expression of a [START]honey bee[END] gene, naked cuticle (nkd), which is a negative regulator of host immune function. Our studies found that nkd mRNA levels in adult [START]bees[END] were upregulated by N. ceranae infection (and thus, the parasite may use this mechanism to suppress host immune function) and that ingestion of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) specific to nkd efficiently silenced its expression. Furthermore, we found that RNAi-mediated knockdown of nkd transcripts in Nosema-infected [START]bees[END] resulted in upregulation of the expression of several immune genes (Abaecin, Apidaecin, Defensin-1, and PGRP-S2), reduction of Nosema spore loads, and extension of [START]honey bee[END] life span. The results of our studies clearly indicate that silencing the host nkd gene can activate [START]honey bee[END] immune responses, suppress the reproduction of N. ceranae, and improve the overall health of [START]honey bees[END]. This study represents a novel host-derived therapeutic for [START]honey bee[END] disease treatment that merits further exploration. IMPORTANCE: Given the critical role of [START]honey bees[END] in the pollination of agricultural crops, it is urgent to develop strategies to prevent the colony decline induced by the infection of parasites/pathogens. Targeting parasites and pathogens directly by RNAi has been proven to be useful for controlling infections in [START]honey bees[END], but little is known about the disease impacts of RNAi silencing of host factors. Here, we demonstrate that knocking down the [START]honey bee[END] immune repressor-encoding nkd gene can suppress the reproduction of N. ceranae and improve the overall health of [START]honey bees[END], which highlights the potential role of host-derived and RNAi-based therapeutics in controlling the infections in [START]honey bees[END]. The information obtained from this study will have positive implications for [START]honey bee[END] disease management practices.
",27613683
0,7460,"Effects of sublethal doses of clothianidin and/or V. destructor on [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) self-grooming behavior and associated gene expression.
Little is known about the combined effects of stressors on social immunity of [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) and related gene expression. The interaction between sublethal doses of a neurotoxin, clothianidin, and the ectoparasite, Varroa destructor, was examined by measuring differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in brains, deformed wing virus (DWV) and the proportion and intensity of self-grooming. Evidence for an interaction was observed between the stressors in a reduction in the proportion of intense groomers. Only the lowest dose of clothianidin alone reduced the proportion of self-groomers and increased DWV levels. V. destructor shared a higher proportion of DEGs with the combined stressors compared to clothianidin, indicating that the effects of V. destructor were more pervasive than those of clothianidin when they were combined. The number of up-regulated DEGs were reduced with the combined stressors compared to clothianidin alone, suggesting an interference with the impacts of clothianidin. Clothianidin and V. destructor affected DEGs from different biological pathways but shared impacts on pathways related to neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer's, which could be related to neurological dysfunction and may explain their negative impacts on grooming. This study shows that the combination of clothianidin and V. destructor resulted in a complex and non-additive interaction.
",30914660
0,7460,"Toxicological, Biochemical, and Histopathological Analyses Demonstrating That Cry1C and Cry2A Are Not Toxic to Larvae of the [START]Honeybee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END].
The [START]honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], is commonly used as a test species for the regulatory risk assessment of insect-resistant genetically engineered (IRGE) plants. In the current study, a dietary exposure assay was developed, validated, and used to assess the potential toxicity of Cry1C and Cry2A proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to [START]A. mellifera[END] larvae; Cry1C and Cry2A are produced by different IRGE crops. The assay, which uses the soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI) as a positive control and bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a negative control, was used to measure the responses of [START]A. mellifera[END] larvae to high concentrations of Cry1C and Cry2A. Survival was reduced and development was delayed when larvae were fed SBTI (1 mg/g diet) but were unaffected when larvae were fed BSA (400 mug/g), Cry1C (50 mug/g), or Cry2A (400 mug/g). The enzymatic activities of [START]A. mellifera[END] larvae were not altered and their midgut brush border membranes (BBMs) were not damaged after being fed with diets containing BSA, Cry1C, or Cry2A; however, enzymatic activities were increased and BBMs were damaged when diets contained SBTI. The study confirms that Cry1C and Cry2A have no acute toxicity to [START]A. mellifera[END] larvae at concentrations >10 times higher than those detected in pollen from Bt plants. 
",26084400
0,7460,"Lateralization of olfaction in the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Lateralization of function is a well-known phenomenon in humans. The two hemispheres of the human brain are functionally specialized such that certain cognitive skills, such as language or musical ability, conspecific recognition, and even emotional responses, are mediated by one hemisphere more than the other [1, 2]. Studies over the past 30 years suggest that lateralization occurs in other vertebrate species as well [3-11]. In general, lateralization is observed in different sensory modalities in humans as well as vertebrates, and there are interesting parallels (reviewed in [12]). However, little is known about functional asymmetry in invertebrates [13, 14] and there is only one investigation in insects [15]. Here we show, for the first time, that the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] displays a clear laterality in responding to learned odors. By training [START]honeybees[END] on two different versions of the well-known proboscis extension reflex (PER) paradigm [16, 17], we demonstrate that [START]bees[END] respond to odors better when they are trained through their right antenna. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of asymmetrical learning performance in an insect.
",16860748
0,7460,"Differential gene expression of two extreme [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) colonies showing varroa tolerance and susceptibility.
Varroa destructor, an ectoparasitic mite of [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]), is the most serious pest threatening the apiculture industry. In our [START]honey bee[END] breeding programme, two [START]honey bee[END] colonies showing extreme phenotypes for varroa tolerance/resistance (S88) and susceptibility (G4) were identified by natural selection from a large gene pool over a 6-year period. To investigate potential defence mechanisms for [START]honey bee[END] tolerance to varroa infestation, we employed DNA microarray and real time quantitative (PCR) analyses to identify differentially expressed genes in the tolerant and susceptible colonies at pupa and adult stages. Our results showed that more differentially expressed genes were identified in the tolerant [START]bees[END] than in [START]bees[END] from the susceptible colony, indicating that the tolerant colony showed an increased genetic capacity to respond to varroa mite infestation. In both colonies, there were more differentially expressed genes identified at the pupa stage than at the adult stage, indicating that pupa [START]bees[END] are more responsive to varroa infestation than adult [START]bees[END]. Genes showing differential expression in the colony phenotypes were categorized into several groups based on their molecular functions, such as olfactory signalling, detoxification processes, exoskeleton formation, protein degradation and long-chain fatty acid metabolism, suggesting that these biological processes play roles in conferring varroa tolerance to naturally selected colonies. Identification of differentially expressed genes between the two colony phenotypes provides potential molecular markers for selecting and breeding varroa-tolerant [START]honey bees[END].
",26919127
0,7460,"Structural differences in the drone olfactory system of two phylogenetically distant Apis species, A. florea and [START]A. mellifera[END].
Male insects that are attracted by sex pheromones to find their female mates over long distances have specialized olfactory subsystems. Morphologically, these subsystems are characterized by a large number of receptor neurons sensitive to components of the female's pheromones and hypertrophied glomerular subunits ('macroglomeruli' or 'macroglomerular complexes') in the antennal lobes, in which the axons of the receptor neurons converge. The olfactory subsystems are adapted for an increased sensitivity to perceive minute amounts of pheromones. In [START]Apis mellifera[END], drones have 18,600 olfactory poreplate sensilla per antenna, each equipped with receptor neurons sensitive to the queen's sex pheromone, and four voluminous macroglomeruli (MG1-MG4) in the antennal lobes. In contrast, we show that drones of the phylogenetically distant species, Apis florea, have only 1,200 poreplate sensilla per antenna and only two macroglomeruli in their antennal lobes. These macroglomeruli are homologous in anatomical position to the two most prominent macroglomeruli in [START]A. mellifera[END], the MG1 and MG2, but they are much smaller in size. The morphological and anatomical differences described here suggest major modifications in the sex-pheromone processing subsystem of both species: (1) less pheromone sensitivity in A. florea and (2) a more complex sex-pheromone processing and thus a more complex sex-pheromone communication in [START]A. mellifera[END]. Research in [START]honey bee[END] sex-pheromone communication dates back to the 1960s, when Gary (1962) demonstrated that in [START]Apis mellifera[END] the queen's mandibular gland secretion and especially its main component, 9-ODA (9-keto-2(E)-decenoic acid), is highly attractive to drones on their nuptial flight. Later, cross-species attraction experiments showed that other [START]honey bee[END] species, Apis florea, A. cerana, and A. dorsata probably also use the queen's mandibular gland secretion as a mating attractant (Butler et al. 1967; Sanasi et al. 1971). Besides its function in mating behavior, the queen's mandibular gland secretion is the main pheromone regulating queen-worker interactions (Free 1987). In this context, several studies have demonstrated the behavioral significance of single components (Slessor et al. 1988) and differences in the composition of the secretion between Apis species (Plettner et al. 1996, 1997; Keeling et al. 2000). Regarding the interspecific differences in the queen's signal, the question arises whether this variation is reflected in the olfactory system of drones and workers of the various species.
",11320892
0,7460,"Open-air-nesting [START]honey bees[END] Apis dorsata and Apis laboriosa differ from the cavity-nesting [START]Apis mellifera[END] and Apis cerana in brood hygiene behaviour.
The cavity-nesting [START]Apis mellifera[END] and Apis cerana [START]bees[END] detect, uncap, and remove diseased brood. The hygiene behaviour of open-air-nesting [START]bees[END] Apis dorsata and Apis laboriosa was investigated in India and Nepal. Sealed A. dorsata pupae were pin-killed or deep-frozen. The workers removed 73 or 37% of damaged pin-killed pupae depending on the diameter of the pins, and only 7% of the frozen undamaged pupae. Migrating A. dorsata and A. laboriosa left unopened the sealed brood in deserted combs. Thus, A. dorsata and A. laboriosa do not open undamaged cells with dead brood. This behaviour is a more efficient mechanism in preventing the spread of diseases and parasitic mites than uncapping and removing dead pupae by [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. cerana. It may be beneficial for migrating A. dorsata and A. laboriosa to temporarily disuse part of the comb cells in exchange for arresting the mites there and thus reducing the increase of their population.
",15145245
0,7460,"A Single Gene Causes Thelytokous Parthenogenesis, the Defining Feature of the Cape Honeybee Apis mellifera capensis.
In [START]honeybees[END], the ability of workers to produce daughters asexually, i.e., thelytokous parthenogenesis, is restricted to a single subspecies inhabiting the Cape region of South Africa, Apis mellifera capensis. Thelytoky has unleashed new selective pressures and the evolution of traits such as social parasitism, invasiveness, and social cancer. Thelytoky arises from an abnormal meiosis that results in the fusion of two maternal pronuclei, restoring diploidy in newly laid eggs. The genetic basis underlying thelytoky is disputed. To resolve this controversy, we generated a backcross between thelytokous A. m. capensis and non-thelytokous A. m. scutellata from the neighboring population and looked for evidence of genetic markers that co-segregated with thelytokous reproduction in 49 backcross females. We found that markers associated with the gene GB45239 on chromosome 11, including non-synonymous variants, showed consistent co-segregation with thelytoky, whereas no other region did so. Alleles associated with thelytoky were present in all A. m. capensis genomes examined but were absent from all other [START]honeybees[END] worldwide including A. m. scutellata. GB45239 is derived in A. m. capensis and has a putative role in chromosome segregation. It is expressed in ovaries and is downregulated in thelytokous [START]bees[END], likely because of polymorphisms in the promoter region. Our study reveals how mutations affecting the sequence and/or expression of a single gene can change the reproductive mode of a population.
",32386531
0,7460,"Pathway profiles based on gene-set enrichment analysis in the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] under brood rearing-suppressed conditions.
Perturbation of normal behaviors in [START]honey bee[END] colonies by any external factor can immediately reduce the colony's capacity for brood rearing, which can eventually lead to colony collapse. To investigate the effects of brood-rearing suppression on the biology of [START]honey bee[END] workers, gene-set enrichment analysis of the transcriptomes of worker [START]bees[END] with or without suppressed brood rearing was performed. When brood rearing was suppressed, pathways associated with both protein degradation and synthesis were simultaneously over-represented in both nurses and foragers, and their overall pathway representation profiles resembled those of normal foragers and nurses, respectively. Thus, obstruction of normal labor induced over-representation in pathways related with reshaping of worker bee physiology, suggesting that transition of labor is physiologically reversible. In addition, some genes associated with the regulation of neuronal excitability, cellular and nutritional stress and aggressiveness were over-expressed under brood rearing suppression perhaps to manage in-hive stress under unfavorable conditions.
",28803879
0,7460,"Molecular, physiological and behavioral responses of [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) drones to infection with microsporidian parasites.
Susceptibility to pathogens and parasites often varies between sexes due to differences in life history traits and selective pressures. Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae are damaging intestinal pathogens of European [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). Nosema pathology has primarily been characterized in female workers where infection is energetically costly and accelerates worker behavioral maturation. Few studies, however, have examined infection costs in male [START]honey bees[END] (drones) to determine if Nosema similarly affects male energetic status and sexual maturation. We infected newly emerged adult drones with Nosema spores and conducted a series of molecular, physiological, and behavioral assays to characterize Nosema etiology in drones. We found that infected drones starved faster than controls and exhibited altered patterns of flight activity in the field, consistent with energetic distress or altered rates of sexual maturation. Moreover, expression of candidate genes with metabolic and/or hormonal functions, including members of the insulin signaling pathway, differed by infection status. Of note, while drone molecular responses generally tracked predictions based on worker studies, several aspects of infected drone flight behavior contrasted with previous observations of infected workers. While Nosema infection clearly imposed energetic costs in males, infection had no impact on drone sperm numbers and had only limited effects on antennal responsiveness to a major queen sex pheromone component (9-ODA). We compare Nosema pathology in drones with previous studies describing symptoms in workers and discuss ramifications for drone and colony fitness.
",29705058
0,7460,"Ties between ageing plasticity and reproductive physiology in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) reveal a positive relation between fecundity and longevity as consequence of advanced social evolution.
[START]Honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) are the best studied model of ageing among the social insects. As in other social insects, the reproductive queen far outlives her non-reproductive workers despite developing from the same genome in the same colony environment. Thus, the different social roles of the two female castes are critical for the profound phenotypic plasticity. In several special cases, such as the reproductive workers of Apis mellifera capensis, within-caste plasticity enables further studies of the fecundity-longevity syndrome in [START]honey bees[END]. At present, molecular evidence suggests that a reorganization of physiological control pathways may facilitate longevity of reproductive individuals. However, the social role and social environment of the different colony members are also very important and one of the key future questions is how much social facilitation versus internal regulation is responsible for the positive association between fecundity and longevity in [START]honey bees[END].
",27720052
0,7460,"Bee-hawking by the wasp, Vespa velutina, on the [START]honeybees[END] Apis cerana and [START]A. mellifera[END].
The vespine wasps, Vespa velutina, specialise in hawking [START]honeybee[END] foragers returning to their nests. We studied their behaviour in China using native Apis cerana and introduced A. mellifera colonies. When the wasps are hawking, A. cerana recruits threefold more guard [START]bees[END] to stave off predation than [START]A. mellifera[END]. The former also utilises wing shimmering as a visual pattern disruption mechanism, which is not shown by [START]A. mellifera[END]. A. cerana foragers halve the time of normal flight needed to dart into the nest entrance, while [START]A. mellifera[END] actually slows down in sashaying flight manoeuvres. V. velutina preferentially hawks [START]A. mellifera[END] foragers when both [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. cerana occur in the same apiary. The pace of wasp-hawking was highest in mid-summer but the frequency of hawking wasps was three times higher at A. mellifera colonies than at the A. cerana colonies. The wasps were taking [START]A. mellifera[END] foragers at a frequency eightfold greater than A. cerana foragers. The final hawking success rates of the wasps were about three times higher for [START]A. mellifera[END] foragers than for A. cerana. The relative success of native A. cerana over European [START]A. mellifera[END] in thwarting predation by the wasp V. velutina is interpreted as the result of co-evolution between the Asian wasp and [START]honeybee[END], respectively.
",17235596
0,7460,"[START]Honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] spp.) respond to increased aluminum exposure in their foraging choice, motility, and circadian rhythmicity.
Aluminum is increasingly globally bioavailable with acidification from industrial emissions and poor mining practices. This bioavailability increases uptake by flora, contaminating products such as fruit, pollen, and nectar. Concentrations of aluminum in fruit and pollen have been reported between 0.05 and 670mg/L in North America. This is particularly concerning for pollinators that ingest pollen and nectar. [START]Honey bees[END] represent a globally present species experiencing decline in Europe and North America. Region specific decline may be a result of differential toxicity of exposure between subspecies. We find that European [START]honey bees[END] (Apis mellifera mellifera) may have differential toxicity as compared to two allopatric Mediterranean subspecies (Apis mellifera carnica and Apis mellifera caucasica) which showed no within subspecies exposure differences. European [START]honey bees[END] were then used in a laboratory experiment and exposed to aluminum in their daily water supply to mimic nectar contamination at several concentrations. After approximately 3 weeks of aluminum ingestion these [START]bees[END] showed significantly shorter captive longevity than controls at concentrations as low as 10.4mg/L and showed a possible hormetic response in motility. We also compared European [START]honey bees[END] to Africanized/European hybrid [START]bees[END] (Apis mellifera mellifera/scutellata hybrid) in short-term free-flight experiments. Neither the [START]European honey bee[END] nor the hybrid showed immediate foraging deficits in flight time, color choice, or floral manipulation after aluminum exposure. We conclude that European [START]honey bees[END] are at the greatest risk of aluminum related decline from chronic ingestion as compared to other subspecies and offer new methods for future use in [START]honey bee[END] toxicology.
",31246964
0,7460,"Larva-mediated chalkbrood resistance-associated single nucleotide polymorphism markers in the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Chalkbrood is a disease affecting [START]honey bees[END] that seriously impairs brood growth and productivity of diseased colonies. Although [START]honey bees[END] can develop chalkbrood resistance naturally, the details underlying the mechanisms of resistance are not fully understood, and no easy method is currently available for selecting and breeding resistant [START]bees[END]. Finding the genes involved in the development of resistance and identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that can be used as molecular markers of resistance is therefore a high priority. We conducted genome resequencing to compare resistant (Res) and susceptible (Sus) larvae that were selected following in vitro chalkbrood inoculation. Twelve genomic libraries, including 14.4 Gb of sequence data, were analysed using SNP-finding algorithms. Unique SNPs derived from chromosomes 2 and 11 were analysed in this study. SNPs from resistant individuals were confirmed by PCR and Sanger sequencing using in vitro reared larvae and resistant colonies. We found strong support for an association between the C allele at SNP C2587245T and chalkbrood resistance. SNP C2587245T may be useful as a genetic marker for the selection of chalkbrood resistance and high royal jelly production [START]honey bee[END] lines, thereby helping to minimize the negative effects of chalkbrood on managed [START]honey bees[END].
",26991518
0,7460,"The discovery of Varroa destructor on drone [START]honey bees[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], at drone congregation areas.
Varroa is an external parasitic mite of [START]honey bees[END] and is a vector of multiple viruses that can severely weaken or cause the failure of [START]western honey bee[END] colonies if untreated. Effective Varroa control is dependent upon a thorough understanding of Varroa biology, including how Varroa move between host colonies. Here, we highlight that drone (male) [START]honey bees[END] may also play a role in Varroa dispersal. Drones were collected and the number of Varroa per 100 drones was calculated for each of five drone congregation areas (mating sites). This study is the first to confirm that drones present at drone congregation areas do carry Varroa. Further experimentation is needed to determine the extent to which drone-mediated movement may play a role in Varroa life history and/or to develop practical management strategies to limit drone-mediated movement of Varroa between [START]honey bee[END] hives.
",30094539
0,7460,"Immune-related gene expression in nurse [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) exposed to synthetic acaricides.
The mite Varroa destructor is an ectoparasite affecting [START]honey bees[END] worldwide. Synthetic acaricides have been among the principal tools available to beekeepers for its control, although several studies have shown its negative effects on [START]honey bee[END] physiology. Recent research suggests that those molecules strongly impact on immune signaling cascades and cellular immunity. In the present work, LC(50) in six-day-old [START]bees[END] were determined for the following acaricides: tau-fluvalinate, flumethrin, amitraz and coumaphos. According to this obtained value, a group of individuals was treated with each acaricide and then processed for qPCR analysis. Transcript levels for genes encoding antimicrobial peptides and immune-related proteins were assessed. Flumethrin increased the expression of hymenoptaecin when comparing treated and control [START]bees[END]. Significant differences were recorded between coumaphos and flumethrin treatments, while the first one reduced the expression of hymenoptaecin and abaecin, the last one up-regulated their expressions. No significant statistically changes were recorded in the expression levels of vitellogenin, lysozyme or glucose dehydrogenase among [START]bees[END] treated with acaricides and control [START]bees[END]. This work constitutes the first report, under laboratory conditions, about induction of immune related genes in response to synthetic miticides.
",23147024
0,7460,"Nectar, humidity, [START]honey bees[END] ( [START]Apis mellifera[END]) and varroa in summer: a theoretical thermofluid analysis of the fate of water vapour from honey ripening and its implications on the control of Varroa destructor.
This theoretical thermofluid analysis investigates the relationships between honey production rate, nectar concentration and the parameters of entrance size, nest thermal conductance, brood nest humidity and the temperatures needed for nectar to honey conversion. It quantifies and shows that nest humidity is positively related to the amount, and water content of the nectar being desiccated into honey and negatively with respect to nest thermal conductance and entrance size. It is highly likely that [START]honeybees[END], in temperate climates and in their natural home, with much smaller thermal conductance and entrance, can achieve higher humidities more easily and more frequently than in man-made hives. As a consequence, it is possible that Varroa destructor, a parasite implicated in the spread of pathogenic viruses and colony collapse, which loses fecundity at absolute humidities of 4.3 kPa (approx. 30 gm-3) and above, is impacted by the more frequent occurrence of higher humidities in these low conductance, small entrance nests. This study provides the theoretical basis for new avenues of research into the control of varroa, via the modification of beekeeping practices to help maintain higher hive humidities.
",31288647
0,7460,"Lethal and sublethal effects, and incomplete clearance of ingested imidacloprid in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
A previous study claimed a differential behavioural resilience between spring or summer [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) and bumble bees (Bombus terrestris) after exposure to syrup contaminated with 125 microg L-1 imidacloprid for 8 days. The authors of that study based their assertion on the lack of body residues and toxic effects in [START]honey bees[END], whereas bumble bees showed body residues of imidacloprid and impaired locomotion during the exposure. We have reproduced their experiment using winter [START]honey bees[END] subject to the same protocol. After exposure to syrup contaminated with 125 microg L-1 imidacloprid, [START]honey bees[END] experienced high mortality rates (up to 45%), had body residues of imidacloprid in the range 2.7-5.7 ng g-1 and exhibited abnormal behaviours (restless, apathetic, trembling and falling over) that were significantly different from the controls. There was incomplete clearance of the insecticide during the 10-day exposure period. Our results contrast with the findings reported in the previous study for spring or summer [START]honey bees[END], but are consistent with the results reported for the other bee species.
",28831701
0,7460,"Nitenpyram disturbs gut microbiota and influences metabolic homeostasis and immunity in [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.).
Recently, environmental risk and toxicity of neonicotinoid insecticides to [START]honey bees[END] have attracted extensive attention. However, toxicological understanding of neonicotinoid insecticides on gut microbiota is limited. In the present study, [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) were exposed to a series of nitenpyram for 14 days. Results indicated that nitenpyram exposure decreased the survival and food consumption of [START]honey bees[END]. Furthermore, 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that nitenpyram caused significant alterations in the relative abundance of several key gut microbiotas, which contribute to metabolic homeostasis and immunity. Using high-throughput RNA-Seq transcriptomic analysis, we identified a total of 526 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that were significantly altered between nitenpyram-treated and control [START]honey bee[END] gut, including several genes related to metabolic, detoxification and immunity. In addition, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis showed nitenpyram affected several biological processes, of which most were related to metabolism. Collectively, our study demonstrates that the dysbiosis of gut microbiota in [START]honey bee[END] caused by nitenpyram may influence metabolic homeostasis and immunity of [START]bees[END], and further decrease food consumption and survival of [START]bees[END].
",31855676
0,7460,"Glandular sources of pheromones used to control host workers (Apis mellifera scutellata) by socially parasitic workers of Apis mellifera capensis.
Pheromonal control by the [START]honey bee[END] queen is achieved through the use of secretions from diverse glandular sources, but the use of pheromones from a variety of glandular sources by reproductively dominant workers, has not previously been explored. Using the social parasite, Apis mellifera capensis clonal worker we studied the diversity of glandular sources used for pheromonal control of reproductively subordinate A. m. scutellata workers. To determine whether pheromones from different glandular sources are used by reproductively active workers to achieve dominance and evaluate the degree of pheromonal competition between workers of the two sub-species, we housed groups of workers of the two sub-species together in cages and analysed mandibular and tergal gland secretions as well as, ovarian activation status of each worker after 21days. The results showed that A. m. capensis invasive clones used both mandibular and tergal gland secretions to achieve reproductive dominance and suppress ovarian activation in their A. m. scutellata host workers. The reproductively dominant workers (false queens) produced more queen-like pheromones and inhibited ovarian activation in subordinate A. m. scutellata workers. These results show that tergal gland pheromones working in synergy with pheromones from other glands allow individual workers (false queens) to establish reproductive dominance within these social groups and to act in a manner similar to that of queens. Thus suggesting that, the evolution of reproductively dominant individuals (queens or false queens) and subordinate individuals (workers) in social insects like the [START]honey bee[END] is the result of a complex interplay of pheromonal signals from different exocrine glands.
",28889990
0,7460,"Ecology of Varroa destructor, the Major Ectoparasite of the [START]Western Honey Bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Varroa destructor is the most important ectoparasite of [START]Apis mellifera[END]. This review addresses the interactions between the varroa mite, its environment, and the [START]honey bee[END] host, mediated by an impressive number of cues and signals, including semiochemicals regulating crucial steps of the mite's life cycle. Although mechanical stimuli, temperature, and humidity play an important role, chemical communication is the most important channel. Kairomones are used at all stages of the mite's life cycle, and the exploitation of [START]bees[END]' brood pheromones is particularly significant given these compounds function as primer and releaser signals that regulate the social organization of the [START]honey bee[END] colony. V. destructor is a major problem for apiculture, and the search for novel control methods is an essential task for researchers. A detailed study of the ecological interactions of V. destructor is a prerequisite for creating strategies to sustainably manage the parasite.
",26667378
0,7460,"Proteomic analysis in the Dufour's gland of Africanized [START]Apis mellifera[END] workers (Hymenoptera: Apidae).
The colony of eusocial bee [START]Apis mellifera[END] has a reproductive queen and sterile workers performing tasks such as brood care and foraging. Chemical communication plays a crucial role in the maintenance of sociability in [START]bees[END] with many compounds released by the exocrine glands. The Dufour's gland is a non-paired gland associated with the sting apparatus with important functions in the communication between members of the colony, releasing volatile chemicals that influence workers roles and tasks. However, the protein content in this gland is not well studied. This study identified differentially expressed proteins in the Dufour's glands of nurse and forager workers of [START]A. mellifera[END] through 2D-gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. A total of 131 spots showed different expression between nurse and forager [START]bees[END], and 28 proteins were identified. The identified proteins were categorized into different functions groups including protein, carbohydrate, energy and lipid metabolisms, cytoskeleton-associated proteins, detoxification, homeostasis, cell communication, constitutive and allergen. This study provides new insights of the protein content in the Dufour's gland contributing to a more complete understanding of the biological functions of this gland in [START]honeybees[END].
",28542566
0,7460,"Nosema ceranae is an old resident of [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) colonies in Mexico, causing infection levels of one million spores per bee or higher during summer and fall.
This study was conducted to identify Nosema spp. and to determine their infection levels in [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) samples collected in Mexico in 1995-1996. Samples of historical surveys from different countries are of particular interest to support or challenge the hypothesis that the microsporidium Nosema ceranae is a new parasite of [START]A. mellifera[END] that has recently dispersed across the world. We demonstrate that N. ceranae has parasitized [START]honey bees[END] in Mexico since at least 1995 and that the infection levels of this parasite during summer and fall, exceed the threshold at which treatment of [START]honey bee[END] colonies is recommended.
",27816748
0,7460,"[START]Honey Bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) Show a Preference for the Consumption of Ethanol.
BACKGROUND: Alcohol abuse and alcoholism are significant global issues. [START]Honey bees[END] are excellent models for learning and other complex behaviors; furthermore, they share many behavioral responses to ethanol (EtOH) with humans and animal models. We develop a 2-feeder choice assay to determine whether [START]honey bees[END] will self-administer and preferentially consume solutions containing EtOH. METHODS: Gustatory responsiveness to EtOH is determined using the proboscis extension reflex and consumption assays. A 2-feeder choice assay is used to examine preference for the consumption of EtOH. Survival assays assess the metabolic and toxic effects of EtOH consumption. RESULTS: [START]Honey bees[END] find the taste of EtOH to be aversive when in water, but addition of sucrose masks the aversive taste. Even though the taste of EtOH is not appetitive, [START]honey bees[END] preferentially consume sucrose solutions containing 1.25 to 2.5% EtOH in a dose-dependent manner. Based on survival assays, [START]honey bees[END] may not be able to derive caloric value from EtOH, and EtOH concentrations of 2.5% or higher lead to significant increases in mortality. CONCLUSIONS: [START]Honey bees[END] will self-administer EtOH and show a preference for consuming solutions containing EtOH. [START]Bees[END] may not be able to efficiently utilize EtOH as an energy source, but EtOH-dependent increases in mortality complicate separating the effects of caloric value and toxicity.
",30347437
0,7460,"Chemical Stimulants and Stressors Impact the Outcome of Virus Infection and Immune Gene Expression in [START]Honey Bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Western [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) are ecologically, agriculturally, and economically important plant pollinators. High average annual losses of [START]honey bee[END] colonies in the US have been partially attributed to agrochemical exposure and virus infections. To examine the potential negative synergistic impacts of agrochemical exposure and virus infection, as well as the potential promise of phytochemicals to ameliorate the impact of pathogenic infections on [START]honey bees[END], we infected [START]bees[END] with a panel of viruses (i.e., Flock House virus, deformed wing virus, or Sindbis virus) and exposed to one of three chemical compounds. Specifically, [START]honey bees[END] were fed sucrose syrup containing: (1) thyme oil, a phytochemical and putative immune stimulant, (2) fumagillin, a beekeeper applied fungicide, or (3) clothianidin, a grower-applied insecticide. We determined that virus abundance was lower in [START]honey bees[END] fed 0.16 ppm thyme oil augmented sucrose syrup, compared to [START]bees[END] fed sucrose syrup alone. Parallel analysis of [START]honey bee[END] gene expression revealed that [START]honey bees[END] fed thyme oil augmented sucrose syrup had higher expression of key RNAi genes (argonaute-2 and dicer-like), antimicrobial peptide expressing genes (abaecin and hymenoptaecin), and vitellogenin, a putative [START]honey bee[END] health and age indicator, compared to [START]bees[END] fed only sucrose syrup. Virus abundance was higher in [START]bees[END] fed fumagillin (25 ppm or 75 ppm) or 1 ppb clothianidin containing sucrose syrup relative to levels in [START]bees[END] fed only sucrose syrup. Whereas, [START]honey bees[END] fed 10 ppb clothianidin had lower virus levels, likely because consuming a near lethal dose of insecticide made them poor hosts for virus infection. The negative impact of fumagillin and clothianidin on [START]honey bee[END] health was indicated by the lower expression of argonaute-2, dicer-like, abaecin, and hymenoptaecin, and vitellogenin. Together, these results indicate that chemical stimulants and stressors impact the outcome of virus infection and immune gene expression in [START]honey bees[END].
",34804032
0,7460,"Temperature-driven changes in viral loads in the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Many of the physiological traits in insects are shaped by environmental temperatures, which can influence their interactions with pathogens. Therefore, quantifying the thermal responses of the host-pathogen system is crucial for better understanding and predicting their dynamics due to environmental changes. This is particularly important in [START]honey bees[END], which are experiencing severe colony losses around the world, notably due to infection with the Deformed wing virus (DWV). To investigate the influence of temperature on the [START]honey bee[END]/DWV relationship we exposed adult [START]bees[END] to low or high temperatures and determined the effects on viral titers and bee survival. Emerging [START]bees[END] naturally infected with DWV were reared in vitro at different temperatures ranging from 15  C to 37  C. In addition, some [START]bees[END] reared at 37  C were exposed daily to acute heat treatments (40 and 43  C). High temperatures significantly decreased DWV titers close to the initial viral load at emergence but increased bee mortality. The lowest temperature resulted in higher mortality, but virus load was not significantly impacted. In conclusion, our results indicate that temperature could contribute to seasonal variations in viral loads but do not suggest temperature to be used as a tool to eliminate viruses, even given that high temperatures limit viral multiplication.
",30550746
0,7460,"Cheaters sometimes prosper: targeted worker reproduction in [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) colonies during swarming.
Kin selection theory predicts that [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) workers should largely refrain from producing their own offspring, as the workers collectively have higher inclusive fitness if they rear the sons of their mother, the queen. Studies that have quantified levels of ovary activation and reproduction among workers have largely supported this prediction. We sampled pre-emergent male pupae and adult workers from seven colonies at regular intervals throughout the reproductive part of the season. We show that the overall contribution of workers to male (drone) production is 4.2%, nearly 40 times higher than is generally reported, and is highest during reproductive swarming, when an average of 6.2% of the males genotyped are worker-produced. Similarly, workers in our samples were 100 times more likely to have active ovaries than previously assumed. Worker reproduction is seasonally influenced and peaks when colonies are rearing new queens. Not all worker subfamilies contribute equally to reproduction. Instead, certain subfamilies are massively over-represented in drone brood. By laying eggs within the period in which many colonies produce virgin queens, these rare worker subfamilies increase their direct fitness via their well-timed sons. 
",23889604
0,7460,"Next-generation sequence data demonstrate several pathogenic bee viruses in Middle East and African [START]honey bee subspecies[END] (Apis mellifera syriaca, Apis mellifera intermissa) as well as their cohabiting pathogenic mites (Varroa destructor).
RNA viruses are associated with [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) colony losses in many parts of the world. Their consequences may be exacerbated when the ectoparasite mite Varroa destructor is present in hives. While evidence of pathogenic, viral-induced disease is abundant in western [START]honey bees[END] (Apis mellifera mellifera) from many parts of the world, less information exists regarding the pathogen load of Apis mellifera syriaca and Apis mellifera intermissa, [START]honey bees[END] from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that play substantial roles in regional beekeeping. Here, we used next-generation sequencing to evaluate the viral populations of these subspecies and their associated mites. We found that both A. m. syriaca and A. m. intermissa, as well as the Varroa mites infecting their colonies, bear a suite of RNA viruses including major pathogenic viruses like Deformed wing virus, Acute bee paralysis virus, Black queen cell virus and Sacbrood virus, and less common viruses (e.g., bee Macula-like virus and Apis mellifera filamentous virus). The two native [START]honey bee[END] MENA subspecies have acquired different but overlapping suites of pathogens, which also differ, but overlap, with the suites detected in the mites. The presence of plant viruses suggests that they were acquired from foraging for pollen and nectar. Phylogenetic analysis of the above common pathogenic RNA viruses showed unexpected genetic relationships with other known strains, indicative of import to MENA from outside of the region. Our findings indicate that it is important to carefully consider the impact of the movement of queens and mobile colonies, and the effects such movement have, on the transmission of disease.
",30116966
0,7460,"Possible interference of Bacillus thuringiensis in the survival and behavior of Africanized [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), an entomopathogenic bacterium, has been used as bioinsecticides for insect pest control worldwide. Consequently, the objective of this work was to evaluate the possible effects of commercial formulations of Bt products, Dipel and Xentari, on the survival and behavior of Africanized [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). Bioassays were performed on foragers and newly emerged (24-h-old) [START]bees[END] that received the products mixed in the food. Their survival and behavior were evaluated through the vertical displacement tests and the walk test, analyzed using software Bee-Move. Then, histological analysis of the mesenterium was performed. As control treatment was used sterile water. The [START]honey bees[END]' survival was evaluated for between 1 and 144 h. No interference of B. thuringiensis, Dipel and Xentari, in the survival of Africanized [START]honey bees[END] were found. Only Xentari interfered with vertical displacement behavior of newly emerged (24-h-old) [START]bees[END]. Both the products tested were selective and safe for [START]A. mellifera[END].
",33568730
0,7460,"Experimental infection of [START]Apis mellifera[END] [START]honeybees[END] with Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia).
In this report, an experimental infection of Apis mellifera by Nosema ceranae, a newly reported microsporidian in this host is described. Nosema free [START]honeybees[END] were inoculated with 125,000 N. ceranae spores, isolated from heavily infected [START]bees[END]. The parasite species was identified by amplification and sequencing the SSUrRNA gene of the administered spores. Three replicate cages of 20 [START]honeybees[END] each were prepared, along with one control cage (n=20) supplied with sugar syrup only. The infection rate was 100% at the dosage administered. The presence of Nosema inside ventricular cells was confirmed in the samples using ultrathin sectioning and transmission electron microscopy. By day 3 p.i. a few cells (4.4%+/-1.2) were observed to be parasitized, whereas by 6 days p.i. more than half of the counted cells (66.4%+/-6) showed different parasite stages, this value increasing on day 7 p.i. (81.5%+/-14.8). Only one control bee died on day 7 p.i. In the infected groups, mortality was not observed until day 6 p.i. (66.7%+/-5.6). Total mortality on day 7 p.i. was 94.1% in the three infected replicates and by day 8 p.i. no infected bee was alive. After the infection, the parasites invaded both the tip of folds and the basal cells of the epithelium and the autoinfective capacity of the spores seemed to spread the infection rapidly between epithelial cells. On day 3 p.i., mature spores could be seen inside host cell tissue implying that the developmental cycle had been completed. The large number of parasitized cells, even the regenerative ones, the presence of autoinfective spores and the high mortality rate demonstrate that N. ceranae is highly pathogenic to [START]Apis mellifera[END]. Possible relation with bee depopulation syndrome is discussed by authors.
",17217954
0,7460,"RNAi-mediated double gene knockdown and gustatory perception measurement in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
This video demonstrates novel techniques of RNA interference (RNAi) which downregulate two genes simultaneously in [START]honey bees[END] using double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) injections. It also presents a protocol of proboscis extension response (PER) assay for measuring gustatory perception. RNAi-mediated gene knockdown is an effective technique downregulating target gene expression. This technique is usually used for single gene manipulation, but it has limitations to detect interactions and joint effects between genes. In the first part of this video, we present two strategies to simultaneously knock down two genes (called double gene knockdown). We show both strategies are able to effectively suppress two genes, vitellogenin (vg) and ultraspiracle (usp), which are in a regulatory feedback loop. This double gene knockdown approach can be used to dissect interrelationships between genes and can be readily applied in different insect species. The second part of this video is a demonstration of proboscis extension response (PER) assay in [START]honey bees[END] after the treatment of double gene knockdown. The PER assay is a standard test for measuring gustatory perception in [START]honey bees[END], which is a key predictor for how fast a [START]honey bee[END]'s behavioral maturation is. Greater gustatory perception of nest [START]bees[END] indicates increased behavioral development which is often associated with an earlier age at onset of foraging and foraging specialization in pollen. In addition, PER assay can be applied to identify metabolic states of satiation or hunger in [START]honey bees[END]. Finally, PER assay combined with pairing different odor stimuli for conditioning the [START]bees[END] is also widely used for learning and memory studies in [START]honey bees[END]. 
",23912844
0,7460,"Factors affecting the dynamics of the [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) hybrid zone of South Africa.
Hybrid zones are found wherever two populations distinguishable on the basis of heritable characters overlap spatially and temporally and hybridization occurs. If hybrids have lower fitness than the parental types a tension zone may emerge, in which there is a barrier to gene flow between the two parental populations. Here we discuss a hybrid zone between two [START]honeybee subspecies[END], Apis mellifera capensis and A. m. scutellata and argue that this zone is an example of a tension zone. This tension zone is particularly interesting because A. m. capensis can be a lethal social parasite of A. m. scutellata. However, despite its parasitic potential, A. m. capensis appears to be unable to increase its natural range unassisted. We propose three interlinked mechanisms that could maintain the South African honeybee hybrid zone: (1) low fitness of intercrossed and genetically mixed colonies arising from inadequate regulation of worker reproduction; (2) higher reproductive success of A. m. scutellata via both high dispersal rates into the hybrid zone and increased competitiveness of males, countered by (3) the parasitic nature of A. m. capensis.
",17848972
0,7460,"Effects of group size on learning and memory in the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END].
In animals that experience interactions with conspecifics while young, social interactions appear to be a necessary prerequisite for typical behaviour. Eusocial insects have large colonies where individuals experience a large number of social interactions with nest mates during all life stages, making them excellent candidates for understanding the effects of social isolation on brain development and behaviour. Here, we used the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] to study the effect of social isolation and group size on reward perception and discrimination learning and memory. We confined day--old adult workers into three different size groups (1, 8 or 32 [START]bees[END]) for 6 days during a critical period associated with adult behavioural maturation. We quantified their sucrose responsiveness, their ability to use and remember olfactory cues to discriminate between sucrose and salt (i.e. discrimination learning), and four biogenic amines in the brain. We found that the smaller the group size, the more responsive a worker was to the sucrose reward. [START]Honey bees[END] raised in groups of 32 performed the best in the learning trials and had the highest levels of dopamine. We found no effect of group size on memory. The observed group size effect on learning but not memory supports the hypothesis that social interactions modulate learning through the dopaminergic system.
",31019069
0,7460,"Hemocyte-mediated phagocytosis differs between [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) worker castes.
[START]Honey bees[END] as other insects rely on the innate immune system for protection against diseases. The innate immune system includes the circulating hemocytes (immune cells) that clear pathogens from hemolymph (blood) by phagocytosis, nodulation or encapsulation. [START]Honey bee[END] hemocyte numbers have been linked to hemolymph levels of vitellogenin. Vitellogenin is a multifunctional protein with immune-supportive functions identified in a range of species, including the [START]honey bee[END]. Hemocyte numbers can increase via mitosis, and this recruitment process can be important for immune system function and maintenance. Here, we tested if hemocyte mediated phagocytosis differs among the physiologically different [START]honey bee[END] worker castes (nurses, foragers and winter [START]bees[END]), and study possible interactions with vitellogenin and hemocyte recruitment. To this end, we adapted phagocytosis assays, which-together with confocal microscopy and flow cytometry-allow qualitative and quantitative assessment of hemocyte performance. We found that nurses are more efficient in phagocytic uptake than both foragers and winter [START]bees[END]. We detected vitellogenin within the hemocytes, and found that winter [START]bees[END] have the highest numbers of vitellogenin-positive hemocytes. Connections between phagocytosis, hemocyte-vitellogenin and mitosis were worker caste dependent. Our results demonstrate that the phagocytic performance of immune cells differs significantly between [START]honey bee[END] worker castes, and support increased immune competence in nurses as compared to forager [START]bees[END]. Our data, moreover, provides support for roles of vitellogenin in hemocyte activity.
",28877227
0,7460,"Mating flights select for symmetry in [START]honeybee[END] drones ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Males of the [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) fly to specific drone congregation areas (DCAs), which virgin queens visit in order to mate. From the thousands of drones that are reared in a single colony, only very few succeed in copulating with a queen, and therefore, a strong selection is expected to act on adult drones during their mating flights. In consequence, the gathering of drones at DCAs may serve as an indirect mate selection mechanism, assuring that queens only mate with those individuals having a better flight ability and a higher responsiveness to the queen's visual and chemical cues. Here, we tested this idea relying on wing fluctuating asymmetry (FA) as a measure of phenotypic quality. By recapturing marked drones at a natural DCA and comparing their size and FA with a control sample of drones collected at their maternal hives, we were able to detect any selection on wing size and wing FA occurring during the mating flights. Although we found no solid evidence for selection on wing size, wing FA was found to be significantly lower in the drones collected at the DCA than in those collected at the hives. Our results demonstrate the action of selection during drone mating flights for the first time, showing that developmental stability can influence the mating ability of [START]honeybee[END] drones. We therefore conclude that selection during [START]honeybee[END] drone mating flights may confer some fitness advantages to the queens.
",20012931
0,7460,"Seasonal variation of viral infections between the eastern [START]honey bee[END] (Apis cerana) and the [START]western honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
It is a widespread practice in China to keep colonies of both the [START]western honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], and the eastern [START]honey bee[END], Apis cerana, in close proximity. However, this practice increases opportunities for spillover of parasites and pathogens between the two host bee species, impacting spatial and temporal patterns in the occurrence and prevalence of the viruses that adversely affect bee health. We conducted a 1-year large-scale survey to assess the current status of viral infection in both [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. cerana in China. Our study focused on multiple aspects of viral infections in [START]honey bees[END], including infection rate, viral load, seasonal variation, regional variation, and phylogenetic relationships of the viruses within the same species found in this study and other parts of the world. The survey showed that the black queen cell virus (BQCV), deformed wing virus (DWV), Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), and sacbrood virus (SBV) were common in both [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. cerana, and infection dynamics of BQCV, DWV, and SBV between bee species or seasons were significantly different. DWV was the most common virus in [START]A. mellifera[END], and its infection rate and load in [START]A. mellifera[END] were higher than those in A. cerana, which reflects the high susceptibility of [START]A. mellifera[END] to Varroa destructor infestation. The infection rate and viral load of SBV were higher in A. cerana than in [START]A. mellifera[END], indicating that SBV poses a greater threat to A. cerana than to [START]A. mellifera[END]. Our results also suggested that there was no geographical variation in viral dynamics in [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. cerana. Phylogenetic analyses of BQCV, DWV, IAPV, and SBV suggested the cross-regional and cross-species spread of these viruses. This study provides important insights into the complex relationships between viruses and their hosts in different seasons and regions, which will be important for developing effective disease management strategies to improve bee health.
",33650796
0,7460,"Mating frequencies of [START]honey bee[END] queens ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) in a population of feral colonies in the Northeastern United States.
Across their introduced range in North America, populations of feral [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) colonies have supposedly declined in recent decades as a result of exotic parasites, most notably the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor. Nonetheless, recent studies have documented several wild populations of colonies that have persisted. The extreme polyandry of [START]honey bee[END] queens-and the increased intracolony genetic diversity it confers-has been attributed, in part, to improved disease resistance and may be a factor in the survival of these populations of feral colonies. We estimated the mating frequencies of queens in feral colonies in the Arnot Forest in New York State to determine if the level of polyandry of these queens is especially high and so might contribute to their survival success. We genotyped the worker offspring from 10 feral colonies in the Arnot Forest of upstate New York, as well as those from 20 managed colonies closest to this forest. We found no significant differences in mean mating frequency between the feral and managed queens, suggesting that queens in the remote, low-density population of colonies in the Arnot Forest are neither mate-limited nor adapted to mate at an especially high frequency. These findings support the hypothesis that the hyperpolyandry of [START]honey bees[END] has been shaped on an evolutionary timescale rather than on an ecological one. 
",25775410
0,7460,"Effect of Application of Probiotic Pollen Suspension on Immune Response and Gut Microbiota of [START]Honey Bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Although the use of probiotic bacteria in invertebrates is still rare, scientists have begun to look into their usage in [START]honey bees[END]. The probiotic preparation, based on the autochthonous strain Lactobacillus brevis B50 Biocenol  (CCM 8618), which was isolated from the digestive tracts of healthy [START]bees[END], was applied to the bee colonies in the form of a pollen suspension. Its influence on the immune response was determined by monitoring the expression of genes encoding immunologically important molecules in the [START]honey bee[END] intestines. Changes in the intestinal microbiota composition were also studied. The results showed that the probiotic Lact. brevis B50, on a pollen carrier, significantly increased the expression of genes encoding antimicrobial peptides (abaecin, defensin-1) as well as pattern recognition receptors (toll-like receptor, peptidoglycan recognition proteins). Gene expression for the other tested molecules included in Toll and Imd signaling pathways (dorsal, cactus, kenny, relish) significantly changed during the experiment. The positive effect on intestinal microbiota was manifested mainly by a significant increase in the ratio of lactic acid bacteria to enterobacteria. These findings confirm the potential of the tested probiotic preparation to enhance immunity in bee colonies and thus increase their resistance to infectious diseases and stress conditions.
",31912341
0,7460,"Effect of oral exposure to the acaricide pirimicarb, a new varroacide candidate, on [START]Apis mellifera[END] feeding rate.
BACKGROUND: The ectoparasitic [START]honey bee[END] mite Varroa destructor is a main cause of the gradual decline in [START]honey bees[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END]. Beekeepers currently utilize a wide range of different synthetic acaricides, organic acids and essential oils to keep mite populations under control. Previous work has indicated that pirimicarb may be a new varroacide candidate. The aim of this study was to observe chronic effects on feeding activity in worker [START]honey bees[END] after oral exposure to 1.05 mm pirimicarb. The long-term effects of 24 h exposure to pirimicarb were also tested. RESULTS: After three successive trials, no mortality could be detected at the tested concentration, although oral exposure to pirimicarb had a significant effect on [START]honey bees[END] feeding behavior. Pirimicarb added to a sucrose solution led to a rapid decrease in food intake. These tendencies may be reversed when the pesticide is removed. However, recovery seemed to be trial dependent. CONCLUSION: This study highlights seasonal variation in [START]honey bee[END] susceptibility, which should be considered in toxicology studies.   2018 Society of Chemical Industry.
",29384247
0,7460,"[START]Honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) drones survive oxidative stress due to increased tolerance instead of avoidance or repair of oxidative damage.
Oxidative stress can lead to premature aging symptoms and cause acute mortality at higher doses in a range of organisms. Oxidative stress resistance and longevity are mechanistically and phenotypically linked; considerable variation in oxidative stress resistance exists among and within species and typically covaries with life expectancy. However, it is unclear whether stress-resistant, long-lived individuals avoid, repair, or tolerate molecular damage to survive longer than others. The [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) is an emerging model system that is well-suited to address this question. Furthermore, this species is the most economically important pollinator, whose health may be compromised by pesticide exposure, including oxidative stressors. Here, we develop a protocol for inducing oxidative stress in [START]honey bee[END] males (drones) via Paraquat injection. After injection, individuals from different colony sources were kept in common social conditions to monitor their survival compared to saline-injected controls. Oxidative stress was measured in susceptible and resistant individuals. Paraquat drastically reduced survival but individuals varied in their resistance to treatment within and among colony sources. Longer-lived individuals exhibited higher levels of lipid peroxidation than individuals dying early. In contrast, the level of protein carbonylation was not significantly different between the two groups. This first study of oxidative stress in male [START]honey bees[END] suggests that survival of an acute oxidative stressor is due to tolerance, not prevention or repair, of oxidative damage to lipids. It also demonstrates colony differences in oxidative stress resistance that might be useful for breeding stress-resistant [START]honey bees[END].
",27422326
0,7460,"The absolute configurations of hydroxy fatty acids from the royal jelly of [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
9-Hydroxy-2E-decenoic acid (9-HDA) is a precursor of the queen-produced substance, 9-oxo-2E-decenoic acid (9-ODA), which has various important functions and roles for caste maintenance in [START]honeybee[END] colonies ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). 9-HDA in royal jelly is considered to be a metabolite of 9-ODA produced by worker [START]bees[END], and it is fed back to the queen who then transforms it into 9-ODA. Recently we found that 9-HDA is present in royal jelly as a mixture of optical isomers (R:S, 2:1). The finding leads us to suspect that chiral fatty acids in royal jelly are precursors of semiochemicals. Rather than looking for semiochemicals in the mandibular glands of the queen bee, this study involves the search for precursors of pheromones from large quantities of royal jelly. Seven chiral hydroxy fatty acids, 9,10-dihydroxy-2E-decenoic, 4,10-dihydroxy-2E-decenoic, 4,9-dihydroxy-2E-decenoic, 3-hydroxydecanoic, 3,9-dihydroxydecanoic, 3,11-dihydroxydodecanoic, and 3,10-dihydroxydecanoic acids were isolated. The absolute configurations of these acids were determined using the modified Mosher's method, and it was revealed that, similar to 9-HDA, five acids are present in royal jelly as mixtures of optical isomers.
",21082360
0,7460,"[START]Honey bee[END] Apis mellifera parasites in the absence of Nosema ceranae fungi and Varroa destructor mites.
Few areas of the world have [START]western honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) colonies that are free of invasive parasites Nosema ceranae (fungi) and Varroa destructor (mites). Particularly detrimental is V. destructor; in addition to feeding on host haemolymph, these mites are important vectors of several viruses that are further implicated as contributors to [START]honey bee[END] mortality around the world. Thus, the biogeography and attendant consequences of viral communities in the absence of V. destructor are of significant interest. The island of Newfoundland, Province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, is free of V. destructor; the absence of N. ceranae has not been confirmed. Of 55 Newfoundland colonies inspected visually for their strength and six signs of disease, only K-wing had prevalence above 5% (40/55 colonies = 72.7%). Similar to an earlier study, screenings again confirmed the absence of V. destructor, small hive beetles Aethina tumida (Murray), tracheal mites Acarapis woodi (Rennie), and Tropilaelaps spp. ectoparasitic mites. Of a subset of 23 colonies screened molecularly for viruses, none had Israeli acute paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus, or sacbrood virus. Sixteen of 23 colonies (70.0%) were positive for black queen cell virus, and 21 (91.3%) had some evidence for deformed wing virus. No N. ceranae was detected in molecular screens of 55 colonies, although it is possible extremely low intensity infections exist; the more familiar N. apis was found in 53 colonies (96.4%). Under these conditions, K-wing was associated (positively) with colony strength; however, viruses and N. apis were not. Furthermore, black queen cell virus was positively and negatively associated with K-wing and deformed wing virus, respectively. Newfoundland [START]honey bee[END] colonies are thus free of several invasive parasites that plague operations in other parts of the world, and they provide a unique research arena to study independent pathology of the parasites that are present. 
",24955834
0,7460,"The role of Vitellogenin in the transfer of immune elicitors from gut to hypopharyngeal glands in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Female insects that survive a pathogen attack can produce more pathogen-resistant offspring in a process called trans-generational immune priming. In the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]), the egg-yolk precursor protein Vitellogenin transports fragments of pathogen cells into the egg, thereby setting the stage for a recruitment of immunological defenses prior to hatching. [START]Honey bees[END] live in complex societies where reproduction and communal tasks are divided between a queen and her sterile female workers. Worker [START]bees[END] metabolize Vitellogenin to synthesize royal jelly, a protein-rich glandular secretion fed to the queen and young larvae. We ask if workers can participate in trans-generational immune priming by transferring pathogen fragments to the queen or larvae via royal jelly. As a first step toward answering this question, we tested whether worker-ingested bacterial fragments can be transported to jelly-producing glands, and what role Vitellogenin plays in this transport. To do this, we fed fluorescently labelled Escherichia coli to workers with experimentally manipulated levels of Vitellogenin. We found that bacterial fragments were transported to the glands of control workers, while they were not detected at the glands of workers subjected to RNA interference-mediated Vitellogenin gene knockdown, suggesting that Vitellogenin plays a role in this transport. Our results provide initial evidence that trans-generational immune priming may operate at a colony-wide level in [START]honey bees[END].
",30578811
0,7460,"Deformed wing virus associated with Tropilaelaps mercedesae infesting European [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Mites in the genus Tropilaelaps (Acari: Laelapidae) are ectoparasites of the brood of [START]honey bees[END] (Apis spp.). Different Tropilaelaps subspecies were originally described from Apis dorsata, but a host switch occurred to the [START]Western honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], for which infestations can rapidly lead to colony death. Tropilaelaps is hence considered more dangerous to A. mellifera than the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. [START]Honey bees[END] are also infected by many different viruses, some of them associated with and vectored by V. destructor. In recent years, deformed wing virus (DWV) has become the most prevalent virus infection in [START]honey bees[END] associated with V. destructor. DWV is distributed world-wide, and found wherever the Varroa mite is found, although low levels of the virus can also be found in Varroa free colonies. The Varroa mite transmits viral particles when feeding on the haemolymph of pupae or adult [START]bees[END]. Both the Tropilaelaps mite and the Varroa mite feed on [START]honey bee[END] brood, but no observations of DWV in Tropilaelaps have so far been reported. In this study, quantitative real-time RT-PCR was used to show the presence of DWV in infested brood and Tropilaelaps mercedesae mites collected in China, and to demonstrate a close quantitative association between mite-infested pupae of [START]A. mellifera[END] and DWV infections. Phylogenetic analysis of the DWV sequences recovered from matching pupae and mites revealed considerable DWV sequence heterogeneity and polymorphism. These polymorphisms appeared to be associated with the individual brood cell, rather than with a particular host.
",18941909
0,7460,"Pathogen spillover from [START]Apis mellifera[END] to a stingless bee.
Pathogen spillover from managed [START]bees[END] is increasingly considered as a possible cause of pollinator decline. Though spillover has been frequently documented, evidence of the pathogen's virulence in the new host or mechanism of transmission is rare. Stingless bees (Apocrita: Meliponini) are crucial pollinators pan-tropically and overlap with managed [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) in much of their range. Nosema ceranae is the most prevalent disease of adult [START]A. mellifera[END]. We used laboratory experiments and field surveys to investigate the susceptibility of stingless bees (Tetragonula hockingsi) to N. ceranae, infection prevalence and transmissibility via flowers. We found that 67% of T. hockingsi fed sucrose with N. ceranae had detectable spores in their ventriculus, and they died at 2.96 times the rate of sucrose-only fed [START]bees[END]. Five of six field hives harboured [START]bees[END] with N. ceranae present at least once during our five-month survey, with prevalence up to 20%. In our floral transmission experiment, 67% of inflorescences exposed to infected [START]A. mellifera[END] yielded N. ceranae spores, and all resulted in T. hockingsi with N. ceranae spores in their guts. We conclude that N. ceranae is virulent in T. hockingsi under laboratory conditions, is common in the local T. hockingsi population and is transmissible via flowers.
",31387511
0,7460,"[START]Honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) sociability and nestmate affiliation are dependent on the social environment experienced post-eclosion.
Underpinning the formation of a social group is the motivation of individuals to aggregate and interact with conspecifics, termed sociability. Here, we developed an assay, inspired by vertebrate approaches to evaluate social behaviours, to simultaneously examine the development of [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) sociability and nestmate affiliation. Focal [START]bees[END] were placed in a testing chamber which was separated from groups of nestmates and conspecific non-nestmates by single-layer mesh screens. Assessing how much time [START]bees[END] spent contacting the two mesh screens allowed us to quantify simultaneously how much [START]bees[END] sought proximity and interaction with other [START]bees[END] and their preference for nestmates over non-nestmates. Both sociability and nestmate affiliation could be detected soon after emergence as an adult. Isolation early in adult life impaired [START]honey bee[END] sociability but there was no evidence for a critical period for the development of the trait, as isolated [START]bees[END] exposed to their hive for 24 h when as old as 6 days still recovered high levels of sociability. Our data show that, even for advanced social insects, sociability is a developmental phenomenon and experience dependent.
",29361601
0,7460,"[START]Apis mellifera[END] [START]bees[END] acquire long-term olfactory memories within the colony.
Early studies indicate that [START]Apis mellifera[END] [START]bees[END] learn nectar odours within their colonies. This form of olfactory learning, however, has not been analysed by measuring well-quantifiable learning performances and the question remains whether it constitutes a 'robust' form of learning. Hence, we asked whether [START]bees[END] acquire long-term olfactory memories within the colony. To this end, we used the bee proboscis extension response. We found that within-the-nest [START]bees[END] do indeed associate the odour (as the conditioned stimulus) with the sugar (as the unconditioned stimulus) present in the incoming nectar, and that the distribution of scented nectar within the colony allows them to establish long-term olfactory memories. This finding is discussed in the context of efficient foraging.
",17148337
0,7460,"First molecular detection of Apis mellifera filamentous virus in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) in Hungary.
Western [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) are important pollinators in the ecosystem and also play a crucial economic role in the honey industry. During the last decades, a continuous decay was registered in [START]honey bee[END] populations worldwide, including Hungary. In our study, we used metagenomic approaches and conventional PCR screening on healthy and winter mortality affected colonies from multiple sites in Hungary. The major goal was to discover presumed bee pathogens with viral metagenomic experiments and gain prevalence and distribution data by targeted PCR screening. We examined 664 [START]honey bee[END] samples that had been collected during winter mortality from three seemingly healthy colonies and from one colony infested heavily by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor in 2016 and 2017. The subsequent PCR screening of [START]honey bee[END] samples revealed the abundant presence of Apis mellifera filamentous virus (AmFV) for the first time in Central Europe. Based on phylogeny reconstruction, the newly-detected virus was found to be most closely related to a Chinese AmFV strain. More sequence data from multiple countries would be needed for studying the detailed phylogeographical patterns and worldwide spreading process of AmFV. Here we report the prevalent presence of this virus in Hungarian [START]honey bee[END] colonies.
",30922090
0,7460,"Influence of the insecticide pyriproxyfen on the flight muscle differentiation of [START]Apis mellifera[END] (Hymenoptera, Apidae).
The Brazilian africanized [START]Apis mellifera[END] is currently considered as one of the most important pollinators threatened by the use of insecticides due to its frequent exposition to their toxic action while foraging in the crops it pollinated. Among the insecticides, the most used in the control of insect pragues has as active agent the pyriproxyfen, analogous to the juvenile hormone (JH). Unfortunately the insecticides used in agriculture affect not only the target insects but also beneficial nontarget ones as [START]bees[END] compromising therefore, the growth rate of their colonies at the boundaries of crop fields. Workers that forage for provisions in contaminated areas can introduce contaminated pollen or/and nectar inside the beehives. As analogous to JH the insecticide pyriproxyfen acts in the bee's larval growth and differentiation during pupation or metamorphosis timing. The flighty muscle is not present in the larvae wingless organisms, but differentiates during pupation/metamorphosis. This work aimed to investigate the effect of pyriproxyfen insecticide on differentiation of such musculature in workers of Brazilian africanized [START]honey bees[END] fed with artificial diet containing the pesticide. The results show that the [START]bees[END] fed with contaminated diet, independent of the insecticide concentration used, show a delay in flight muscle differentiation when compared to the control.
",22223201
0,7460,"Transgenerational accumulation of methylome changes discovered in commercially reared [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) queens.
Whether a female [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) develops into a worker or a queen depends on her nutrition during development, which changes the epigenome to alter the developmental trajectory. Beekeepers typically exploit this developmental plasticity to produce queen bee by transplanting worker larvae into queen cells to be reared as queens, thus redirecting a worker developmental pathway to a queen developmental pathway. We studied the consequences of this manipulation for the queen phenotype and methylome over four generations. Queens reared from worker larvae consistently had fewer ovarioles than queens reared from eggs. Over four generations the methylomes of lines of queens reared from eggs and worker larvae diverged, accumulating increasing differences in exons of genes related to caste differentiation, growth and immunity. We discuss the consequences of these cryptic changes to the [START]honey bee[END] epigenome for the health and viability of [START]honey bee[END] stocks.
",33053387
0,7460,"A comparative study of relational learning capacity in [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) and stingless bees (Melipona rufiventris).
BACKGROUND: Learning of arbitrary relations is the capacity to acquire knowledge about associations between events or stimuli that do not share any similarities, and use this knowledge to make behavioural choices. This capacity is well documented in humans and vertebrates, and there is some evidence it exists in the [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). However, little is known about whether the ability for relational learning extends to other invertebrates, although many insects have been shown to possess excellent learning capacities in spite of their small brains. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Using a symbolic matching-to-sample procedure, we show that the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] rapidly learns arbitrary relations between colours and patterns, reaching 68.2% correct choice for pattern-colour relations and 73.3% for colour-pattern relations. However, [START]Apis mellifera[END] does not transfer this knowledge to the symmetrical relations when the stimulus order is reversed. A second bee species, the stingless bee Melipona rufiventris from Brazil, seems unable to learn the same arbitrary relations between colours and patterns, although it exhibits excellent discrimination learning. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our results confirm that the capacity for learning arbitrary relations is not limited to vertebrates, but even insects with small brains can perform this learning task. Interestingly, it seems to be a species-specific ability. The disparity in relational learning performance between the two bee species we tested may be linked to their specific foraging and recruitment strategies, which evolved in adaptation to different environments.
",23251542
0,7460,"Gene expression in [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) larvae exposed to pesticides and Varroa mites (Varroa destructor).
[START]Honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) larvae reared in vitro were exposed to one of nine pesticides and/or were challenged with the parasitic mite, Varroa destructor. Total RNA was extracted from individual larvae and first strand cDNAs were generated. Gene-expression changes in larvae were measured using quantitative PCR (qPCR) targeting transcripts for pathogens and genes involved in physiological processes, bee health, immunity, and/or xenobiotic detoxification. Transcript levels for Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein (PGRPSC), a pathogen recognition gene, increased in larvae exposed to Varroa mites (P<0.001) and were not changed in pesticide treated larvae. As expected, Varroa-parasitized brood had higher transcripts of Deformed Wing Virus than did control larvae (P<0.001). Varroa parasitism, arguably coupled with virus infection, resulted in significantly higher transcript abundances for the antimicrobial peptides abaecin, hymenoptaecin, and defensin1. Transcript levels for Prophenoloxidase-activating enzyme (PPOact), an immune end product, were elevated in larvae treated with myclobutanil and chlorothalonil (both are fungicides) (P<0.001). Transcript levels for Hexameric storage protein (Hsp70) were significantly upregulated in imidacloprid, fluvalinate, coumaphos, myclobutanil, and amitraz treated larvae. Definitive impacts of pesticides and Varroa parasitism on [START]honey bee[END] larval gene expression were demonstrated. Interactions between larval treatments and gene expression for the targeted genes are discussed.
",22497859
0,7460,"High-abundance mRNAs in [START]Apis mellifera[END]: comparison between nurses and foragers.
A large volume of [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) tag-seq was obtained to identify differential gene expression via Solexa/lllumina Digital Gene Expression tag profiling (DGE) based on next generation sequencing. In total, 4,286,250 (foragers) and 3,422,327 (nurses) clean tags were sequenced, 24,568 (foragers) and 13,134 (nurses) distinct clean tags could not be match to the reference database, and 7508 and 6875 mapped genes were detected in foragers and nurses respectively. 7045 genes were found differentially expressed between foragers and nurses. Of those genes, 1621 genes had significantly different expression, that is, they showed an expression ratio (foragers/nurses) of more than 2 and FDR (False Discovery Rate) of less than 0.001. We identified 101 genes that were uniquely expressed in foragers, and 9 genes that were only expressed in nurses. We performed the Gene Ontology (GO) category and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis, and found 415 genes with annotation terms linked to the GO cellular component category. 200 components of KEGG pathways were obtained, including 21 signaling pathways. The PPAR signaling pathway was the most highly enriched, with the lowest Q-value.
",21115016
0,7460,"Metabolomic analysis of [START]honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END] L. response to thiacloprid.
The cyano-substituted neonicotinoid insecticide, thiacloprid, is nowadays widely used in agriculture for controlling insect pests. However, it also simultaneously has adverse effects on the health of important pollinators, such as [START]honey bees[END]. Previous studies have reported that sublethal doses of neonicotinoids impaired immunocompetence, learning and memory performance, and homing behaviour in [START]honey bees[END]. In the present study, using LC-MS-based combined with GC-MS-based metabolomic approaches, we profiled the metabolic changes that occur in the head of [START]honey bee[END] after subchronic exposure to 2 mg/L thiacloprid over 3 days. The estimated total dose of thiacloprid fed to each bee was 0.12 mug. The results showed that there were 115 metabolites significantly affected in thiacloprid-treated [START]bees[END] compared to control. The metabolites with high level of abundance enriched to wide range pathways associated with oxidative stress and detoxification suggest that the [START]honey bees[END] have activated their detoxification system to resistant toxicity of thiacloprid. While, the reduction of serotonin suggest thiacloprid may hinder the brain activity implicated in learning and behaviour development. Our study expand the understanding of the molecular basis of the complex interactions between neonicotinoids and [START]honey bees[END].
",30497706
0,7460,"Effect of feeding chitosan or peptidoglycan on Nosema ceranae infection and gene expression related to stress and the innate immune response of [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Nosema ceranae is a microsporidian parasite that causes nosema disease, an infection of the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) midgut. Two pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), chitosan and peptidoglycan, and N. ceranae spores were fed to worker [START]bees[END] in sucrose syrup and compared to non-inoculated and N. ceranae-inoculated [START]bees[END] without PAMPs. Both chitosan and peptidoglycan significantly increased bee survivorship and reduced spore numbers due to N. ceranae infection. To determine if these results were related to changes in health status, expression of the immune-related genes, hymenoptaecin and defensin2, and the stress tolerance-related gene, blue cheese, was compared to that of control [START]bees[END]. Compared to the inoculated control, [START]bees[END] with the dose of chitosan that significantly reduced N. ceranae spore numbers showed lower expression of hymenoptaecin and defensin2 early after infection, higher expression mid-infection of defensin2 and lower expression of all three genes late in infection. In contrast, higher expression of defensin2 early in the infection and all three genes late in the infection was observed with peptidoglycan treatment. Changes late in the parasite multiplication stage when mature spores would be released from ruptured host cells are less likely to have contributed to reduced spore production. Based on these results, it is concluded that feeding [START]bees[END] chitosan or peptidoglycan can reduce N. ceranae infection, which is at least partially related to altering the health of the bee by inducing immune and stress-related gene expression.
",34563551
0,7460,"Developmental stability, age at onset of foraging and longevity of Africanized [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) under heat stress (Hymenoptera: Apidae).
Beekeeping with the [START]western honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) is important in tropical regions but scant information is available on the possible consequences of global warming for tropical beekeeping. We evaluated the effect of heat stress on developmental stability, the age at onset of foraging (AOF) and longevity in Africanized [START]honey bees[END] (AHBs) in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, one of the main honey producing areas in the Neotropics, where high temperatures occur in spring and summer. To do so, we reared worker AHB pupae under a fluctuating temperature regime, simulating current tropical heatwaves, with a high temperature peak of 40.0  C for 1 h daily across six days, and compared them to control pupae reared at stable temperatures of 34.0-35.5  C. Heat stress did not markedly affect overall body size, though the forewing of heat-stressed [START]bees[END] was slightly shorter than controls. However, [START]bees[END] reared under heat stress showed significantly greater fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in forewing shape. Heat stress also decreased AOF and reduced longevity. Our results show that changes occur in the phenotype and behavior of [START]honey bees[END] under heat stress, with potential consequences for colony fitness.
",29801630
0,7460,"Mitigating Nosema ceranae infection in [START]western honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) workers using propolis collected from [START]honey bee[END] and stingless bee (Tetrigona apicalis) hives.
Beekeepers need sustainable control options to treat Nosema ceranae infection in colonies of western [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) they manage. Propolis is a natural product derived from plant resins and contains chemical compounds with potential antimicrobial activity against N. ceranae. Here, we determined the efficacy of propolis from [START]A. mellifera[END] (USA) and Tetrigona apicalis (stingless bees, Thailand) colonies as treatments for N. ceranae infection in [START]honey bee[END] workers. Newly emerged [START]bees[END] were individually fed 2 muL of 50% (w/v) sucrose solution containing 1 x 105N. ceranae spores. Following this, the infected [START]bees[END] were treated with 50% propolis extracted from A. mellifera or T. apicalis hives and fed in 50% sucrose solution (v/v). All [START]bees[END] were maintained at 34 +- 2  C and 55 +- 5% RH. Dead [START]bees[END] were counted daily for 30 d to calculate survival. We also determined infection rate (# infected [START]bees[END]/100 [START]bees[END]), infectivity (number of spores per bee) and protein content in the hypopharyngeal glands and hemolymph on 7, 14, and 21 d post infection as measures of bee health. Propolis from both bee species significantly reduced bee mortality, infection rate and infectivity compared with those of untreated [START]bees[END] and led to significantly greater protein contents in hypopharyngeal glands and hemolymph in treated [START]bees[END] than in untreated ones (p < 0.0001). In conclusion, propolis from A. mellifera and T. apicalis colonies shows promise as a control against N. ceranae infection in [START]honey bees[END].
",34530028
0,7460,"Transcriptome comparison between inactivated and activated ovaries of the [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] L.
Ovarian activity not only influences fertility, but is also involved with the regulation of division of labour between reproductive and behavioural castes of female [START]honey bees[END]. In order to identify candidate genes associated with ovarian activity, we compared the gene expression patterns between inactivated and activated ovaries of queens and workers by means of high-throughput RNA-sequencing technology. A total of 1615 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was detected between ovaries of virgin and mated queens, and more than 5300 DEGs were detected between inactivated and activated worker ovaries. Intersection analysis of DEGs amongst five libraries revealed that a similar set of genes (824) participated in the ovary activation of both queens and workers. A large number of these DEGs were predominantly related to cellular, cell and cell part, binding, biological regulation and metabolic processes. In addition, over 1000 DEGs were linked to more than 230 components of Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways, including 25 signalling pathways. The reliability of the RNA-sequencing results was confirmed by means of quantitative real-time PCR. Our results provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in ovary activation and reproductive division of labour. 
",25039886
0,7460,"Side-effects of thiamethoxam on the brain andmidgut of the africanized honeybee [START]Apis mellifera[END] (Hymenopptera: Apidae).
The development of agricultural activities coincides with the increased use of pesticides to control pests, which can also be harmful to nontarget insects such as [START]bees[END]. Thus, the goal of this work was assess the toxic effects of thiamethoxam on newly emerged worker [START]bees[END] of [START]Apis mellifera[END] (africanized honeybee-AHB). Initially, we determined that the lethal concentration 50 (LC50 ) of thiamethoxam was 4.28 ng a.i./muL of diet. To determine the lethal time 50 (LT50 ), a survival assay was conducted using diets containing sublethal doses of thiamethoxam equal to 1/10 and 1/100 of the LC50. The group of [START]bees[END] exposed to 1/10 of the LC50 had a 41.2% reduction of lifespan. When AHB samples were analyzed by morphological technique we found the presence of condensed cells in the mushroom bodies and optical lobes in exposed [START]honeybees[END]. Through Xylidine Ponceau technique, we found cells which stained more intensely in groups exposed to thiamethoxam. The digestive and regenerative cells of the midgut from exposed [START]bees[END] also showed morphological and histochemical alterations, like cytoplasm vacuolization, increased apocrine secretion and increased cell elimination. Thus, intoxication with a sublethal doses of thiamethoxam can cause impairment in the brain and midgut of AHB and contribute to the [START]honeybee[END] lifespan reduction.
",23339138
0,7460,"Immune system stimulation by the gut symbiont Frischella perrara in the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Gut bacteria engage in various symbiotic interactions with their host and impact gut immunity and homeostasis in different ways. In [START]honey bees[END], the gut microbiota is composed of a relatively simple, but highly specialized bacterial community. One of its members, the gammaproteobacterium Frischella perrara induces the so-called scab phenotype, a dark-coloured band that develops on the epithelial surface of the pylorus. To understand the underlying host response, we analysed transcriptome changes in the pylorus in response to bacterial colonization. We find that, in contrast to the gut bacterium Snodgrassella alvi, F. perrara causes strong activation of the host immune system. Besides pattern recognition receptors, antimicrobial peptides and transporter genes, the melanization cascade was upregulated by F. perrara, suggesting that the scab phenotype corresponds to a melanization response of the host. In addition, transcriptome analysis of hive [START]bees[END] with and without the scab phenotype showed that F. perrara also stimulates the immune system under in-hive conditions in the presence of other gut bacterial species. Collectively, our study demonstrates that the presence of F. perrara influences gut immunity and homeostasis in the pylorus. This may have implications for bee health, because F. perrara prevalence differs between colonies and increased abundance of this bacterium has been shown to correlate with dietary alteration and impaired host development. Our transcriptome analysis sets the groundwork for investigating the interplay of bee gut symbionts with the host immune system.
",28207182
0,7460,"Synergistic effects of pathogen and pesticide exposure on [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) survival and immunity.
Declines in native insect pollinator populations and substantial losses in managed [START]honey bees[END] have been reported on a global scale and become a widespread concern because of the importance of these insects for human food production and ecosystem stability. Several potential factors have been studied as possible causes of declining pollinator health, such as parasites and pathogens, exposure to agricultural pesticides, habitat loss and/or climate change. More recently, a combination of these factors rather than a single cause have been blamed for observed pollinator losses, but field studies of such interactions are challenging, especially in the presence of confounding environmental stressors. We therefore examined the impact of single and combined stressors on the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) in a generally healthy Australian population. We exposed workers during their larval development and drones until they reached sexual maturity to the neonicotinoid pesticide Thiamethoxam, at concentrations more than 20 times lower than we initially measured in the field, the microsporidian gut pathogen Nosema apis or both stressors at the same time. We found that simultaneous exposure significantly reduced bee health. We observed a substantial increase in mortality and a reduction of immunocompetence in workers exposed to both the pathogen and the pesticide. We conclude that the exposure of generally healthy [START]bees[END] to multiple environmental stressors results in synergistic effects where the effects are expected to negatively impact performance and could be sufficient to trigger colony collapse. We found that the vast majority of males did not survive to sexual maturity after exposure to very low levels of Thiamethoxam. This would not only reduce the reproductive success of individual colonies, but can also impact gene flow and genetic diversity at the population level, which are both known as key components of [START]honey bee[END] health.
",30300630
0,7460,"Chronic Nosema ceranae infection inflicts comprehensive and persistent immunosuppression and accelerated lipid loss in host [START]Apis mellifera[END] [START]honey bees[END].
Nosema ceranae is an intracellular microsporidian parasite of the Asian [START]honey bee[END] Apis cerana and the [START]European honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END]. Until relatively recently, [START]A. mellifera[END] [START]honey bees[END] were naive to N. ceranae infection. Symptoms of nosemosis, or Nosema disease, in the infected hosts include immunosuppression, damage to gut epithelium, nutrient and energetic stress, precocious foraging and reduced longevity of infected [START]bees[END]. Links remain unclear between immunosuppression, the symptoms of nutrient and energetic stress, and precocious foraging behavior of hosts. To clarify physiological connections, we inoculated newly emerged [START]A. mellifera[END] adult workers with N. ceranae spores, and over 21 days post inoculation (21 days pi), gauged infection intensity and quantified expression of genes representing two innate immune pathways, Toll and Imd. Additionally, we measured each host's whole-body protein, lipids, carbohydrates and quantified respirometric and activity levels. Results show sustained suppression of genes of both humorally regulated immune response pathways after 6 days pi. At 7 days pi, elevated protein levels of infected [START]bees[END] may reflect synthesis of antimicrobial peptides from an initial immune response, but the lack of protein gain compared with uninfected [START]bees[END] at 14 days pi may represent low de novo protein synthesis. Carbohydrate data do not indicate that hosts experience severe metabolic stress related to this nutrient. At 14 days pi infected [START]honey bees[END] show high respirometric and activity levels, and corresponding lipid loss, suggesting lipids may be used as fuel for increased metabolic demands resulting from infection. Accelerated lipid loss during nurse [START]honey bee[END] behavioral development can have cascading effects on downstream physiology that may lead to precocious foraging, which is a major factor driving colony collapse.
",29452081
0,7460,"[START]Honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) exposomes and dysregulated metabolic pathways associated with Nosema ceranae infection.
[START]Honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) health has been severely impacted by multiple environmental stressors including parasitic infection, pesticide exposure, and poor nutrition. The decline in bee health is therefore a complex multifactorial problem which requires a holistic investigative approach. Within the exposome paradigm, the combined exposure to the environment, drugs, food, and individuals' internal biochemistry affects health in positive and negative ways. In the context of the exposome, [START]honey bee[END] hive infection with parasites such as Nosema ceranae is also a form of environmental exposure. In this study, we hypothesized that exposure to xenobiotic pesticides and other environmental chemicals increases susceptibility to N. ceranae infection upon incidental exposure to the parasite. We further queried whether these exposures could be linked to changes in conserved metabolic biological pathways. From 30 hives sampled across 10 sites, a total of 2,352 chemical features were found via gas chromatography-time of flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF) in extracts of [START]honey bees[END] collected from each hive. Of these, 20 pesticides were identified and annotated, and found to be significantly associated with N. ceranae infection. We further determined that infected hives were linked to a greater number of xenobiotic exposures, and the relative concentration of the exposures were not linked to the presence of a N. ceranae infection. In the exposome profiles of the [START]bees[END], we also found chemicals inherent to known biological metabolic pathways of [START]Apis mellifera[END] and identified 9 dysregulated pathways. These findings have led us to posit that for hives exposed to similar chemicals, those that incur multiple, simultaneous xenobiotic stressors have a greater incidence of infection with N. ceranae. Mechanistically, our results suggests the overwhelming nature of these exposures negatively affects the biological functioning of the bee, and could explain how the decline in bee populations is associated with pesticide exposures.
",30845162
0,7460,"Behavioral responses of [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) to natural and synthetic xenobiotics in food.
While the natural foods of the [START]western honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) contain diverse phytochemicals, in contemporary agroecosystems [START]honey bees[END] also encounter pesticides as floral tissue contaminants. Whereas some ubiquitous phytochemicals in bee foods up-regulate detoxification and immunity genes, thereby benefiting nestmates, many agrochemical pesticides adversely affect bee health even at sublethal levels. How [START]honey bees[END] assess xenobiotic risk to nestmates as they forage is poorly understood. Accordingly, we tested nine phytochemicals ubiquitous in nectar, pollen, or propolis, as well as five synthetic xenobiotics that frequently contaminate hives-two herbicides (atrazine and glyphosate) and three fungicides (boscalid, chlorothalonil, and prochloraz). In semi-field free-flight experiments, [START]bees[END] were offered a choice between paired sugar water feeders amended with either a xenobiotic or solvent only (control). Among the phytochemicals, foragers consistently preferred quercetin at all five concentrations tested, as evidenced by both visitation frequency and consumption rates. This preference may reflect the long evolutionary association between [START]honey bees[END] and floral tissues. Of pesticides eliciting a response, [START]bees[END] displayed a preference at specific concentrations for glyphosate and chlorothalonil. This paradoxical preference may account for the frequency with which these pesticides occur as hive contaminants and suggests that they present a greater risk factor for [START]honey bee[END] health than previously suspected.
",29162843
0,7460,"Effects of Nosema ceranae and thiametoxam in [START]Apis mellifera[END]: A comparative study in Africanized and Carniolan [START]honey bees[END].
Multiple stressors, such as chemicals and pathogens, are likely to be detrimental for the health and lifespan of [START]Apis mellifera[END], a bee species frequently exposed to both factors in the field and inside hives. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate comparatively the health of Carniolan and Africanized [START]honey bees[END] (AHB) co-exposed to thiamethoxam and Nosema ceranae (N. ceranae) spores. Newly-emerged worker [START]honey bees[END] were exposed solely with different sublethal doses of thiamethoxam (2% and 0.2% of LD50 for AHB), which could be consumed by [START]bees[END] under field conditions. Toxicity tests for the Carniolan [START]bees[END] were performed, and the LD50 of thiamethoxam for Carniolan [START]honey bees[END] was 7.86 ng bee(-1). Immunohistological analyses were also performed to detect cell death in the midgut of thiamethoxam and/or N. ceranae treated [START]bees[END]. Thiamethoxam exposure had no negative impact on Nosema development in experimental conditions, but it clearly inhibited cell death in the midgut of thiamethoxam and Nosema-exposed [START]bees[END], as demonstrated by immunohistochemical data. Indeed, thiamethoxam exposure only had a minor synergistic toxic effect on midgut tissue when applied as a low dose simultaneously with N. ceranae to AHB and Carniolan [START]honey bees[END], in comparison with the effect caused by both stressors separately. Our data provides insights into the effects of the neonicotenoid thiamethoxam on the AHB and Carniolan [START]honey bee[END] life span, as well as the effects of simultaneous application of thiamethoxam and N. ceranae spores to [START]honey bees[END].
",26774296
0,7460,"Cuticular pheromones stimulate hygienic behavior in the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
The health of [START]western honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) colonies is challenged by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor and the numerous harmful pathogens it vectors. Selective breeding for the naturally occurring social immune trait ""hygienic behavior"" has emerged as one sustainable approach to reducing the mites' impact on [START]honey bees[END]. To expand our understanding of hygienic triggers and improve hygienic selection tools, we tested the hypothesis that the cuticular compounds (Z)-10-tritriacontene and (Z)-6-pentadecene, previously associated with unhealthy [START]honey bee[END] brood and/or brood targeted for hygiene, are triggers of [START]honey bee[END] hygienic behavior independent of brood health. In support of our hypothesis, application of synthetic (Z)-10-tritriacontene and (Z)-6-pentadecene onto brood and brood cell caps significantly increased hygienic behavior compared to application of similarly structured hydrocarbon controls (Z)-16-dotriacontene and (Z)-7-pentadecene. Furthermore, we demonstrate a significant positive correlation between colony-level hygienic responses to (Z)-10-tritriacontene and the traditional freeze-killed brood assay for selection of hygienic [START]honey bee[END] stocks. These results confirm biological activity of (Z)-6-pentadecene and reveal (Z)-10-tritriacontene as a novel hygiene trigger. They also support development of improved tools for [START]honey bee[END] colony monitoring and hygienic selection, and thus may accelerate development of [START]honey bee[END] stocks with greater resistance to Varroa and associated pathogens.
",32346037
0,7460,"Olfactory detectability of L-amino acids in the European [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
The [START]honeybee[END] is one of several insect model systems for the study of olfaction, yet our knowledge regarding the spectrum of odorants detectable by [START]Apis mellifera[END] is limited. One class of odorants that has never been tested so far are the amino acids, which are important constituents of floral nectar. Using the proboscis extension response paradigm, we assessed whether the odor of amino acids is detectable for [START]honeybees[END] and determined olfactory detection thresholds for those amino acids that were detectable. We found that [START]honeybees[END] are able to detect the odor of 5 of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids when presented at a concentration of 50 or 100 mM. Median olfactory detection thresholds for these 5 amino acids were 12.5 mM with L-tyrosine and L-cysteine, 50 mM with L-tryptophan and L-asparagine, and 100 mM with L-proline. All detection thresholds were much higher than reported concentrations of amino acids in floral nectars. We conclude that in the foraging and feeding context, [START]honeybees[END] are likely to detect amino acids through taste rather than olfaction. Across-species comparisons of the detectability of and sensitivity to amino acids suggest that the number of functional genes coding for olfactory receptors may affect both a species' sensitivity for odorants and the breadth of its spectrum of detectable odorants.
",22451525
0,7460,"Accelerated behavioural development changes fine-scale search behaviour and spatial memory in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.).
Normally, worker [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) begin foraging when more than 2 weeks old as adults, but if individual [START]bees[END] or the colony is stressed, [START]bees[END] often begin foraging precociously. Here, we examined whether [START]bees[END] that accelerated their behavioural development to begin foraging precociously differed from normal-aged foragers in cognitive performance. We used a social manipulation to generate precocious foragers from small experimental colonies and tested their performance in a free-flight visual reversal learning task, and a test of spatial memory. To assess spatial memory, [START]bees[END] were trained to learn the location of a small sucrose feeder within an array of three landmarks. In tests, the feeder and one landmark were removed and the search behaviour of the [START]bees[END] was recorded. Performance of precocious and normal-aged foragers did not differ in a visual reversal learning task, but the two groups showed a clear difference in spatial memory. Flight behaviour suggested normal-aged foragers were better able to infer the position of the removed landmark and feeder relative to the remaining landmarks than precocious foragers. Previous studies have documented the cognitive decline of old foragers, but this is the first suggestion of a cognitive deficit in young foragers. These data imply that worker [START]honey bees[END] continue their cognitive development during the adult stage. These findings may also help to explain why precocious foragers perform quite poorly as foragers and have a higher than normal loss rate. 
",26596532
0,7460,"Social immunity in [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]): transcriptome analysis of varroa-hygienic behaviour.
[START]Honeybees[END] have evolved a social immunity consisting of the cooperation of individuals to decrease disease in the hive. We identified a set of genes involved in this social immunity by analysing the brain transcriptome of highly varroa-hygienic [START]bees[END], who efficiently detect and remove brood infected with the Varroa destructor mite. The function of these candidate genes does not seem to support a higher olfactory sensitivity in hygienic [START]bees[END], as previously hypothesized. However, comparing their genomic profile with those from other behaviours suggests a link with brood care and the highly varroa-hygienic Africanized honeybees. These results represent a first step toward the identification of genes involved in social immunity and thus provide first insights into the evolution of social immunity.
",21435061
0,7460,"Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) and [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) prefer similar colours of higher spectral purity over trained colours.
Differences in the concentration of pigments as well as their composition and spatial arrangement cause intraspecific variation in the spectral signature of flowers. Known colour preferences and requirements for flower-constant foraging [START]bees[END] predict different responses to colour variability. In experimental settings, we simulated small variations of unicoloured petals and variations in the spatial arrangement of colours within tricoloured petals using artificial flowers and studied their impact on the colour choices of bumblebees and [START]honeybees[END]. Workers were trained to artificial flowers of a given colour and then given the simultaneous choice between three test colours: either the training colour, one colour of lower and one of higher spectral purity, or the training colour, one colour of lower and one of higher dominant wavelength; in all cases the perceptual contrast between the training colour and the additional test colours was similarly small. [START]Bees[END] preferred artificial test flowers which resembled the training colour with the exception that they preferred test colours with higher spectral purity over trained colours. Testing the behaviour of [START]bees[END] at artificial flowers displaying a centripetal or centrifugal arrangement of three equally sized colours with small differences in spectral purity, [START]bees[END] did not prefer any type of artificial flowers, but preferentially choose the most spectrally pure area for the first antenna contact at both types of artificial flowers. Our results indicate that innate preferences for flower colours of high spectral purity in pollinators might exert selective pressure on the evolution of flower colours.
",23224278
0,7460,"Parallel Mechanism Composed of Abdominal Cuticles and Muscles Simulates the Complex and Diverse Movements of [START]Honey Bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) Abdomen.
The abdominal intersegmental structures allow insects, such as [START]honey bees[END], dragonflies, butterflies, and drosophilae, to complete diverse behavioral movements. In order to reveal how the complex abdominal movements of these insects are produced, we use the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) as a typical insect to study the relationship between intersegmental structures and abdominal motions. Microstructure observational experiments are performed by using the stereoscope and the scanning electron microscope. We find that a parallel mechanism, composed of abdominal cuticle and muscles between the adjacent segments, produces the complex and diverse movements of the [START]honey bee[END] abdomen. These properties regulate multiple behavioral activities such as waggle dance and flight attitude adjustment. The experimental results demonstrate that it is the joint efforts of the muscles and membranes that connected the adjacent cuticles together. The [START]honey bee[END] abdomen can be waggled, expanded, contracted, and flexed with the actions of the muscles. From the view point of mechanics, a parallel mechanism is evolved from the intersegmental connection structures of the [START]honey bee[END] abdomen. Here, we conduct a kinematic analysis of the parallel mechanism to simulate the intersegmental abdominal motions.
",33098431
0,7460,"Both hygienic and non-hygienic [START]honeybee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], colonies remove dead and diseased larvae from open brood cells.
Hygienic behaviour is a group defence in which dead or diseased individuals are excluded. In the [START]honeybee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], hygienic behaviour refers to uncapping and removing dead and diseased larvae and pupae from sealed brood cells. We quantified removal of freeze-killed and chalkbrood-infected larvae from open cells in 20 colonies. We also measured removal of freeze-killed brood from sealed cells. Study colonies ranged from non-hygienic to fully hygienic (52-100% removal within 2 days). All larvae killed in open cells were removed. This shows that all colonies, including those with low hygienic behaviour against dead brood in sealed cells, are highly hygienic against dead brood in open cells and suggests that low hygienic behaviour against dead brood in sealed cells is a trait in its own right. This may also contribute to understanding why hygienic behaviour is uncommon in [START]A. mellifera[END], which is puzzling as it reduces several diseases without detrimental effects. In particular, the result provides indirect support for the hypothesis that there are two adaptive peaks conferring disease resistance: (i) high hygienic behaviour: diseased brood are removed quickly, in some cases before becoming infective; (ii) low hygienic behaviour: diseased brood remain isolated within sealed cells.This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Evolution of pathogen and parasite avoidance behaviours'.
",29866914
0,7460,"Characterization of Apis mellifera Gastrointestinal Microbiota and Lactic Acid Bacteria for [START]Honeybee[END] Protection-A Review.
Numerous [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) products, such as honey, propolis, and bee venom, are used in traditional medicine to prevent illness and promote healing. Therefore, this insect has a huge impact on humans' way of life and the environment. While the population of [START]A. mellifera[END] is large, there is concern that widespread commercialization of beekeeping, combined with environmental pollution and the action of bee pathogens, has caused significant problems for the health of [START]honeybee[END] populations. One of the strategies to preserve the welfare of [START]honeybees[END] is to better understand and protect their natural microbiota. This paper provides a unique overview of the latest research on the features and functioning of [START]A. mellifera[END]. [START]Honeybee[END] microbiome analysis focuses on both the function and numerous factors affecting it. In addition, we present the characteristics of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as an important part of the gut community and their special beneficial activities for [START]honeybee[END] health. The idea of probiotics for [START]honeybees[END] as a promising tool to improve their health is widely discussed. Knowledge of the natural gut microbiota provides an opportunity to create a broad strategy for [START]honeybee[END] vitality, including the development of modern probiotic preparations to use instead of conventional antibiotics, environmentally friendly biocides, and biological control agents.
",33809924
0,7460,"Floral origin modulates the content of a lipid marker in [START]Apis mellifera[END] honey.
The compound DAGE (DiAcyl Glyceryl Ether, 1-stearyl-2,3-dioleoyl glycerol), present in [START]Apis mellifera[END] honey, is a lipidic entomological marker secreted by the salivary glands of worker [START]bees[END]. Its content was determined by NMR, analyzing the organic extracts of a number of Italian honeys of different floral typology. We have found that the DAGE content is related to the botanical origin of honey. This dependence on floral typology was further confirmed by a linear correlation (R2 > 0.83) observed between the content of DAGE and the enzymatic activity of invertase and diastase in honey. Also these enzymes originate from bee salivary secretions and their concentrations in honey are known to depend on the floral source. DAGE content appears to be a sensitive parameter to some forms of honey manipulations, as indicated by the results of artificial bee-feeding experiments. This suggests its possible use as indicator of honey authenticity.
",34033992
0,7460,"New bioassay cage methodology for in vitro studies on Varroa destructor and [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman, is an ectoparasitic mite of [START]honey bees[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END] L., that has been considered a major cause of colony losses. Synthetic miticides have been developed and registered to manage this ectoparasite, however, resistance to registered pyrethroid and organophosphate Varroacides have already been reported in Canada. To test toxicity of miticides, current contact-based bioassay methods are designed to evaluate mites and [START]bees[END] separately, however, these methods are unlikely to give an accurate depiction of how miticides interact at the colony level. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a bioassay cage for testing the toxicity of miticides on [START]honey bees[END] and Varroa mites simultaneously using amitraz as a reference chemical. A 800 mL polypropylene plastic cage holding 100-150 [START]bees[END] was designed and officially named ""Apiarium"". A comparison of the effects of three subsequent dilutions of amitraz was conducted on: Varroa mites placed in glass vials, [START]honey bees[END] in glass Mason jars, and Varroa-infested [START]bees[END] in Apiariums. Our results indicated cumulative Varroa mortality was dose-dependent in the Apiarium after 4 h and 24 h assessments. Apiarium and glass vial treatments at 24 h also had high mite mortality and a positive polynomial regression between Varroa mortality and amitraz dose rates. Moreover, chemical application in the Apiarium was less toxic for [START]bees[END] compared to the Mason jar method. Considering these results, the Apiarium bioassay provides a simple, cheap and reliable method for simultaneous chemical screening on V. destructor and [START]A. mellifera[END]. Furthermore, as mites and [START]bees[END] are tested together, the Apiarium simulates a colony-like environment that provides a necessary bridge between laboratory bioassay testing and full field experimentation. The versatility of the Apiarium allows researchers to test a multitude of different [START]honey bee[END] bioassay experiments including miticide screening, delivery methods for chemical products, or development of new mite resistance-testing methodology.
",33901245
0,7460,"Go East for Better [START]Honey Bee[END] Health: Apis cerana Is Faster at Hygienic Behavior than [START]A. mellifera[END].
The poor health status of the [START]Western honey bee[END], [START]Apis mellifera[END], compared to its Eastern counterpart, Apis cerana, is remarkable. This has been attributed to lower pathogen prevalence in A. cerana colonies and to their ability to survive infestations with the ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor. These properties have been linked to an enhanced removal of dead or unhealthy immature [START]bees[END] by adult workers in this species. Although such hygienic behavior is known to contribute to [START]honey bee[END] colony health, comparative data of [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. cerana in performing this task are scarce. Here, we compare for the first time the removal of freeze-killed brood in one population of each species and over two seasons in China. Our results show that A. cerana was significantly faster than [START]A. mellifera[END] at both opening cell caps and removing freeze-killed brood. The fast detection and removal of diseased brood is likely to limit the proliferation of pathogenic agents. Given our results can be generalized to the species level, a rapid hygienic response could contribute to the better health of A. cerana. Promoting the fast detection and removal of worker brood through adapted breeding programs could further improve the social immunity of A. mellifera colonies and contribute to a better health status of the [START]Western honey bee[END] worldwide. 
",27606819
0,7460,"Differential gene expression of the [START]honey bees[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] and A. cerana induced by Varroa destructor infection.
Varroa destructor mite is currently the most serious threat to the world bee industry. Differences in mite tolerance are reported between two [START]honey bee[END] species [START]Apis mellifera[END] and Apis cerana. Differential gene expression of two [START]honey bee[END] species induced by V. destructor infection was investigated by constructing two suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) libraries, as first steps toward elucidating molecular mechanisms of Varroa tolerance. From the SSH libraries, we obtained 289 high quality sequences which clustered into 132 unique sequences grouped in 26 contigs and 106 singlets where 49 consisted in A. cerana subtracted library and 83 in [START]A. mellifera[END]. Using BLAST, we found that 85% sequences had counterpart known genes whereas 15% were undescribed. A Gene Ontology analysis classified 51 unique sequences into different functional categories. Eight of these differentially expressed genes, representative of different regulation patterns, were confirmed by qRT-PCR. Upon the mite induction, the differentially expressed genes from both bee species were different, except hex 110 gene, which was up-regulated in A. cerana but down-regulated in [START]A. mellifera[END], and Npy-r gene, which was down-regulated in both species. In general, most of the differential expression genes were involved in metabolic processes and nerve signaling. The results provide information on the molecular response of these two bee species to Varroa infection.
",20346951
0,7460,"Symbolic representation of numerosity by [START]honeybees[END] ( [START]Apis mellifera[END]): matching characters to small quantities.
The assignment of a symbolic representation to a specific numerosity is a fundamental requirement for humans solving complex mathematical calculations used in diverse applications such as algebra, accounting, physics and everyday commerce. Here we show that [START]honeybees[END] are able to learn to match a sign to a numerosity, or a numerosity to a sign, and subsequently transfer this knowledge to novel numerosity stimuli changed in colour properties, shape and configuration. While [START]honeybees[END] learned the associations between two quantities (two; three) and two signs (N-shape; inverted T-shape), they failed at reversing their specific task of sign-to-numerosity matching to numerosity-to-sign matching and vice versa (i.e. a [START]honeybee[END] that learned to match a sign to a number of elements was not able to invert this learning to match the numerosity of elements to a sign). Thus, while [START]bees[END] could learn the association between a symbol and numerosity, it was linked to the specific task and [START]bees[END] could not spontaneously extrapolate the association to a novel, reversed task. Our study therefore reveals that the basic requirement for numerical symbolic representation can be fulfilled by an insect brain, suggesting that the absence of its spontaneous emergence in animals is not due to cognitive limitation.
",31161903
0,7460,"Two quantitative trait loci are associated with recapping of Varroa destructor-infested brood cells in Apis mellifera mellifera.
Recapping of Varroa destructor-infested brood cells is a trait that has recently attracted interest in [START]honey bee[END] breeding to select mite-resistant [START]Apis mellifera[END] colonies. To investigate the genetic architecture of this trait, we evaluated a sample of A. mellifera mellifera colonies (N = 155) from Switzerland and France and performed a genome-wide association study, using a pool of 500 workers per colony for next-generation sequencing. The results revealed that two QTL were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with recapping of V. destructor-infested brood cells. The best-associated QTL is located on chromosome 5 in a region previously found to be associated with grooming behaviour, a resistance trait against V. destructor, in [START]A. mellifera[END] and Apis cerana. The second best-associated QTL is located on chromosome 4 in an intron of the Dscam gene, which is involved in neuronal wiring. Previous research demonstrated that genes involved in neuronal wiring are associated with recapping and varroa sensitive hygiene. Therefore, our study confirms the role of a gene region on chromosome 5 in social immunity and simultaneously provides novel insights into genetic interactions between common mite resistance traits in [START]honey bees[END].
",34729804
0,7460,"Immune suppression in the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) following infection by Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia).
Two microsporidia species have been shown to infect [START]Apis mellifera[END], Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. This work presents evidence that N. ceranae infection significantly suppresses the [START]honey bee[END] immune response, although this effect was not observed following infection with N. apis. Immune suppression would also increase susceptibility to other bee pathogens and senescence. Despite the importance of both Nosema species in [START]honey bee[END] health, there is no information about their effect on the [START]bees[END]' immune system and present results can explain the different virulence between both microsporidia infecting [START]honeybees[END].
",19737304
0,7460,"Social Apoptosis in Varroa Mite Resistant [START]Western[END] [START]Honey Bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
[START]Honey bees[END] are eusocial animals that exhibit both individual and social immune responses, which influence colony health. This is especially well-studied regarding the mite Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman (Parasitiformes: Varroidae), a parasite of [START]honey bee[END] brood and disease vector. Varroa was introduced relatively recently to Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and is a major driver of the catastrophic die-off of [START]honey bee[END] colonies in the last decade. In contrast, the original host species, Apis cerana Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Apidae) is able to survive mite infestations with little effect on colony health and survival. This resilience is due in part to a newly identified social immune response expressed by developing worker brood. Varroa infested female A. cerana brood experience delayed development and eventually die in a process called 'social apoptosis'. Here, an individual's susceptibility to Varroa results in colony level resistance. We tested for the presence of the social apoptosis trait in two Varroa resistant stocks of [START]A. mellifera[END] (Pol-line and Russian) with different selection histories and compared them to a known Varroa-susceptible stock (Italian). We assessed the survival and development of worker brood reared in either highly or lightly infested host colonies, then receiving one of three treatments: uninfested, experimentally inoculated with a Varroa mite, or wounded to simulate Varroa damage. We found that response to treatment was only differentiated in brood reared in lightly infested host colonies, where experimentally infested Russian [START]honey bees[END] had decreased survival relative to the mite-susceptible Italian stock. This is the first evidence that social apoptosis can exist in [START]Western honey bee[END] populations.
",35137137
0,7460,"Resonance frequencies of [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) wings.
During flight, insect wings bend and twist under the influence of aerodynamic and inertial forces. We tested whether wing resonance of [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) matches the wingbeat frequency, against the 'stiff element' hypothesis that the wing's first longitudinal mode exceeds the wingbeat frequency. Six [START]bees[END] were immobilized with their right wing pair outspread, and stimulated with a shaker while the normal modes were recorded with a scanning Doppler laser vibrometer. The lowest normal mode of the wings was the first longitudinal bending mode and, at 602+-145 Hz, was greater than the wingbeat frequency of 234+-13.9 Hz. Higher-order normal modes of the wing tended to incorporate nodal lines in the chordwise direction of the trailing edge, suggesting that their mode shape did not strongly resemble wing deformation during flapping flight. These results support the stiff element hypothesis for [START]Apis mellifera[END].
",28515236
0,7460,"Proteins within the seminal fluid are crucial to keep sperm viable in the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END].
Seminal fluid is a biochemically complex mixture of glandular secretions that is transferred to the females sexual tract as part of the ejaculate. Seminal fluid has received increasing scientific interest in the fields of evolutionary and reproductive biology, as it seems a major determinant of male fertility/infertility and reproductive success. Here we used the [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END], where seminal fluid can be collected as part of a male's ejaculate, and performed a series of experiments to investigate the effects of seminal fluid and its components on sperm viability. We show that [START]honeybee[END] seminal fluid is highly potent in keeping sperm alive and this positive effect is present over a 24h time span, comparable to the timing of the sperm storage process in the queen. We furthermore show that the presence of proteins within the seminal fluid and their structural integrity are crucial for this effect. Finally, we activated sperm using fructose and provide evidence that the positive effect of seminal fluid proteins on sperm survival cannot be replicated using generic protein substitutes. Our data provide experimental insights into the complex molecular interplay between sperm and seminal fluid defining male fertility and reproductive success.
",21192944
0,7460,"The Neuroproteomic Basis of Enhanced Perception and Processing of Brood Signals That Trigger Increased Reproductive Investment in [START]Honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) Workers.
The neuronal basis of complex social behavior is still poorly understood. In [START]honeybees[END], reproductive investment decisions are made at the colony-level. Queens develop from female-destined larvae that receive alloparental care from nurse [START]bees[END] in the form of ad-libitum royal jelly (RJ) secretions. Typically, the number of raised new queens is limited but genetic breeding of ""royal jelly [START]bees[END]"" (RJBs) for enhanced RJ production over decades has led to a dramatic increase of reproductive investment in queens. Here, we compare RJBs to unselected Italian [START]bees[END] (ITBs) to investigate how their cognitive processing of larval signals in the mushroom bodies (MBs) and antennal lobes (ALs) may contribute to their behavioral differences. A cross-fostering experiment confirms that the RJB syndrome is mainly due to a shift in nurse bee alloparental care behavior. Using olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex, we show that the RJB nurses spontaneously respond more often to larval odors compared with ITB nurses but their subsequent learning occurs at similar rates. These phenotypic findings are corroborated by our demonstration that the proteome of the brain, particularly of the ALs differs between RJBs and ITBs. Notably, in the ALs of RJB newly emerged [START]bees[END] and nurses compared with ITBs, processes of energy and nutrient metabolism, signal transduction are up-regulated, priming the ALs for receiving and processing the brood signals from the antennae. Moreover, highly abundant major royal jelly proteins and hexamerins in RJBs compared with ITBs during early life when the nervous system still develops suggest crucial new neurobiological roles for these well-characterized proteins. Altogether, our findings reveal that RJBs have evolved a strong olfactory response to larvae, enabled by numerous neurophysiological adaptations that increase the nurse [START]bees[END]' alloparental care behavior.
",32669299
0,7460,"A SNP assay for assessing diversity in immune genes in the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.).
With a growing number of parasites and pathogens experiencing large-scale range expansions, monitoring diversity in immune genes of host populations has never been so important because it can inform on the adaptive potential to resist the invaders. Population surveys of immune genes are becoming common in many organisms, yet they are missing in the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.), a key managed pollinator species that has been severely affected by biological invasions. To fill the gap, here we identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a wide range of [START]honey bee[END] immune genes and developed a medium-density assay targeting a subset of these genes. Using a discovery panel of 123 whole-genomes, representing seven [START]A. mellifera subspecies[END] and three evolutionary lineages, 180 immune genes were scanned for SNPs in exons, introns (< 4 bp from exons), 3' and 5 UTR, and < 1 kb upstream of the transcription start site. After application of multiple filtering criteria and validation, the final medium-density assay combines 91 quality-proved functional SNPs marking 89 innate immune genes and these can be readily typed using the high-sample-throughput iPLEX MassARRAY system. This medium-density-SNP assay was applied to 156 samples from four countries and the admixture analysis clustered the samples according to their lineage and subspecies, suggesting that [START]honey bee[END] ancestry can be delineated from functional variation. In addition to allowing analysis of immunogenetic variation, this newly-developed SNP assay can be used for inferring genetic structure and admixture in the [START]honey bee[END].
",34321557
0,7460,"DWV-A Lethal to [START]Honey Bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]): A Colony Level Survey of DWV Variants (A, B, and C) in England, Wales, and 32 States across the US.
The strong association between Varroa destructor, deformed wing virus (DWV), and high overwintering colony losses (OCL) of [START]honey bees[END] is well established. Three DWV master variants (DWV-A, -B, and -C) have been described, and their role in colony mortality remains an open question. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the seasonal prevalence, viral load, and changing distribution of the three DWV master variants within [START]honey bee[END] colonies from England, Wales, and 32 states across the United States. Here, we report that in 2016, DWV-B was prevalent (100%, n = 249) and dominant (95%) in England and Wales, compared to the US. (56%, n = 217 and 23%, respectively), where DWV-A was prevalent (83%, n = 217) and dominant (63%). DWV-C was regularly detected in low viral loads (<1 x 107 genome equivalents per bee) and at lower prevalence (58% in England and Wales, n = 203, and 14% across the United States, n = 124) compared to DWV-A and -B. DWV-B prevalence and dominance in England and Wales coincided with low OCL (6%). Meanwhile, a 60% loss was reported by participating U.S. beekeepers. In the United States, DWV-A prevalence (89%, n = 18) and viral load were significantly (p = 0.002) higher (1 x 10 8-1 x 1011) in colonies that died when compared to the surviving colonies (49% (n = 27), 1 x 106-1 x 1010). DWV-B had low prevalence (56%, n = 18) in the colonies that died with viral loads of <1 x 1010. However, DWV-B was routinely detected in high viral loads (>1 x 1010) in surviving colonies from all sample locations, providing further supporting evidence of DWV-A exhibiting increased virulence over DWV-B at the colony level.
",31075870
0,7460,"Seasonality of [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) micronutrient supplementation and environmental limitation.
[START]Honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) obtain micronutrients from floral resources and ""dirty"", or turbid, water. Past research suggests that [START]honey bees[END] drink dirty water to supplement the micronutrients in their floral diet, however, there is no research that directly investigates how floral micronutrient content varies with water preferences, or how micronutrients in [START]honey bees[END] themselves vary seasonally. In this study, we used chemical analyses (ICP-OES) to investigate seasonal variation of micronutrients in [START]honey bee[END] workers and floral resources in the field. We found that [START]honey bees[END] likely use mineralized water to supplement their floral diet and may be limited by availability of calcium and potassium. Our results also suggest that [START]honey bees[END] may seasonally seek specific micronutrients, perhaps in preparation for overwintering.
",29432764
0,7460,"[Nosema ceranae (Eukaryota: Fungi: Microsporea)--a new parasite of [START]western honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] L].
Nosema ceranae was discovered in Apis cerana, Eastern honeybee first. Until recently A. cerana has been considered the only host to this parasite. A few years ago N. ceranae was recorded in [START]honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END]. It appeared that N. ceranae is more pathogenic for A. mellifera than Nosema apis. This parasite can cause significant losses in bee colonies. [START]Bees[END] die without symptoms observed in nosemosis caused by N. apis such as diarrhea.
",18441873
0,7460,"Varroa destructor mite electrophysiological responses to [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) colony volatiles.
Detection and interpretation of chemical cues is essential for Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman, an important parasite of [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.), to complete its life cycle. We collected volatiles from [START]honey bee[END] brood at various developmental stages and screened for V. destructor electrophysiological responses to these with gas chromatography-linked electrotarsal detection. Volatile collections contained several methyl-alkanes that evoked electrophysiological responses from V. destructor. Moreover, odors in [START]honey bee[END] colonies that regulate [START]honey bee[END] colony structure and function were also detected by V. destructor. Collections from mid- to late-stage larvae had detectable levels of low-volatility odors identified as components of the [START]honey bee[END] brood pheromone and branched alkanes likely originating from brood cuticle. Among these, several mid- to heavy-molecular weight compounds elicited high proportional electrophysiological responses by V. destructor relative to their abundance but could not be identified using chemical standards of previously documented [START]honey bee[END] brood odors. We suggest further investigation of these unknown volatiles and future behavioral assays to determine attractiveness/repellency (valence) of those identified through chemical standards.
",32700265
0,7460,"Thermoregulation in mixed-species colonies of [START]honeybees[END] (Apis cerana and [START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Apis cerana and [START]Apis mellifera[END] normally display different strategies in cooling hive temperature, raising the question whether they would coordinate their efforts in to achieve stable thermoregulation in mixed colonies. The results show that the normal temperatures in the brood area in mixed colonies are more similar to those of pure A. cerana colonies than pure A. mellifera colonies. Under heat stress, A. cerana workers are more sensitive, and initiate fanning earlier than [START]A. mellifera[END] workers. In mixed colonies, the former become the main force for thermoregulation. When worker [START]bees[END] of both species were fanning together at the entrance, their own species-specific postures were adopted, but due to a significantly smaller number of [START]A. mellifera[END] workers engaged in fanning, the cooling efficiency of mixed colonies were closest to that of pure A. cerana colonies.
",20035763
0,7460,"8. The development and evolution of division of labor and foraging specialization in a social insect ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.).
How does complex social behavior evolve? What are the developmental building blocks of division of labor and specialization, the hallmarks of insect societies? Studies have revealed the developmental origins in the evolution of division of labor and specialization in foraging worker [START]honeybees[END], the hallmarks of complex insect societies. Selective breeding for a single social trait, the amount of surplus pollen stored in the nest (pollen hoarding) revealed a phenotypic architecture of correlated traits at multiple levels of biological organization in facultatively sterile female worker [START]honeybees[END]. Verification of this phenotypic architecture in ""wild-type"" [START]bees[END] provided strong support for a ""pollen foraging syndrome"" that involves increased senso-motor responses, motor activity, associative learning, reproductive status, and rates of behavioral development, as well as foraging behavior. This set of traits guided further research into reproductive regulatory systems that were co-opted by natural selection during the evolution of social behavior. Division of labor, characterized by changes in the tasks performed by [START]bees[END], as they age, is controlled by hormones linked to ovary development. Foraging specialization on nectar and pollen results also from different reproductive states of [START]bees[END] where nectar foragers engage in pre-reproductive behavior, foraging for nectar for self-maintenance, while pollen foragers perform foraging tasks associated with reproduction and maternal care, collecting protein.
",16860670
0,7460,"[START]Honey Bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) Immunity.
At the individual level, [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) rely on innate immunity, which operates through cellular and humoral mechanisms, to defend themselves against infectious agents and parasites. At the colony level, [START]honey bees[END] have developed collective defense mechanisms against pathogens and pests, such as hygienic and grooming behaviors. An understanding of the immune responses of [START]honey bees[END] is critical to implement strategies to reduce mortality and increase colony productivity. The major components and mechanisms of individual and social immunity of [START]honey bees[END] are discussed in this review.
",34689918
0,7460,"The pattern of HSP70 gene expression, flight activity and temperature in Apis mellifera meda colonies.
[START]Honey bees[END] produce heat shock proteins (HSPs) following biotic and abiotic stressors to protect cells from damage. In the current study, the pattern of HSP70 gene transcription, foraging, and temperature inside and outside the hive and their association in Apis mellifera meda colonies during Ziziphus blooming period were investigated. Therefore, the number of [START]bees[END] entering the hive, temperature inside and outside the hive were recorded in six colonies at different times of the day. Entering and exiting worker [START]bees[END] were sampled in the front of three hives at three times during the day, morning, midday, and afternoon to evaluate HSP70 gene expression by real-time PCR. The results showed that the flight behavior was influenced by the inside and outside hive temperatures, which was lower and higher in the midday and at the end of the day, respectively. The peak amount of HSP70 gene transcription at the midday was associated with the lowest bee flight activity and highest inside and outside the hive temperatures. In addition, the peak of flight activity was associated with intermediate levels of HSP70 gene expression in the afternoon.
",32716888
0,7460,"Protein and Peptide Composition of Male Accessory Glands of [START]Apis mellifera[END] Drones Investigated by Mass Spectrometry.
In [START]honeybees[END], reproductive females usually mate early in their life with more than 10 males in free flight, often within 10 minutes, and then store male gametes for up to five years. Because of the extreme polyandry and mating in free flight special adaptations in males are most likely. We present here the results of an investigation of the protein content of four types of male reproductive glands from the Western [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) drone, namely seminal vesicles (secretion in ejaculate), as well as bulbus, cornua and mucus glands (secretions for the mating plug). Using high resolution and accuracy mass spectrometry and a combination of database searching and de novo sequencing techniques it was possible to identify 50 different proteins in total, inside all mentioned glands, except in the mucus gland. Most of the proteins are unique for a specific gland type, only one of them (H9KEY1/ATP synthase subunit O) was found in three glands, and 7 proteins were found in two types of glands. The identified proteins represent a wide variety of biological functions and can be assigned to several physiological classes, such as protection, energy generation, maintaining optimal conditions, associated mainly with vesicula seminalis; signaling, cuticle proteins, icarpin and apolipoproteins located mainly in the bulbus and cornua glands; and some other classes. Most of the discovered proteins were not found earlier during investigation of semen, seminal fluid and tissue of reproductive glands of the bee drone. Moreover, we provide here the origin of each protein. Thus, the presented data might shed light on the role of each reproductive gland. 
",25955586
0,7460,"Western [START]honeybee[END] drones and workers (Apis mellifera ligustica) have different olfactory mechanisms than eastern [START]honeybees[END] (Apis cerana cerana).
The [START]honeybees[END] Apis mellifera ligustica (Aml) and Apis cerana cerana (Acc) are two different western and eastern bee species that evolved in distinct ecologies and developed specific antennal olfactory systems for their survival. Knowledge of how their antennal olfactory systems function in regards to the success of each respective bee species is scarce. We compared the antennal morphology and proteome between respective sexually mature drones and foraging workers of both species using a scanning electron microscope, two-dimensional electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, bioinformatics, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Despite the general similarities in antennal morphology of the drone and worker [START]bees[END] between the two species, a total of 106 and 100 proteins altered their expression in the drones' and the workers' antennae, respectively. This suggests that the differences in the olfactory function of each respective bee are supported by the change of their proteome. Of the 106 proteins that altered their expression in the drones, 72 (68%) and 34 (32%) were overexpressed in the drones of Aml and Acc, respectively. The antennae of the Aml drones were built up by the highly expressed proteins that were involved in carbohydrate metabolism and energy production, molecular transporters, antioxidation, and fatty acid metabolism in contrast to the Acc drones. This is believed to enhance the antennal olfactory functions of the Aml drones as compared to the Acc drones during their mating flight. Likewise, of the 100 proteins with expression changes between the worker [START]bees[END] of the two species, 67% were expressed in higher levels in the antennae of Aml worker contrasting to 33% in the Acc worker. The overall higher expressions of proteins related to carbohydrate metabolism and energy production, molecular transporters, and antioxidation in the Aml workers compared with the Acc workers indicate the Aml workers require more antennal proteins for their olfactory mechanisms to perform efficient foraging activities than do the Acc worker [START]bees[END]. These data decipher the mechanisms of the western and eastern drone and worker [START]bees[END] acting in response to their different olfactory system in their distinct ecosystem.
",22809620
0,7460,"Transcriptional signatures of parasitization and markers of colony decline in Varroa-infested [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Extensive annual losses of [START]honey bee[END] colonies ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) reported in the northern hemisphere represent a global problem for agriculture and biodiversity. The parasitic mite Varroa destructor, in association with deformed wing virus (DWV), plays a key role in this phenomenon, but the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. To elucidate these mechanisms, we analyzed the gene expression profile of uninfested and mite infested [START]bees[END], under laboratory and field conditions, highlighting the effects of parasitization on the bee's transcriptome under a variety of conditions and scenarios. Parasitization was significantly correlated with higher viral loads. [START]Honey bees[END] exposed to mite infestation exhibited an altered expression of genes related to stress response, immunity, nervous system function, metabolism and behavioural maturation. Additionally, mite infested young [START]bees[END] showed a gene expression profile resembling that of forager [START]bees[END]. To identify potential molecular markers of colony decline, the expression of genes that were commonly regulated across the experiments were subsequently assessed in colonies experiencing increasing mite infestation levels. These studies suggest that PGRP-2, hymenoptaecin, a glucan recognition protein, UNC93 and a p450 cytocrome maybe suitable general biomarkers of Varroa-induced colony decline. Furthermore, the reliability of vitellogenin, a yolk protein previously identified as a good marker of colony survival, was confirmed here.
",28595898
0,7460,"[START]Honey bee[END] toxicology.
Insecticides are chemicals used to kill insects, so it is unsurprising that many insecticides have the potential to harm [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]). However, [START]bees[END] are exposed to a great variety of other potentially toxic chemicals, including flavonoids and alkaloids that are produced by plants; mycotoxins produced by fungi; antimicrobials and acaricides that are introduced by beekeepers; and fungicides, herbicides, and other environmental contaminants. Although often regarded as uniquely sensitive to toxic compounds, [START]honey bees[END] are adapted to tolerate and even thrive in the presence of toxic compounds that occur naturally in their environment. The harm caused by exposure to a particular concentration of a toxic compound may depend on the level of simultaneous exposure to other compounds, pathogen levels, nutritional status, and a host of other factors. This review takes a holistic view of bee toxicology by taking into account the spectrum of xenobiotics to which [START]bees[END] are exposed. 
",25341092
0,7460,"Comparison of the energetic stress associated with experimental Nosema ceranae and Nosema apis infection of [START]honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Nosema ceranae is a relatively new and widespread parasite of the western [START]honeybee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END] that provokes a new form of nosemosis. In comparison to Nosema apis, which has been infecting the [START]honeybee[END] for much longer, N. ceranae seems to have co-evolved less with this host, causing a more virulent disease. Given that N. apis and N. ceranae are obligate intracellular microsporidian parasites, needing host energy to reproduce, energetic stress may be an important factor contributing to the increased virulence observed. Through feeding experiments on caged [START]bees[END], we show that both mortality and sugar syrup consumption were higher in N. ceranae-infected [START]bees[END] than in N. apis-infected and control [START]bees[END]. The mortality and sugar syrup consumption are also higher in N. apis-infected [START]bees[END] than in controls, but are less than in N. ceranae-infected [START]bees[END]. With both microsporidia, mortality and sugar syrup consumption increased in function of the increasing spore counts administered for infection. The differences in energetic requirements between both Nosema spp. confirm that their metabolic patterns are not the same, which may depend critically on host-parasite interactions and, ultimately, on host pathology. The repercussions of this increased energetic stress may even explain the changes in host behavior due to starvation, lack of thermoregulatory capacity, or higher rates of trophallaxis, which might enhance transmission and bee death.
",21360094
0,7460,"Transcriptomic analysis of the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) queen spermathecae reveals genes that may be involved in sperm storage after mating.
[START]Honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) queens have a remarkable organ, the spermatheca, which successfully stores sperm for years after a virgin queen mates. This study uniquely characterized and quantified the transcriptomes of the spermathecae from mated and virgin [START]honey bee[END] queens via RNA sequencing to identify differences in mRNA levels based on a queen's mating status. The transcriptome of drone semen was analyzed for comparison. Samples from three individual [START]bees[END] were independently analyzed for mated queen spermathecae and virgin queen spermathecae, and three pools of semen from ten drones each were collected from three separate colonies. In total, the expression of 11,233 genes was identified in mated queen spermathecae, 10,521 in virgin queen spermathecae, and 10,407 in drone semen. Using a cutoff log2 fold-change value of 2.0, we identified 212 differentially expressed genes between mated and virgin spermathecal queen tissues: 129 (1.4% of total) were up-regulated and 83 (0.9% of total) were down-regulated in mated queen spermathecae. Three genes in mated queen spermathecae, three genes in virgin queen spermathecae and four genes in drone semen that were more highly expressed in those tissues from the RNA sequencing data were further validated by real time quantitative PCR. Among others, expression of Kielin/chordin-like and Trehalase mRNAs was highest in the spermathecae of mated queens compared to virgin queen spermathecae and drone semen. Expression of the mRNA encoding Alpha glucosidase 2 was higher in the spermathecae of virgin queens. Finally, expression of Facilitated trehalose transporter 1 mRNA was greatest in drone semen. This is the first characterization of gene expression in the spermathecae of [START]honey bee[END] queens revealing the alterations in mRNA levels within them after mating. Future studies will extend to other reproductive tissues with the purpose of relating levels of specific mRNAs to the functional competence of [START]honey bee[END] queens and the colonies they head.
",33417615
0,7460,"Vasculature of the hive: heat dissipation in the [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) hive.
Eusocial insects are distinguished by their elaborate cooperative behavior and are sometimes defined as superorganisms. As a nest-bound superorganism, individuals work together to maintain favorable nest conditions. Residing in temperate environments, [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) work especially hard to maintain brood comb temperature between 32 and 36  C. Heat shielding is a social homeostatic mechanism employed to combat local heat stress. Workers press the ventral side of their bodies against heated surfaces, absorb heat, and thus protect developing brood. While the absorption of heat has been characterized, the dissipation of absorbed heat has not. Our study characterized both how effectively worker [START]bees[END] absorb heat during heat shielding, and where worker [START]bees[END] dissipate absorbed heat. Hives were experimentally heated for 15 min during which internal temperatures and heat shielder counts were taken. Once the heat source was removed, hives were photographed with a thermal imaging camera for 15 min. Thermal images allowed for spatial tracking of heat flow as cooling occurred. Data indicate that [START]honey bee[END] workers collectively minimize heat gain during heating and accelerate heat loss during cooling. Thermal images show that heated areas temporarily increase in size in all directions and then rapidly decrease to safe levels (<37  C). As such, heat shielding is reminiscent of bioheat removal via the cardiovascular system of mammals.
",24760416
0,7460,"A veterinary approach to the [START]European honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END])
The [START]European honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) has the unusual status of being an inherently wild species from which a natural foodstuff (honey) is derived by manipulating its behaviour to deposit this in man-made wooden frames. [START]Bees[END] also produce propolis and Royal Jelly which can be harvested but their most important effect is one not immediately obvious as an economic product: that of pollination. Bee diseases are predominantly infectious and parasitic conditions accentuated by the close confinement in which they congregate, either in man-made hives or in colonies in a natural cavity. Treatment or at least control of some of these conditions can be attempted. In some cases natural bee behavioural traits limit the effect of the disease while in others, such as the notifiable disease American foulbrood, destruction of the colony is the only method of control. The mite Varroa jacobsoni can be controlled by the synthetic pyrethroids flumethrin and tau-fluvalinate. The introduction of these products has heightened veterinary interest in this important invertebrate species.
",10950136
0,7460,"Hemolymph proteome changes during worker brood development match the biological divergences between western [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) and eastern [START]honey bees[END] (Apis cerana).
BACKGROUND: Hemolymph plays key roles in [START]honey bee[END] molecule transport, immune defense, and in monitoring the physiological condition. There is a lack of knowledge regarding how the proteome achieves these biological missions for both the western and eastern [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] and Apis cerana). A time-resolved proteome was compared using two-dimensional electrophoresis-based proteomics to reveal the mechanistic differences by analysis of hemolymph proteome changes between the worker [START]bees[END] of two bee species during the larval to pupal stages. RESULTS: The brood body weight of [START]Apis mellifera[END] was significantly heavier than that of Apis cerana at each developmental stage. Significantly, different protein expression patterns and metabolic pathways were observed in 74 proteins (166 spots) that were differentially abundant between the two bee species. The function of hemolymph in energy storage, odor communication, and antioxidation is of equal importance for the western and eastern [START]bees[END], indicated by the enhanced expression of different protein species. However, stronger expression of protein folding, cytoskeletal and developmental proteins, and more highly activated energy producing pathways in western [START]bees[END] suggests that the different bee species have developed unique strategies to match their specific physiology using hemolymph to deliver nutrients and in immune defense. CONCLUSIONS: Our disparate findings constitute a proof-of-concept of molecular details that the ecologically shaped different physiological conditions of different bee species match with the hemolymph proteome during the brood stage. This also provides a starting point for future research on the specific hemolymph proteins or pathways related to the differential phenotypes or physiology.
",24996860
0,7460,"Conceptual learning by miniature brains.
Concepts act as a cornerstone of human cognition. Humans and non-human primates learn conceptual relationships such as 'same', 'different', 'larger than', 'better than', among others. In all cases, the relationships have to be encoded by the brain independently of the physical nature of objects linked by the relation. Consequently, concepts are associated with high levels of cognitive sophistication and are not expected in an insect brain. Yet, various works have shown that the miniature brain of [START]honeybees[END] rapidly learns conceptual relationships involving visual stimuli. Concepts such as 'same', 'different', 'above/below of' or 'left/right are well mastered by [START]bees[END]. We review here evidence about concept learning in [START]honeybees[END] and discuss both its potential adaptive advantage and its possible neural substrates. The results reviewed here challenge the traditional view attributing supremacy to larger brains when it comes to the elaboration of concepts and have wide implications for understanding how brains can form conceptual relations. 
",24107530
0,7460,"Making a queen: an epigenetic analysis of the robustness of the [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) queen developmental pathway.
Specialized castes are considered a key reason for the evolutionary and ecological success of the social insect lifestyle. The most essential caste distinction is between the fertile queen and the sterile workers. [START]Honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) workers and queens are not genetically distinct, rather these different phenotypes are the result of epigenetically regulated divergent developmental pathways. This is an important phenomenon in understanding the evolution of social insect societies. Here, we studied the genomic regulation of the worker and queen developmental pathways, and the robustness of the pathways by transplanting eggs or young larvae to queen cells. Queens could be successfully reared from worker larvae transplanted up to 3 days age, but queens reared from older worker larvae had decreased queen body size and weight compared with queens from transplanted eggs. Gene expression analysis showed that queens raised from worker larvae differed from queens raised from eggs in the expression of genes involved in the immune system, caste differentiation, body development and longevity. DNA methylation levels were also higher in 3-day-old queen larvae raised from worker larvae compared with that raised from transplanted eggs identifying a possible mechanism stabilizing the two developmental paths. We propose that environmental (nutrition and space) changes induced by the commercial rearing practice result in a suboptimal queen phenotype via epigenetic processes, which may potentially contribute to the evolution of queen-worker dimorphism. This also has potentially contributed to the global increase in [START]honeybee[END] colony failure rates.
",28026884
0,7460,"Differential expression of immune genes of adult [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) after inoculated by Nosema ceranae.
Nosema ceranae is a microsporidium parasite infecting adult [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) and is known to affects at both the individual and colony level. In this study, the expression levels were measured for four antimicrobial peptide encoding genes that are associated with bee humoral immunity (defensin, abaecin, apidaecin, and hymenoptaecin), eater gene which is a transmembrane protein involved cellular immunity and gene encoding female-specific protein (vitellogenin) in [START]honey bees[END] when inoculated by N. ceranae. The results showed that four of these genes, defensin, abaecin, apidaecin and hymenoptaecin were significantly down-regulated 3 and 6days after inoculations. Additionally, antimicrobial peptide expressions did not significantly differ between control and inoculated [START]bees[END] after 12days post inoculation. Moreover, our results revealed that the mRNA levels of eater and vitellogenin did not differ significantly following N. ceranae inoculation. Therefore, in this study we reaffirmed that N. ceranae infection induces host immunosuppression.
",22609362
0,7460,"Composition of fatty acids in the Varroa destructor mites and their hosts, [START]Apis mellifera[END] drone-prepupae.
The fatty acid (FA) profile of lipids extracted from the Varroa destructor parasitic mite and its host, drone-prepupae of [START]Apis mellifera[END], was determined by gas chromatography (GC). The percentages of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were generally similar in parasites and their hosts. Fatty acids were arranged in the following descending order based on their content: MUFAs (ca. 52-55%), SFAs (ca. 41%) and PUFAs (ca. 3%). The predominant fatty acids were oleic acid (46% in mites, 44% in prepupae) and palmitic acid (23% and 30%, respectively). Varroa parasites differed from their hosts in the quantity of individual FAs and in their FA profiles. Three PUFAs noted in the host were not observed in parasitic mites, whereas the presence of C21:0, C24:0 and C22:1 FAs was reported in mites, but not in drones.
",25911034
0,7460,"Tolerance and response of two [START]honeybee[END] species Apis cerana and [START]Apis mellifera[END] to high temperature and relative humidity.
The ambient temperature and relative humidity affect the metabolic and physiological responses of [START]bees[END], thus affecting their life activities. However, the physiological changes in bee due to high temperature and high humidity remain poorly understood. In this study, we explored the effects of higher temperature and humidity on the epiphysiology of [START]bees[END] by evaluating the survival, tolerance and body water loss in two bee species (Apis cerana and [START]Apis mellifera[END]). We also evaluated the changes in the activity of antioxidant and detoxification enzymes in their body. We observed that under higher temperature and humidity conditions, the survival rate of [START]A. mellifera[END] was higher than that of A. cerana. On the other hand, a comparison of water loss between the two species revealed that [START]A. mellifera[END] lost more water. However, under extremely high temperature conditions, A. cerana was more tolerant than [START]A. mellifera[END]. Moreover, under higher temperature and humidity conditions, the activity of antioxidant and detoxification enzymes in [START]bees[END] was significantly increased. Overall, these results suggest that high temperatures can adversely affect [START]bees[END]. They not only affect the survival and water loss, but also stimulate oxidative stress in [START]bees[END]. However, unlike our previous understanding, high humidity can also adversely affect [START]bees[END], although its effects are lower than that of temperature.
",31170259
0,7460,"Pathological effects of the microsporidium Nosema ceranae on [START]honey bee[END] queen physiology ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
Nosema ceranae, a microsporidian parasite originally described in the Asian [START]honey bee[END] Apis cerana, has recently been found to be cross-infective and to also parasitize the [START]European honey bee[END] [START]Apis mellifera[END]. Since this discovery, many studies have attempted to characterize the impact of this parasite in [START]A. mellifera[END] [START]honey bees[END]. Nosema species can infect all colony members, workers, drones and queens, but the pathological effects of this microsporidium has been mainly investigated in workers, despite the prime importance of the queen, who monopolizes the reproduction and regulates the cohesion of the society via pheromones. We therefore analyzed the impact of N. ceranae on queen physiology. We found that infection by N. ceranae did not affect the fat body content (an indicator of energy stores) but did alter the vitellogenin titer (an indicator of fertility and longevity), the total antioxidant capacity and the queen mandibular pheromones, which surprisingly were all significantly increased in Nosema-infected queens. Thus, such physiological changes may impact queen health, leading to changes in pheromone production, that could explain Nosema-induced supersedure (queen replacement).
",21156180
0,7460,"[START]Honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) vision can discriminate between and recognise images of human faces.
Recognising individuals using facial cues is an important ability. There is evidence that the mammalian brain may have specialised neural circuitry for face recognition tasks, although some recent work questions these findings. Thus, to understand if recognising human faces does require species-specific neural processing, it is important to know if non-human animals might be able to solve this difficult spatial task. [START]Honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) were tested to evaluate whether an animal with no evolutionary history for discriminating between humanoid faces may be able to learn this task. Using differential conditioning, individual [START]bees[END] were trained to visit target face stimuli and to avoid similar distractor stimuli from a standard face recognition test used in human psychology. Performance was evaluated in non-rewarded trials and [START]bees[END] discriminated the target face from a similar distractor with greater than 80% accuracy. When novel distractors were used, [START]bees[END] also demonstrated a high level of choices for the target face, indicating an ability for face recognition. When the stimuli were rotated by 180 degrees there was a large drop in performance, indicating a possible disruption to configural type visual processing.
",16326952
0,7460,"When European meets African honeybees ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) in the tropics: Morphological changes related to genetics in Mauritius Island (South-West Indian Ocean).
The previous genetic characterization of the [START]honeybee[END] population of Mauritius Island (Indian Ocean) revealed an ongoing process of hybridization between the first established African subspecies [START]Apis mellifera[END] unicolor and recently imported European subspecies (A. m. ligustica, A. m. carnica and A. m. mellifera). This context offers the rare opportunity to explore the influence of hybridization between African and European [START]honeybees[END] on phenotypic traits out of the case largely studied of the Africanized honeybee (hybrid between A. m. scutellata from South Africa and European subspecies). We thus conducted geometric morphometric analyses on forewings of 283 workers genetically characterized at 14 microsatellite loci to evaluate (1) if the morphological variability coincides well with the neutral genetic variability, (2) if hybrids exhibited rather parental, intermediate or transgressive traits, and (3) to test if fluctuating asymmetry (FA) of size and shape, as a measure of developmental stability, was elevated in hybrids (due to genetic stress) and/or European [START]bees[END] (due to unsuitable environment) compared to African [START]bees[END]. A strong concordance was found between morphological variability and neutral genetic variability, especially for wing shape, based on partial least-square analyses (PLS). However, on average, the morphology of hybrids was more similar to the African [START]bees[END], potentially reflecting the dynamics and direction of introgression. Significant FA for wing size as well as wing shape was detected, suggesting the overall presence of stress during the development of the studied individuals. In contrast, the asymmetry levels do not differ according to the ancestry (African, European or hybrid) of the individuals. Therefore, if ongoing hybridization contributed to increasing the genetic and phenotypic diversity of the populations and influences its adaptive potential, developmental stressors could not be identified and their evolutionary consequences remain uncertain.
",33211716
0,7460,"Comparative virulence and competition between Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae in [START]honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]).
[START]Honey bees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) are infected by two species of microsporidia: Nosema apis and Nosemaceranae. Epidemiological evidence indicates that N. ceranae may be replacing N. apis globally in [START]A. mellifera[END] populations, suggesting a potential competitive advantage of N. ceranae. Mixed infections of the two species occur, and little is known about the interactions among the host and the two pathogens that have allowed N. ceranae to become dominant in most geographical areas. We demonstrated that mixed Nosema species infections negatively affected [START]honey bee[END] survival (median survival=15-17days) more than single species infections (median survival=21days and 20days for N. apis and N. ceranae, respectively), with median survival of control [START]bees[END] of 27days. We found similar rates of infection (percentage of [START]bees[END] with active infections after inoculation) for both species in mixed infections, with N. apis having a slightly higher rate (91% compared to 86% for N. ceranae). We observed slightly higher spore counts in [START]bees[END] infected with N. ceranae than in [START]bees[END] infected with N. apis in single microsporidia infections, especially at the midpoint of infection (day 10). [START]Bees[END] with mixed infections of both species had higher spore counts than [START]bees[END] with single infections, but spore counts in mixed infections were highly variable. We did not see a competitive advantage for N. ceranae in mixed infections; N. apis spore counts were either higher or counts were similar for both species and more N. apis spores were produced in 62% of [START]bees[END] inoculated with equal dosages of the two microsporidian species. N. ceranae does not, therefore, appear to have a strong within-host advantage for either infectivity or spore growth, suggesting that direct competition in these worker bee mid-guts is not responsible for its apparent replacement of N. apis. 
",25527406
0,7460,"Drivers of colony losses.
Over the past decade, in some regions of the world, [START]honey bee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END] L.) colonies have experienced rates of colony loss that are difficult for beekeepers to sustain. The reasons for losses are complex and interacting, with major drivers including Varroaand related viruses, pesticides, nutrition and beekeeper practices. In these endeavors it has also become apparent that defining a dead colony, and singling out the effects of specific drivers of loss, is not so straightforward. Using the class of neonicotinoid pesticides as an example we explain why quantifying risk factor impact at the colony level is at times elusive and in some cases unpractical. In this review, we discuss the caveats of defining and quantifying dead colonies. We also summarize the current leading drivers of colony losses, their interactions and the most recent research on their effects on colony mortality.
",29764654
0,7460,"A comparison of [START]honeybee[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) queen, worker and drone larvae by RNA-Seq.
[START]Honeybees[END] ([START]Apis mellifera[END]) have haplodiploid sex determination: males develop from unfertilized eggs and females develop from fertilized ones. The differences in larval food also determine the development of females. Here we compared the total somatic gene expression profiles of 2-day and 4-day-old drone, queen and worker larvae by RNA-Seq. The results from a co-expression network analysis on all expressed genes showed that 2-day-old drone and worker larvae were closer in gene expression profiles than 2-day-old queen larvae. This indicated that for young larvae (2-day-old) environmental factors such as larval diet have a greater effect on gene expression profiles than ploidy or sex determination. Drones had the most distinct gene expression profiles at the 4-day larval stage, suggesting that haploidy, or sex dramatically affects the gene expression of [START]honeybee[END] larvae. Drone larvae showed fewer differences in gene expression profiles at the 2-day and 4-day time points than the worker and queen larval comparisons (598 against 1190 and 1181), suggesting a different pattern of gene expression regulation during the larval development of haploid males compared to diploid females. This study indicates that early in development the queen caste has the most distinct gene expression profile, perhaps reflecting the very rapid growth and morphological specialization of this caste compared to workers and drones. Later in development the haploid male drones have the most distinct gene expression profile, perhaps reflecting the influence of ploidy or sex determination on gene expression.
",29110379
0,7460,"Next generation sequencing of Apis mellifera syriaca identifies genes for Varroa resistance and beneficial bee keeping traits.
Apis mellifera syriaca exhibits a high degree of tolerance to pests and pathogens including varroa mites. This native [START]honey bee subspecies[END] of Jordan expresses behavioral adaptations to high temperature and dry seasons typical of the region. However, persistent [START]honey bee[END] imports of commercial breeder lines are endangering local [START]honey bee[END] population. This study reports the use of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology to study the A. m. syriaca genome and to identify genetic factors possibly contributing toward mite resistance and other favorable traits. We obtained a total of 46.2 million raw reads by applying the NGS to sequence A. m. syriaca and used extensive bioinformatics approach to identify several candidate genes for Varroa mite resistance, behavioral and immune responses characteristic for these [START]bees[END]. As a part of characterizing the functional regulation of molecular genetic pathway, we have mapped the pathway genes potentially involved using information from Drosophila melanogaster and present possible functional changes implicated in responses to Varroa destructor mite infestation toward this. We performed in-depth functional annotation methods to identify ~600 candidates that are relevant, genes involved in pathways such as microbial recognition and phagocytosis, peptidoglycan recognition protein family, Gram negative binding protein family, phagocytosis receptors, serpins, Toll signaling pathway, Imd pathway, Tnf, JAK-STAT and MAPK pathway, heamatopioesis and cellular response pathways, antiviral, RNAi pathway, stress factors, etc. were selected. Finally, we have cataloged function-specific polymorphisms between [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. m. syriaca that could give better understanding of varroa mite resistance mechanisms and assist in breeding. We have identified immune related embryonic development (Cactus, Relish, dorsal, Ank2, baz), Varroa hygiene (NorpA2, Zasp, LanA, gasp, impl3) and Varroa resistance (Pug, pcmt, elk, elf3-s10, Dscam2, Dhc64C, gro, futsch) functional variations genes between [START]A. mellifera[END] and A. m. syriaca that could be used to develop an effective molecular tool for bee conservation and breeding programs to improve locally adapted strains such as syriaca and utilize their advantageous traits for the benefit of apiculture industry. 
",25615619
0,36668,"[Survey of ants (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]) in the urban area of Uberlandia, MG, Brazil].
Uberlandia, MG, Brazil, underwent an accelerated process of urbanization with a population growth of 3,54% each year, higher than the national average. One of the problems emergent from urbanization is the use of different habitats for a great variety of insects. The objective of this study was to identify species of house-invading ants that occur in the urban area of Uberlandia. The occurrence of the house-invading species in regard to the time of urbanization, neighborhood infrastructure, age and maintenance of private houses was also assessed. The ants were collected using bait-traps in 120 residences from 12 neighborhoods which were put in three groups. Fourteen species of ants were catalogued, with Camponotus (Mayr), Monomorium (Mayr) and Tapinoma (Foerster) being the most frequent genera. Only Camponotus vittatus (Forel), Monomorium pharaonis (L.), Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) and Brachymyrmex sp. (Mayr) were collected in all three groups. The relation between the ants collected and the age and maintenance of the private houses showed that Paratrechina longicornis (Latreille) was most frequent (60%) in poorly preserved or precarious constructions. Whereas, C. vittatus and Camonotus melanoticus (Emery) occurred in all categories of maintenance. Overall, C. vittatus which had not been found in any previously published survey of urban ants, was the most frequent species in urban areas of the Cerrado.
",18575691
0,36668,"Insecticidal activity of Piper essential oils from the Amazon against the fire ant Solenopsis saevissima (Smith) (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
Pepper plants in the genus Piper (Piperales: Piperaceae) are common in the Brazilian Amazon and many produce compounds with biological activity against insect pests. We evaluated the insecticidal effect of essential oils from Piper aduncum, Piper marginatum (chemotypes A and B), Piper divaricatum and Piper callosum against workers of the fire ant Solenopsis saevissima (Smith) (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]), as well as their chemical composition by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The lowest median lethal concentration (LC50) in 48 h was obtained with the oil of P. aduncum (58.4 mg/L), followed by the oils of P. marginatum types A (122.4 mg/L) and B (167.0 mg/L), P. divaricatum (301.7 mg/L), and P. callosum (312.6 mg/L). The major chemical constituents were dillapiole (64.4%) in the oil of P. aduncum; p-mentha-1(7),8-diene (39.0%), 3,4-methylenedioxypropiophenone (19.0%), and (E)-beta-ocimene (9.8%) in P. marginatum chemotype A and (E)-isoosmorhizole (32.2%), (E)-anethole (26.4%), isoosmorhizole (11.2%), and (Z)-anethole (6.0%) in P. marginatum chemotype B; methyleugenol (69.2%) and eugenol (16.2%) in P. divaricatum; and safrole (69.2%), methyleugenol (8.6%), and beta-pinene (6.2%) in P. callosum. These chemical constituents have been previously known to possess insecticidal properties. 
",23949677
0,36668,"Rediscovery of the rare ant genus Bannapone (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]: Amblyoponinae) and description of the worker caste.
The genus Bannapone was described in 2000 on the basis of a single dealate queen specimen. Since its original collection in Yunnan, China, no other specimen has been reported, making it one of the rarest ant genera in the world. Here we report the collection of two workers of Bannapone also from Yunnan province. The description of the worker caste is presented. Furthermore, we found significant differences with the described B. mulanae Xu, 2000 which leads us to describe the workers as a new species, B. scrobiceps n. sp.. Finally, we briefly discuss the importance of leaf-litter collection methods to collect taxa considered as ""rare"". 
",25277919
0,36668,"Visual navigation in the Neotropical ant Odontomachus hastatus ([START]Formicidae[END], Ponerinae), a predominantly nocturnal, canopy-dwelling predator of the Atlantic rainforest.
The arboreal ant Odontomachus hastatus nests among roots of epiphytic bromeliads in the sandy forest at Cardoso Island (Brazil). Crepuscular and nocturnal foragers travel up to 8m to search for arthropod prey in the canopy, where silhouettes of leaves and branches potentially provide directional information. We investigated the relevance of visual cues (canopy, horizon patterns) during navigation in O. hastatus. Laboratory experiments using a captive ant colony and a round foraging arena revealed that an artificial canopy pattern above the ants and horizon visual marks are effective orientation cues for homing O. hastatus. On the other hand, foragers that were only given a tridimensional landmark (cylinder) or chemical marks were unable to home correctly. Navigation by visual cues in O. hastatus is in accordance with other diurnal arboreal ants. Nocturnal luminosity (moon, stars) is apparently sufficient to produce contrasting silhouettes from the canopy and surrounding vegetation, thus providing orientation cues. Contrary to the plain floor of the round arena, chemical cues may be important for marking bifurcated arboreal routes. This experimental demonstration of the use of visual cues by a predominantly nocturnal arboreal ant provides important information for comparative studies on the evolution of spatial orientation behavior in ants. ""This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Neotropical Behaviour"". 
",24969268
0,36668,"A diverse ant fauna from the mid-cretaceous of Myanmar (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
A new collection of 24 wingless ant specimens from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber (Albian-Cenomanian, 99 Ma) comprises nine new species belonging to the genus Sphecomyrmodes Engel and Grimaldi. Described taxa vary considerably with regard to total size, head and body proportion, cuticular sculpturing, and petiole structure while all species are unified by a distinct shared character. The assemblage represents the largest known diversification of closely related Cretaceous ants with respect to species number. These stem-group ants exhibit some characteristics previously known only from their extant counterparts along with presumed plesiomorphic morphology. Consequently, their morphology may inform hypotheses relating to basal relationships and general patterns of ant evolution. These and other uncovered Cretaceous species indicate that stem-group ants are not simply wasp-like, transitional formicids, but rather a group of considerable adaptive diversity, exhibiting innovations analogous to what crown-group ants would echo 100 million years later. 
",24699881
0,36668,"Fat body in some genera of leaf-cutting [START]ants[END] (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]). Proteins, lipids and polysaccharides detection.
The comparative histochemical analysis of the fat body of workers belonging to the basal species Cyphomyrmex rimosus and Mycetarotes parallelus and to derived species Acromyrmex disciger and Atta laevigata revealed that this tissue is constituted mainly by cells denominated trophocytes and oenocytes. The trophocytes of all species studied here were characterized mainly by the proteins and lipids synthesis and storage, being the derived species the ones who have presented higher quantity of lipids in the trophocytes when compared to the trophocytes of basal species. In workers M. parallelus and A. laevigata, besides proteins and lipids, there has being observed the presence of polysaccharides, however, in C. rimosus and A. disciger these elements were detected in lower quantities. The histochemical studies of the oenocytes of basal and derived species revealed significant presence of proteins as well as lipids in these cells. In the oenocytes of derived species A. disciger and A. laevigata a higher quantity of lipidic inclusions has being observed, when compared to the basal species.
",16388950
0,36668,"The effects of colony structure and resource abundance on food dispersal in Tapinoma sessile (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
The odorous house ant, Tapinoma sessile (Say) (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]), exhibits a high degree of variation in colony spatial structure, which may have direct and indirect effects on foraging. Protein marking and mark-release-recapture techniques were utilized to examine the effect of colony spatial structure on food dispersal. Sucrose water spiked with rabbit IgG protein was presented to colonies with varying spatial configurations in laboratory and field experiments. In monodomous laboratory colonies, the rate and extent of food dispersal was rapid due to a decrease in foraging area. In polydomous colonies, food dispersal was slower because conspecifics were forced to forage and share food over longer distances. However, over time, food was present in all extremities of the colony. Experiments conducted in the field produced similar results, with nests in close proximity to food yielding higher percentages of workers scoring positive for the marker. However, the percentage of workers possessing the marker decreased over time. Results from this study provide experimental data on mechanisms of food dispersal in monodomous and polydomous colonies of ants and may be important for increasing the efficacy of management strategies against T. sessile and other pest ant species. 
",25881634
0,36668,"Can temperate insects take the heat? A case study of the physiological and behavioural responses in a common ant, Iridomyrmex purpureus ([START]Formicidae[END]), with potential climate change.
Insects in temperate regions are predicted to be at low risk of climate change relative to tropical species. However, these assumptions have generally been poorly examined in all regions, and such forecasting fails to account for microclimatic variation and behavioural optimisation. Here, we test how a population of the dominant ant species, Iridomyrmex purpureus, from temperate Australia responds to thermal stress. We show that ants regularly forage for short periods (minutes) at soil temperatures well above their upper thermal limits (upper lethal temperature = 45.8 +- 1.3 C; CT(max) = 46.1 C) determined over slightly longer periods (hours) and do not show any signs of a classic thermal performance curve in voluntary locomotion across soil surface temperatures of 18.6-57 C (equating to a body temperature of 24.5-43.1 C). Although ants were present all year round, and dynamically altered several aspects of their thermal biology to cope with low temperatures and seasonal variation, temperature-dependence of running speed remained invariant and ants were unable to elevate high temperature tolerance using plastic responses. Measurements of microclimate temperature were higher than ant body temperatures during the hottest part of the day, but exhibited a stronger relationship with each other than air temperatures from the closest weather station. Generally close associations of ant activity and performance with microclimatic conditions, possibly to maximise foraging times, suggest I. purpureus displays highly opportunistic thermal responses and readily adjusts behaviour to cope with high trail temperatures. Increasing frequency or duration of high temperatures is therefore likely to result in an immediate reduction in foraging efficiency. In summary, these results suggest that (1) soil-dwelling temperate insect populations may be at higher risks of thermal stress with increased frequency or duration of high temperatures resulting from climate change than previously thought, however, behavioural cues may be able to compensate to some extent; and (2) indices of climate change-related thermal stress, warming tolerance and thermal safety margin, are strongly influenced by the scale of climate metrics employed.
",23806604
0,36668,"Tropical [START]ant[END] community responses to experimental soil warming.
Climate change is one of the primary agents of the global decline in insect abundance. Because of their narrow thermal ranges, tropical ectotherms are predicted to be most threatened by global warming, yet tests of this prediction are often confounded by other anthropogenic disturbances. We used a tropical forest soil warming experiment to directly test the effect of temperature increase on litter-dwelling ants. Two years of continuous warming led to a change in [START]ant[END] community between warming and control plots. Specifically, six [START]ant[END] genera were recorded only on warming plots, and one genus only on control plots. Wasmannia auropuctata, a species often invasive elsewhere but native to this forest, was more abundant in warmed plots. [START]Ant[END] recruitment at baits was best predicted by soil surface temperature and [START]ant[END] heat tolerance. These results suggest that heat tolerance is useful for predicting changes in daily foraging activity, which is directly tied to colony fitness. We show that a 2-year increase in temperature (of 2-4 C) can have a profound effect on the most abundant insects, potentially favouring species with invasive traits and moderate heat tolerances.
",35382584
0,36668,"Does substrate coarseness matter for foraging ants? An experiment with Lasius niger (Hymenoptera; [START]Formicidae[END]).
We investigated whether workers of the [START]ant[END] species Lasius niger are able to sense and discriminate the coarseness of the substrate on which they walk. First, we studied the way in which substrate coarseness affects the ants' locomotory behaviour. Second, we investigated the spontaneous preference of ants for substrates of different coarseness. And third, we tested with a differential conditioning procedure the ants' capacity to learn to associate a given coarseness with a food reward. The locomotory behaviour of ants differed according to substrate coarseness: ants moved significantly faster and had more sinuous trajectories on a fine than on a coarse substrate. No spontaneous preference for a substrate of a given coarseness was observed and, even after 20 successive conditioning trials, there was little evidence of the effect of experience on substrate coarseness discrimination. Overall however, ants trained on fine sand made significantly more correct choice than those trained on coarse sand. We discuss these results and argue that in L. niger substrate coarseness may be more important at the collective level, by interacting with the chemical properties of the pheromone trail used in mass recruitment to food source, than at the individual level.
",18221944
0,36668,"Ants with Attitude: Australian Jack-jumpers of the Myrmecia pilosula species complex, with descriptions of four new species (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]: Myrmeciinae).
The six known ""Jack-jumper species Myrmecia pilosula Fr. Smith 1858, M. croslandi Taylor 1991, M. banksi, M. haskinsorum, M. imaii and M. impaternata spp.n. are reviewed, illustrated and keyed. Myrmecia imaii is known only from southwest Western Australia, the others variously from southeastern Australia and Tasmania. These taxa were previously confused under the name M. pilosula (for which a lectotype is designated). Previous cytogenetical findings, which contributed importantly to current taxonomic understanding, are summarized for each species. Eastern and Western geographical races of the widespread M. pilosula are recognized. Myrmecia croslandi is one of only two eukaryote animals known to possess a single pair of chromosomes (2n=2 3 or 4). Myrmecia impaternata is evidentially an allodiploid (n=5 or 14, 2n=19) sperm-dependent gynogenetic hybrid between M. banksi and an element of the eastern race of M. pilosula, or their immediate ancestry. The sting-injected venom of these ants can induce sometimes fatal anaphylaxis in sensitive humans.  
",25661627
0,36668,"Survival of transplanted nests of the red wood ant Formica aquilonia (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]): the effects of intraspecific competition and forest clear-cutting.
The fitness and survival of ant colonies depend on the resources near their nests. These resources may be limited due to poor habitat quality or by intra- and interspecific competitions, which in extreme cases may cause the ant colony to perish. We tested the effect of intraspecific competition and habitat degradation (forest clear-cutting) on colony survival by transplanting 26 nests of the red wood ant (Formica aquilonia Yarrow, 1955) in 26 different forest areas that contained 0-11 conspecific alien nests per hectare. F. aquilonia is highly dependent on canopy-dwelling aphids, thus the removal of trees should cause food limitation. During the course of the 4-year experiment, 9 of the forests were partially clear-cut. We found that while forest clear-cutting significantly decreased the colonies' survival, intraspecific competition did not. As a highly polygynous and polydomous species, F. aquilonia seems to tolerate the presence of alien conspecific colonies to a certain extent. 
",23956057
0,36668,"Incomplete homogenization of chemical recognition labels between Formica sanguinea and Formica rufa ants (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]) living in a mixed colony.
Formica sanguinea Latreille (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]) is a slave-making species, i.e., it raids colonies of host species and pillages pupae, which are taken to develop into adult workers in a parasite colony. However, it has been unclear if the coexistence of F. sanguinea with slave workers requires uniformity of cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs), among which those other than n-alkanes are believed to be the principal nestmate recognition cues utilized by ants. In this study, a mixed colony (MC) of F. sanguinea and Formica rufa L. as a slave species was used to test the hypothesis that CHCs are exchanged between the species. Chemical analysis of hexane extracts from ants' body surfaces provided evidence for interspecific exchange of alkenes and methyl-branched alkanes. This result was confirmed by behavioral tests during which ants exhibited hostility toward conspecific individuals from the MC but not toward ones from homospecific colonies of their own species. However, it seems that species-specific differences in chemical recognition labels were not eliminated completely because ants from the MC were treated differently depending on whether they were con- or allospecific to the individuals whose behavioral reactions were tested. These findings are discussed in the context of mechanisms of colony's odor formation and effective integration of slaves into parasite colony. 
",25502026
0,36668,"Distribution and density of polygyne fire ants (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]) in Texas.
Multiple-queen or ""polygyne"" Solenopsis invicta Buren colonies are a serious economic and environmental concern because they occur in much higher densities than the monogyne form. Polygyne colonies have been found at numerous locations in the United States; nevertheless, the frequency and distribution of this form are poorly known. Almost 700 roadside sites in 168 Texas counties were surveyed. Polygyny was discovered at 54% of the infested sites. Polygyne populations were scattered in a mosaic across Texas. The frequency of polygyny varied somewhat with geographic region, but the pattern was generally unrelated to habitat and environmental conditions. Polygyne sites averaged more than twice as many mounds per hectare as monogyne sites. Populations of monogyne and polygyne forms were slightly lower in cooler and drier portions of the state. Mounds of both forms were about the same size. Polygyny was correlated with lower rates of sexual production and reduced numbers of native ants. The high frequency of polygyny in Texas indicates that the fire ant problem in the state is much greater than previously realized.
",1885844
0,36668,"The ant genus Polyrhachis F. Smith in sub-Saharan Africa, with descriptions of ten new species. (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
Ten new sub-Saharan species of the ant genus Polyrhachis are described: P. gibbula n. sp. and P. omissa n. sp. belonging in the viscosa-group; P. brevipilosa n. sp., P. dubia n. sp., P. longiseta n. sp., P. luteipes n. sp., P. submarginata n. sp., and P. terminata n. sp. in the revoili-group; P. doudou n. sp. and P. fisheri n. sp. in the militaris-group. Also, P. epinotalis Santschi and P. kohli Forel are revived from synonymy with P. militaris (Fabr.) and P. volkarti Forel respectively. The type of P. cubaensis Mayr is described, changing the interpretation of the taxon and revalidating two of its synonyms, P. gerstaeckeri Forel and P. wilmsi Forel stat. n.. The examination of the type of Polyrhachis revoili Andre has proved this taxon to be different from previous interpretations; its position is reviewed and all of its synonyms are transferred to P. weissi Santschi. In addition, the first description of the worker of P. andrei Emery is provided, as well as some new records and taxonomic and morphological notes concerning other species. Finally, a synonymic list of the 61 currently known sub-Saharan species, a key to species-groups and an updated key to the workers are given. 
",27394324
0,36668,"Morphological and morphometric studies of the antennal sensilla from two populations of Atta robusta (Borgmeier 1939) (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
The ant Atta robusta is endemic to the ""restinga"" ecosystems where it has an important role in the dynamics of seed dispersal. Despite its importance, A. robusta is considered a threatened species. In this study we analyzed the antennal sensory organs of two different populations of A. robusta (from the cities of Sao Mateus and Marica in in Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro States, respectively) using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). SEM revealed different types of sensilla in the A. robusta antennae, i.e., curved and straight trichoid, basiconic, ampullacea and coeloconic, which were highly abundant found in the distal flagellomeres (F) compared with other antenna regions. There were differences in samples collected from two locations in terms of the sensilla number and length. The average numbers of straight and curved trichoid sensillae numbers were different in F9 and F8, respectively, while the average length of the curved trichoid sensilla was only different in F9. These variations in sensory organs between two populations of A. robusta may indicate an adaptation of this species to different environmental conditions. The number of straight trichoid sensilla was only significantly different in F9. 
",24212709
0,36668,"Effect of particulate contamination on adhesive ability and repellence in two species of ant (Hymenoptera; [START]Formicidae[END]).
Tarsal adhesive pads are crucial for the ability of insects to traverse their natural environment. Previous studies have demonstrated that for both hairy and smooth adhesive pads, significant reduction in adhesion can occur because of contamination of these pads by wax crystals present on plant surfaces or synthetic microspheres. In this paper, we focus on the smooth adhesive pads of ants and study systematically how particulate contamination and the subsequent loss of adhesion depends on particle size, particle surface energy, humidity and species size. To this end, workers of ant species Polyrhachis dives and Myrmica scabrinodis (Hymenoptera; [START]Formicidae[END]) were presented with loose synthetic powder barriers with a range of powder diameters (1-500 mum) and surface energies (PTFE or glass), which they would have to cross in order to escape the experimental arena. The barrier experiments were conducted for a range of humidities (10-70%). Experimental results and scanning electron microscopy confirm that particulate powders adversely affect the adhesive ability of both species of ant on smooth substrates via contamination of the arolia. Specifically, the loss of adhesion was found to depend strongly on particle diameter, but only weakly on particle type, with the greatest loss occurring for particle diameters smaller than the claw dimensions of each species, and no effect of humidity was found. We also observed that ants were repelled by the powder barriers which led to a decrease of adhesion prior to their eventual crossing, suggesting that insect antennae may play a role in probing the mechanical fragility of substrates before crossing them.
",22279067
0,36668,"The genomic impact of 100 million years of social evolution in seven ant species.
Ants (Hymenoptera, [START]Formicidae[END]) represent one of the most successful eusocial taxa in terms of both their geographic distribution and species number. The publication of seven ant genomes within the past year was a quantum leap for socio- and ant genomics. The diversity of social organization in ants makes them excellent model organisms to study the evolution of social systems. Comparing the ant genomes with those of the honeybee, a lineage that evolved eusociality independently from ants, and solitary insects suggests that there are significant differences in key aspects of genome organization between social and solitary insects, as well as among ant species. Altogether, these seven ant genomes open exciting new research avenues and opportunities for understanding the genetic basis and regulation of social species, and adaptive complex systems in general.
",21982512
0,36668,"Comparative physical mapping of 18S rDNA in the karyotypes of six leafcutter ant species of the genera Atta and Acromyrmex ([START]Formicidae[END]: Myrmicinae).
Leafcutter ants of the Atta and Acromyrmex genera are important plagues in different cultures. Cytogenetic data on chromosome number, morphology, and chromosomal banding pattern are only available for 17 species of leafcutter ants. Molecular cytogenetic data for the detection of ribosomal genes by the FISH technique are scarce, and only 15 Neotropical ant species have been studied. This study aimed to physically map the 18S ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) of six leafcutter ants belonging to the genera Atta and Acromyrmex using FISH. The results were compared with data on the fluorochrome CMA3 currently available for these species. All analyzed species presented the 18S rDNA on one pair of chromosomes. In Acromyrmex subterraneus molestans and Ac. aspersus, FISH signals were observed in the terminal region of the short arm of the largest subtelocentric pair, while in Atta bisphaerica, A. laevigata, and A. sexdens, FISH signals were observed in the interstitial region of the long arm of the fourth metacentric pair. In Acromyrmex striatus, 18S rDNA was located in the interstitial region of the second metacentric pair. The karyotypic formula for Ac. aspersus was 2n = 38 (8m + 10sm + 16st + 4a), representing the first report in this species. The observed 18S rDNA regions in A. laevigata, A. sexdens, A. bisphaerica, Ac. aspersus, and Ac. subterraneus molestans corresponded to the CMA3+ bands, while in Ac. striatus, several GC-rich bands and one pair of 18S rDNA bands were observed. No differential bands were visible using the DAPI fluorochrome. Karyotype uniformity with previously studied Atta spp. was also observed at the level of molecular cytogenetics using 18S rDNA FISH. A difference in the size of the chromosomal pair carrying the 18S rDNA gene was observed in Ac. striatus (2n = 22) and Atta spp. (2n = 22) highlighting the dissimilarity between these species. The results from the present study contribute to the description of 18S rDNA clusters in Neotropical ants.
",28623426
0,36668,"Microhabitat and body size effects on heat tolerance: implications for responses to climate change (army ants: [START]Formicidae[END], Ecitoninae).
1. Models that predict organismal and population responses to climate change may be improved by considering ecological factors that affect species thermal tolerance. Species differences in microhabitat use can expose animals to diverse thermal selective environments at a given site and may cause sympatric species to evolve different thermal tolerances. 2. We tested the hypothesis that species differences in body size and microhabitat use (above- vs. below-ground activity) would correspond to differences in thermal tolerance (maximum critical temperatures: CTmax ). Thermal buffering effects of soil can reduce exposure to extreme high temperatures for below-ground active species. We predicted larger-bodied individuals and species would have higher CTmax and that species mean CTmax would covary positively with degree of above-ground activity. We used Neotropical army ants ([START]Formicidae[END]: Ecitoninae) as models. Army ants vary in microhabitat use from largely subterranean to largely above-ground active species and are highly size polymorphic. 3. We collected data on above- and below-ground temperatures in habitats used by army ants to test for microhabitat temperature differences, and we conducted CTmax assays for army ant species with varying degrees of surface activity and with different body sizes within and between species. We then tested whether microhabitat use was associated with species differences in CTmax and whether microhabitat was a better predictor of CTmax than body size for species that overlapped in size. 4. Microhabitat use was a highly significant predictor of species' upper thermal tolerance limits, both for raw data and after accounting for the effects of phylogeny. Below-ground species were more thermally sensitive, with lower maximum critical temperatures (CTmax ). The smallest workers within each species were the least heat tolerant, but the magnitude of CTmax change with body size was greater in below-ground species. Species-typical microhabitat was a stronger predictor of CTmax than body size for species that overlapped in size. Compared to the soil surface, 10-cm subsoil was a significantly moderated thermal environment for below-ground army ants, while maximum surface raid temperatures sometimes exceeded CTmax for the most thermally sensitive army ant castes. 5. We conclude sympatric species differences in thermal physiology correspond to microhabitat use. These patterns should be accounted for in models of species and community responses to thermal variation and climate change.
",26072696
0,36668,"Mating behaviour in a slave-making [START]ant[END], Rossomyrmex minuchae (Hymenoptera, [START]Formicidae[END]).
The mating behaviour of the [START]ant[END] Rossomyrmex minuchae, a rare, protected slave-making species in Spain, seems to be significantly affected by its particular life history and patchy habitat. The mating behaviour of the entire genus Rossomyrmex is virtually unknown. We present here the results of a 3-year study of mating behaviour in R. minuchae.Behavioural observations and limited nest excavations revealed that R. minuchae does not produce sexuals every year, the number of sexuals is low, and the sex ratio tends to be female biased. Females typically exhibit two distinct activity periods. The first, the mating period, takes place in early afternoon: the ants ""call"" near the natal nest, mate and then return to their nest. The second, the dispersal period takes place in late afternoon: the mated females exit their nest and fly in search of a new, non-parasitized Proformica longiseta host nest. Males are highly active during the mating period, but will remain inactive in the dispersal period even if experimentally presented with virgin females. It appears that females are monogamous, while males are polygamous. When males are late arriving at the female calling site, the females will frequently congregate presumably calling in chorus. The low reproductive efficiency exhibited by R. minuchae, coupled with the postulated low genetic variation in the population, as sisters may mate with the same male, could result in a low survival rate and risk of eventual extinction. The observed decrease in nest density we observed during the 2004 season may be indicative of such a process.
",15864511
0,36668,"Morphology and ultrastructure of the infrabuccal pocket in Strumigenys [START]ants[END].
The morphology of the infrabuccal pocket has been studied with light and electron microscopy (SEM, TEM) in 19 species of Strumigenys [START]ants[END]. The structural organization is similar in workers, queens and males, and supports the involvement of the pocket in the filtration of food particles before they can enter the digestive tract. A carpet of posteriorly oriented bristle hairs on the hypopharynx first guide ingested food into the pocket, where large solid particles are compacted into a pellet that will be regurgitated. The remaining products enter the digestive tract through a filtering wall of parallel hair combs lining the pharynx interior that are directed against the food flow. This mechanical filtering allows only liquids and sufficiently small food particles to enter the digestive system. The wall of the infrabuccal pocket is differentiated into a conspicuous glandular epithelium, of which the ultrastructural characteristics can be understood as an adaptation against the frequent shape changes of the pocket. The gland elaborates a non-proteinaceous secretion, although its functional significance still remains unknown.
",35452912
0,36668,"Effect of gland extracts on digging and residing preferences of red imported fire ant workers (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
There is evidence that ant-derived chemical stimuli are involved in regulating the digging behavior in Solenopsis invicta Buren. However, the source gland(s) and chemistry of such stimuli have never been revealed. In this study, extracts of mandibular, Dufour's, postpharyngeal, and poison glands were evaluated for their effect on ant digging and residing preferences of S. invicta workers from three colonies. In the intracolonial bioassays, workers showed significant digging preferences to mandibular gland extracts in 2 of 3 colonies and significant residing preferences in 1 of 3 colonies; significant digging preferences to Dufour's gland extracts in 1 of 3 colonies and significant residing preferences in 2 of 3 colonies. No digging and residing preferences were found for postpharyngeal and poison gland extracts. In intercolonial bioassays, significant digging and residing preferences were found for mandibular gland extracts in 3 of 6 colony combinations. Significant digging preferences to Dufour's gland extracts were found in 4 of 6 colony combinations and significant residing preferences in all 6 colony combinations. For postpharyngeal gland extracts, significant digging preferences were found only in 1 of 6 colonial combinations and no significant residing preferences were found. For poison gland extracts, no significant digging preferences were found; significant residing preferences were found in 1 of 6 colony combinations. However, a significant residing deterrence (negative residing preference index) was found for 2 of 6 colony combinations. Statistical analyses using data pooled from all colonies showed that mandibular and Dufour's gland extracts caused significant digging and residing preferences in both intracolonial and intercolonial bioassays but not postpharyngeal and poison gland extracts. By analyzing the data pooled from the same three colonies used for gland extract bioassays, it was found that, in no cases, workers showed significant digging and residing preferences to 2-ethyl-3,6-dimethylpyrazine, an alarm pheromone component from mandibular gland.
",23955941
0,36668,"Microsatellite genotyping of red imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]) colonies reveals that most colonies persist in plowed pastures.
Our study focused on colony dynamics of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]), in relation to the standard practice of planting rye grass (i.e., plowing) in the fall in Louisiana. Microsatellite molecular markers were used to determine genotypes of individuals from red imported fire ant colonies. These markers allowed us to monitor treatment effect by detecting changes in number and location of colonies in response to disking of pasture plots. Previous research on mound disturbance as a form of cultural control in pastures has produced mixed results. We found that the majority of colonies persisted on plots after plowing. Mound density and mound area, 5 mo after plowing, were not significantly different among treatments. In contrast, April measurements of mound volume were significantly smaller on plowed plots compared with control plots. A closer look at the rebuilding of mounds on plowed plots, during the 5 mo, showed that mound heights stayed below pretreatment measurements and they were significantly smaller than those of undisturbed mounds. Whether plowing has potential for use as a cultural control technique in reducing the impact of red imported fire ant mounds on agricultural practices in pastures remains to be seen. Conceivably, the best application of this technique will be in combination with other control measures in an integrated pest management approach to control red imported fire ants in pastures.
",18767710
0,36668,"Additions to the checklist of the ants (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]) of Peru.
A recent species checklist of the ants of Peru recorded 592 nominal species and 79 genera on the basis of a literature review. Here we complement the previously published checklist with the addition of 83 nominal species and six genera, including three genera recorded only from morphospecies. This increases the list of ants reported from Peru to at least 679 species and subspecies and 85 genera. We also modify the list of species known as endemic from Peru, discuss the historical importance of the Peruvian ant fauna in myrmecology, and highlight potential research for future studies. 
",26624662
0,36668,"Pygidial gland chemistry and potential alarm-recruitment function in column foraging, but not solitary, Nearctic Messor harvesting ants (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]: Myrmicinae).
We investigated the role of the pygidial gland on foraging behavior in two ecologically dominant column foraging Nearctic harvesting ants (Messor pergandei and Messor andrei). Using chemical analyses and behavioral tests, we show that n-tridecane is the major biologically active compound of pygidial gland secretions in both species, and that this chemical functions as a powerful alarm-recruitment pheromone. Another major compound of pygidial gland contents is benzaldehyde; this substance does not release behavioral reactions in M. pergandei workers but might function as a defensive secretion. Six solitary foraging Nearctic Messor and two column foraging Palearctic Messor species, did not have large pygidial gland reservoirs. 
",23811189
0,36668,"Foraging strategy quick response to temperature of Messor barbarus (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]) in Mediterranean environments.
Animals principally forage to try to maximize energy intake per unit of feeding time, developing different foraging strategies. Temperature effects on foraging have been observed in diverse ant species; these effects are limited to the duration of foraging or the number of foragers involved. The harvester ant Messor barbarus L. 1767 has a specialized foraging strategy that consists in the formation of worker trails. Because of the high permeability of their body integument, we presume that the length, shape, and type of foraging trails of M. barbarus must be affected by temperature conditions. From mid-June to mid-August 1999, we tested the effect on these trail characteristics in a Mediterranean forest. We found that thermal stress force ants to use a foraging pattern based on the variation of the workers trail structure. Ants exploit earlier well-known sources using long physical trails, but as temperatures increases throughout the morning, foragers reduce the length of the foraging column gradually, looking for alternative food sources in nonphysical trails. This study shows that animal forage can be highly adaptable and versatile in environments with high daily variations.
",18801249
0,36668,"Effects of a juvenile hormone analogue pyriproxyfen on monogynous and polygynous colonies of the Pharaoh ant Monomorium pharaonis (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
To evaluate the effects of the juvenile hormone analogue pyriproxyfen on colonies of the Pharaoh ant Monomorium pharaonis (L.), peanut oil containing different concentrations (0.3, 0.6, or 0.9%) of pyriproxyfen was fed to monogynous (1 queen, 500 workers, and 0.1 g of brood) and polygynous (8 queens, 50 workers, and 0.1 g of brood) laboratory colonies of M. pharaonis. Due to its delayed activity, pyriproxyfen at all concentrations resulted in colony elimination. Significant reductions in brood volume were recorded at weeks 3 - 6, and complete brood mortality was observed at week 8 in all treated colonies. Brood mortality was attributed to the disruption of brood development and cessation of egg production by queens. All polygynous colonies exhibited significant reduction in the number of queens present at week 10 compared to week 1. Number of workers was significantly lower in all treated colonies compared to control colonies at week 8 due to old-age attrition of the workers without replacement. At least 98.67 +- 1.33% of workers were dead at week 10 in all treated colonies. Thus, treatment with slow acting pyriproxyfen at concentrations of 0.3 - 0.9% is an effective strategy for eliminating Pharaoh ant colonies. 
",26695205
0,36668,"Morphophysiological differences between the metapleural glands of fungus-growing and non-fungus-growing ants (Hymenoptera, [START]Formicidae[END]).
The metapleural gland is an organ exclusive to ants. Its main role is to produce secretions that inhibit the proliferation of different types of pathogens. The aim of the present study was to examine the morphophysiological differences between the metapleural gland of 3 non-fungus-growing ants of the tribes Ectatommini, Myrmicini, and Blepharidattini and that of 5 fungus-growing ants from 2 basal and 3 derived attine genera. The metapleural gland of the non-fungus-growing ants and the basal attine ants has fewer secretory cells than that of the derived attine ants (leaf-cutting ants). In addition, the metapleural gland of the latter had more clusters of secretory cells and sieve plates, indicating a greater storage capacity and demand for secretion in these more advanced farming ants. The glands of the derived attine ants also produced higher levels of polysaccharides and acidic lipids than those of Myrmicini, Blepharidattini, and basal attines. Our results confirm morphophysiological differences between the metapleural glands of the derived attines and those of the basal attines and non-fungus-growing ants, suggesting that the metapleural glands of the derived attines (leaf-cutting ants) are more developed in morphology and physiology, with enhanced secretion production (acidic lipids and protein) to protect against the proliferation of unwanted fungi and bacteria in the fungal garden, it is possible that leaf-cutting ants may have evolved more developed metapleural glands in response to stronger pressure from parasites.
",22927993
0,36668,"A descriptive morphology of the ant genus Procryptocerus (Hymenoptera: [START]Formicidae[END]).
Morphology is the most direct approach biologists have to recognize uniqueness of insect species as compared to close relatives. Ants of the genus Procryptocerus possess important morphologic characters yet have not been explored for use in a taxonomic revision. The genus is characterized by the protrusion of the clypeus forming a broad nasus and antennal scrobes over the eyes. The toruli are located right posterior to the flanks of the nasus opposite to each other. The vertex is deflexed posteriorly in most species. An in-group comparison of the external morphology is presented focusing on the workers. A general morphology for gynes and males is also presented. Previously mentioned characters as well as new ones are presented, and their character states in different species are clarified. For the metasoma a new system of ant metasomal somite nomenclature is presented that is applicable to Aculeata in general. Finally, a Glossary of morphological terms is offered for the genus (available online). Most of the terminology can be used in other members of the [START]Formicidae[END] and Aculeata.
",20874568
0,68878,"Neotropical Anopheles (Kerteszia) mosquitoes associated with bromeliad-malaria transmission in a changing world.
Kerteszia is a neotropical subgenus of Anopheles composed of 12 species. The species in this subgenus are strongly associated with humid forests rich in epiphytic bromeliads. Forest fragmentation and anthropogenic changes can therefore have a negative impact on the abundance and survival of these mosquito species. Within this subgenus, four species are considered primary vectors of malaria: [START]An. cruzii[END], An. bellator, An. homunculus and An. neivai. Malaria cases associated with Kerteszia species are often referred to as bromeliad malaria, a type of malaria reported to be endemic in the coastal rainforest of the neotropical region since the end of the nineteenth century. Although the incidence of bromeliad-malaria cases has decreased since the middle of the last century, autochthonous malaria cases continue to be registered every year. The complexity of the epidemiology of bromeliad malaria appears to be increasing as asymptomatic plasmodial infections and transmission of simian Plasmodium to humans have recently been reported. Kerteszia vector species have a great affinity for human beings and can be found in human-modified areas close to forest fragments such as in the Extra-Amazonian region of Brazil, Colombian pacific coast, and the Caribbean coast. Deforestation and forest fragmentation have been occurring continuously in the biomes of the neotropical region, and findings of Kerteszia species in dwellings are frequent in this region. Controlling the species in the Kerteszia subgenus is particularly difficult because they move frequently from natural to rural and peri-urban areas in search of blood sources, posing a challenge for the development of control strategies based on integrated vector management. Furthermore, as it has been shown that some Kerteszia species share similar morphological and genetic characteristics, the existence of a species complex formed by cryptic, sibling species within the Kerteszia group in different areas in the South and Southeast of Brazil cannot be ruled out. The existence of such a complex could represent an obstacle to the control of Kerteszia species and consequently to the elimination of bromeliad-malaria transmission in these regions. Here, we review publications that focus on the biology and ecology of Kerteszia malaria vectors and their association with human-modified areas and bromeliad-malaria transmission.
",32088278
0,68878,"Kerteszia subgenus of [START]Anopheles[END] associated with the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest:current knowledge and future challenges.
BACKGROUND: The Atlantic rainforest ecosystem, where bromeliads are abundant, provides an excellent environment for Kerteszia species, because these anophelines use the axils of those plants as larval habitat. [START]Anopheles[END] (K.) cruzii and [START]Anopheles[END] (K.) bellator are considered the primary vectors of malaria in the Atlantic forest. Although the incidence of malaria has declined in some areas of the Atlantic forest, autochthonous cases are still registered every year, with [START]Anopheles cruzii[END] being considered to be a primary vector of both human and simian Plasmodium. METHODS: Recent publications that addressed ecological aspects that are important for understanding the involvement of Kerteszia species in the epidemiology of malaria in the Atlantic rainforest in the Neotropical Region were analysed. CONCLUSION: The current state of knowledge about Kerteszia species in relation to the Atlantic rainforest ecosystem was discussed. Emphasis was placed on ecological characteristics related to epidemiological aspects of this group of mosquitoes. The main objective was to investigate biological aspects of the species that should be given priority in future studies.
",17880709
0,68878,"Studies on mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) and anthropic environment. 11--Biting activity and blood-seeking parity of Anopheles (Kerteszia) in south-eastern Brazil.
An. (Ker.) cruzii and An. (Ker.) bellator were monitored by the use of human bait and Shannon trap collections during a one-year period in 1994. Indoor and outdoor collections were made on human bait and inside the forest environment a Shannon trap was used. Both were undertaken in the evening crepuscular period. Results showed a greater abundance of [START]An. cruzii[END] in the forest, where as An. bellator was more abundant in the domiciliary environment. Through the application of the Polovodova method an age grading was established. Computing the parous and nulliparous females with Christopher's Stage III and above, more than 30.0% of blood-seeking specimens of both anophelines had had a previous blood meal. The higher abundance of An. bellator as compared with that of [START]An. cruzii[END] in the domiciliary environment may be explained by the influence of the neighboring low-lying coastal islands of the estuary system.
",9077008
0,68878,"[[START]Anopheles cruzii[END] larvae found in bromelias in an urban area on the Brazilian coast].
The occurrence of [START]Anopheles[END] (Kerteszia) cruzii larvae is reported for the first time in bromelias on the ground located in an urban area within the municipality of Ilha Bela, on the northern coast of the State of Sao Paulo. From March 1998 to July 1999 312 immature forms of [START]An. cruzii[END] were captured, being that 8.6% of them were in bromelias in the urban environment, 40.1% in periurban bromelias and 51.3% in the forest. The average number of bromelias containing [START]An. cruzii[END] was 4.0% of the total investigated. The positive rate in the periurban and forested environments presented similar values. The presence of [START]An. cruzii[END] is probably due to their having been present previously in the forest, together with the frequent presence of these breeding places, food sources and appropriate shelter in the urban area. This set of factors makes it necessary to warn against the possibility of transferring infections from one environment to the other.
",19225695
0,68878,"Physiological age and longevity of Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii Dyar & Knab (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Atlantic Forest of Southern Brazil.
We analyzed the reproductive status, ovarian development, daily survival rate, and length of the gonotrophic cycle in females of Anopheles ( Kerteszia ) cruzii Dyar & Knab, to determine how these factors influence the risk of malaria transmission in the coastal region of the state of Parana, southern Brazil. In the Palmito State Forest, Paranagua, females were captured at dawn and dusk by aspiration, bimonthly from December 2006 through March 2007. A total of 2,268 females were captured, of which 454 were dissected. Of these, 48% were parous, 50% not reproductive, 73% in Christopher and Mer stages I and II, 23% in stages III to V, 55% nulliparous, 14% uniparous, and 11% had blood in their midgut. Daily survival was 0.24 +/- 0.03 overall, 0.51 +/- 0.04 for females captured at dusk, and 0.25 +/- 0.03 for those captured at dawn. The Davidson equation for calculation of the gonotrophic cycle was inadequate for [START]An. cruzii[END] populations. Females captured at dusk had a higher survival rate than those from dawn, which means that more females of the dusk population enter the parasite extrinsic cycle. The continuous activity and abundance of [START]A. cruzii[END] in the Palmito State Forest suggests that the conditions are very favorable for its development, with a potential for participation in the protozoan's transmission cycle.
",20498968
0,68878,"Entomological characterization and natural infection of anophelines in an area of the Atlantic Forest with autochthonous malaria cases in mountainous region of Espirito Santo State, Brazil.
Autochthonous malaria cases in the state of Espirito Santo, Brazil, are distributed in mountainous regions surrounded by the Atlantic Forest. While some aspects of this disease are unclear, detection of possible vector species can help to elucidate epidemiological uncertainties. Entomological and natural infection studies were carried out using anophelines (Diptera: Culicidae) captured in the municipality of Santa Tereza, ES. Monthly captures were made from March 2004 to February 2006. CDC-CO2 traps were used from dusk (6:00 P.M.) to dawn (6:00 A.M.) to capture anophelines in the following habitats: near the houses, in open areas (at ground level) and inside, and at the margins of the forest (canopy and ground level). Shannon light traps were also used at the same locations of the CDC-CO2 traps. A total of 2,290 anophelines within 10 species were captured. The relative frequency of Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii Dyar & Knab / A.(K.) homunculus Komp was the highest, with the majority captured in CDC-CO2 traps installed in the forest canopy. The main species captured in Shannon traps was A.(Nyssorhynchus) strodei Root. The largest number of anophelines was captured from July to September and from 6:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. Anopheles (K.) cruzii is the probable vector for malaria transmission inside or near the Atlantic Forest fragments, but the role of other species cannot be ignored, as 53% of the sampled anophelines belonged to the subgenus Nyssorhynchus. The natural infection of [START]A. cruzii[END], A. parvus (Chagas) and A. galvaoi Causey, Deane & Deane by Plasmodium vivax detected by PCR from DNA extracted from their thoraxes supports this view.
",19488519
0,68878,"Mitochondrial Genomes of Anopheles (Kerteszia) (Diptera: Culicidae) From the Atlantic Forest, Brazil.
Mitochondrial genome sequences are widely used as molecular markers for phylogenetic studies of mosquito species complexes, such as the Anopheles albitarsis complex. Except for a few studies that employed a limited number of nuclear or mitochondrial loci to address the genetic structure and species status of [START]Anopheles cruzii[END], Anopheles bellator, and Anopheles homunculus, little is known about genetic markers that can be employed in studies focusing on Kerteszia species. The complete mitochondrial genomes of seven specimens of An. bellator, [START]An. cruzii[END], An. homunculus, and Anopheles laneanus were sequenced using long-range polymerase chain reaction and Illumina sequencing. The mitochondrial genomes varied from 15,446 to 15,738 bp in length and contained 37 genes (13 protein-encoding genes, 2 rRNA genes [12S rRNA and 16S rRNA] and 22 tRNA genes), and the AT-rich control region, as all do other Anopheles mitochondrial genomes sequenced to date. Specimens from four populations of [START]An. cruzii[END] showed differences in codon composition.
",27146682
0,68878,"Evidence for the occurrence of two sympatric sibling species within the Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii complex in southeast Brazil and the detection of asymmetric introgression between them using a multilocus analysis.
BACKGROUND: Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii (Diptera: Culicidae) is a primary vector of human and simian malaria parasites in southern and southeastern Brazil. Earlier studies using chromosome inversions, isoenzymes and a number of molecular markers have suggested that [START]An. cruzii[END] is a species complex. RESULTS: In this study, a multilocus approach using six loci, three circadian clock genes and three encoding ribosomal proteins, was carried out to investigate in more detail the genetic differentiation between the [START]An. cruzii[END] populations from Florianopolis-Santa Catarina (southern Brazil) and Itatiaia-Rio de Janeiro States (southeastern Brazil). The analyses were performed first comparing Florianopolis and Itatiaia, and then comparing the two putative sympatric incipient species from Itatiaia (Itatiaia A and Itatiaia B). The analysis revealed high FST values between Florianopolis and Itatiaia (considering Itatiaia A and B together) and also between the sympatric Itatiaia A and Itatiaia B, irrespective of their function. Also, using the IM program, no strong indication of migration was found between Florianopolis and Itatiaia (considering Itatiaia A and B together) using all loci together, but between Itatiaia A and Itatiaia B, the results show evidence of migration only in the direction of Itatiaia B. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the multilocus analysis indicate that Florianopolis and Itatiaia represent different species of the [START]An. cruzii[END] complex that diverged around 0.6 Mya, and also that the Itatiaia sample is composed of two sympatric incipient species A and B, which diverged around 0.2 Mya. Asymmetric introgression was found between the latter two species despite strong divergence in some loci.
",24063651
0,68878,"Natural infection in anopheline species and its implications for autochthonous malaria in the Atlantic Forest in Brazil.
BACKGROUND: A descriptive study was carried out in an area of the Atlantic Forest with autochthonous malaria in the Parelheiros subdistrict on the periphery of the municipality of Sao Paulo to identify anopheline fauna and anophelines naturally infected with Plasmodium as well as to discuss their role in this peculiar epidemiological context. METHODS: Entomological captures were made from May 2009 to April 2011 using Shannon traps and automatic CDC traps in four areas chosen for their different patterns of human presence and incidences of malaria (anthropic zone 1, anthropic zone 2, transition zone and sylvatic zone). Natural Plasmodium infection was detected by nested PCR based on amplification of the 18S rRNA gene. RESULTS: In total, 6,073 anophelines were collected from May 2009 to April 2011, and six species were identified in the four zones. [START]Anopheles cruzii[END] was the predominant species in the three environments but was more abundant in the sylvatic zone. [START]Anopheles[END] (Kerteszia) cruzii specimens from the anthropic and sylvatic zones were positive for P. vivax and P. malariae. An. (Ker.) bellator, An. (Nys.) triannulatus, An. (Nys.) strodei, An. (Nys.) lutzi and An. (Ano) maculipes were found in small numbers. Of these, An. (Nys.) triannulatus and An. (Nys.) lutzi, which were collected in the anthropic zone, were naturally infected with P. vivax while An. (Nys.) triannulatus from the anthropic zones and An. (Nys.) strodei from the transition zone were positive for P. malariae. CONCLUSION: These results confirm that [START]Anopheles[END] (Kerteszia) cruzii plays an important role as a major Plasmodium vector. However, the finding of other naturally infected species may indicate that secondary vectors are also involved in the transmission of malaria in the study areas. These findings can be expected to help in the implementation of new measures to control autochthonous malaria in areas of the Atlantic Forest.
",23497493
0,68878,"A mathematical model for zoonotic transmission of malaria in the Atlantic Forest: Exploring the effects of variations in vector abundance and acrodendrophily.
Transmission foci of autochthonous malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax-like parasites have frequently been reported in the Atlantic Forest in Southeastern and Southern Brazil. Evidence suggests that malaria is a zoonosis in these areas as human infections by simian Plasmodium species have been detected, and the main vector of malaria in the Atlantic Forest, Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii, can blood feed on human and simian hosts. In view of the lack of models that seek to predict the dynamics of zoonotic transmission in this part of the Atlantic Forest, the present study proposes a new deterministic mathematical model that includes a transmission compartment for non-human primates and parameters that take into account vector displacement between the upper and lower forest strata. The effects of variations in the abundance and acrodendrophily of [START]An. cruzii[END] on the prevalence of infected humans in the study area and the basic reproduction number (R0) for malaria were analyzed. The model parameters are based on the literature and fitting of the empirical data. Simulations performed with the model indicate that (1) an increase in the abundance of the vector in relation to the total number of blood-seeking mosquitoes leads to an asymptotic increase in both the proportion of infected individuals at steady state and R0; (2) the proportion of infected humans at steady state is higher when displacement of the vector mosquito between the forest strata increases; and (3) in most scenarios, Plasmodium transmission cannot be sustained only between mosquitoes and humans, which implies that non-human primates play an important role in maintaining the transmission cycle. The proposed model contributes to a better understanding of the dynamics of malaria transmission in the Atlantic Forest.
",33591994
0,7147,"The first fossil streblid bat [START]fly[END], Enischnomyia stegosoma n. g., n. sp. ([START]Diptera[END]: Hippoboscoidea: Streblidae).
The first fossil streblid, Enischnomyia stegosoma n. g., n. sp. ([START]Diptera[END]: Hippoboscoidea: Streblidae), is described from Dominican amber. Placed in the subfamily Nycterophiliinae Wenzel, 1966, which includes two New World extant genera, Nycterophilia Ferris, 1916 and Phalconomus Wenzel, 1984 (=Phalcophila Wenzel, 1976), the male specimen of E. stegosoma is characterised by the following features: a laterally compressed body, well-developed two-segmented antennae with the scape fused with the head, a tubular pedicel with an annulated basal portion and swollen apical portion bearing setae and bristles, a distinct flagellum with a dorsal boss bearing microsetae and a subterminal pectinate arista, a large tubular labium (proboscis) with the tip held upwards, eyes reduced to three facets, an expanded and flattened profemur, an anteriorly curved protarsus, and a well-developed wing with an entire distal margin. The possession of wings separates E. stegosoma from the species of Phalconomus, and the wing outline and venation, as well as the structure of the antennae and palps, distinguish it from species of Nycterophilia.
",22183917
0,7147,"Description of a new species of Thevenetimyia ([START]Diptera[END]: Bombyliidae) from Madagascar, with a revised checklist of Madagascan bee fly fauna.
Madagascar is an island known for its richness of endemic species, including flies. Only eight genera of bee flies (Bombyliidae), including 17 described species (the majority of which are in the subfamily Anthracinae), are known from Madagascar. Here we describe a new species of Bombyliidae from Madagascar, Thevenetimyia spinosavus Maass & Bertone sp. nov. This fly represents the first record of the genus Thevenetimyia from Madagascar and the second species recorded in the Afrotropical Region. A revised checklist of Bombyliidae in Madagascar is provided, along with an appendix of associated literature. The known bee fly species likely represent only a fraction of the true diversity on the island, which has been relatively well sampled through extensive Malaise trapping of flies in Madagascar over the past decade.
",27811772
0,7147,"Palaearctic species of the Hercostomus plagiatus group ([START]Diptera[END]: Dolichopodidae) with description of a new species from the Middle East.
The Hercostomus plagiatus species group is defined and distinguished from other Hercostomus groups by the following combination of features including: bulging clypeus in both sexes, anterodorsal comb-like row of setae on fore tibia, usually straight and weakly convergent veins R4+5 and M1+2, hypopygium without basiventral epandrial lobes, mostly free hypandrium, relatively poorly developed postgonite, and female terminalia with tergite 8 and sternite 8 fused anterolaterally forming a narrow process. A new species, Hercostomus golanensis sp. nov., is described from the Middle East (Golan Heights), differing from the other species of this group in the long-pubescent arista-like stylus, triangular rather than oval male cercus and epandrial lobe bearing a very long seta at the base of the stem. A key to species of the H. plagiatus group is provided.
",25781102
0,7147,"An updated key to the species of Fannia Robineau-Desvoidy ([START]Diptera[END]: Fanniidae) of southern South America, and the description of a new species from Mendoza, Argentina.
The aim of this study is to describe Fannia puxcu sp. n., a new species of the genus Fannia Robineau-Desvoidy ([START]Diptera[END]: Fanniidae) that was collected in the Villavicencio Provincial Reserve in Mendoza, Argentina, and to present an updated key to the 27 species of Fannia Robineau-Desvoidy ([START]Diptera[END]: Fanniidae) of Southern South America. The male of F. puxcu sp. n. is described, and illustrations provided as well as distributional records and a discussion of its possible phylogenetic affinities. 
",24870468
0,7147,"A new species of the genus Ctenophora Meigen ([START]Diptera[END]: Tipuloidea: Tipulidae) from China, with a key to the world species.
One new species of the genus Ctenophora Meigen, 1803, C. fumosa Men, sp. nov. (southern China: Anhui) is described and illustrated. A key to known species along with a checklist of known species of the genus Ctenophora are provided. The type specimens of the new species are deposited in the animal specimen room, School of Life Science, Anqing Normal University, Anqing, Anhui Province, China.  
",25082059
0,7147,"Two new species of Sarcophaga s. lat. from Thailand with a key to species ([START]Diptera[END]: Sarcophagidae).
During a distribution survey of [START]flies[END] of medical importance around northern Thailand, we discovered two new species of flesh [START]fly[END] Sarcophaga (s. lat.) ([START]Diptera[END]: Sarcophagidae) that also are new to science. The species are Sarcophaga nanensis sp. nov. and Sarcophaga kiyokoae sp. nov. Adults of the former species was recovered from Pua River of Nan province (19 degrees 12'29"" N, 100 degrees 56' 36"" E) 442 m in northern Thailand, whereas the latter species was collected around Kuang River (19 degrees 0'3"" N, 99 degrees 17'16"" E) 551 m of the lowland forests of Chiang Mai province, northern Thailand. Although these two sarcophagid [START]flies[END] showed similarity in their male terminalia in having large aedeagi and rounded juxta, illustrations of the sternite 5, cercus, surstylus, and anterolateral margin of the aedeagus allow differentiation between them. A key is provided to the adult males of the flesh [START]flies[END] of medical importance in Thailand.
",19769027
0,7147,"A review of scuttle fly genera of Israel ([START]Diptera[END]: Phoridae), with new records and an identification key.
A brief review of Israeli scuttle flies is given. The following genera are new records for the country: Arabiphora, Billotia, Chonocephalus, Menozziola, Phalacrotophora, Pseudacteon, Psyllomyia, and Puliciphora. Eighteen species-Arabiphora tenuifemorata, Chonocephalus depressus, Conicera floricola, Conicera similis, Gymnophora integralis, Gymnophora perpropinqua, Megaselia scalaris, Megaselia stigmatica, Menozziola schmitzi, Metopina formicomendicula, Phalacrotophora beuki, Phalacrotophora fasciata, Phora limpida, Phora tincta, Psyllomyia braunsi, Puliciphora rufipes, Spiniphora bergenstammi, and Tubicera lichtwardi-are added to the list of 56 phorid species previously known from Israel. Two species, Conicera similis and Megaselia scalaris, are recorded in association with the summer truffle Tuber aestivum commercially grown in northern Israel. The status of the Afrotropical Phora congolensis Beyer, 1965 is designated as nomen dubium. A lapsius calami, which led to an erroneous generic attribution of Metopina braueri in the paper on Israeli Metopina (Mostovski, 2016), is noted here. An identification key to the Israeli genera of scuttle flies, as well as notes on recognition and/or biology of individual species, are provided. 
",27395741
0,7147,"Seven new Australian species of the southern hemisphere horse fly subgenus Scaptia (Pseudoscione) (Diptera: Tabanidae), including descriptions and a revised key.
Horse flies ([START]Diptera[END]: Tabanidae) are ecologically important pollinators and vectors of many disease-causing organisms, as adult females are known to mechanically transfer multiple disease agents during feeding affecting humans, livestock, and many native mammals. Scaptia (Pseudoscione) Lutz in Lutz, Araujo, & Fonseca 1918 has the widest distribution of all genera in the tribe Scionini, occurring in Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and South America. Seven new species of Australian S. (Pseudoscione) are described and included in an updated key to the subgenus. The new species are: S. (Pseudoscione) baylessi sp. nov. Lessard, S. (Pseudoscione) casseli sp. nov. Lessard, S. (Pseudoscione) mackerrasi sp. nov. Lessard, S. (Pseudoscione) moritae sp. nov. Lessard, S. (Pseudoscione) turcatelae sp. nov. Lessard, S. (Pseudoscione) turneri sp. nov. Lessard, and S. (Pseudoscione) wiegmanni sp. nov. Lessard. In addition, S. (Pseudoscione) occidentalis Mackerras, 1960, previously described as a subspecies, has been raised to species level. One new species significantly extends the known distribution of Scaptia into central Australia, >1,200 km NW from the nearest recorded species within the subgenus.
",23270148
0,7147,"The identity of Tachina westermanni Wiedemann, 1819 ([START]Diptera[END]: Calliphoridae or Tachinidae) with a solution to a nomenclatural problem.
Tachina westermanni Wiedemann, 1819 was based on four syntypes, two conspecific calliphorids and two conspecific tachinids. Two existing but contradictory lectotype fixations have resulted in confusion as to the correct application of the specific name westermanni Wiedemann. Evidence is presented showing that the lectotype fixation of Townsend in 1931 is valid and assigns westermanni Wiedemann to the Calliphoridae, with Pericallimyia westermanni as the valid binomen. The valid name for the tachinid taxon becomes Brachelia westermanni Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 and a neotype is designated for it in the interests of nomenclatural stability.
",26249089
0,7147,"Review of the genus Defilippia Lioy (Bombyliidae, [START]Diptera[END]) from Egypt, with description of a new species, new combinations, and a neotype designation for D. pharaonis (Paramonov, 1928).
In the present study, five Defilippia species are shown to be represented in Egypt. Two species, D. efflatouni (Bezzi) and D. minos (Meigen), were already included in Defilippia; two species, D. decrepita (Wiedemann), comb. nov., and D. pharaonis (Paramonov), comb. nov., are newly combined to Defilippia; and a new species, D. elbayensis, sp. nov., is described herein. Homeotypes of Exoprosopa flava Paramonov, 1928 and Defilippia decrepita (Wiedemann, 1828), comb. nov. have been examined and it was found that the two species are not synonymous and Exoprosopa flava Paramonov, 1928,  stat. rev. is rather a distinct valid species in its original genus Exoprosopa. A neotype for D. pharaonis (Paramonov, 1928) is designated.
",27701279
0,7147,"A review of the genus Tabanus Linnaeus, 1758 ([START]Diptera[END]: Tabanidae) from Egypt.
The Egyptian fauna of the genus Tabanus Linnaeus is reviewed. Only seventeen species are recognized instead of the previous 21. This is because six species have been removed as doubtful records, and an additional two species have been added (T. leucostonus Loew, 1858 (new record) and T. arenivagus Austen, 1920). A key to Egyptian species of Tabanus is included together with illustrations. Specimens examined and distributions are given for each species. The status of the six species doubtful to occur in Egypt is discussed.
",26167603
0,7147,"New species and new synonyms in European Platypalpus ([START]Diptera[END]: Hybotidae).
Platypalpus mosticensis sp. nov. (Czech Republic) and P. ibericus sp. nov. (Portugal) are described and illustrated. The male of Platypalpus silvahumidus Bartak & Kubik, 2015 is described and illustrated for the first time. Types of all species of Platypalpus described by Italian entomologist Gianni Raffone between 2002 and 2010 were studied. The following nine new synonyms are proposed: Platypalpus canzonerii Raffone, 2002 = P. maculimanus (Zetterstedt, 1842); Platypalpus litoreus Raffone, 2010 = P. flavicornis (Meigen, 1822); Platypalpus pseudoalter Raffone, 2003 = P. boreoalpinus Frey, 1943; Platypalpus pseudostroblii Raffone, 2002 = P. exilis (Meigen, 1822); Platypalpus subwagneri Raffone, 2003 = P. exilis (Meigen, 1822); Platypalpus romaniolus Raffone, 2010 = P. longiseta (Zetterstedt, 1842); Platypalpus subarticulatus Raffone, 2002 = P. articulatus Macquart, 1827; Platypalpus submaculus Raffone, 2002 = P. macula (Zetterstedt, 1842); Platypalpus subpectoralis Raffone, 2002 = P. pectoralis (Fallen, 1815). Variability in the male genitalia of P. boreoalpinus is discussed.
",27811778
0,7147,"New species of Hercostomus Loew, 1857 (Dolichopodidae, [START]Diptera[END]) from Japan.
Six new species of the genus Hercostomus Loew, 1857, are described from Japan: Hercostomus acutiformis Negrobov, Kumazawa & Tago sp. nov., H. falcilis Negrobov, Kumazawa & Tago sp. nov., H. flavipalpus Negrobov, Kumazawa, Tago & Sato sp. nov., H. nigricollaris Negrobov, Kumazawa & Tago sp. nov., H. spathulatus Negrobov, Kumazawa, Tago & Sato sp. nov., H. spinitibialis Negrobov, Kumazawa & Tago sp. nov. Hercostomus flaveolus Negrobov & Chalaya, 1987 is newly recorded from Japan, and Hercostomus arcticus Yang, 1996 is newly synonymized with Hercostomus flaveolus (syn. nov.). The holotype of Hercostomus flaviventris Smirnov & Negrobov, 1979 is redescribed. Hercostomus ussurianus Stackelberg is transferred to the genus Gymnopternus Loew, 1857 (stat. nov.). A key to the eleven recognized species of Japanese Hercostomus is provided. 
",27615870
0,7147,"A new species of the genus Polyodaspis Duda, 1933 ([START]Diptera[END]: Acalyptratae: Chloropidae) from Central Asia with a key to the Palaearctic species.
A new species, Polyodaspis ferulae n. sp., from Central Asia (Uzbekistan) is described. The species was collected on inflorescences of Ferula foetida (Apiaceae). Siphonella levicola Becker in Becker and Stein, 1913 described from Iran is synonymized with Polyodaspis sulcicollis (Meigen, 1838) based on investigation of the holotype. A key to 9 species of the genus Polyodaspis Duda, 1933 is proposed with illustrations of male genitalia. Polyodaspis and Anacamptoneurum Becker, 1903 are treated as separate genera. New localities of P. sulcicollis (Meigen, 1838) from Kazakhstan and Central Asia are given. 
",27395915
0,7147,"Revision of the Neotropical genus Coroichlorops Paganelli 2002 ([START]Diptera[END]: Chloropidae).
Coroichlorops is a monotypic genus of Chloropini known to occur only in South America. The type species, C. yungas (Sabrosky & Paganelli), is formally known only from the holotype, collected in Bolivia. The male genitalia of the genus has peculiar prolonged, forceps-like surstyli. Two additional species of the genus, C. plaumanni sp. nov. and C. antennatus sp. nov., are formally described and illustrated here, and a key to the species of the genus is provided. The atypical flat arista of C. antennatus sp. nov. is also found in the Mepachymerini genus Sagareocerus and its implications are discussed. 
",27394506
0,7147,"Revision of Taxigramma pseudaperta Seguy, 1941 and comparisons with sympatric T. multipunctata (Rondani, 1859) ([START]Diptera[END]: Sarcophagidae).
The identity of the nominal taxon Taxigramma pseudaperta Seguy, 1941 [type locality: France, Corse] is revised and an improved circumscription based partly on reared material of both sexes is presented through comparison with the very similar and sympatric species T. multipunctata (Rondani, 1859). A table is provided to separate first instars, puparia, males and females of these two taxa. 
",25277588
0,7147,"Species of Bicellaria Macquart ([START]Diptera[END]: Hybotidae) of Europe, with descriptions of four new species.
Species of the genus Bicellaria ([START]Diptera[END]: Hybotidae) of Europe are reviewed. Altogether four new species are describes, viz B. andorra sp. nov. (Andorra, France), B. italica sp. nov. (Europe), B. kocoureki sp. nov. (Bulgaria), and B. setipalpus sp. nov. (Italy). Bicellaria dispar Oldenberg, 1920 is redescribed and lectotype is designated. Bicellaria bisetosa Tuomikoski, 1936 is newly synonymized with B. uvens Melander, 1928. Illustrations of male terminalia and a key to all known European species are provided.
",26295107
0,7147,"New species of Tetradiplosis ([START]Diptera[END]: Cecidomyiidae) inducing galls on Prosopis caldenia (Fabaceae) in Argentina.
Two new species of Tetradiplosis inducing galls on Prosopis caldenia are described from Argentina: Tetradiplosis panghitruz Martinez n. sp. and Tetradiplosis rayen Martinez n. sp. Tetradiplosispanghitruz induces multilocular galls on vegetative stems, whereas T. rayen induces unilocular galls containing multiple larvae on the rachis of the developing inflorescences. The adult male, female, pupa and larva are described and illustrated for both species. A key to the known species of the genus is provided.
",26146748
0,7147,"Carnidae ([START]Diptera[END]) in the Canadian National Collection of Insects (Ottawa), with the description of five new species.
The previously unidentified Carnidae in the Canadian National Collection of Insects (Ottawa) have been investigated. All faunistic records of 26 species are presented in this paper. Hemeromyia alberichae spec. nov. (USA), Meoneura hobbitoides spec. nov. (USA), Meoneura swifti spec. nov. (USA), Meoneura tinkerbellae spec. nov. (Canada), and Meoneura yodai spec. nov. (Canada) are described. First records are reported for Argentina, Canada, and Lebanon. 
",27394280
0,7147,"New Geranomyia crane flies ([START]Diptera[END]: Limoniidae) from Korea and Kunashir Island.
Geranomyia kunashir n. sp. from Kunashir Island (Far East of Russia), Geranomyia piagola n. sp. and Geranomyia semjina n. sp. from South Korea are described. Keys for all species of Korean Geranomyia are presented. 
",27395243
0,6978,"Effect of natural toxins and adipokinetic hormones on the activity of digestive enzymes in the midgut of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
This study examined the effect of two natural toxins (a venom from the parasitic wasp Habrobracon hebetor and destruxin A from the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae), and one pathogen (the entomopathogenic fungus Isaria fumosorosea) on the activity of basic digestive enzymes in the midgut of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Simultaneously, the role of adipokinetic hormones (AKH) in the digestive processes was evaluated. The results showed that all tested toxins/pathogens elicited stress responses when applied into the cockroach body, as documented by an increase of AKH level in the central nervous system. The venom from H. hebetor showed no effect on digestive enzyme activities in the ceca and midgut in vitro. In addition, infection by I. fumosorosea caused a decrease in activity of all enzymes in the midgut and a variable decrease in activity in the ceca; application of AKHs did not reverse the inhibition. Destruxin A inhibited the activity of all enzymes in the midgut but none in the ceca in vitro; application of AKHs did reverse this inhibition, and no differences between both cockroach AKHs were found. Overall, the results demonstrated the variable effect of the tested toxins/pathogens on the digestive processes of cockroaches as well as the variable ability of AKH to counteract these effects.
",31180597
0,6978,"Analyses of the mouthpart kinematics in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Blattodea, Blattidae) using synchrotron-based X-ray cineradiography.
The kinematics of the biting and chewing mouthparts of insects is a complex interaction of various components forming multiple jointed chains. The non-invasive technique of in vivo cineradiography by means of synchrotron radiation was employed to elucidate the motion cycles of the mouthparts in the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Digital X-ray footage sequences were used in order to calculate pre-defined angles and distances, each representing characteristic aspects of the movement pattern. We were able to analyze the interactions of the mouthpart components and to generate a functional model of maxillary movement by integrating kinematic results, morphological dissections and fluorescence microscopy. During the opening and closing cycles, which take about 450-500 ms on average, we found strong correlations between the measured maxillary and mandibular angles, indicating a strong neural coordination of these movements. This is manifested by strong antiphasic courses of the maxillae and the mandibles, antiphasic patterns of the rotation of the cardo about its basic articulation at the head and by the deflection between the cardo and stipes. In our functional model of the maxilla, its movement pattern is explained by the antagonistic activity of four adductor-promotor muscles and two abductor-remotor muscles. However, beyond the observed intersegmental and bilateral stereotypy, certain amounts of variation across subsequent cycles within a sequence were observed with respect to the degree of correlation between the various mouthparts, the maximum, minimum and time course of the angular movements. Although generally correlated with the movement pattern of the mandibles and the maxillary cardo-stipes complex, such plastic behaviour was especially observed in the maxillary palpi and the labium. 
",24948639
0,6978,"The Role of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Blattodea: Blattidae) in Modern Versus Traditional Chinese Medicine.
The purpose of this review is to elaborate the role of [START]Periplaneta[END] (P.) americana L. in modern and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and compare the use of the species in these two forms of medical treatments. From searches on Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science databases, studies were identified involving TCMs with [START]P. americana[END], which have a history of use over several thousand years, and demonstrate how extracts from this insect play a role in the treatment of diseases through antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor activity, and enhancement of immune function. Extracts from [START]P. americana[END] have not been fully developed for clinical use because the active components have not been completely purified or their molecular mechanisms thoroughly understood. The development of extraction technology in modern Chinese medicine has revealed that many extracts from [START]P. americana[END] are able to play an important role in the control of diseases such as cancer. Drugs such as 'Kangfuxin Solution' and 'Xinmailong Injection' are now widely used for gastrointestinal ulcers and chronic heart failure, having achieved beneficial curative effects in clinical studies. Based on this, the information from studies of [START]P. americana[END] in TCM and modern medicine should be combined and their respective advantages applied. This review provides an overview of the role of [START]P. americana[END] in modern and TCM and thus contributes to identification of further applications and area requiring drug development.
",31265723
0,6978,"Serotonin-immunoreactive sensory neurons in the antenna of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The antennae of insects contain a vast array of sensory neurons that process olfactory, gustatory, mechanosensory, hygrosensory, and thermosensory information. Except those with multimodal functions, most sensory neurons use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter. Using immunohistochemistry combined with retrograde staining of antennal sensory neurons in the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END], we found serotonin-immunoreactive sensory neurons in the antenna. These were selectively distributed in chaetic and scolopidial sensilla and in the scape, the pedicel, and first 15 segments of the flagellum. In a chaetic sensillum, A single serotonin-immunoreactive sensory neuron cohabited with up to four serotonin-negative sensory neurons. Based on their morphological features, serotonin-immunopositive and -negative sensory neurons might process mechanosensory and contact chemosensory modalities, respectively. Scolopidial sensilla constitute the chordotonal and Johnston's organs within the pedicel and process antennal vibrations. Immunoelectron microscopy clearly revealed that serotonin-immunoreactivities selectively localize to a specific type of mechanosensory neuron, called type 1 sensory neuron. In a chordotonal scolopidial sensillum, a serotonin-immunoreactive type 1 neuron always paired with a serotonin-negative type 1 neuron. Conversely, serotonin-immunopositive and -negative type 1 neurons were randomly distributed in Johnston's organ. In the deutocerebrum, serotonin-immunoreactive sensory neuron axons formed three different sensory tracts and those from distinct types of sensilla terminated in distinct brain regions. Our findings indicate that a biogenic amine, serotonin, may act as a neurotransmitter in peripheral mechanosensory neurons.
",23852943
0,6978,"Shock-induced Analgesia in the cockroach ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]).
For 3 consecutive days cockroaches ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) received escapable, inescapable, or no shock in an escape task. 24 hr. later minimum shock which initiated movement was identified. Reliably higher shocks were needed to initiate movement in the inescapably shocked roaches. In a second experiment the analgesia induced by inescapable shock was blocked by the opiate antagonist naloxone. The results are discussed in relation to the escape deficit and analgesia commonly seen following exposure to inescapable shock in a variety of species.
",8058847
0,6978,"Establishment of an embryonic cell line from the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Blattaria: Blattidae) and a preliminary study of telomerase activity changes during the culturing process.
Despite the pest status and medicinal value of the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END], few attempts have been made to establish cell lines from this insect owing to the difficulty of culturing Blattarian cells. Here, we describe the establishment of the RIRI-PA1 line from [START]P. americana[END] embryo tissue following primary culture in modified Grace's medium containing 20% fetal bovine serum. RIRI-PA1 was found to primarily consist of attached spindle-shaped and giant cells, which attach themselves to their container. The population-doubling time of 40th-passage cells was approximately 84.8 h. The average chromosome number at the 30th passage was 42, with 40% of cells demonstrating substantial variations, with the highest number of variations of 78 and lowest of 24. The identity of RIRI-PA1 was confirmed by comparing the COI gene of these cells to that of [START]P. americana[END] embryo tissue. Telomerase activity decreased in primary cells after 7 d of culture and 5th-passage cells in comparison to embryo tissues; however, compared to the other cultured cells tested, the telomerase activity significantly increased at the 20th passage. We propose that the stagnation periods and cessation of proliferation observed relate to cellular telomerase activity, but the relationship between insect cell proliferation and telomerase as well as the regulatory mechanism involved remains to be elucidated.
",29313222
0,6978,"[Chemical Constituents from [START]Periplaneta americana[END]].
OBJECTIVE: To study the chemical constituents in [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. METHODS: The chemical constituents were separated and purified by chromatographic methods after solvent extraction and identified by spectroscopic analyses. RESULTS: Ten compounds were isolated from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] and identified as following: 8-hydroxy-3,4-dihydroquinolin-2 (1H)-one (1), cyclo-( L-Phe-L-Pro) (2), cyclo-(Pro-Ile) (3), cyclo-(L-Pro-D-Leu) (4), brevianamide F (5), cyclo-(Ile-Ala) (6), cyclo-( L-Val-L-Pro) (7), cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Tyr) (8), cyclo-(Trp-Val)-dipeptide (9), and (-)-(1S, 3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (10). CONCLUSION: Compounds 2 - 9 are isolated from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] for the first time.
",27254913
0,6978,"The cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] as a potential paratenic host of the lungworm Aelurostrongylus abstrusus.
INTRODUCTION: Aelurostrongylus abstrusus is a well-known nematode affecting the respiratory system of felids worldwide. Snails and slugs act as intermediate hosts of this parasite, whereas rodents, birds and reptiles may serve as paratenic hosts. [START]Periplaneta americana[END], the American brown cockroach, shares the same habitat and ecological features (e.g. nocturnal activity) with both snails and cats. The aim of this study was to evaluate the capability of [START]P. americana[END] to maintain alive A. abstrusus third stage larvae (L3s) after artificial inoculation. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Twenty-five specimens of [START]P. americana[END] were infected with 100 A. abstrusus L3s collected from experimentally infected Cornu aspersum snails, whereas five specimens were used as control group. After the infection, cockroaches were maintained in individual plastic boxes until dissection for the presence of L3s at 1 (T1), 5 (T5), 10 (T10), 15 (T15), and 20 (T20) days post-infection. RESULTS: Except for T15, alive A. abstrusus L3s (n = 63) were found at all time-points, being 26, 19, 16 and 2 L3s retrieved at T1, T5, T10 and T20, respectively. Eleven (17.4%) L3s were found within the digestive tract, 10 (15.9%) in other-than-digestive organs and 42 (66.7%) in the exoskeleton and associated tissues. Nine out of the twenty-five experimentally inoculated cockroaches (36%) died soon after the artificial infection (T1), while in the control group, two out of the five (40%) died before the end of the study (T15) with no difference in the mortality rate between groups. DISCUSSION: Results of this study suggest that [START]P. americana[END] could act as a paratenic host of A. abstrusus. [START]Periplaneta americana[END] cockroaches, have a ubiquitous distribution and may be preyed by cats, representing a potential source of infection to cats living in endemic areas.
",28942048
0,6978,"Opsin knockdown specifically slows phototransduction in broadband and UV-sensitive photoreceptors in [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Photoreceptors with different spectral sensitivities serve different physiological and behavioral roles. We hypothesized that such functional evolutionary optimization could also include differences in phototransduction dynamics. We recorded elementary responses to light, quantum bumps (QBs), of broadband green-sensitive and ultraviolet (UV)-sensitive photoreceptors in the cockroach, [START]Periplaneta americana[END], compound eyes using intracellular recordings. In addition to control photoreceptors, we used photoreceptors from cockroaches whose green opsin 1 (GO1) or UV opsin expression was suppressed by RNA interference. In the control broadband and UV-sensitive photoreceptors average input resistances were similar, but the membrane capacitance, a proxy for membrane area, was smaller in the broadband photoreceptors. QBs recorded in the broadband photoreceptors had comparatively short latencies, high amplitudes and short durations. Absolute sensitivities of both opsin knockdown photoreceptors were significantly lower than in wild type, and, unexpectedly, their latency was significantly longer while the amplitudes were not changed. Morphologic examination of GO1 knockdown photoreceptors did not find significant differences in rhabdom size compared to wild type. Our results differ from previous findings in Drosophila melanogaster rhodopsin mutants characterized by progressive rhabdomere degeneration, where QB amplitudes were larger but phototransduction latency was not changed compared to wild type.
",36224473
0,6978,"The inhibitory effect of Periplaneta americana L. on hepatocellular carcinoma: Explore the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma active site and its mechanism of action.
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The [START]American cockroach[END] (Periplaneta americana L.) belongs to the family Blattidae, order Blattodea, and class Insecta. Its medicinal history in China spans thousands of years. In recent years, the anti-tumor activity of [START]American cockroach[END] has gradually attracted the attention of researchers and has a good application prospect in the treatment of tumors. [START]Periplaneta americana[END] has been found to contain proteins, peptides, amino acids and nucleosides. Pharmacological studies have shown that [START]P. americana[END] has anti-tumour, tissue repair, immunoregulatory and other activities. In this study, we investigated the chemical composition and mechanism of action of its active site against hepatocellular carcinoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We adopted ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS), measuring the accurate relative molecular mass, fragment ion peak, chromatographic retention time and reference substance information of the compound obtained by HRMS, to identify the chemical components of the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) active site of [START]P. americana[END] based on data from relevant literature. We used western blotting (WB) to detect the expression levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt) and Akt in the PI3K/Akt pathway and further study the molecular mechanism of the active site of [START]P. americana[END] against HCC. RESULTS: UPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS identified 35 compounds from the active site of [START]P. americana[END]. Of these, 10 were amino acids, 1 was an alkaloid, 6 were nucleosides and their bases, 4 were dipeptides and cyclic dipeptides, 8 were organic acids, 2 were isoflavones and 4 were other compounds; 8 of these compounds were confirmed by comparison with the reference substance. The WB results showed that the relative expression levels of PI3K and p-Akt protein in the active site of [START]P. americana[END] in the medium-dose (concentration, 0.15624 mg mL-1) and high-dose (concentration, 0.31250 mg mL-1) experimental groups were significantly reduced compared with the blank control group (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01), whereas the expression level of Akt protein did not significantly change amongst the groups (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study found that the anti-HCC active site of [START]P. americana[END] is composed of multiple components that can reduce the relative expression of PI3K and p-Akt protein. It exerts its anti-HCC effect by regulating the PI3K/Akt pathway.
",34999145
0,6978,"Environmental decomposition of olefinic cuticular hydrocarbons of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] generates a volatile pheromone that guides social behaviour.
Once emitted, semiochemicals are exposed to reactive environmental factors that may alter them, thus disrupting chemical communication. Some species, however, might have adapted to detect environmentally mediated breakdown products of their natural chemicals as semiochemicals. We demonstrate that air, water vapour and ultraviolet (UV) radiation break down unsaturated cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] ([START]American cockroach[END]), resulting in the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). In behavioural assays, nymphs strongly avoided aggregating in shelters exposed to the breakdown VOCs from cuticular alkenes. The three treatments (air, water vapour, UV) produced the same VOCs, but at different time-courses and ratios. Fourteen VOCs from UV-exposed CHCs elicited electrophysiological responses in nymph antennae; 10 were identified as 2-nonanone, 1-pentanol, 1-octanol, 1-nonanol, tetradecanal, acetic acid, propanoic acid, butanoic acid, pentanoic acid and hexanoic acid. When short-chain fatty acids were tested as a mix and a blend of the alcohols and aldehyde was tested as a second mix, nymphs exhibited no preference for control or treated shelters. However, nymphs avoided shelters that were exposed to VOCs from the complete 10-compound mix. Conditioned shelters (occupied by cockroaches with faeces and CHCs deposited on the shelters), which are normally highly attractive to nymphs, were also avoided after UV exposure, confirming that breakdown products from deposited metabolites, including CHCs, mediate this behaviour. Our results demonstrate that common environmental agents degrade CHCs into behaviourally active volatile compounds that potentially may serve as necromones or epideictic pheromones, mediating group dissolution.
",32097587
0,6978,"Cloning and Purification of Per a 4, a Gene Encoding a [START]Periplaneta Americana[END] Allergen, and Preparation of Its Monoclonal Antibodies.
OBJECTIVE: To clone, express, purify the Per a 4 gene encoding an allergen of [START]Periplaneta Americana[END] and prepare monoclonal antibodies against the recombinant allergen. METHODS: The total RNA was extracted from [START]P. Americana[END], and the target gene was amplified by RT-PCR and cloned into pMD18-T vector. After being confirmed by nucleotide sequencing, the gene was then inserted into pGEX-3X to construct the express vector pGEX-3X-Per a 4. Further, the pGEX-3X-Per a 4 was transformed into E. coli BL21 (DE3), and induced for expression by IPTG. By affinity chromatography, the recombinant allergen was purified and identified by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. The BALB/c mouse was immunized with the recombinant allergen to prepare the specific monoclonal antibodies, which was then identified by co-immunoprecipitatin and western blotting. RESULTS: The full-length cDNA encoding Per a 4 of [START]P. Americana[END] was obtained with 552 bp in length, which had 99.4% similarity with the reference sequence (GenBank AY792948). The constructed vector pGEX-3X-Per a 4 was transformed in E. coli BL21 (DE3), expressed with the induction of IPTG. By SDS-PAGE, a band of about 49 KD was present. Further, the western-blotting showed that the prepared monoclonal antibodies can bind the serum antibodies in patients allergic to [START]P. Americana[END]. CONCLUSIONS: Both the recombinant allergen Per a 4 and its monoclonal antibodies were obtained.
",29970435
0,6978,"Periplanosides A-C: new insect-derived dihydroisocoumarin glucosides from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] stimulating collagen production in human dermal fibroblasts.
Three new dihydroisocoumarin glucosides, termed periplanosides A-C (1-3), a known analog, pericanaside (4), and the other twenty known compounds were isolated from the insect [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Their structures including absolute configurations were determined by comprehensive spectroscopic analyses and computational methods. Biological evaluation showed that compound 2 could stimulate collagen production by 31.2% in human dermal fibroblasts-adult (HDFa) at the concentration of 30 muM, indicating its significance in skin repair and ulcer. 
",26499169
0,6978,"Molecular and functional characterization of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END], Rab5: the first exopterygotan low molecular weight ovarian GTPase during oogenesis.
The small Rab GTPases are key regulators of membrane vesicle trafficking. Ovaries of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Linnaeus) (Blattodea: Blattidae) have small molecular weight GTP/ATP-binding proteins during early and late vitellogenic periods of oogenesis. However, the identification and characterization of the detected proteins have not been yet reported. Herein, we cloned a cDNA encoding Rab5 from the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]P. americana[END], ovaries (PamRab5). It comprises 796 bp, encoding a protein of 213 amino acid residues with a predicted molecular weight of 23.5 kDa. PamRab5 exists as a single-copy gene in the [START]P. americana[END] genome, as revealed by Southern blot analysis. An approximate 2.6 kb ovarian mRNA was transcribed especially at high levels in the previtellogenic ovaries, detected by Northern blot analysis. The muscle and head tissues also showed high levels of PamRab5 transcript. PamRab5 protein was localized, via immunofluorescence labeling, to germline-derived cells of the oocytes, very early during oocyte differentiation. Immunoblotting detected a ~25 kDa signal as a membrane-associated form revealed after application of detergent in the extraction buffer, and 23 kDa as a cytosolic form consistent with the predicted molecular weight from amino acid sequence in different tissues including ovary, muscles and head. The PamRab5 during late vitellogenic periods is required to regulate the endocytotic machinery during oogenesis in this cockroach. This is the first report on Rab5 from a hemimetabolan, and presents an inaugural step in probing the molecular premises of insect oocyte endocytotic trafficking important for oogenesis and embryonic development.
",28548451
0,6978,"Sex-related differences in the susceptibility of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] and Capnodis tenebrionis to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae.
Entomopathogenic nematodes have a broad range of insect hosts, but efficacy varies depending on many factors including insect species and life stage of the host. In this study we examined the susceptibility of males and females of two insect species, the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END] and the flatheaded rootborer Capnodis tenebrionis to Steinernema carpocapsae by exposing adults to different concentrations. A separate study examined the routes of entry used by nematodes into males and females. Males of both species were more susceptible than females, with greater than 97% infection when a concentration of 50 IJs/cm(2) was applied, whereas mortalities lower than 58% were achieved against females 14 days post-infection. Infective juveniles were detected in similar number on the surface of both sexes, but when compared among internal regions the number of nematodes was significantly higher in gonads and ducts of males than of females for [START]P. americana[END] (5.49 in males; 0.02 in females) and C. tenebrionis (6.88 in males; 0.00 in females).
",23220239
0,6978,"Bioinformatic analysis and antiviral effect of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] defensins.
Due to the lack of an adaptive immune system, insects rely on innate immune mechanisms to fight against pathogenic infections. Two major innate immune pathways, Toll and IMD, orchestrate anti-pathogen responses by regulating the expression of antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes. Although the antifungal or antibacterial function of AMPs has been well characterized, the antiviral role of AMPs in insects remains largely unclear. [START]Periplaneta americana[END] ([START]P. americana[END]), or the [START]American cockroach[END], is used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antiviral agent; however, the underlying mechanism of action of [START]P. americana[END] extracts is unclear. Our previous study showed that the [START]P. americana[END] genome encodes multiple antimicrobial peptide genes. Based on these data, we predicted five novel [START]P. americana[END] defensins (PaDefensins) and analyzed their primary structure, secondary structure, and physicochemical properties. The putative antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, and anticancer activities suggested that PaDefensin5 is a desirable therapeutic candidate against viral diseases. As the first experimental evidence of the antiviral effects of insect defensins, we also showed the antiviral effect of PaDefensin5 in Drosophila Kc cells and Drosophila embryos in vivo . In conclusion, results of both in silico predictions and subsequent antiviral experiments suggested PaDefensin5 a promising antiviral drug.
",34785275
0,6978,"A Novel Use for Potassium Alum as Controlling Agent Against [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Dictyoptera: Blattidae).
In this work, we present our results on the use of potassium alum as an environmentally friendly insecticide. This compound has the potential to rid our homes, schools, hotels, restaurants, and ships of cockroach infestations. This compound is environmentally friendly and has no hazardous effects on plant, animal, or human ecosystems. Alum was approved for medical use a long time ago. In our laboratory, we developed a novel method using potassium alum as an environmentally friendly insecticide to kill the most common cockroach in the subtropical region, [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (L.). Adult and nymph-staged cockroaches were left to feed on potassium alum per individual insect after a period of food deprivation. The mortality was recorded as LT50. The younger nymphs the third and early fourth instars died within 4 d of feeding after consuming an average of 0.3 mg per individual insect. Gravid females were highly susceptible to alum toxicity and experienced a higher mortality rate, with an average of 3 mg per individual female. The oothecae of the normal untreated females were 8.1 mm long and 4.13 mm wide and weighed 94 mg. The eggs laid by the treated gravid females were underweight and exhibited a dwarfism shape, and these eggs did not hatched if the females consumed the potassium alum before laying eggs. The results revealed that the adult male and female cockroaches have to consume 1 mg and 2.7 mg, respectively, of potassium alum to kill 100% of them after 1 month of ingestion. The potassium alum had to be ingested by the cockroaches to affect mortality. The effect of potassium alum was attributed to chronic toxicity and not acute toxicity. The potential applications of this novel technique will be discussed. 
",26470384
0,6978,"Purification and functional characterization of lectin with phenoloxidase activity from the hemolymph of cockroach, [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Lectins also identified as hemagglutinins are multivalent proteins and on account of their fine sugar-binding specificity play an important role in immune system of invertebrates. The present study was carried out on the hemolymph lectin of cockroach, [START]Periplaneta americana[END] with appropriate screening and purification to understand its molecular as well as functional nature. The lectin from the hemolymph was purified using ion-exchange chromatography. The approximate molecular weight of purified lectin was 340 kDa as determined by FPLC analysis. Rabbit erythrocytes were highly agglutinated with purified lectin from the hemolymph of [START]P. americana[END]. The hemagglutination activity (HA) of lectin was specifically inhibited by fucose. Glycoproteins also inhibited the HA activity of lectin. The amino acid sequences of the purified lectin revealed homology with amino acid sequences of allergen proteins from [START]P. americana[END]. Purified lectin showed the highest phenoloxidase activity against dopamine. The activators such as exogenous proteases and LPS from Escherichia coli and Salmonella minnesota significantly enhanced the PO activity of the purified lectin. Besides, the presence of copper and hemocyanin conserved domain in the purified lectin provided a new facet that insects belonging to the ancient clade such as cockroaches retained some traces of evolutionary resemblance in possessing lectin of ancient origin.
",28557066
0,6978,"Establishment and Maintenance of Gnotobiotic American Cockroaches ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]).
Gnotobiotic animals are a powerful tool for the study of controls on microbiome structure and function. Presented here is a protocol for the establishment and maintenance of gnotobiotic American cockroaches ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]). This approach includes built-in sterility checks for ongoing quality control. Gnotobiotic insects are defined here as cockroaches that still contain their vertically transmitted endosymbiont (Blattabacterium) but lack other microbes that normally reside on their surface and in their digestive tract. For this protocol, egg cases (oothecae) are removed from a (nonsterile) stock colony and surface sterilized. Once collected and sterilized, the oothecae are incubated at 30  C for approximately 4-6 weeks on brain-heart infusion (BHI) agar until they hatch or are removed due to contamination. Hatched nymphs are transferred to an Erlenmeyer flask containing a BHI floor, sterile water, and sterile rat food. To ensure that the nymphs are not housing microbes that are unable to grow on BHI in the given conditions, an additional quality control measure uses restriction fragment-length polymorphism (RFLP) to test for nonendosymbiotic microbes. Gnotobiotic nymphs generated using this approach can be inoculated with simple or complex microbial communities and used as a tool in gut microbiome studies.
",34125088
0,6978,"The cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel gene superfamilies of the cockroaches Blattella germanica and [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
BACKGROUND: Cockroaches are serious urban pests that can transfer disease-causing microorganisms as well as trigger allergic reactions and asthma. They are commonly managed by pesticides that act on cys-loop ligand-gated ion channels (cysLGIC). To provide further information that will enhance our understanding of how insecticides act on their molecular targets in cockroaches, we used genome and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) data to characterize the cysLGIC gene superfamilies from Blattella germanica and [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. RESULTS: The B. germanica and [START]P. americana[END] cysLGIC superfamilies consist of 30 and 32 subunit-encoding genes, respectively, which are the largest insect cysLGIC superfamilies characterized to date. As with other insects, the cockroaches possess ion channels predicted to be gated by acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate and histamine, as well as orthologues of the drosophila pH-sensitive chloride channel (pHCl), CG8916 and CG12344. The large cysLGIC superfamilies of cockroaches are a result of an expanded number of divergent nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits, with B. germanica and [START]P. americana[END], respectively, possessing eight and ten subunit genes. Diversity of the cockroach cysLGICs is also broadened by alternative splicing and RNA A-to-I editing. Unusually, both cockroach species possess a second glutamate-gated chloride channel as well as another CG8916 subunit. CONCLUSION: These findings on B. germanica and [START]P. americana[END] enhance our understanding of the evolution of the insect cysLGIC superfamily and provide a useful basis for the study of their function, the detection and management of insecticide resistance, and for the development of improved pesticides with greater specificity towards these major pests.   2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
",33347700
0,6978,"Polyphosphate polymers during early embryogenesis of [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Inorganic polyphosphates (PolyP) are linear polymers of phosphate (Pi) residues linked by high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. Despite a wide distribution, their role during insect embryogenesis has not been examined so far. In this study, we show the mobilization of PolyP polymers during the embryogenesis of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. PolyP was detected by enzymatic and fluorimetric assays and found to accumulate in two main sizes by agarose gel electrophoresis. Confocal microscopy showed their presence in small vesicles. In addition, X-ray microanalysis of small vesicles showed considerable amounts of calcium, sodium and magnesium, suggesting an association of PolyP with these elements. Variations of the free Ca+2, Pi and PolyP levels were observed during the first days of embryogenesis. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that phosphate ions modulate PolyP variation and that PolyP hydrolysis result in increasing free Ca+2 levels. This is the first investigation of PolyP metabolism during embryogenesis of an insect and might shed light on the mechanisms involving Pi storage and homeostasis during this period. We suggest that PolyP, mainly stored in small vesicles, might be involved in the functional control of Ca+2 and Pi homeostasis during early embryogenesis of [START]P. Americana[END].
",18773905
0,6978,"Periplanetols A-F, phenolic compounds from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] with potent COX-2 inhibitory activity.
Six new compounds, periplanetols A - F (1-4, 6 and 7), a compound isolated from natural origin for the first time (5), and nine known ones (8-16) were isolated from the 70% ethanol extract of the whole bodies of [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Their structures including absolute configurations were unambiguously identified by comprehensive spectroscopic analyses and computational methods. Biological evaluation toward COX-2 inhibition revealed that compounds 1, 2, and 10 could inhibit COX-2 activity with the IC50 values of 768.0 nM, 617.7 nM, and 599.5 nM respectively, indicating their potential in developping novel agents against inflammation related disorders.
",32272163
0,6978,"Behavioral responses to visual overstimulation in the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] L.
In the visual systems of insects, different types of photoreceptors contribute to specialized visual channels that mediate distinct functions and behaviors. Large compound eyes of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] contain photoreceptors of two spectral classes, broadband green-sensitive photoreceptors and narrow-band UV-sensitive photoreceptors. Here, we investigated how visual stimulation by UV and green light affects locomotor, resting, and grooming behaviors in [START]P. americana[END] under conditions when light avoidance is not possible. We show that green but not UV light stimulates locomotor activity, inducing paradoxical positive masking. Duration of resting and grooming decreased with increasing light intensity, consistent with development of behavioral stress in response to visual overstimulation. A reaction of full immobility is described under UV light and at higher intensities of green light, with relative periods of immobility and grooming strongly negatively correlated. Low-intensity UV was more effective than low-intensity green light in suppressing grooming and inducing immobility. Our results suggest that locomotor activity in [START]P. americana[END] is mainly regulated by green-sensitive photoreceptors, and that dim UV light can trigger behavioral immobility, whereas both wavelengths induce stress-like reactions at high intensities. Considering the intrinsic UV sensitivity of green-sensitive photoreceptors, the contrasting behavioral responses indicate antagonistic interactions between UV and green visual channels.
",28884199
0,6978,"[START]Periplaneta americana[END] arginine kinase as a major cockroach allergen among Thai patients with major cockroach allergies.
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] is the predominant cockroach (CR) species and a major source of indoor allergens in Thailand. Nevertheless, data on the nature and molecular characteristics of its allergenic components are rare. We conducted this study to identify and characterize the [START]P. americana[END] allergenic protein. A random heptapeptide phage display library and monoclonal antibody (MAb) specific to a the [START]P. americana[END] component previously shown to be an allergenic molecule were used to identify the MAb-bound mimotope and its phylogenic distribution. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, peptide mass fingerprinting, and BLAST search were used to identify the [START]P. americana[END] protein containing the MAb-specific epitope. We studied the allergenicity of the native protein using sera of CR-allergic Thai patients in immunoassays. The mimotope peptide that bound to the MAb specific to [START]P. americana[END] was LTPCRNK. The peptide has an 83-100% identity with proteins of Anopheles gambiae, notch homolog scalloped wings of Lucilia cuprina, delta protein of Apis mellifera; neu5Ac synthase and tyrosine phosphatase of Drosophila melanogaster, and a putative protein of Drosophila pseudoobscura. This finding implies that the mimotope-containing molecule of [START]P. americana[END] is a pan-insect protein. The MAb-bound protein of [START]P. americana[END] was shown to be arginine kinase that reacted to IgE in the sera of all of the CR-allergic Thai patients by immunoblotting, implying its high allergenicity. In conclusion, our results revealed that [START]P. americana[END] arginine kinase is a pan-insect protein and a major CR allergen for CR-allergic Thai patients.
",16759988
0,6978,"Conflictual influence of humidity during shelter selection of the [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]).
In collective decision-making, when confronted with different options, groups usually show a more marked preference for one of the options than do isolated individuals. This results from the amplification of individual preferences by social interactions within the group. We show, in an unusual counter-example, that when facing a binary choice between shelters with different relative humidities, isolated cockroaches of the species [START]Periplaneta americana[END] select the wettest shelter, while groups select the driest one. This inversion of selection results from a conflictual influence of humidity on the probabilities of entering and leaving each shelter. It is shown that the individual probability of entering the wettest shelter is higher than the group probability and is increased by previous entries and exits. The probability of leaving each shelter decreases in the population due to social interactions, but this decrease is less pronounced in the wettest shelter, suggesting weaker social interactions. A theoretical model is developed and highlights the existence of tipping points dependent on population size, beyond which an inversion of selection of a resting place is observed.
",31889068
0,6978,"Cockroaches ([START]Periplaneta americana[END] and Blattella germanica) as potential vectors of the pathogenic bacteria found in nosocomial infections.
Although it has been difficult to prove the direct involvement of cockroaches (i.e. insects of the order Blattaria) in the transmission of pathogenic agents to humans, such insects often carry microorganisms that are important in nosocomial infections, and their medical importance in the spread of bacteria cannot be ruled out. In houses and institutions with poor standards of hygiene, heavy infestations with cockroaches, such as the peridomestic [START]American cockroach[END] (Periplaneta americana L.) and the domestic German cockroach (Blattella germanica L.), can occur. In the present study, cockroaches (126 B. germanica and 69 [START]P. americana[END]) were collected from four buildings (three public training hospitals and one house) in central Tehran, Iran. Each insect was processed, under sterile conditions, so that the bacteria on its external surfaces and in its alimentary tract and faecal pellets could be isolated and identified. The oldest and largest of the three hospitals sampled (a 1400-bed unit built 80 years ago) appeared to be the one most heavily infested with cockroaches, and cockroaches from this hospital accounted for most (65.4%) of the isolates of medically important bacteria made during the study. No significant difference was found between the percentages of [START]P. americana[END] and B. germanica carrying medically important bacteria (96.8% v. 93.6%; P>0.05). At least 25 different species of medically important bacteria were isolated and identified, and at least 22 were Gramnegative. The genus of enteric bacteria most frequently isolated from both cockroach species, at all four collection sites, was Klebsiella. The cockroaches from each hospital were much more likely to be found contaminated with medically important bacteria than those from the house. The hospital cockroaches were also more likely to be carrying medically important bacteria internally than externally (84.3% v. 64.1%; P<0.05). The implications of these and other recent results, for the control of cockroaches and nosocomial infections, are discussed.
",20863441
0,6978,"Distinct roles of light-activated channels TRP and TRPL in photoreceptors of [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Electrophysiological studies in Drosophila melanogaster and [START]Periplaneta americana[END] have found that the receptor current in their microvillar photoreceptors is generated by two light-activated cationic channels, TRP (transient receptor potential) and TRPL (TRP-like), each having distinct properties. However, the relative contribution of the two channel types to sensory information coding by photoreceptors remains unclear. We recently showed that, in contrast to the diurnal Drosophila in which TRP is the principal phototransduction channel, photoreceptors of the nocturnal [START]P. americana[END] strongly depend on TRPL. Here, we perform a functional analysis, using patch-clamp and intracellular recordings, of [START]P. americana[END] photoreceptors after RNA interference to knock down TRP (TRPkd) and TRPL (TRPLkd). Several functional properties were changed in both knockdown phenotypes: cell membrane capacitance was reduced 1.7-fold, light sensitivity was greatly reduced, and amplitudes of sustained light-induced currents and voltage responses decreased more than twofold over the entire range of light intensities. The information rate (IR) was tested using a Gaussian white-noise modulated light stimulus and was lower in TRPkd photoreceptors (28 +- 21 bits/s) than in controls (52 +- 13 bits/s) because of high levels of bump noise. In contrast, although signal amplitudes were smaller than in controls, the mean IR of TRPLkd photoreceptors was unchanged at 54 +- 29 bits/s1 because of proportionally lower noise. We conclude that TRPL channels provide high-gain/high-noise transduction, suitable for vision in dim light, whereas transduction by TRP channels is relatively low-gain/low-noise and allows better information transfer in bright light.
",28283577
0,6978,"Receptors for L-glutamate and GABA in the nervous system of an insect ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]).
The nervous system of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] is well suited to studies of invertebrate amino acid receptors. Using a combination of radioligand binding and electrophysiological techniques, several distinct receptors have now been identified. These include an L-glutamate-gated chloride channel which has no known counterpart in the vertebrate nervous system, and a putative kainate/quisqualate receptor with pharmacological properties different from those of the existing categories of vertebrate excitatory amino acid receptors. GABA receptors have also been characterized in the cockroach nervous system. Bicuculline, benzodiazepines and steroids have revealed important differences between certain insect GABA-gated chloride channels and vertebrate GABA receptors. Identifiable neurones may facilitate the allocation of specific functions to amino acid receptor subtypes. In view of the existence of subtypes of amino acid receptors in insects, it is of interest to examine how this is reflected at the molecular level in terms of receptor subunit composition and amino acid sequence. Preliminary molecular cloning studies on insect GABA receptors are described.
",1363294
0,6978,"Effect of certain entomopathogenic fungi on oxidative stress and mortality of [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The present paper reports the effects of Metarhizium anisopliae, Isaria fumosoroseus and Hirsutella thompsonaii on [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. I. fumosoroseus and H. thompsonaii were cultured at 28+-1 C on potato carrot agar and M. anisopliae was cultured at 28+-1 C on potato dextrose agar for 14days. Conidial suspensions of fungi were given to cockroaches through different routes. M. anisopliae shows high virulence against adult cockroaches and mortality ranges from 38.65% to 78.36% after 48h. I. fumosoroseus and H. thompsonii show less virulence compared to M. anisopliae. We also investigated the effect of these three fungi on the activity of lactate dehydrogenase, lipid peroxidation and catalase in different tissues of the insect to gain an understanding of the different target site. The result suggested that the activity of lactate dehydrogenase, catalase and level of malondialdehyde varies in different organs and through different routes of exposure. Based on mortality percentages, all tested fungi had high potentials for biocontrol agents against [START]P. americana[END]. Our study reveals for the first time that I. fumosoroseus and H. thompsonaii fungal infections initiate oxidative stress in the midgut, fat body, whole body and hemolymph of cockroach thereby suggesting them to be the target organs for oxidative damage. 
",26821655
0,6978,"Characterization and diabetic wound healing benefits of protein-polysaccharide complexes isolated from an animal ethno-medicine [START]Periplaneta americana[END] L.
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. (PA), a type of animal medicine, has been widely used for wound healing in clinical settings. In order to further investigate the bioactive wound healing substances in PA, crude PA protein-polysaccharide complexes were further purified by cellulose DE-52 and Sephadex G100 chromatography in succession. Among these isolated fractions, two fractions eluted by 0.3 M and 0.5 M NaCl with the higher yield, respectively named PaPPc2 and PaPPc3 respectively, were chosen for the wound healing experiments. Mediated by HPGPC, amino acid and monosaccharide composition analysis, circular dichroism spectrum, glycosylation type, FT-IR, and 1H NMR analysis, the characterization of PaPPc2 and PaPPc3 was implemented. And then, the benefits of PaPPcs to promote cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation of HUVECs were determined in vitro, indicated these fractions would facilitate angiogenesis. Finally, as proof of concept, PaPPc2 and PaPPc3 were employed to accelerate the acute wounds of diabetic mice, involving in increase blood vessels and the amounts of angiogenesis-related cytokines (alpha-SMA, VEGF, and CD31). In short, this study provides an experimental basis to demonstrate the protein-polysaccharide complexes of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. as its wound healing bioactive substances.
",34914909
0,6978,"Azobenzene-diamides as Photopharmacological Ligands for Insect Ryanodine Receptor.
Photoresponsive ligands are powerful tool compounds for studying receptor function with spatiotemporal resolution. However, to the best of our knowledge, such a ligand is not available for the ryanodine receptor (RyR). Herein, we present a photochromic ligand (PCL) for insect RyR by decorating chlorantraniliprole (CHL) with photoswitchable azobenzene (AB). We demonstrated that one potent ligand, named ABCHL13, shows light-induced reversible trans-cis isomerization and 3.5-fold insecticidal activity decrease toward oriental armyworm (Mythimna separata) after UV-light irradiation, that is, trans-ABCH13 has higher activity than the cis-ABCH13. ABCHL13 enables optical control over intracellular Ca2+ release in dorsal unpaired median (DUM) neurons of M. separata and [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) and cardiac function of [START]P. americana[END]. Our results provide a first photopharmacological toolkit that is applicable to light-dependent regulation of RyR and heart beating.
",33252227
0,6978,"Further characterization of distinct high-affinity binding sites for dinotefuran in the abdominal nerve cord of the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Blattodea).
Dinotefuran (DTF) is a systemic neonicotinoid insecticide characterized by a tetrahydrofuran ring. In the present study, we examined the characteristics of DTF binding to native nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) expressed in the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END] using radioligand-binding methods. The Scatchard analysis, using [3H]imidacloprid (IMI), indicated that IMI has a single class of high-affinity binding sites in the [START]P. americana[END] nerve cord. In contrast, the Scatchard analysis using [3H]DTF indicated that DTF has two different classes of binding sites. Both DTF and IMI were found to bind to one of the classes, for which DTF showed low affinity. The other class, for which DTF showed high affinity, was localized in the abdominal nerve cord but not in the thoracic nerve cord. IMI showed low affinity for the high-affinity DTF binding sites. Our data suggest that DTF binds with high affinity to a nAChR subtype distinct from the high-affinity subtype for IMI. This difference might be responsible, at least in part, for the difference in resistance development to DTF and IMI in [START]P. americana[END].
",32359545
0,6978,"Morphology and three-dimensional reconstruction of the digestive system of [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
A three-dimensional (3-D) model of the digestive system of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] was built for the first time based on hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, the study of multiple cross-sections of the larval cockroach, and 3-D reconstruction technology. The digestive system of [START]P. americana[END] includes the foregut, midgut, and hindgut and takes up most of the celom. The foregut comprises almost one half of the digestive system (43.57%). The midgut, the critical region for digestion and absorption, has the second highest volume ratio (35.21%). The hindgut, with the lowest volume ratio (21.22%), includes the ileum, colon, and rectum. After the ileal valve is the colon. The 3-D model presented in this paper provides a stereoscopic view for studying the adjacent relationship and arrangement of different gut sections of [START]P. americana[END].
",19198530
0,6978,"The antifungal activity of the peptide, periplanetasin-2, derived from [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The cockroach, which is a household insect, is an established model organism in research. Periplanetasin-2, derived from the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END], exerted potent antifungal effect against pathogenic fungi without causing hemolysis. Periplanetasin-2 induced oxidative stress by generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation. Periplanetasin-2 also caused apoptosis by exposure of phosphatidylserine and fragmentation of DNA, exerted in a concentration-dependent manner. Hence, we investigated the mitochondrial apoptotic mechanism of periplanetasin-2 in Candida albicans After treatment with periplanetasin-2, we observed mitochondrial depolarization and calcium accumulation. Moreover, we observed a decrease in cytosolic glutathione, and an increase in mitochondrial glutathione, indicating that periplanetasin-2 induced oxidative stress and high ROS production in the mitochondria. Because of this mitochondrial dysfunction, cytochrome c was released from the mitochondria into the cytosol, and caspase was activated in a time-dependent manner. In summary, the antifungal peptide periplanetasin-2 activates apoptotic signals in the mitochondria by induction of oxidative stress.
",28733329
0,6978,"Ovicidal and repellent activities of several plant essential oils against [START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. and enhanced activities from their combined formulation.
Natural ovicidal and repellent agents against [START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. are urgently needed, and plant essential oils (EOs) can assume this role quite readily. In this study, ovicidal and repellent activities against [START]Periplaneta americana[END] of EOs from Cymbopogon citratus (Stapf.), Cinnamomum verum (J. Presl.), Eucalyptus globulus (Labill.), Illicium verum (Hook.f.), and Zanthoxylum limonella (Alston) in soybean oil and in ethyl alcohol were determined by topical and dual-choice assays, as well as 10% cypermethrin and a combined formulation of 5% C. verum EO + 5% I. verum EO. Cypermethrin at 10% provided the highest toxicity (100% inhibition rate) against the eggs, but only slightly higher than that (99.3%) provided by the combined EO formulation, while the highest repellent activity against the adults was provided by the combined formulation (89.5% repelled cockroaches at 48 h after treatment). In addition, all EO formulations in soybean oil provided higher ovicidal and repellent activities than those in ethyl alcohol. To conclude, the combined EO formulation in soybean oil can replace cypermethrin because their efficacy was nearly equivalent, but the combination should be much safer to use.
",35840624
0,6978,"The Regulating Effect of CII-3 and Its Active Components from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] on M1/M2 Macrophage Polarization.
CII-3 is the effective part of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] for application in oncotherapy. This study investigated its main chemical components for macrophage polarization regulation activity. Compounds were separated and purified, and their structures were elucidated based on NMR and HR-ESI-MS analyses. After inducing the M1 and M2 phenotype macrophages, CII-3 and testing components were added and co-incubated to evaluate their effects on the relevant markers of macrophages. Then, gradient concentrations of CII-3 and active monomers were further investigated for their effects on M2 macrophages. The effects were detected by RT-PCR, ELISA, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence. Twelve compounds were identified from CII-3. CII-3 and pericanaside (5) had no obvious effect on M1 macrophages, while they significantly reduced the expression levels of M2 macrophage markers. Specifically, they significantly reduced the levels of TGF-beta and IL-10 and the mRNA expression levels of ARG-1 and CD206 in the M2 phenotypes of RAW264.7 and Ana-1 macrophages. The conditioned medium of CII-3 and pericanaside (5) could inhibit the migration capacity of CT26.WT tumor cells. Macrophage M1/M2 polarization is a dynamic equilibrium, and the M2 phenotype, which can promote the growth of tumor cells, is relatively highly expressed in the tumor microenvironment. CII-3 and pericanaside could significantly reduce the phenotype of M2-type macrophages, indicating that the anti-tumor activity of CII-3 could be related to the inhibitory effect on M2 polarization, and pericanaside was one of the active components.
",35889289
0,6978,"Efficacy of entomopathogenic hypocrealean fungi against [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END], one of the worlds' most important urban insect pests was tested with entomopathogenic fungi. Most promising Metarhizium anisopliae, Metarhizium robertsii and Beauveria bassiana killed nymphs (>= 81.7% mortality, 25 days after treatment), and these fungi developed on all dead insects. Other fungi tested were less virulent (Metarhizium frigidum and Purpureocillium lilacinum) or avirulent (Isaria cateniobliqua, Isaria farinosa, Simplicillium lanosoniveum, Sporothrix insectorum and Tolypocladium cylindrosporum). Intrageneric and intraspecific variability of fungal activity was detected. Adults were highly susceptible, and oothecae proved to be more resistant than nymphs and adults to infection with M. anisopliae IP 46. Findings of the study underscore the potential of fungi as biocontrol agents against this pest.
",23899866
0,6978,"A composite hydrogel loading natural polysaccharides derived from [START]Periplaneta americana[END] herbal residue for diabetic wound healing.
In view of the long medicinal use history of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] for manifold ulcer or skin wounds treatment, the comprehensive utilization value of [START]P. americana[END] herbal residue was evaluated. In this study, we isolated a polysaccharide fraction from [START]P. americana[END] herbal residue with the potential wound healing effect, named as PAP faction, based on our previous study and provided the structural and monosaccharide composition characterization. To improve the topical wound dressing property, a novel composite hydrogel consisting of PAP, carbomer 940 (CBM), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with different ratios were prepared and optimized. Mediated by the physical crosslinking effect among these polymers, the composite hydrogel exhibited good three-dimensional network structures, good swelling and water retention capacity, moderate mechanical property in rheological test. And then, the good cytocompatibility of hydrogel was corroborated by 3T3 fibroblast proliferation assay. Finally, the composite hydrogel loading PAP has been proved to accelerate wound healing in diabetic rat models, by promoting wound closure, collagen deposition, M2 macrophages polarization and angiogenesis. In summary, this study would provide an effective and promising wound dressing candidate for the prevention and treatment of diabetic wound, based on the ecological concept of the comprehensive utilization of natural herbal resources.
",32841667
0,6978,"Potassium fluxes across the blood brain barrier of the cockroach, [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Potassium fluxes across the blood-brain barrier of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] were measured using the scanning ion-selective microelectrode technique. In salines containing 15 mM or 25 mMK(+), an efflux of K(+) from the ganglia of isolated nerve cords was counterbalanced by an influx across the connectives. Metabolic inhibition with CN(-) resulted in an increase in K(+) efflux across both the ganglia and the connectives. Depletion of K(+) by chilling the nerve cords in K(+)-free saline was associated with subsequent K(+) influx across the connectives in K(+)-replete saline at room temperature. There were dramatic increases in K(+) efflux across both ganglia and connectives when the nerve cords were exposed to the pore-forming antibiotic amphotericin B. K(+) fluxes across the ventral nerve cord were also altered when paracellular leakage was augmented by transient exposure to 3M urea. K(+) efflux was reduced by the K(+) channel blockers Ba(2+) and tetraethylammonium or by exposure to Ca(2+)-free saline and K(+) efflux from the ganglia was increased by addition of ouabain to the bathing saline. The results provide direct support for a model proposing that K(+) is cycled through a current loop between the ganglia and the connectives and that both the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase and K(+) channels are implicated in extracellular K(+) homeostasis within the central nervous system.
",20932972
0,6978,"Two glycoproteins from medicinal insect [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (L.) promote diabetic wound healing via macrophage polarization modulation.
Along with the increasing attempts to explore the wound healing effective substances of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (L.) (PA), a medicinal insect in traditional Chinese medicine, researchers' attention turned to the endogenetic macromolecules, such as polysaccharides and peptides. Herein, we innovatively isolated two glycoproteins from PA, named PAGP-1 and PAGP-2, which were obtained by Cellulose DE-52 chromatography and purified by Sephadex G-100 gel in succession. The structural characterization of the two PAGPs were performed, including molecular weight, amino acid and monosaccharide composition, morphology analysis, FT-IR and 1H NMR analysis, CD spectroscopy, and glycosides linkage. As a result, two PAGPs belonged to O-glycopeptide bonds linked glycoproteins. The content of carbohydrate and protein of PAGP-1 was approximately 25.23% and 65.92% respectively, which of PAGP-2 was approximately 25.71% and 71.23%. Based on the remarkable anti-inflammatory effects of PAGPs on LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells, the topical administration of PAGP-1 and PAGP-2 could significantly accelerate full-thickness wound healing in diabetic mice, involving to alleviate the inflammation, increase the ratio of type I and type III collagen fibers, and promote the polarization of macrophages M1 to M2. In short, this study provides clear evidence that the glycoproteins would be the potential wound healing bioactive substances in PA.
",35500775
0,6978,"Coding of odour and space in the hemimetabolous insect [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The general architecture of the olfactory system is highly conserved from insects to humans, but neuroanatomical and physiological differences can be observed across species. The [START]American cockroach[END], inhabiting dark shelters with a rather stable olfactory landscape, is equipped with long antennae used for sampling the surrounding air-space for orientation and navigation. The antennae's exceptional length provides a wide spatial working range for odour detection; however, it is still largely unknown whether and how this is also used for mapping the structure of the olfactory environment. By selectively labelling antennal lobe projection neurons with a calcium-sensitive dye, we investigated the logic of olfactory coding in this hemimetabolous insect. We show that odour responses are stimulus specific and concentration dependent, and that structurally related odorants evoke physiologically similar responses. By using spatially confined stimuli, we show that proximal stimulations induce stronger and faster responses than distal ones. Spatially confined stimuli of the female pheromone periplanone B activate a subregion of the male macroglomerulus. Thus, we report that the combinatorial logic of odour coding deduced from holometabolous insects applies also to this hemimetabolous species. Furthermore, a fast decrease in sensitivity along the antenna, not supported by a proportionate decrease in sensillar density, suggests a neural architecture that strongly emphasizes neuronal inputs from the proximal portion of the antenna.
",31932303
0,6978,"[START]Periplaneta americana[END] L. a potential source of traditional medicine: chemometric analysis, in vitro and in silico study.
'Mayurbhanj is the ethnic dominant tribal population district in Odisha, India. The triabl's of Mayurbhanj depends on traditional medicines since time immemorial for health-related issues. Due to the imperative ethnic claim of traditional healers, the financial stringency of the patient community and the necessity to produce a better therapeutic effect has led to investigate ethno zoological sources and to find out the biochemical moiety responsible for the healing process. Considering the ethnic communities' acceptability of the zoological source as traditional medicine, the current evidence-based research study is conducted to investigate the biochemical moiety present in [START]Periplaneta americana[END], responsible for therapeutic activity. The whole powdered [START]Periplaneta americana[END] was extracted using maceration techniques with n-hexane and methanol as solvent. The obtained extracts were subjected to GC-MS analysis to identify the biochemical moiety. To check the potential biological activity, an in-vitro antimicrobial test was carried out in both turbidimetry and a viable count method against E. coli. Moreover, the obtained biochemical molecules were exposed to in silico studies for their binding modes and their affinity using Discovery studio software. The major compounds were found to be hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, n-hexadecanoic acid, oleic acid, octadecanoic acid along with other minor constituents. The maximum inhibitory activity of n-hexane and methanol extract against S. aureus at a concentration of 400 microg/mL was found to be 89 and 87%, respectively. The binding models of almost all identified compounds confer very good binding affinities with some key and strong non-covalent interactions with various amino acid residues of receptor active site pocket, which predict the compounds to be potent inhibitors of various infectious bacteria. These findings suggested that the hexane extract of [START]P. americana[END] could be exploited as a potential natural source. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
",34151747
0,6978,"A Schiff base hydrogel dressing loading extracts from [START]Periplaneta Americana[END] for diabetic wound healing.
As a common complication of diabetic patients, the chronic wound of diabetes has a high incidence, expensive treatment, and recurrence probability, which causes long-term negative impacts on patients' daily life. In this study, the hydrogel was formed by Schiff base reaction between oxidized hyaluronic acid (OHA) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS), and the composite hydrogel dressing was prepared by adding the active polypeptides extract of [START]Periplaneta Americana[END] ([START]PAE[END]). By mass spectrometer determined, [START]PAE[END] mainly includes vitellogenins that can trigger an immune response. The composite hydrogel has good swelling properties, proper fluidity, and a regular 3D network structure. The hydrogel has good cytocompatibility and can promote cell proliferation by L929 fibroblast assay. Finally, it was used to evaluate the effect of diabetic wound repair. The results showed that it could effectively promote wound healing, promote tissue and vascular regeneration, inhibit inflammatory factors, and promote the expression of growth factors. The OHA/CMCS/[START]PAE[END] hydrogels would be promising candidates for chronic wound healing applications.
",36641022
0,6978,"Presence of the [START]Periplaneta[END] lectin-related protein family in the [START]American cockroach[END] [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
We determined the partial amino acid sequences of [START]Periplaneta[END] lectin, which we had purified and characterized previously from the hemolymph of the [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) [Kubo T. and Natori S. (1987) Eur. J. Biochem. 168, 75-82]. Based on these sequences, we performed PCR and found that the cDNA library of the [START]Periplaneta[END] fat body contained many similar, but not identical, [START]Periplaneta[END] lectin-related cDNAs. Analysis of the cloned cDNAs suggested that [START]Periplaneta[END] has a protein family, of which the [START]periplaneta[END] lectin and LPS binding protein purified previously are members.
",8814782
0,6978,"Experimental infection of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] with Toxocara canis and the establishment of patent infections in pups.
The possible role of the cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END] in the transmission of Toxocara canis eggs and larvae via faeces and tissue migration was studied. Cockroaches fed with 3 x 105 and 5 x 105 embryonated eggs were found to harbour viable eggs and larvae from days 1 to 5 post-infection (DPI). At necropsy on 5 DPI, eggs and larvae were also recovered from the rectal contents but not from the tissues of cockroaches. In addition patent infections were established in pups fed on infected faeces of cockroaches, with eggs first appearing in the faeces of pups at 38 DPI. Adult worms of T. canis were also recovered at necropsy. Therefore the importance of cockroaches as good mechanical disseminators of ascarid eggs, especially T. canis, is discussed.
",18053303
0,6978,"Phenotypic plasticity in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] photoreceptors.
Plasticity is a crucial aspect of neuronal physiology essential for proper development and continuous functional optimization of neurons and neural circuits. Despite extensive studies of different visual systems, little is known about plasticity in mature microvillar photoreceptors. Here we investigate changes in electrophysiological properties and gene expression in photoreceptors of the adult cockroach, [START]Periplaneta americana[END], after exposure to constant light (CL) or constant dark (CD) for several months. After CL, we observed a decrease in mean whole-cell capacitance, a proxy for cell membrane area, from 362 +- 160 to 157 +- 58 pF, and a decrease in absolute sensitivity. However, after CD, we observed an increase in capacitance to 561 +- 155 pF and an increase in absolute sensitivity. Small changes in the expression of light-sensitive channels and signaling molecules were detected in CD retinas, together with a substantial increase in the expression of the primary green-sensitive opsin (GO1). Accordingly, light-induced currents became larger in CD photoreceptors. Even though normal levels of GO1 expression were retained in CL photoreceptors, light-induced currents became much smaller, suggesting that factors other than opsin are involved. Latency of phototransduction also decreased significantly in CL photoreceptors. Sustained voltage-activated K+ conductance was not significantly different between the experimental groups. The reduced capacitance of CL photoreceptors expanded their bandwidth, increasing the light-driven voltage signal at high frequencies. However, voltage noise was also amplified, probably because of unaltered expression of TRPL channels. Consequently, information transfer rates were lower in CL than in control or CD photoreceptors. These changes in whole-cell capacitance and electrophysiological parameters suggest that structural modifications can occur in the photoreceptors to adapt their function to altered environmental conditions. The opposing patterns of modifications in CL and CD photoreceptors differ profoundly from previous findings in Drosophila melanogaster photoreceptors.
",30115661
0,6978,"[START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Insecta: Blattodea) and organ fibrosis: A mini review.
Fibrosis is the end stage of many chronic inflammatory diseases and eventually leads to organ failure. [START]Periplaneta americana[END] ([START]P. americana[END]) is referred to as ""the product of flesh and blood"" in traditional Chinese medicine and has a wide range of therapeutic effects. Owing to the growing interest in this insect for its application in the treatment of tissue injury-healing disorders that induce organ fibrosis, it has attracted the interest of researchers. A literature search was performed using core collections of electronic databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang, using the keywords given below and terms such as pharmacological and biochemical details of this insect. [START]P. americana[END] extracts presented a wide range of therapeutic and biological activities, including antifibrotic, antiinflammatory, antioxidative, and tissue repair activities. Emerging evidence suggests that [START]P. americana[END] extracts may improve scarring, pulmonary fibrosis, liver fibrosis, and kidney fibrosis through the regulation of fibroblast activation, cytokine secretion, and deposition of fibrin, indicating the potential role of [START]P. americana[END] as a therapeutic option for organ fibrosis. [START]P. americana[END] is a potential therapeutic agent for treating fibrosis. Further studies are required for a more in-depth characterization of the antifibrogenic mechanism of [START]P. americana[END] prior to its clinical application in the treatment of organ fibrosis. (Fig. 1).
",36595847
0,6978,"[Review on investigations related to chemical constituents and biological activities of [START]Periplaneta americana[END]].
With the fast development of medicinal animals as new drugs, research on [START]Periplaneta americana[END] become hot recently. Several drugs which mainly consisted of [START]P. americana[END] were approved for clinical applications. The chemical constituents and pharmacological bioactivities of this insect were summarized herein, which provides informativon for further researches on this medicinal animal.
",18309679
0,6978,"Anticancer Activity of Periplanetasin-5, an Antimicrobial Peptide from the Cockroach [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Cockroaches live in places where various pathogens exist and thus are more likely to use antimicrobial compounds to defend against pathogen intrusions. We previously performed an in silico analysis of the [START]Periplaneta americana[END] transcriptome and detected periplanetasin-5 using an in silico antimicrobial peptide prediction method. In this study, we investigated whether periplanetasin-5 has anticancer activity against the human leukemia cell line K562. Cell growth and survival of K562 cells treated with periplanetasin-5 were decreased in a dose-dependent manner. By using flow cytometric analysis, acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) staining and DNA fragmentation, we found that periplanetasin-5 induced apoptotic and necrotic cell death in leukemia cells. In addition, these events were associated with increased levels of the pro-apoptotic proteins Fas and cytochrome c and reduced levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. Periplanetasin-5 induces the cleavage of pro-caspase-9, pro-caspase-8, pro-caspase-3, and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). The above data suggest that periplanetasin-5 induces apoptosis via both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Moreover, caspase-related apoptosis was further confirmed by using the caspase inhibitor carbobenzoxy-valyl-alanyl-aspartyl-[O-methyl]- fluoromethylketone (Z-VAD-FMK), which reversed the periplanetasin-5-induced reduction in cell viability. In conclusion, periplanetasin-5 caused apoptosis in leukemia cells, suggesting its potential utility as an anticancer therapeutic agent.
",34409948
0,6978,"Intraspecific Signals Inducing Aggregation in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (Insecta: Dictyoptera).
Chemical communication is necessary to induce aggregation and to maintain the cohesion of aggregates in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] (L.) cockroaches. We aimed to identify the chemical message inducing aggregation in this species. Two types of bioassays were used-binary choice tests in Petri dishes and tests in Y-olfactometer. Papers conditioned by direct contact of conspecifics induce aggregation when proposed in binary choice tests and were attractive in a Y-olfactometer. The identification of the molecules present on these conditioned papers indicated that dichloromethane extracts contained mainly cuticular hydrocarbons whereas methanol extracts contained more volatile molecules. Only a mixture of extracts in both solvents induced aggregation. High concentrations of cuticular hydrocarbons are necessary to induce aggregation when presented alone. When presented with volatile molecules present in methanol extracts, low concentrations of cuticular hydrocarbons are sufficient to induce aggregation if they are presented in contact. Among volatile molecules collected on filter paper, a mixture of three compounds-hexadecanoic acid, pentadecanoic acid, and pentaethylene glycol-induced aggregation. Our results provide evidence that aggregation processes in [START]P. americana[END] relies on a dual mechanism: attraction over long distances by three volatile molecules and maintenance on site by contact with cuticular hydrocarbons. 
",26313978
0,6978,"Myofilaments promote wing expansion and maintain genitalia morphology in the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Insects are the most widely distributed and successful animals on the planet. A large number of insects are capable of flight with functional wings. Wing expansion is an important process for insects to achieve functional wings after eclosion and healthy genital morphology is crucial for adult reproduction. Myofilaments are functional units that constitute sarcomeres and trigger muscle contraction. Here, we identified four myofilament proteins, including Myosin, Paramyosin, Tropomyosin and Troponin T, from the wing pads of nymphs in the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. RNAi-mediated knockdown of Myosin, Paramyosin, Tropomyosin and Troponin T in the early stage of final instar nymphs caused a severely curly wing phenotype in the imaginal molt, especially in the Paramyosin and Troponin T knockdown groups, indicating that these myofilament proteins are involved in controlling wing expansion behaviors during the nymph-adult transition. In addition, the knockdown resulted in abnormal external genitalia, caused ovulation failure and affected male accessory gland development. Interestingly, the expression of myofilament genes was induced by methoprene, a juvenile hormone (JH) analog, and decreased by the depletion of the JH receptor gene Met. Altogether, we have determined that myofilament genes play an important role in promoting wing expansion and maintaining adult genitalia morphology, and their expression is induced by juvenile hormone signaling. Our data reveals a novel mechanism by which wing expansion is regulated by myofilaments and the functions of myofilaments are involved in maintaining genitalia morphology. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
",36214335
0,6978,"The sources of electrophysiological variability in the retina of [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Variability in the electrophysiological properties of homotypic photoreceptors is widespread and is thought to facilitate functioning under disparate illumination conditions. Compound eyes of insects have three sources of variability: inter-individual, intra-individual, and intra-ommatidial, the latter two overlapping. Here, I explored the causes of variability in [START]Periplaneta americana[END], a nocturnal insect characterized by highly variable photoreceptor responses. By recording from photoreceptors in dissociated ommatidia, including consecutive recordings from photoreceptors in the same ommatidium (SO), I studied the variability of six properties: whole-cell membrane capacitance (Cm), phototransduction latency, maximal conductance (Gmax) and the slope factor of the sustained Kv current, absolute sensitivity in dim light, and sustained light-induced current (LIC) amplitude in bright light. Coefficient of variation (CV) metrics were used to compare variances in four experimental groups: SO, same animal (SA), all data combined ""full sample"" (FS), and full sample of all SO recordings (FSSO). For the normally distributed parameters Cm, Gmax, slope factor, and latency, the highest CV values were found in FS and FSSO, intermediate in SA, and the lowest in SO. On average, SO variance accounted for 47% of the full-sample variance in these four parameters. Absolute sensitivity and LIC values were not normally distributed, and the differences in variability between SO and FS/FSSO groups were smaller than for the other four parameters. These results indicate two main sources of variability, intra-ommatidial and inter-individual. Inter-individual variability was investigated by exposing adult cockroaches to constant light or dark for several months. In both groups, the majority of CV measures for the six parameters decreased compared to control, indicating substantial contribution of phenotypic plasticity to inter-individual differences. Analysis of variability of resting potential and elementary voltage responses revealed that resting potential is mainly determined by the sustained Kv conductance, whereas voltage bump amplitude is mainly determined by current bump amplitude and Cm.
",30915923
0,6978,"The contribution of the melanin pathway to overall body pigmentation during ontogenesis of [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
The most prominent colors observed in insects are black or brown, whose production is attributed to the melanin pathway. At present, though, the contribution of this pathway to overall body pigmentation throughout ontogenesis is still lacking. To address this question we examined the roles of 2 key melanin genes (TH and DDC), in embryonic and postembryonic development of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Our results show that the melanin pathway does not contribute to the light brown coloration observed in the first nymphs. However, the dark brown coloration in mid nymphs and adults is produced solely from the melanin pathway. In addition, the DDC RNAi results reveal that it is dopamine melanin, not DOPA melanin, acts as the main contributor in this process. Overall, present study provides a new insight into insect pigmentation suggesting that genetic mechanisms of coloration can change during ontogenesis. Future studies of additional basal insect lineages will be required to assess in more details the generality of this phenomenon. 
",27158782
0,6978,"Matrix metalloproteinases are involved in eclosion and wing expansion in the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END].
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are the major proteinases that process or degrade numerous extracellular matrix (ECM) components and are evolutionarily conserved from nematodes to humans. During molting in insects, the old cuticle is removed and replaced by a new counterpart. Although the regulatory mechanisms of hormones and nutrients in molting have been well studied, very little is known about the roles of ECM-modifying enzymes in this process. Here, we found that MMPs are necessary for imaginal molting of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. Inhibition of Mmp activity via inhibitor treatment led to the failure of eclosion and wing expansion. Five Mmps genes were identified from the [START]P. americana[END] genome, and PaMmp2 played the dominant roles during molting. Further microscopic investigations showed that newly formed adult cuticles were attenuated and that then chitin content was reduced upon Mmp inhibition. Transcriptomic analysis of the integument demonstrated that multiple signaling and metabolic pathways were changed. Microscopic investigation of the wings showed that epithelial cells were restrained together because they were incapable of degrading the ECM upon Mmp inhibition. Transcriptomic analysis of the wing identified dozens of possible genes functioned in wing expansion. This is the first study to show the essential roles of Mmps in the nymph-adult transition of hemimetabolous insects.
",33556555
0,6978,"The role of the [START]American cockroach[END] ([START]Periplaneta americana[END]) as transport host of Eimeria tenella to chickens.
The role of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END] as transport host for Eimeria tenella was evaluated. Twenty-four cockroaches were orally fed with sporulated oocysts of E. tenella. Their feces and digestive tract were examined for oocysts by sugar centrifugal flotation technique and PCR. Infectivity of the oocysts recovered from the digestive tract of infected cockroaches as well as from their feces was evaluated by orally inoculating them into Boris Brown chickens. E. tenella oocysts were found in the digestive tract and feces of infected cockroaches up to day 4 after ingestion of oocysts. Furthermore, oocysts that were recovered from the digestive tract and feces of cockroaches remained infective for 4 and 3 days after ingestion of oocysts, respectively. Presence of oocysts in the feces of chicken that had been inoculated with either digestive tract or feces of [START]P. americana[END] demonstrated the infectivity of E. tenella oocysts from digestive tract or feces, suggesting that [START]P. americana[END] may play a role in the transmission of E. tenella among chicken and between chicken flocks.
",31093752
0,6978,"Function of the lipopolysaccharide-binding protein of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] as an opsonin.
Previously, we reported the purification of an LPS-binding protein from the hemolymph of the [START]American cockroach[END] that was specific for E. coli LPS. In this study we found that this protein participated in the clearance of E. coli cells injected into the abdominal cavity of the cockroach, and that hemocytes ingested E. coli cells treated with this LPS-binding protein in vitro. These findings suggest that this LPS-binding protein acts as an opsonin.
",1537405
0,6978,"[Threshold temperature and effective accumulative temperature of [START]Periplaneta Americana[END]].
[START]Periplaneta americana[END] is an important medicinal insect. A series of new drugs developed from it have remarkable clinical effects and are in great demand in the market. Because of unclear biology, the quality and yield of [START]P. americana[END] are affected. Understanding the developmental threshold temperature and effective accumulated temperature of [START]P. americana[END] can provide theoretical basis for standardized culture of [START]P.americana[END]. Under climate chamber, the threshold temperature and effective accumulated temperature for egg development of [START]P. americana[END] to were determined through effective accumulated temperature law. The threshold temperature was (15.8+-0.71) C, the effective accumulated temperature was 415.8+-38.05 degree days. A model of the relationship between temperature and developmental rates was established.
",30583620
0,6978,"Development of microparticles for oral administration of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] extract to treat ulcerative colitis.
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic disease, which can result the inflammation of the rectum, mucosa of the colon, and submucosa. The active component such as polypeptide in [START]Periplaneta americana[END], which is one of the most common insects in the nature, can be extracted to treat UC. However, the active components in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] extract (PAE) can be degraded in the stomach due to its extreme acidic environment and enzyme. In this study, we developed a pH-dependent drug delivery method using polymer cellulose acetate (Eudragit S100) as a carrier to deliver high concentration PAE to inflamed colon. Both in vitro and in vivo results showed the PAE-Eudragit-S100 could treat UC through delivering active drug components to colon without degradation.
",35982644
0,6978,"Progesterone in [START]Periplaneta americana[END] and Neobellieria bullata adults from the procuticle phase until first progeny production.
A significant amount of progesterone-like immunoreactive material (150 ng/g) was measured by EIA in the procuticle phase of adult of both sexes of [START]Periplaneta americana[END]. This peak markedly decreased to 1-10 ng/g during sclerotization and was unlikely to be of dietary origin. In the case of 0-hr-old [START]P. americana[END] adults 96-98% of progesterone-like material was localized in the digestive tract and Malpighian tubules. In contrast, a relatively low level of progesterone-like immunoreactive material was measured in 0-hr-old Neobellieria bullata adults. Activity of 3beta-HSD/isomerase converting pregnenolone to progesterone was high (22-43 fmol/mg protein/20 min) in 0-hr-old [START]P. americana[END] adults and significantly fell during sclerotization. High progesterone levels (13-16 ng/g), measured by HPLC-RIA, coexist with high levels of 3beta-HSD/isomerase activity. Orally active human contraceptives (ethisterone, ethynodiol, ethynodiol diacetate, lynestrenol, mestranol, norgestrel, norethynodrel, tamoxifen citrate, and mifepristone) which act on mammalian steroid receptors had no significant effects on progeny production in either polytrophic or meroistic insect ovaries even at concentration of 5000 mg/kg.
",9268626
0,6978,"Different neuroendocrine cell types in the pars intercerebralis of [START]Periplaneta americana[END] produce their own specific IGF-related peptides.
Of the nine genes of the [START]American cockroach[END], [START]Periplaneta americana[END], coding for peptides related to insulin and insulin-like growth factor, seven show significant expression in the central nervous system as demonstrated by the polymerase chain reaction on reverse transcribed RNA. In situ hybridisation shows that five of those are expressed by cells in the pars intercerebralis. Antisera raised to the predicted peptides show that these cells are neuroendocrine in nature and project to the corpora cardiaca. Interestingly, there are at least three cell types that each express different genes. This contrasts with Drosophila where a single cell type expresses a number of genes expressing several such peptides. Whereas in Drosophila the neuroendocrine cells producing insulin-like peptides also express sulfakinins, the arthropod orthologs of gastrin and cholecystokinin, in [START]Periplaneta[END] the sulfakinins are produced by different cells. Other neuropeptides known to be produced by the pars intercerebralis in [START]Periplaneta[END] and other insect species, such as the CRF-like diuretic hormone, neuroparsin, leucokinin or myosuppressin, neither colocalize with an insulin-related peptide. The separate cellular localization of these peptides and the existence of multiple insulin receptors in this species implies a more complex regulation by insulin and IGF-related peptides in cockroaches than in the fruit fly.
",36791825
0,7010,"The Sensilla-Specific Expression and Subcellular Localization of SNMP1 and SNMP2 Reveal Novel Insights into Their Roles in the Antenna of the [START]Desert Locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
Insect olfactory sensilla house olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and supports cells (SCs). The olfactory sensory processes require, besides the odorant receptors (ORs), insect-specific members of the CD36 family, named sensory neuron membrane proteins (SNMPs). While SNMP1 is considered to act as a coreceptor in the OR-mediated detection of pheromones, SNMP2 was found to be expressed in SCs; however, its function is unknown. For the [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], we previously visualized mRNA for SNMP1 in OSNs and SNMP2 mRNA in cells associated with OSN clusters. Towards an understanding of their functional implication, it is imperative to explore the cellular and the subcellular localization the SNMP proteins. Therefore, we have generated polyclonal antibodies against SNMP1 and SNMP2 and used fluorescence immunohistochemistry (FIHC) to visualize the SNMP proteins. We found SNMP1 in the somata and respective dendrites of all OSNs in trichoid sensilla and in subsets of OSNs in basiconic sensilla. Notably, SNMP1 was also detected in SCs of these sensilla types. In contrast, SNMP2 protein was only visualized in SCs of basiconic and coeloconic sensilla, but not of trichoid sensilla. Exploring the subcellular localization by electron microscopy using anti-SNMP1-ab and anti-SNMP2-ab revealed an immunogold labelling of SC microvilli bordering the sensillum lymph. Together our findings suggest a dual role of SNMP1 in the antenna of [START]S. gregaria[END], in some OSN subpopulations in odor detection as well as in functions of some SCs, whereas the role of SNMP2 is limited to the functions of support cells.
",35886755
0,7010,"Sensilla-Specific Expression of Odorant Receptors in the [START]Desert Locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
The [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] recognizes multiple chemical cues, which are received by olfactory sensory neurons housed in morphologically identifiable sensilla. The different sensillum types contain olfactory sensory neurons with different physiological specificities, i.e., they respond to different categories of chemical signals. The molecular basis for the sensilla-specific responsiveness of these cells is unknown, but probably based on the endogenous receptor repertoire. To explore this issue, attempts were made to elucidate whether distinct odorant receptors (ORs) may be expressed in a sensilla-specific manner. Analyzing more than 80 OR types concerning for a sensilla-specific expression revealed that the vast majority was found to be expressed in sensilla basiconica; whereas only three OR types were expressed in sensilla trichodea. Within a sensillum unit, even in the multicellular assembly of sensilla basiconica, many of the OR types were expressed in only a single cell, however, a few OR types were found to be expressed in a consortium of cells typically arranged in a cluster of 2-4 cells. The notion that the OR-specific cell clusters are successively formed in the course of development was confirmed by comparing the expression patterns in different nymph stages. The results of this study uncover some novel and unique features of locust olfactory system, which will contribute to unravel the complexity of locust olfaction.
",31507434
0,7010,"A novel locust (Schistocerca gregaria) serine protease inhibitor with a high affinity for neutrophil elastase.
We have purified to homogeneity two forms of a new serine protease inhibitor specific for elastase/chymotrypsin from the ovary gland of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]. This protein, greglin, has 83 amino acid residues and bears putative phosphorylation sites. Amino acid sequence alignments revealed no homology with pacifastin insect inhibitors and only a distant relationship with Kazal-type inhibitors. This was confirmed by computer-based structural studies. The most closely related homologue is a putative gene product from Ciona intestinalis with which it shares 38% sequence homology. Greglin is a fast-acting and tight binding inhibitor of human neutrophil elastase (k(ass)=1.2x10(7) M(-1) x s(-1), K(i)=3.6 nM) and subtilisin. It also binds neutrophil cathepsin G, pancreatic elastase and chymotrypsin with a lower affinity (26 nM< or =K(i)< or =153 nM), but does not inhibit neutrophil protease 3 or pancreatic trypsin. The capacity of greglin to inhibit neutrophil elastase was not significantly affected by exposure to acetonitrile, high temperature (90 degrees C), low or high pH (2.5-11.0), N-chlorosuccinimide-mediated oxidation or the proteolytic enzymes trypsin, papain and pseudolysin from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Greglin efficiently inhibits the neutrophil elastase activity of sputum supernatants from cystic fibrosis patients. Its biological function in the locust ovary gland is currently unknown, but its physicochemical properties suggest that it can be used as a template to design a new generation of highly resistant elastase inhibitors for treating inflammatory diseases.
",16839309
0,7010,"Mutualism between the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] and its gut microbiota.
The [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] contains a relatively simple but abundant gut microbiota which originated from the insect's diet. The gut bacterial population is dominated by Enterobacteriaceae with a major component of enterococci. Microbial metabolism of secondary plant chemicals in the locust gut produces phenolics useful to the locust host. Some products are antimicrobial and contribute to host defense against pathogens, others are employed by the host as components of the aggregation pheromone. This dual benefit suggests a closer degree of integration between the locust and its microbial community than was previously suspected.
",12437211
0,7010,"Sexual differentiation in adult insects: male-specific cuticular yellowing in [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] as a model for reevaluating some current (neuro)endocrine concepts.
Changes in the color of the cuticle, days after the completion of hardening, are rare in adult insects. Even more so when such changes are specific to one sexual form and coincide with sexual maturation. Adult males of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] deposit a well characterized 'yellow protein' in their cuticle about 10 days after the adult molt, but only if they live under crowded (gregarious) conditions. Isolated-reared (solitarious) males do not turn yellow, neither do the females. Upon regrouping, yellowing is quickly induced, but again, only in the males. Juvenile hormone (JH) is involved, but its sex- and phase-specific effect suggests that other factors are also involved. We analyzed the recent and classical literature to find out what should be added or changed to the classical way of thinking on sex differentiation in insects so that a comprehensive conceptual framework could emerge. Undervalued and/or new data on male accessory glands as a possible second site of JH synthesis, on ecdysteroids as possible sex steroids, on the transcription factor fruitless in insects and on the evolutionarily highly conserved transcription factor Foxl2 that, when ablated in mice is responsible for the transdifferentiation of the ovaries into testes, are considered.
",20223244
0,7010,"Early embryonic development of Johnston's organ in the antenna of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
Johnston's organ has been shown to act as an antennal auditory organ across a spectrum of insect species. In the hemimetabolous [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], Johnston's organ must be functional on hatching and so develops in the pedicellar segment of the antenna during embryogenesis. Here, we employ the epithelial cell marker Lachesin to identify the pedicellar domain of the early embryonic antenna and then triple-label against Lachesin, the mitosis marker phosphohistone-3, and neuron-specific horseradish peroxidase to reveal the sense-organ precursors for Johnston's organ and their lineages. Beginning with a single progenitor at approximately a third of embryogenesis, additional precursors subsequently appear in both the ventral and dorsal pedicellar domains, each generating a lineage or clone. Lineage locations are remarkably conserved across preparations and ages, consistent with the epithelium possessing an underlying topographic coordinate system that determines the cellular organization of Johnston's organ. By mid-embryogenesis, twelve lineages are arranged circumferentially in the pedicel as in the adult structure. Each sense-organ precursor is associated with a smaller mitotically active cell from which the neuronal complement of each clone may derive. Neuron numbers within a clone increase in discrete steps with age and are invariant between clones and across preparations of a given age. At mid-embryogenesis, each clone comprises five cells consolidated into a tightly bound cartridge. A long scolopale extends apically from each cartridge to an insertion point in the epithelium, and bundled axons project basally toward the brain. Comparative data suggest mechanisms that might also regulate the developmental program of Johnston's organ in the locust.
",36138225
0,7010,"Anatomical organization of the cerebrum of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
The [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] is a major agricultural pest in North Africa and the Middle East. As such, it has been intensely studied, in particular with respect to population dynamics, sensory processing, feeding behavior flight and locomotor control, migratory behavior, and its neuroendocrine system. Being a long-range migratory species, neural mechanisms underlying sky compass orientation have been studied in detail. To further understand neuronal interactions in the brain of the locust, a deeper understanding of brain organization in this insect has become essential. As a follow-up of a previous study illustrating the layout of the locust brain (Kurylas et al. in J Comp Neurol 484:206-223, 2008), we analyze the cerebrum, the central brain minus gnathal ganglia, of the [START]desert locust[END] in more detail and provide a digital three-dimensional atlas of 48 distinguishable brain compartments and 7 major fiber tracts and commissures as a basis for future functional studies. Neuropils were three-dimensionally reconstructed from synapsin-immunostained whole mount brains. Neuropil composition and their internal organization were analyzed and compared to the neuropils of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Most brain areas have counterparts in Drosophila. Some neuropils recognized in the locust, however, have not been identified in the fly while certain areas in the fly could not be distinguished in the locust. This study paves the way for more detailed anatomical descriptions of neuronal connections and neuronal cell types in the locust brain, facilitates interspecies comparisons among insect brains and points out possible evolutionary differences in brain organization between hemi- and holometabolous insects.
",29744590
0,7010,"Expression of odorant-binding proteins in mouthpart palps of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
Odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) are essential molecular elements of the insect chemosensory system, which is composed of the antennae and the mouthpart palps (maxillary and labial). In this study, we have analysed the expression and the sensilla specificity of 14 OBP subtypes in the palps of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]. The locust palps comprise only a low number of sensilla basiconica but a high number of sensilla chaetica. Employing a variety of approaches, we found that only a subset of the antennal OBP repertoire was expressed in both palp types. These OBPs were previously shown to be expressed either in sensilla basiconica or sensilla chaetica of the antennae. Comparing the expression pattern in the two chemosensory organs revealed similarities and differences; most remarkably, two OBP subtypes, OBP6 and OBP8, were found in both sensilla types on palps, whereas on the antennae they were solely expressed in one sensillum type. Together, the data indicate a differential, but partly overlapping, expression of OBPs in the two sensilla types of the palps. The differences in the expression pattern of OBP subtypes between antennae and palps might be indicative for distinct functions of the OBPs in the two chemosensory organs.
",30375079
0,7010,"The [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], plastically manipulates egg size by regulating both egg numbers and production rate according to population density.
Egg-size adjustment is one of the important plastic life-history traits for animals living in heterogeneous environments. The adaptive investment hypothesis predicts that mothers should increase progeny size according to certain cues predicting adverse future conditions of their offspring. However, reproductive resources are limited, and females have to simultaneously reduce egg number to allocate more resources to increase size. It remains unclear how single individuals alter egg size and number according to temporally heterogeneous environments. In the present study, we examined how [START]desert locusts[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], plastically alter egg size and number according to population density. We also investigated the trans-generational maternal effects on progeny characteristics as well as their own maternal physiological response (oviposition interval). Females kept in crowded conditions laid significantly larger and heavier eggs by reducing clutch size (number of eggs per egg pod) compared to isolated females, suggesting the existence of a reproductive trade-off between the two traits. The crowding-forced isolated females induced concerted changes not only in egg size but also in egg number tending towards those characteristics of gregarious control, implying that single individuals showed trade-off when egg size was increased. Double-blind testing confirmed the rapid crowding effects on egg size. Females also responded to crowding by extending the oviposition interval. As the oviposition interval extended, egg size increased, but clutch size decreased. Eggs from crowding-forced isolated females began to produce gregarious-phase type hatchlings (large and black) instead of solitarious-phase type ones (small and green). These results suggested that [START]S. gregaria[END] plastically manipulate egg size by regulating egg numbers and egg production rate, and indicated the presence of trans-generational maternal effects on progeny phase.
",32035952
0,7010,"The adipokinetic hormones and their cognate receptor from the [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]: solution structure of endogenous peptides and models of their binding to the receptor.
Background: Neuropeptides exert their activity through binding to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). GPCRs are well-known drug targets in the pharmaceutical industry and are currently discussed as targets to control pest insects. Here, we investigate the neuropeptide adipokinetic hormone (AKH) system of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]. The [START]desert locust[END] is known for its high reproduction, and for forming devastating swarms consisting of billions of individual insects. It is also known that [START]S. gregaria[END] produces three different AKHs as ligands but has only one AKH receptor (AKHR). The AKH system is known to be essential for metabolic regulation, which is necessary for reproduction and flight activity. Methods: Nuclear magnetic resonance techniques (NMR) in a dodecylphosphocholin (DPC) micelle solution were used to determine the structure of the three AKHs. The primary sequence of the [START]S. gregaria[END] AKHR was used to construct a 3D molecular model. Next, the three AKHs were individually docked to the receptor, and dynamic simulation of the whole ligand-receptor complex in a model membrane was performed. Results: Although the three endogenous AKHs of [START]S. gregaria[END] have quite different amino acids sequences and chain length (two octa- and one decapeptide), NMR experiments assigned a turn structure in DPC micelle solution for all. The GPCR-ModSim program identified human kappa opioid receptor to be the best template after which the [START]S. gregaria[END] AKHR was modeled. All three AKHs were found to have the same binding site on this receptor, interact with similar residues of the receptor and have comparable binding constants. Molecular switches were also identified; the movement of the receptor could be visually shown when ligands (AKHs) were docked and the receptor was activated. Conclusions: The study proposes a model of binding of the three endogenous ligands to the one existing AKHR in the [START]desert locust[END] and paves the way to use such a model for the design of peptide analogs and finally, peptide mimetics, in the search for novel species-specific insecticides based on receptor-ligand interaction.
",31531269
0,7010,"Egg size-dependent embryonic development in the [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
Phenotypic plasticity in body size is a product of modification of the developmental pathway. Although hatchlings of the [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], show egg size-dependent plasticity in body size, it remains unclear how embryogenesis during egg development regulates final embryonic body size. To determine the developmental pathway causing body size variation at hatching, we examined egg and embryonic development at the early, middle, and late egg developmental stages in [START]S. gregaria[END] by comparing small and large eggs. Crowd-reared females produced larger eggs than isolated-reared females. The daily egg developmental rate was similar between small and large eggs: eggs dramatically absorbed external water after days 3 to 7 and nearly doubled the initial egg weight at the late stage of day 12. Morphological measurements of eggs and embryos at different days after oviposition revealed that large eggs were longer than small eggs throughout developmental stages. However, embryo length was similar between small and large eggs at the early stage (anatrepsis). Embryos begin to absorb yolk into their bodies after blastokinesis. The size of large-egg embryos increased significantly from the middle stage (katatrepsis) due to absorption of more yolk than small eggs. Egg length and embryo length were conspicuously larger in large eggs than in small eggs on day 12 of late katatrepsis. These results suggest that egg size did not influence the egg developmental rate and initial embryo size. Large eggs had more yolk and space, resulting in larger final embryos than small eggs. The amount of yolk and size of eggshells during katatrepsis could play a key role in determining hatchling body size in [START]S. gregaria[END].
",36528090
0,7010,"Allocation of more reproductive resource to egg size rather than clutch size of gregarious [START]desert locust[END] ([START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]) through increasing oogenesis period and oosorption rate.
The [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], shows density-dependent reproductive trade-off by laying fewer but larger eggs in crowded conditions (gregarious phase) than in isolated conditions (solitarious phase). However, the physiological mechanisms controlling reproductive resource allocation remain unclear. We examined how egg production processes, including ovulation timing (i.e., oogenesis period), oocyte and ovarian growth rates, and oosorption rate (resorbing developing terminal oocytes), regulate reproductive outputs (egg biomass per clutch, egg size, and clutch size) during a reproductive cycle in [START]S. gregaria[END] by rearing them either under isolated or crowded conditions. We observed a common density-dependent negative correlation between egg size and clutch size, with no significant difference in egg biomass between the two rearing conditions. Dissection of female locusts after different days of oviposition revealed that the daily oocyte growth rate was almost similar between the two rearing conditions, but crowd-reared females ovulated later than isolated-reared ones, resulting in further oocyte growth in the former. Terminal oocytes were renewed by previous penultimate oocytes at the onset of a new reproductive cycle, and oosorption mainly occurred at an early stage in both rearing conditions; however, crowd-reared locusts displayed higher levels of oosorption compared to their isolated-reared counterparts. Crowding induced a high oosorption rate, resulting in a reduced clutch size and a prolonged oogenesis period, which in turn allowed oocytes to intake more yolk, which was probably recycled via oosorption. These results suggest that the length of the oogenesis period and oosorption rate are manipulated by maternal density, and these physiological modifications interactively regulate reproductive trade-off in [START]S. gregaria[END].
",34838517
0,7010,"Anatomical and ultrastructural analysis of the posterior optic tubercle in the locust [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
Locusts, like other insects, partly rely on a sun compass mechanism for spatial orientation during seasonal migrations. To serve as a useful guiding cue throughout the day, however, the sun's apparent movement has to be accounted for. In locusts, a neural pathway from the accessory medulla, the circadian pacemaker, via the posterior optic tubercle, to the protocerebral bridge, part of the internal sky compass, has been proposed to mediate the required time compensation. Toward a better understanding of neural connectivities within the posterior optic tubercle, we investigated this neuropil using light and electron microscopy. Based on vesicle content, four types of synaptic profile were distinguished within the posterior optic tubercle. Immunogold labeling showed that pigment-dispersing hormone immunoreactive neurons from the accessory medulla, containing large dense-core vesicles, have presynaptic terminals in the posterior optic tubercle. Ultrastructural examination of two Neurobiotin-injected tangential neurons of the protocerebral bridge revealed that these neurons are postsynaptic in the posterior optic tubercle. Our data, therefore, support a role of the posterior optic tubercles in mediating circadian input to the insect sky compass.
",32755758
0,7010,"Neuroarchitecture of the central complex in the brain of the locust [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] and S. americana as revealed by serotonin immunocytochemistry.
The central complex is a prominent structure in the insect brain, yet its anatomical organization and functional role is still poorly understood. To facilitate investigations on the physiology of the central complex, this study describes its anatomical organization in the brain of locusts ([START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] and Schistocerca americana) based on an investigation of serotonin immunocytochemistry. Most subdivisions of the central complex including the protocerebral bridge, several layers in the upper division of the central body, and the noduli of the central body are innervated by serotonin-immunoreactive neurons, while the lower division of the central body does not exhibit serotonin-like immunoreactivity. Several types of serotonin-immunoreactive neurons can be distinguished. A system of about 60 columnar neurons innervates the protocerebral bridge, layer III of the upper division of the central body, and the noduli. A group of 15-20 bilateral pairs of serotonin-immunoreactive neurons connects the posterior optic tubercles with the protocerebral bridge. About ten pairs of neurons with somata in the inferior protocerebrum innervate layer Ia of the upper division of the central body. In addition, large-field neurons arborize in layers Ia and Ib of the upper division of the central body and in the lateral accessory lobes. The detailed mapping of serotonin immunoreactivity provides further insight into the anatomical organization of the central complex and suggests that serotonin is a major neuroactive substance within this brain structure.
",2013639
0,7010,"Peptides in the locusts, Locusta migratoria and [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
The first peptide identified in locusts was adipokinetic hormone I (AKH-I), a neurohormone mobilizing lipids from the fat body. No other locusts peptides were isolated until 1985. From then on peptide identification started to boom at such a tremendously fast rate that even specialists in the field could hardly keep track. At this moment the total number of different insect neuropeptide sequences exceeds 100. Currently, the locusts Locusta migratoria and [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] are the species from which the largest number of neuropeptides has been isolated and sequenced, namely 56. Myotropic bioassays have played a major role in the isolation and subsequent structural characterization of locust neuropeptides. They have been responsible for the discovery of locustamyotropins, locustapyrokinins, locustatachykinins, locustakinin, locusta accessory gland myotropins, locustasulfakinin, cardioactive peptide, and locustamyoinhibiting peptides. Members of the myotropin peptide families have been associated with a variety of physiological activities such as myotropic activities, pheromonotropic activities, diapause induction, stimulation of cuticular melanization, diuresis, pupariation, and allatostatic activities. Recently, we have identified in [START]Schistocerca[END] 10 peptides belonging to the allatostatin peptide family, which inhibit peristaltic movements of the oviduct. Some of the myotropins appear to be important neurotransmitters or modulators innervating the locust oviduct, the salivary glands, the male accessory glands, and the heart, whereas others are stored in neurohemal organs until release in the hemolymph. Some myotropic peptides have been found to be releasing factors of neurohormones from the corpora cardiaca. Several peptides isolated in locusts appear to be unique to insects or arthropods; others seem to be members of peptides families spanning across phyla: two vasopressin-like peptides, FMRFamide-related peptides, Locusta diuretic hormone (CRF-like), Locusta insulin-related peptide, locustatachykinins, locustasulfakinin (gastrin/CCK-like). In a systematic structural study of neuropeptides in Locusta, several novel peptides have been isolated from the corpora cardiaca and the pars intercerebralis. They include the neuroparsins, two 6-kDa dimeric peptides, and three proteinase inhibitors. Ovary maturating parsin is the first gonadotropin identified in insects. The isolation of a peptide from an ovary extract that inhibits ovary maturation in [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] is currently underway in our lab. The proteinase inhibitors, recently found to be mainly transcribed in the fat body, are believed to play a role in defense reactions of insects. Finally, a locust ion transport peptide and a peptide stimulating salivation recently can be added to this extensive list of locust peptides.
",9114464
0,7010,"Organization of the Hox gene cluster in the grasshopper, [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
The conserved organization of the Hox genes throughout the animal kingdom has become one of the major paradigms of evolutionary developmental biology. We have examined the organization of the Hox genes of the grasshopper, [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]. We find that the grasshopper Hox cluster is over 700 kb long, and is not split into equivalents of the Antennapedia complex and the bithorax complex of Drosophila melanogaster. SgDax and probably also Sgzen, the grasshopper homologues of fushi-tarazu (ftz) and Zerknullt (zen), respectively, are also in the cluster, showing that the non-homeotic Antp-class genes, ""accessory genes,"" are an ancient feature of insect Hox clusters.
",8917538
0,7010,"A general model of the thermal constraints on the world's most destructive locust, [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
All terrestrial ectotherms are constrained to some degree by their thermal environment and the extent to which they can behaviorally buffer variable thermal conditions. New biophysical modeling methods (NicheMapR) allow the calculation of the body temperature of thermoregulating animals anywhere in the world from first principles, but require detailed observational data for parameterization and testing. Here we describe the thermoregulatory biology of marching bands of the [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], in the Sahara Desert of Mauritania where extreme heat and strong diurnal fluctuations are a major constraint on activity and physiological processes. Using a thermal infrared camera in the field, we showed that gregarious nymphs altered the microhabitats they used, as well as postural thermoregulatory behaviors, to maintain relatively high body temperature (nearly 40 C). Field and laboratory experiments demonstrated that the preferred body temperature accelerated digestive rates. Migratory bands frequently left foraging sites with full guts before consuming all vegetation and moved to another habitat before emptying their foregut. Thus, the repertoire for behavioral thermoregulation in the [START]desert locust[END] strongly facilitates foraging and digestion rates, which may accelerate developmental rates and increase survival. We used our data to successfully parameterize a general biophysical model of thermoregulatory behavior that could capture hourly body temperature and activity at our remote site using globally available environmental forcing data. This modeling approach provides a stronger basis for forecasting thermal constraints on locust outbreaks under current and future climates.
",33605475
0,7010,"Myoinhibitory peptides in the central complex of the locust [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] and colocalization with locustatachykinin-related peptides.
The central complex in the brain of insects provides a neural network for sensorimotor processing that is essential for spatial navigation and locomotion and plays a role in sleep control. Studies on the neurochemical architecture of the central complex have been performed especially in the fruit fly Drosophila melangoaster and the [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]. In several insect species, myoinhibitory peptides (MIPs) are involved in circadian control and sleep-wake regulation. To identify neurons that might underlie these functions, we investigated the distribution of MIPs in the central complex of the locust. In silico transcript analysis suggests the presence of eight different MIPs in the [START]desert locust[END]. Through immunolabeling, we identified five systems of central-complex neurons that express MIP-like peptides. Two systems constitute columnar neurons of the protocerebral bridge and the lower division of the central body, while the other three systems are columnar neurons (two systems) and tangential neurons (one system) of the upper division of the central body. The innervation pattern and cell count of two systems of columnar neurons revealed the existence of 18 instead of 16 columns of the protocerebral bridge. Immunostaining of preparations containing intracellularly stained single cells allowed us to further specify subtypes of labeled columnar neurons. Double-label experiments showed that three systems of MIP-immunostained columnar neurons are also locustatachykinin-immunoreactive. No colocalization was found with serotonin immunostaining. The data provide novel insights into the architecture of the locust central complex and suggest that MIPs play a prominent role within the central-complex network.
",35700405
0,7010,"In Silico Screening for Pesticide Candidates against the [START]Desert Locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
Adipokinetic hormone (AKH) is one of the most important metabolic neuropeptides in insects, with actions similar to glucagon in vertebrates. AKH regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism by mobilizing trehalose and diacylglycerol into circulation from glycogen and triacylglycerol stores, respectively, in the fat body. The short peptide (8 to 10 amino acids long) exerts its function by binding to a rhodopsin-like G protein-coupled receptor located in the cell membrane of the fat body. The AKH receptor (AKHR) is, thus, a potential target for the development of novel specific (peptide) mimetics to control pest insects, such as locusts, which are feared for their prolific breeding, swarm-forming behavior and voracious appetite. Previously, we proposed a model of the interaction between the three endogenous AKHs of the [START]desert locust[END], [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END], and the cognate AKHR (Jackson et al., Peer J. 7, e7514, 2019). In the current study we have performed in silico screening of two databases (NCI Open 2012 library and Zinc20) to identify compounds which may fit the endogenous Schgr-AKH-II binding site on the AKHR of [START]S. gregaria[END]. In all, 354 compounds were found to fit the binding site with glide scores < -8. Using the glide scores and binding energies, 7 docked compounds were selected for molecular dynamic simulation in a phosphatidylcholine membrane. Of these 7 compounds, 4 had binding energies which would allow them to compete with Schgr-AKH-II for the receptor binding site and so are proposed as agonistic ligand candidates. One of the ligands, ZINC000257251537, was tested in a homospecific in vivo biological assay and found to have significant antagonistic activity.
",35330138
0,7010,"The role of female accessory glands in maternal inheritance of phase in the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END].
Accessory glands of crowd-reared females of [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END] were ligatured from the lateral oviducts. Hatchlings resulting from egg pods laid after the treatment showed a significant shift towards solitarious behaviour as compared to hatchlings from control-treated females. Morphometric measurement of hatchlings revealed no consistent difference between ligatured and control females, however, one ratio (hind femur length/vertex width) was approaching significance. Hatchlings from eggs of crowd-reared females behaved solitariously when freshly laid eggs were washed with a saline solution. Gregarious behaviour could be restored when washed eggs were treated with a saline extract of the accessory glands. The colouration of hatchlings was not affected by any treatment. Our findings implicate the accessory glands in the production, release or activation of the recently reported gregarizing factor found in the egg pod foam [McCaffery, A.R., Simpson, S.J., Islam, M.S., Roessingh, P., 1998. A gregarizing factor present in the egg pod foam of the [START]desert locust[END] [START]Schistocerca gregaria[END]. Journal of Experimental Biology 201, 347-363].
",12770232
0,7227,"Gut-associated microbes of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
There is growing interest in using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to elucidate mechanisms that underlie the complex relationships between a host and its microbiota. In addition to the many genetic resources and tools [START]Drosophila[END] provides, its associated microbiota is relatively simple (1-30 taxa), in contrast to the complex diversity associated with vertebrates (> 500 taxa). These attributes highlight the potential of this system to dissect the complex cellular and molecular interactions that occur between a host and its microbiota. In this review, we summarize what is known regarding the composition of gut-associated microbes of [START]Drosophila[END] and their impact on host physiology. We also discuss these interactions in the context of their natural history and ecology and describe some recent insights into mechanisms by which [START]Drosophila[END] and its gut microbiota interact.
",22572876
0,7227,"Setting the clock--by nature: circadian rhythm in the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Nowadays humans mainly rely on external, unnatural clocks such as of cell phones and alarm clocks--driven by circuit boards and electricity. Nevertheless, our body is under the control of another timer firmly anchored in our genes. This evolutionary very old biological clock drives most of our physiology and behavior. The genes that control our internal clock are conserved among most living beings. One organism that shares this ancient clock mechanism with us humans is the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Since it turned out that [START]Drosophila[END] is an excellent model, it is no surprise that its clock is very well and intensely investigated. In the following review we want to display an overview of the current understanding of [START]Drosophila[END]'s circadian clock.
",21354415
0,7227,"Intraspecific competition favours niche width expansion in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Ecologists have proposed that when interspecific competition is reduced, competition within a species becomes a potent evolutionary force leading to rapid diversification. This view reflects the observation that populations invading species-poor communities frequently evolve broader niches. Niche expansion can be associated with an increase in phenotypic variance (known as character release), with the evolution of polymorphisms, or with divergence into many species using distinct resources (adaptive radiation). The relationship between intraspecific competition and diversification is known from theory, and has been used as the foundation for some models of speciation. However, there has been little empirical proof that niches evolve in response to intraspecific competition. To test this hypothesis, I introduced cadmium-intolerant [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations to environments containing both cadmium-free and cadmium-laced resources. Here I show that populations experiencing high competition adapted to cadmium more rapidly than low competition populations. This provides experimental confirmation that competition in a population can drive niche expansion onto new resources for which competition is less severe.
",11260712
0,7227,"Genetic variability of the interpulse interval of courtship song among some European populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The interpulse interval of the courtship song of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is a character which may play a significant role in mating success and reproductive isolation. Here we examine the variability of interpulse interval among replicated laboratory strains of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. There is no significant variation among populations of different geographical origin. This suggests that interpulse interval is subject to strong selection, as the populations are known to differ for other characters. One population, however, was sufficiently different to allow a genetic analysis. Reciprocal F1s and backcrosses implied that the variance was predominantly additive and autosomal. Possible sources of selection on interpulse interval are discussed.
",8014057
0,7227,"Life-history traits of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations exhibiting early and late eclosion chronotypes.
BACKGROUND: The hypothesis that circadian clocks confer adaptive advantage to organisms has been proposed based on its ubiquity across almost all levels of complexity and organization of life-forms. This thought has received considerable attention, and studies employing diverse strategies have attempted to investigate it. However, only a handful of them have examined how selection for circadian clock controlled rhythmic behaviors influences life-history traits which are known to influence Darwinian fitness. The 'early' and 'late' chronotypes are amongst the most widely studied circadian phenotypes; however, life-history traits associated with these chronotypes, and their consequences on Darwinian fitness remain largely unexplored, primarily due to the lack of a suitable model system. Here we studied several life-history traits of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations that were subjected to laboratory selection for morning (early) and evening (late) emergence. RESULTS: We report that the late eclosion chronotypes evolved longer pre-adult duration as compared to the early eclosion chronotypes both under light/dark (LD) and constant dark (DD) conditions, and these differences appear to be mediated by both clock dependent and independent mechanisms. Furthermore, longer pre-adult duration in the late chronotypes does not lead to higher body-mass at pupariation or eclosion, but the late females were significantly more fecund and lived significantly shorter as compared to the early females. CONCLUSIONS: Coevolution of multiple life-history traits in response to selection on timing of eclosion highlights correlations of the genetic architecture governing timing of eclosion with that of fitness components which suggests that timing ecologically relevant behaviors at specific time of the day might confer adaptive advantage.
",26922082
0,7227,"Larval competition in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. II. Comparing biological and competitive parameters.
Recent developments in the analysis of density dependent competition in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] have identified two distinct parameters, namely the competitive pressure or aggression exerted by a genotype and the sensitivity or response of a genotype to such aggression. Assuming that response is more related to the efficiency of utilising available resources and aggression to the ability to acquire those resources, we attempt to relate estimates of aggression and response obtained from a range of genotypes to estimates of larval feeding rates and conversion efficiencies. No significant correlations were found and we conclude that other characteristics must be involved in a more complex determination of competitive ability.
",3130340
0,7227,"Gastrulation in [START]Drosophila[END]: the logic and the cellular mechanisms.
The egg contains a set of molecules that can be used to trigger cell-shape changes leading to morphogenetic movements. The temporally and spatially controlled activation of these molecules, and hence the choreography of gastrulation movements, is determined by region-specific expression of transcription factors which turn on a set of downstream targets whose products mediate the successive steps of gastrulation.
",10369659
0,7227,"Sexual isolation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: a possible case of incipient speciation.
It is generally believed that [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has no closely related species with which it can produce the viable and fertile hybrids that are essential for the genetic analysis of speciation. Following the recent report of molecular differentiation between a Zimbabwe, Africa, population and two United States populations, we provide evidence that strong sexual isolation exists between the [START]D. melanogaster[END] population in Zimbabwe and populations of other continents. In the presence of males of their own kind, females from most isofemale lines of Zimbabwe would not mate with males from elsewhere; the reciprocal mating is also significantly reduced, but to a lesser degree. The genes for sexual behaviors are apparently polymorphic in Zimbabwe and postmating reproductive isolation between this and other populations has not yet evolved. Whole chromosome substitutions indicate significant genetic contributions to male mating success by both major autosomes, whereas the X chromosome effect is too weak to measure. In addition, the relative mating success between hybrid and pure line males supports the interpretation of strong female choice. These observations suggest that we are seeing the early stages of speciation in this group and that it is driven by sexual selection. The genetic and molecular tractability of [START]D. melanogaster[END] offers great promise for the detailed analysis of this apparent case of incipient speciation.
",7708677
0,7227,"Cellular basis and developmental timing in a size cline of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We examined 20 [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations collected from a 2600-km north-south transect in Australia. In laboratory culture at constant temperature and standard larval density, a genetic cline in thorax length and wing area was found, with both traits increasing with latitude. The cline in wing area was based on clines in both cell size and cell number, but was primarily determined by changes in cell number. Body size and larval development time were not associated among populations. We discuss our results in the context of selection processes operating in natural and experimental populations.
",7498744
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: a model organism for controlling Dipteran vectors and pests.
Beta-carbonic anhydrases (beta-CAs) have been recently reported to be present in many protozoan and metazoan species, whereas it is absent in mammals. In this review, we introduce beta-CA from [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a model enzyme for pesticide development. These enzymes can be targeted with various enzyme inhibitors, which can have deleterious effects on pathogenic and other harmful organisms. Therefore, beta-CAs represent a new potential target to fight against Dipteran vectors and pests relevant to medicine, veterinary medicine, and agriculture. 
",25198895
0,7227,"A rehabilitation of the genetic map of the 84B-D region in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A reanalysis of the 84B3 to 84D3,5 region of the polytene chromosomes of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has led to the identification and localization of 16 genes. These genes include 11 vital loci, four genes exhibiting nonlethal visible mutant phenotypes and one gene encoding a nonessential enzyme. The identity of the gene products of two of the vital genes has been determined to be alpha-tubulin and glucose dehydrogenase (Gld). Three newly identified genes, sticking (stk), half out (hat) and trapped (ted), as well as Gld are required for eclosion. Among the nonessential genes are roughened eye (roe) and ruffed eye (rue), which affect eye texture. The roe phenotype is greatly enhanced by deletions that simultaneously remove roe and an unidentified locus in 84E. Mutations in another nonessential gene, rotund (rn), are characterized by pattern deletions of most adult appendages.
",3095179
0,7227,"Innate preference in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Innate preference behaviors are fundamental for animal survival. They actually form the basis for many animal complex behaviors. Recent years have seen significant progresses in disclosing the molecular and neural mechanism underlying animal innate preferences, especially in [START]Drosophila[END]. In this review, I will review these studies according to the sensory modalities adopted for preference assaying, such as vision, olfaction, thermal sensation. The behavioral strategies and the theoretic models for the formation of innate preferences are also reviewed and discussed.
",22314485
0,7227,"Evidences for circadian rhythmicity in the per0 mutant of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
per0 Mutants of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] which are exposed to light-dark cycles (LD) with different Zeitgeber period (T) have a limited range of entrainment. Entrained flies show a characteristic phase relationship of activity to the LD which depends on the period of the driving cycle as expected by oscillator theory. Both facts are taken as evidence that per. possesses endogenous oscillators and that the per gene product is not concerned with central clock structures but rather might be responsible for the mutual coupling between the individual oscillators in a multioscillatory system controlling locomotor activity.
",2966505
0,7227,"Effects of mutations at the stambh A locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We report novel findings on the cytogenetic location, functional complexity and maternal and germline roles of the stambh A locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. stmA is localized to polytene bands 44D1.2 on 2R. stmA mutations are of two types: temperature-sensitive (ts) adult and larval paralytic or unconditional embryonic or larval lethal. Twelve alleles reported in this study fall into two intragenic complementing groups suggesting that stmA is a complex locus with more than one functional domain. Some unconditional embryonic lethal alleles show a 'neurogenic' phenotype of cuticle loss accompanied by neural hypertrophy. It is shown that embryos of ts paralytic alleles also show mild neural hypertrophy at permissive temperatures while short exposure to heat induces severe cuticle loss in these embryos. stmA exerts a maternal influence over heat-induced cuticle loss. Unconditional embryonic lethal alleles of stmA are also germline lethal.
",11910128
0,7227,"Fungal genotype determines survival of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] when competing with Aspergillus nidulans.
Fungi produce an astonishing variety of secondary metabolites, some of which belong to the most toxic compounds in the living world. Several fungal metabolites have anti-insecticidal properties which may yield advantages to the fungus in competition with insects for exploitation of environmental resources. Using the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]/Aspergillus nidulans ecological model system to assess secondary metabolite mutant genotypes, we find a major role for the veA allele in insect/fungal confrontations that exceeds the influence of other factors such as LaeA. VeA along with LaeA is a member of a transcriptional complex governing secondary metabolism in A. nidulans. However, historically a mutant veA allele, veA1 reduced in secondary metabolite output, has been used in many studies of this model organism. To test the significance of this allele in our system, Aspergillus nidulans veA wild type, veA1, DeltaveA and DeltalaeA were evaluated in confrontation assays to analyze egg laying activity, and the survival rate of larvae. The veA1 genetic background led to a significant increase of larval survival. Adult flies were observed almost exclusively on veA1, DeltaveA or DeltalaeA genetic backgrounds, suggesting a role for the velvet complex in insect/fungal interactions. This effect was most profound using the veA1 mutant. Hence, larval survival in confrontations is highly affected by the fungal genotype.
",29293643
0,7227,"Regulation of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] pro-apoptotic gene hid.
Key decisions one makes in a lifetime include whether and how often to reproduce, what role to play in the community and, under certain conditions, whether to live or die. Similar decisions are also made at the level of cells: whether to divide, what fate to assume in the multicellular context of metazoan development and, under certain conditions, whether to live or to die. The pro-apoptotic gene hid plays an important role in the execution of cell death in [START]Drosophila[END]. Here, we review the various levels of control that exist to regulate Hid according to the life-or-death choice of a cell.
",19554451
0,7227,"Methods to Assay the Behavior of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] for Toxicity Study.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], the [START]fruit fly[END], has been widely used in biological investigation as an invertebrate alternative to mammals for its various advantages compared to other model organisms, which include short life cycle, easy handling, high prolificacy, and great availability of substantial genetic information. The behavior of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is closely related to its growth, which can reflect the physiological conditions of [START]Drosophila[END]. We have optimized simple and robust behavioral assays for determining the larvae survival, adult climbing ability (mobility assay), reproductive behavior, and lifespan of [START]Drosophila[END]. In this chapter, we present the step-by-step detailed method for studying [START]Drosophila[END] behavior.
",34097260
0,7227,"Does a relationship exist between spontaneous locomotor activity, fitness and lifespan in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]?
Spontaneous locomotor activity (SLA), fecundity, fertility and lifespan were measured in a wild laboratory strain of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in order to ascertain whether there is a genetic correlation between these traits. In females there is no correlation either between SLA and fecundity or between SLA and lifespan. It is concluded that, although a high level of SLA probably constitutes a favorable behavioral component of fitness, this does not mean that more active females have a larger number of offspring and live longer than less active ones.
",6434339
0,7227,"Larval competition in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. I. Estimation of larval growth parameters.
Despite extensive research into the competitive interactions between the larvae of [START]Drosophila[END] for food, there have been few studies of the biological characteristics of the larvae which might underly competition. Here we present a sensitive method for estimating the larval feeding rate, larval gut capacity, larval conversion efficiency and larva-adult conversion efficiency, using radioactively labelled yeast. Two developmental stages, defined by the time since oviposition, were investigated in eight genetically distinct strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Significant genetic variation was recovered for all parameters at the second instar but only for conversion efficiency at the third instar. Feeding rate and the gut capacity had large and heterogenous error variances, especially in the third instar, while conversion efficiencies were relatively more stable.
",3130339
0,7227,"Commensal bacteria play a role in mating preference of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Development of mating preference is considered to be an early event in speciation. In this study, mating preference was achieved by dividing a population of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and rearing one part on a molasses medium and the other on a starch medium. When the isolated populations were mixed, ""molasses flies"" preferred to mate with other molasses flies and ""starch flies"" preferred to mate with other starch flies. The mating preference appeared after only one generation and was maintained for at least 37 generations. Antibiotic treatment abolished mating preference, suggesting that the fly microbiota was responsible for the phenomenon. This was confirmed by infection experiments with microbiota obtained from the fly media (before antibiotic treatment) as well as with a mixed culture of Lactobacillus species and a pure culture of Lactobacillus plantarum isolated from starch flies. Analytical data suggest that symbiotic bacteria can influence mating preference by changing the levels of cuticular hydrocarbon sex pheromones. The results are discussed within the framework of the hologenome theory of evolution.
",21041648
0,7227,"The mitochondrial DNA of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] exists in two distinct and stable superhelical forms.
We have studied the structure and replication of mitochondrial DNA from [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] embryos, larvae, adult flies and two established tissue culture lines. The most striking observation is that the organism maintains at least two stable, distinct closed circular forms of mitochondrial DNA throughout development of the early embryo and in the adult fly. The major closed circular monomeric form comprises approximately 75% of the population and has a normal number of superhelical turns. In contrast, closed circular mitochondrial DNA isolated from [START]Drosophila[END] tissue culture cells is comprised almost entirely of molecules with the low superhelix density. We have been unable to detect the D loop form of mitochondrial DNA present in other eucaryotic systems, and find by electron microscope and pulse-chase labeling techniques that the time required to replicate [START]Drosophila[END] mitochondrial DNA is very short (less than 15 min) compared to the mouse L cell system (greater than 1 hr). We conclude that [START]Drosophila[END] mitochondrial DNA utilizes a replication mechanism different from that of other higher eucaryotes. We postulate that the maintenance of markedly different topological forms of mitochondrial DNA is most probably related to different demands for replication and transcription of the genome in these sources.
",410503
0,7227,"Chronic exposure to dim artificial light at night decreases fecundity and adult survival in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The presence of artificial light at night is expanding in geographical range and increasing in intensity to such an extent that species living in urban environments may never experience natural darkness. The negative ecological consequences of artificial night lighting have been identified in several key life history traits across multiple taxa (albeit with a strong vertebrate focus); comparable data for invertebrates is lacking. In this study, we explored the effect of chronic exposure to different night-time lighting intensities on growth, reproduction and survival in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. We reared three generations of flies under identical daytime light conditions (2600lx) and one of four ecologically relevant ALAN treatments (0, 1, 10 or 100lx), then explored variation in oviposition, number of eggs produced, juvenile growth and survival and adult survival. We found that, in the presence of light at night (1, 10 and 100lx treatments), the probability of a female commencing oviposition and the number of eggs laid was significantly reduced. This did not translate into differences at the juvenile phase: juvenile development times and the probability of eclosing as an adult were comparable across all treatments. However, we demonstrate for the first time a direct link between chronic exposure to light at night (greater than 1lx) and adult survival. Our data highlight that ALAN has the capacity to cause dramatic shifts in multiple life history traits at both the individual and population level. Such shifts are likely to be species-specific, however a more in depth understanding of the broad-scale impact of ALAN and the relevant mechanisms driving biological change is urgently required as we move into an increasing brightly lit future.
",28499591
0,7227,"Selection for digging behavior in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae.
The genetics of the digging behavior of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae was studied through selective breeding. Selection for low digging activity was successful, but selection for high digging activity was not. Selection for low and high digging activity affected another behavior, namely the choice of a pupation site. Digging behavior appears to be under polygenic control.
",104704
0,7227,"Evidence that natural selection maintains genetic variation for sleep in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] often shows correlations between latitude and phenotypic or genetic variation on different continents, which suggests local adaptation with respect to a heterogeneous environment. Previous phenotypic analyses of latitudinal clines have investigated mainly physiological, morphological, or life-history traits. Here, we studied latitudinal variation in sleep in [START]D. melanogaster[END] populations from North and Central America. In parallel, we used RNA-seq to identify interpopulation gene expression differences. RESULTS: We found that in [START]D. melanogaster[END] the average nighttime sleep bout duration exhibits a latitudinal cline such that sleep bouts of equatorial populations are roughly twice as long as those of temperate populations. Interestingly, this pattern of latitudinal variation is not observed for any daytime measure of activity or sleep. We also found evidence for geographic variation for sunrise anticipation. Our RNA-seq experiment carried out on heads from a low and high latitude population identified a large number of gene expression differences, most of which were time dependent. Differentially expressed genes were enriched in circadian regulated genes and enriched in genes potentially under spatially varying selection. CONCLUSION: Our results are consistent with a mechanistic and selective decoupling of nighttime and daytime activity. Furthermore, the present study suggests that natural selection plays a major role in generating transcriptomic variation associated with circadian behaviors. Finally, we identified genomic variants plausibly causally associated with the observed behavioral and transcriptomic variation.
",25887180
0,7227,"How commensal microbes shape the physiology of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The interactions between animals and their commensal microbes profoundly influence the host's physiology. In the last decade, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been extensively used as a model to study host-commensal microbes interactions. Here, we review the most recent advances in this field. We focus on studies that extend our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of commensal microbes on [START]Drosophila[END]'s development and lifespan. We emphasize how commensal microbes influence nutrition and the intestinal epithelium homeostasis; how they elicit immune tolerance mechanisms and how these physiological processes are interconnected. Finally, we discuss the importance of diets and microbial strains and show how they can be confounding factors of microbe mediated host phenotypes.
",32836177
0,7227,"Transcriptional effects of a positive feedback circuit in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Synthetic systems that use positive feedback have been developed to control human disease vectors and crop pests. The tTAV system, which has been deployed in several insect species, relies on a positive feedback circuit that can be inhibited via dietary tetracycline. Although insects carrying tTAV fail to survive until adulthood in the absence of tetracycline, the exact reason for its lethality, as well as the transcriptomic effects of an active positive feedback circuit, remain unknown. RESULTS: We engineered the tTAV system in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and investigated the effects of tTAV genome integration locus on the whole fly transcriptome during larval and adult life stages in four transgenic fly strains using gene expression microarrays. We found that while there were widespread effects on the transcriptome, the gene expression differences after removal of tetracycline were not consistent between integration sites. No specific region of the genome was affected, no common set of genes or pathways, nor did the integration site affect the transcripts in cis. CONCLUSION: Although the positive feedback tTAV system is effective at killing insect larvae regardless of where it is inserted in the genome, it does not exhibit a specific, consistent transcriptional signature. Instead, each insertion site is associated with broad, but different, transcriptional effects. Our results suggest that lethality may not be caused by a direct effect on transcription of a set of key genes or pathways. Instead, we propose that rather than a specific action of a tTAV protein, it is the stochastic transcriptional effects specific to each insertion site that contribute to the tTAV-induced mortality.
",29281970
0,7227,"Olfaction in [START]Drosophila[END]: genetic and molecular analysis.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has a sophisticated yet relatively simple olfactory system, the function of which can be studied in vivo by either physiological or behavioral methods. Several genetic and molecular approaches have been applied to isolating and characterizing genes required for the function or development of the olfactory system. Recent analysis of some of these genes is beginning to provide insight into their functions.
",1726342
0,7227,"Sensitivity to ether anesthesia and to gamma-rays in mutagen-sensitive strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
An ether-resistant strain of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], Eth-29, has previously been found to be radiosensitive. Some mutagen-sensitive strains are known to be hypersensitive to X-rays in larvae. The correlation between sensitivities to ether anesthesia and to gamma-rays was examined in adult flies of 12 mutagen-sensitive strains and 6 control strains. A wide variation in sensitivities to ether anesthesia, gamma-ray knock-down and gamma-ray lethality was demonstrated. No correlation between DNA-repair capacity and ether sensitivity or gamma-ray knock-down sensitivity was shown. Only mei-9 and mus201, which are deficient in excision repair, as well as Eth-29 were found to be sensitive to gamma-ray lethality. These findings indicate that the targets for ether anesthesia, knock-down and lethality may be different. Lethality appears to be caused by DNA damage, while the other 2 endpoints appear not to be related to DNA damage.
",2105463
0,7227,"Ecdysone control of developmental transitions: lessons from [START]Drosophila[END] research.
The steroid hormone ecdysone is the central regulator of insect developmental transitions. Recent new advances in our understanding of ecdysone action have relied heavily on the application of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] molecular genetic tools to study insect metamorphosis. In this review, we focus on three major aspects of [START]Drosophila[END] ecdysone biology: (a) factors that regulate the timing of ecdysone release, (b) molecular basis of stage- and tissue-specific responses to ecdysone, and (c) feedback regulation and coordination of ecdysone signaling.
",23072462
0,7227,"The anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axes have a common origin in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The mechanisms governing anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral polarity in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] had previously been considered as independent processes. However, two papers(1,2) now reveal that both axes are initiated during oogenesis by the same pathway, and also clearly demonstrate that one is dependent on the other.
",8526885
0,7227,"[Symbiotic bacteria, which modify reproduction processes of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]].
Cytoplasmic bacteria-symbionts are actively investigated all over the world for the last ten years. The scale of their spreading in natural and laboratory populations of invertebrates, especially arthropods, is impressing scientists' imagination. Ways of their intraspecific and interspecific transmission are various. The nature and mechanisms of their interaction both between themselves and with their hosts are extremely diverse. Cytoplasmic incompatibility, parthenogenesis, male-killing, feminization, tissue degeneration and others are those phenotypic effects, which intracellular bacteria can cause in their hosts. Moreover, the same bacterium can have diverse influences on different hosts. So it is possible to talk about many-sidedness of endosymbiont interaction with a host, which is determined both by bacterium and host biology. However, majority of phenotypic effects is directed to the successful colonization of hosts' populations by increasing the number of infected females. Alas, the mechanisms of interaction are still not enough investigated. Besides, intracellular bacteria-symbionts can be one of the factors of the so-called ""infectious species formation"". In any investigation, model organisms, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] belonging to them, take a special place. Among [START]drosophila[END]'s endosymbionts, only bacteria from genera Wolbachia, Spiroplasma and Cardinium were broadly investigated: their spreading in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations all over the world, the infecting level and those phenotypic effects, which they can cause. So this review is dedicated to analysis of these studies.
",21598659
0,7227,"Alternative measures of response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Studies of invertebrate immune defence often measure genetic variation either for the fitness cost of infection or for the ability of the host to clear the parasite. These studies assume that variation in measures of resistance is related to variation in fitness costs of infection. To test this assumption, we infected strains of the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], with a pathogenic bacterium. We then measured the correlation between host bacterial load and the ability to survive infection. Despite the presence of genotypic variation for both traits, bacterial load and survival post-infection were not correlated. Our results support previous arguments that individual measures of immune function and the host's ability to survive infection may be decoupled. In light of these results, we suggest that the difference between tolerance and resistance to infection, a distinction commonly found in the plant literature, may also be of value in studies of invertebrate immunity.
",17305818
0,7227,"Hybrid dysgenesis in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: a new type of gonadal dysgenic sterility expressed at the pre-pupal stage.
Two sublines, B-202 and B-207, which were derived from crosses between Or-R (M) females and Cy/Pm (P) males were found to cause a new type of gonadal dysgenic sterility, designated as the GD-3. GD-3 sterility showed a typical reciprocal cross effect under the P-M system. It was caused at the frequency close to 100% in dysgenic offsprings reared above 25 degrees C, of which gonads were morphologically clearly different from those of usual GD sterility, whereas there was no indication of GD-3 sterility at temperatures below 24 degrees C. Temperature sensitive period of GD-3 sterility was estimated to the prepupal stage by shift-down experiment. In the B-202 subline, the 2nd chromosomes marked with Pm alone carried GD-3 elements. Those of the B-207 subline, however, were estimated to locate both on the 2nd and 3rd chromosomes, acting synergistically with each other.
",1910874
0,7227,"Dynamic changes in ejaculatory bulb size during [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] aging and mating.
The ejaculatory bulb of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] males produces proteins and pheromones that play important roles in reproduction. This tissue is also the final mixing site for the ejaculate before transfer to the female. The ejaculatory bulb's dynamics remain largely unstudied. By microscopy of the ejaculatory bulb in maturing adult males, we observed that the ejaculatory bulb expands in size as males age. Moreover, we document that when males mate, their ejaculatory bulb expands further as ejaculate transfer begins, and then contracts halfway through the course of mating as ejaculate transfer finishes. Although there is some male-to-male variation in the timing of these changes, ultimately the tissue changes in a predictable pattern that gives insight into the active mating process in [START]Drosophila[END].
",29634921
0,7227,"Influence of temperature on the inheritance of adult life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Mating experiments were performed at 27 degrees C, 22 degrees C, and 17 degrees C, to investigate the inheritance of adult life span of highly inbred strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Effects of temperature difference were quantitatively analyzed at the genotypic level. In the temperature range of 17-27 degrees C the autosomal longevity alleles, A1 and A2, exerted major effects. Their effects produced longer life spans as the temperature decreased. The sex-linked longevity alleles, X1 and X2, played a secondary role in influencing life span, and they displayed different effects at different temperatures. Each genotype showed correspondence to the life span expected from the combinations of these longevity genes at the respective temperatures. The genetic loci controlling life span in these inbred strains were named JmA and JmX from ""Ju-myo"" which means life span or longevity in Japanese.
",2114381
0,7227,"Plastic and evolutionary responses of cell size and number to larval malnutrition in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Both development and evolution under chronic malnutrition lead to reduced adult size in [START]Drosophila[END]. We studied the contribution of changes in size vs. number of epidermal cells to plastic and evolutionary reduction of wing size in response to poor larval food. We used flies from six populations selected for tolerance to larval malnutrition and from six unselected control populations, raised either under standard conditions or under larval malnutrition. In the control populations, phenotypic plasticity of wing size was mediated by both cell size and cell number. In contrast, evolutionary change in wing size, which was only observed as a correlated response expressed on standard food, was mediated entirely by reduction in cell number. Plasticity of cell number had been lost in the selected populations, and cell number did not differ between the sexes despite males having smaller wings. Results of this and other experimental evolution studies are consistent with the hypothesis that alleles which increase body size through prolonged growth affect wing size mostly via cell number, whereas alleles which increase size through higher growth rate do so via cell size.
",21276112
0,7227,"Cell lines from imaginal discs of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
New cell lines, designated as ML-DmD1-10, were established from dissociated imaginal discs of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. The culture medium was prepared by mixing in a 1:1 ratio Cross and Sang's M3(BF) medium, supplemented with 10% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS), with the supernatant of a primary embryonic cell culture made in the M3(BF) medium and supplementing this mixture with insulin. One cell line was established in the medium containing larval hemolymph instead of the primary culture supernatant, and another was established in fresh M3(BF) medium supplemented with insulin and FBS. In these mediums, imaginal disc cells first formed aggregates and cellular vesicles within a few weeks followed by the proliferation of thin-layered cells around them after about 1 mo. Ten cell lines have so far been established from two kinds of imaginal discs and disc mixtures. The ploidy of these cell lines was predominantly diploid. Population doubling time was about 50 to 70 h at 3 to 10 mo. after initiation of the culture. When the cell aggregates formed in vitro were implanted in metamorphosing larvae, they differentiated at high frequency into adult cuticular structures in the early phase of the primary culture. This differentiation of aggregates was also observed, though at low frequency, in a culture maintained by dilution-transfer for 6 to 15 mo. in vitro.
",3117765
0,7227,"Genotoxic effects of cisplatin in somatic tissue of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Third instar larvae of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] transdihybrid for mwh and flr were exposed to varying concentrations of cisplatin by feeding on dry media wetted with aqueous solutions of the test compound. Larval feeding continued until pupation, and surviving transdihybrid adults were collected seven days following commencement of feeding. Wings of adults were removed and scored under 400X magnification for the presence of twin spots and single spots comprised of clones of cells possessing malformed wing hairs. Cisplatin was found to induce both twin spots and single spots, and significant (p less than 0.05) linear concentration-response relationships were obtained with respect to the induction of all endpoints. Induction of twin spots demonstrates that cisplatin induces mitotic recombination in the somatic tissue of [START]Drosophila[END] larvae. This capacity to induce mitotic exchange in the somatic tissue of [START]Drosophila[END] compares well with the compound's reported ability to induce chromosome breaks in [START]Drosophila[END] germ cells [Brodberg et al. 1983]. However, not all compounds possess similar genotoxic profiles in the somatic and germ tissue of [START]Drosophila[END].
",3121310
0,7227,"Calcium homeostasis in larval and adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Calcium homeostasis in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was examined in response to the challenges imposed by growth, reproduction and variations in dietary calcium content. Turnover time for calcium, calculated as the time for (45)Ca(2+)to accumulate to half the steady state value of 3.46 nmol/fly, was 3.3 days. Although larvae weighed 2x as much as adults, they contained 3-4x as much calcium. Anterior Malpighian tubules (Mts) contain much more calcium than posterior Mts, accounting for 25-30% of the calcium content of the whole fly. In response to a 6.2-fold increase in dietary calcium level, calcium content of whole flies increased only 10%. Hemolymph calcium concentration ( approximately 0.5 mM) was similar in males and females and in animals raised on diets differing in calcium content. Fluid secretion rate, secreted fluid calcium concentration, and transepithelial calcium flux in tubules isolated from flies raised on high and low calcium diets did not differ significantly. Malpighian tubules secrete calcium at rates sufficient to eliminate whole body calcium content in 0.5 and 3 days for tubules secreting fluid at basal and maximal rates, respectively. It is suggested that flies absorb high quantities of calcium from the diet and maintain homeostasis through the combined effects of elimination of calcium in fluid secreted by the Malpighian tubules and the sequestration of calcium in granules, especially within the distal segment of the anterior pair of Malpighian tubules.
",10790183
0,7227,"A genetic and developmental analysis of mutations in the Deformed locus in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Individuals expressing recessive mutations in the Deformed (Dfd) locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] were examined for embryonic and adult defects. Mutant embryos were examined in both scanning electron microscope and light microscope preparations. The adult Dfd recessive mutant phenotype was assessed in somatic clones and in survivors homozygous for hypomorphic alleles of the gene. The time of Dfd+ action was determined by studying a temperature conditional allele. Dfd+ is required in three embryonic cephalic segments to form a normal head. Mutant embryos of Dfd display defects in derivatives of the maxillary segment, of the mandibular segment, and of some more anterior segments. In the adult fly, defects are seen in the posterior aspect of the head when the gene is mutant. A transformation from head to thoracic-like tissue is seen dorsally and a deletion of structures is seen ventrally. Shift studies utilizing a temperature conditional allele have shown that the gene product is necessary during at least two periods of development, during embryonic segmentation and head involution and during the late larval and pupal stages. From these studies we conclude that Dfd is a homeotic gene necessary for proper specification of both the embryonic and the adult head.
",3109984
0,7227,"The effects of CO(2) and chronic cold exposure on fecundity of female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Carbon dioxide and chilling are sometimes used to immobilise insects for laboratory research. Both of these methods are known to have short-term effects on behaviour and physiology in [START]Drosophila[END], but their long-term impacts are unknown. We exposed female [START]D. melanogaster[END] adults to high CO(2) concentrations (4h at 18,000ppm) and chronic cold (72h at 4 C). The carbon dioxide exposure increased chill coma recovery time, but did not result in changes in offspring number, sex ratio, or size. By contrast, the cold exposure resulted in fewer, smaller offspring, and resulted in a male-biased sex ratio compared to controls. There was no significant interaction between CO(2) and cold. We conclude that although caution must be used in choosing an immobilisation method, CO(2) appears to have less long-term impact than cold.
",20868691
0,7227,"Lead retards development of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
1. Lead (Pb) is a ubiquitous environmental toxicant which has been reported to have growth-retarding effects. That premise was examined in the current study of the effects of developmental exposure to Pb on the maturation of the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. 2. Flies were raised from egg to adulthood in media to which 0, 100, 250, or 500 ppm Pb acetate added. 3. There was a dose-dependent delay of maturation but no apparent effect on survival to adulthood. There were no significant differences in this effect between male and female flies. 4. Weights of fly offspring and their fecundity were not related to increasing exposure levels, suggesting that the delays were not due to gross nutritional deficits. 5. Analyses of Pb content indicated exposure-dependent body burdens of Pb in flies. Timed analyses of the Pb content of media itself indicated a heterogeneous distribution of Pb in the media, suggesting some precipitation of Pb at the highest exposure, occurring primarily during the first hour. 6. The mechanistic bases of the Pb-induced retardation of [START]D. melanogaster[END] development remain unknown, but it is concluded that because of the extensive body of knowledge on [START]D. melanogaster[END] genetics, molecular biology, and developmental biology, this procedure could serve as a model system for further study of the developmental consequences of exposure to Pb or other toxicants. 7. Environmental Pb exposure resulting in retarded development could have deleterious repercussions for insect populations exposed chronically to high levels of Pb.
",1358527
0,7227,"Chronic malnutrition favours smaller critical size for metamorphosis initiation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Critical size at which metamorphosis is initiated represents an important checkpoint in insect development. Here, we use experimental evolution in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to test the long-standing hypothesis that larval malnutrition should favour a smaller critical size. We report that six fly populations subject to 112 generations of laboratory natural selection on an extremely poor larval food evolved an 18% smaller critical size (compared to six unselected control populations). Thus, even though critical size is not plastic with respect to nutrition, smaller critical size can evolve as an adaptation to nutritional stress. We also demonstrate that this reduction in critical size (rather than differences in growth rate) mediates a trade-off in body weight that the selected populations experience on standard food, on which they show a 15-17% smaller adult body weight. This illustrates how developmental mechanisms that control life history may shape constraints and trade-offs in life history evolution.
",22122120
0,7227,"Identification and characterization of the major [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] mating plug protein.
In many insects, semen coagulates into a mating plug at the distal part of the female's genital tract. Mating plugs have been proposed to facilitate sperm movement or to prevent subsequent matings or sperm loss. The molecular constituents of insect mating plugs have not previously been characterized. Here we report that an abundant autofluorescent protein made by the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] male's ejaculatory bulb is a major constituent of the posterior region of the mating plug. Identities in size, chromosomal location and expression pattern indicate that the autofluorescent protein is PEB-me, an abundant ejaculatory bulb protein reported by Ludwig et al. [Biochem. Genet. 29 (1991) 215]. We cloned and sequenced the RNA encoding this protein. The transcript, which is male-specific and expressed only in the ejaculatory bulb, encodes a 377 a.a. predicted secreted protein with PGG repeats similar to those in homopolymer-forming proteins found in spider silk.
",11267893
0,7227,"Stress tolerance and metabolic response to stress in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A potentially important physiological response to stress may be alteration in the gross regulation of energy metabolism. Different genotypes may respond differently to environmental stress, and the variation in these norms of reaction may be of key importance to the maintenance of genetic variation in metabolic traits. In the study reported here, a set of genetically defined lines of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] were exposed to four stresses (acetic acid, ethanol, starvation and thermal stress) in order to assess the magnitude of environmental effects and genotype x environment interactions. In addition to scoring metabolic traits, distributions of survival times under each stress were also quantified. Although both metabolic traits and survival times exhibited strong differences among genotypes, the correlations between enzyme traits and survival were generally weak. Many of the genetic correlations exhibit significant heterogeneity across environments. The results suggest that transient environmental stress may play an important role in the evolution of this highly intercorrelated set of metabolic traits.
",9881451
0,7227,"Effect of a standardised dietary restriction protocol on multiple laboratory strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Outcomes of lifespan studies in model organisms are particularly susceptible to variations in technical procedures. This is especially true of dietary restriction, which is implemented in many different ways among laboratories. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this study, we have examined the effect of laboratory stock maintenance, genotype differences and microbial infection on the ability of dietary restriction (DR) to extend life in the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. None of these factors block the DR effect. CONCLUSIONS: These data lend support to the idea that nutrient restriction genuinely extends lifespan in flies, and that any mechanistic discoveries made with this model are of potential relevance to the determinants of lifespan in other organisms.
",19119322
0,7227,"Infection of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by Tubulinosema kingi: stage-specific susceptibility and within-host proliferation.
Despite its importance as a model organism very little is known about the interaction between [START]Drosophila[END] and its microsporidian pathogens. Here we report on the relative susceptibility of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] life history stages to infection by Tubulinosema kingi, and on patterns of pathogen proliferation. We find that only larvae can be infected, and that this susceptibility decreases with larval age. Following infection, the pathogen shows little subsequent proliferation in larvae, a limited amount in pupae while it replicates greatly in adults. We present evidence that the host launches a cellular immune response after infection with the pathogen, although its effectiveness remains to be demonstrated.
",18394642
0,7227,"Reproductive fitness of [START]Drosophila[END] is maximised by optimal developmental temperature.
Whether the character of developmental plasticity is adaptive or non-adaptive has often been a matter of controversy. Although thermal developmental plasticity has been studied in [START]Drosophila[END] for several traits, it is not entirely clear how it affects reproductive fitness. We, therefore, investigated how developmental temperature affects reproductive performance (early fecundity and egg-to-adult viability) of wild-caught [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] We tested competing hypotheses on the character of developmental thermal plasticity using a full-factorial design with three developmental and adulthood temperatures within the natural thermal range of this species. To account for potential intraspecific differences, we examined flies from tropical (India) and temperate (Slovakia) climate zones. Our results show that flies from both populations raised at an intermediate developmental temperature (25 C) have comparable or higher early fecundity and fertility at all tested adulthood temperatures, while lower (17 C) or higher developmental temperatures (29 C) did not entail any advantage under the tested thermal regimes. Importantly, the superior thermal performance of flies raised at 25 C is apparent even after taking two traits positively associated with reproductive output into account: body size and ovariole number. Thus, in [START]D. melanogaster[END], development at a given temperature does not necessarily provide any advantage in this thermal environment in terms of reproductive fitness. Our findings strongly support the optimal developmental temperature hypothesis, which states that in different thermal environments, the highest fitness is achieved when an organism is raised at its optimal developmental temperature.
",31064855
0,7227,"Sexual conflict in wing size and shape in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Intralocus sexual conflict occurs when opposing selection pressures operate on loci expressed in both sexes, constraining the evolution of sexual dimorphism and displacing one or both sexes from their optimum. We eliminated intralocus conflict in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by limiting transmission of all major chromosomes to males, thereby allowing them to win the intersexual tug-of-war. Here, we show that this male-limited (ML) evolution treatment led to the evolution (in both sexes) of masculinized wing morphology, body size, growth rate, wing loading, and allometry. In addition to more male-like size and shape, ML evolution resulted in an increase in developmental stability for males. However, females expressing ML chromosomes were less developmentally stable, suggesting that being ontogenetically more male-like was disruptive to development. We suggest that sexual selection over size and shape of the imago may therefore explain the persistence of substantial genetic variation in these characters and the ontogenetic processes underlying them.
",20695965
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila[END] neuroscience: Unravelling the circuits of sensory-motor control in the fly.
Effective motor control requires the real-time transmission of information between sensory organs and the motor system. With the powerful techniques that are now available, [START]Drosophila[END] neuroscientists are unravelling the topology of the neural circuits that carry this information in the fly at synaptic resolution.
",33905699
0,7227,"Estimating the heritability of female lifetime fecundity in a locally adapted [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] population.
The heritability of genome-wide fitness that is expected in finite populations is poorly understood, both theoretically and empirically, despite its relevance to many fundamental concepts in evolutionary biology. In this study, we used two independent methods of estimating the heritability of lifetime female fecundity (the predominant female fitness component in this population) in a large, outbred population of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that had adapted to the laboratory environment for over 400 generations. Despite strong directional selection on adult female fecundity, we uncovered high heritability for this trait that cannot be explained by antagonistic pleiotropy with juvenile fitness. The evolutionary significance of this high heritability of lifetime fecundity is discussed.
",19210593
0,7227,"Localization of a dosage sensitive region for pyruvate kinase in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A small segment of chromosome 1, 12AB-12C, in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is dosage-sensitive for the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase (EC 2.7.1.40). We suggest that the enzyme is coded by a gene, Pyk+, located within this region. The activity of the enzyme over developmental time also was measured.
",3920304
0,7227,"Insights from intoxicated [START]Drosophila[END].
Our understanding of alcohol use disorder (AUD), particularly alcohol's effects on the nervous system, has unquestionably benefited from the use of model systems such as [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Here, we briefly introduce the use of flies in alcohol research, and highlight the genetic accessibility and neurobiological contribution that flies have made to our understanding of AUD. Future fly research offers unique opportunities for addressing unresolved questions in the alcohol field, such as the neuromolecular and circuit basis for cravings and alcohol-induced neuroimmune dysfunction. This review strongly advocates for interdisciplinary approaches and translational collaborations with the united goal of confronting the major health problems associated with alcohol abuse and addiction.
",29980341
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a model organism of brain diseases.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been utilized to model human brain diseases. In most of these invertebrate transgenic models, some aspects of human disease are reproduced. Although investigation of rodent models has been of significant impact, invertebrate models offer a wide variety of experimental tools that can potentially address some of the outstanding questions underlying neurological disease. This review considers what has been gleaned from invertebrate models of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, metabolic diseases such as Leigh disease, Niemann-Pick disease and ceroid lipofuscinoses, tumor syndromes such as neurofibromatosis and tuberous sclerosis, epilepsy as well as CNS injury. It is to be expected that genetic tools in [START]Drosophila[END] will reveal new pathways and interactions, which hopefully will result in molecular based therapy approaches.
",19333415
0,7227,"Adaptation and Conservation throughout the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Life-Cycle.
Previous studies of the evolution of genes expressed at different life-cycle stages of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] have not been able to disentangle adaptive from nonadaptive substitutions when using nonsynonymous sites. Here, we overcome this limitation by combining whole-genome polymorphism data from [START]D. melanogaster[END] and divergence data between [START]D. melanogaster[END] and Drosophila yakuba. For the set of genes expressed at different life-cycle stages of [START]D. melanogaster[END], as reported in modENCODE, we estimate the ratio of substitutions relative to polymorphism between nonsynonymous and synonymous sites (alpha) and then alpha is discomposed into the ratio of adaptive (omegaa) and nonadaptive (omegana) substitutions to synonymous substitutions. We find that the genes expressed in mid- and late-embryonic development are the most conserved, whereas those expressed in early development and postembryonic stages are the least conserved. Importantly, we found that low conservation in early development is due to high rates of nonadaptive substitutions (high omegana), whereas in postembryonic stages it is due, instead, to high rates of adaptive substitutions (high omegaa). By using estimates of different genomic features (codon bias, average intron length, exon number, recombination rate, among others), we also find that genes expressed in mid- and late-embryonic development show the most complex architecture: they are larger, have more exons, more transcripts, and longer introns. In addition, these genes are broadly expressed among all stages. We suggest that all these genomic features are related to the conservation of mid- and late-embryonic development. Globally, our study supports the hourglass pattern of conservation and adaptation over the life-cycle.
",31028390
0,7227,"Concomitant changes in radiation resistance and trehalose levels during life stages of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] suggest radio-protective function of trehalose.
PURPOSE: During development, various life stages of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] ([START]D. melanogaster[END]) show different levels of resistance to gamma irradiation, with the early pupal stage being the most radiation sensitive. This provides us an opportunity to explore the biochemical basis of such variations. The present study was carried out to understand the mechanisms underlying radiation resistance during life stages of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Homogenates from all the life stages of [START]D. melanogaster[END] were prepared at stipulated age. These homogenates were used for the determination of (1) enzymatic antioxidants: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, [START]D. melanogaster[END] glutathione peroxidase (DmGPx), and glutathione S-transferase (GST); (2) reducing non-enzymatic antioxidants: total antioxidant capacity (TAC), reduced glutathione (GSH) and non-reducing non-enzymatic antioxidant trehalose; and (3) levels of protein carbonyl (PC) content. Age-dependent changes in radiation resistance and associated biochemical changes were also studied in young (2 d) and old (20 and 30 d) flies. RESULTS: TAC and GSH were found high in the early pupal stage, whereas catalase and DmGPx were found to increase in the early pupal stage. The non-feeding third instar (NFTI) larvae were found to have high levels of SOD and GST, besides NFTI larvae showed high levels of trehalose. A remarkable decrease was observed in radiation resistance and trehalose levels during the early pupal stage. The PC level was the highest during early pupal stage and was the lowest in NFTI larvae. Older flies showed high level of PC compared with young flies. CONCLUSION: In vitro increments in trehalose concentration correspond to reduced formation of PCs, suggesting a protective role of trehalose against free radicals. A strong correlation between levels of trehalose and PC formation suggests amelioration of proteome damage due to ionizing radiation (IR). Stages with high trehalose levels showed protected proteome and high radiation resistance, suggesting a significant role for this disaccharide in radiation resistance.
",29613812
0,7227,"Nuclear receptors--a perspective from [START]Drosophila[END].
Nuclear receptors are ancient ligand-regulated transcription factors that control key metabolic and developmental pathways. The fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has only 18 nuclear-receptor genes - far fewer than any other genetic model organism and representing all 6 subfamilies of vertebrate receptors. These unique attributes establish the fly as an ideal system for studying the regulation and function of nuclear receptors during development. Here, we review recent breakthroughs in our understanding of [START]D. melanogaster[END] nuclear receptors, and interpret these results in light of findings from their evolutionarily conserved vertebrate homologues.
",15803199
0,7227,"Male-Killing Spiroplasma Alters Behavior of the Dosage Compensation Complex during [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Embryogenesis.
Numerous arthropods harbor maternally transmitted bacteria that induce the preferential death of males [1-7]. This sex-specific lethality benefits the bacteria because males are ""dead ends"" regarding bacterial transmission, and their absence may result in additional resources for their viable female siblings who can thereby more successfully transmit the bacteria [5]. Although these symbionts disrupt a range of developmental processes [8-10], the underlying cellular mechanisms are largely unknown. It was previously shown that mutations in genes of the dosage compensation pathway of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] suppressed male killing caused by the bacterium, Spiroplasma [10]. This result suggested that dosage compensation is a target of Spiroplasma. However, it remains unclear how this pathway is affected, and whether the underlying interactions require the male-specific cellular environment. Here, we investigated the cellular basis of male embryonic lethality in [START]D. melanogaster[END] induced by Spiroplasma. We found that the dosage compensation complex (DCC), which acetylates X chromatin in males [11], becomes mis-localized to ectopic regions of the nucleus immediately prior to the killing phase. This effect was accompanied by inappropriate histone acetylation and genome-wide mis-regulation of gene expression. Artificially induced formation of the DCC in infected females, through transgenic expression of the DCC-specific gene msl-2, resulted in mis-localization of this complex to non-X regions and early Spiroplasma-induced death, mirroring the killing effects in males. These findings strongly suggest that Spiroplasma initiates male killing by targeting the dosage compensation machinery directly and independently of other cellular features characteristic of the male sex.
",27161498
0,7227,"The digestive tract of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The digestive tract plays a central role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients. Far from being a passive tube, it provides the first line of defense against pathogens and maintains energy homeostasis by exchanging neuronal and endocrine signals with other organs. Historically neglected, the gut of the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has recently come to the forefront of [START]Drosophila[END] research. Areas as diverse as stem cell biology, neurobiology, metabolism, and immunity are benefitting from the ability to study the genetics of development, growth regulation, and physiology in the same organ. In this review, we summarize our knowledge of the [START]Drosophila[END] digestive tract, with an emphasis on the adult midgut and its functional underpinnings. 
",24016187
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila[END] neuroblast asymmetric divisions: cell cycle regulators, asymmetric protein localization, and tumorigenesis.
Over the past decade, many of the key components of the genetic machinery that regulate the asymmetric division of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] neural progenitors, neuroblasts, have been identified and their functions elucidated. Studies over the past two years have shown that many of these identified components act to regulate the self-renewal versus differentiation decision and appear to function as tumor suppressors during larval nervous system development. In this paper, we highlight the growing number of molecules that are normally considered to be key regulators of cell cycle events/progression that have recently been shown to impinge on the neuroblast asymmetric division machinery to control asymmetric protein localization and/or the decision to self-renew or differentiate.
",18209103
0,7227,"Selection for circadian eclosion time in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Early and late eclosion strains were developed from [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] cultures. The Oregon-R parent strains (isolated in 1925) showed significantly more selectability than the W(2) parent strain collected at the beginning of this study (1971). This is consistent with the hypothesis that the selective advantage of circadian behaviors is reduced in laboratory conditions.
",4628524
0,7227,"Sexual activity increases resistance against Pseudomonas entomophila in male [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Maintenance and deployment cost of immunity is high, therefore, it is expected to trade-off with other high cost traits like sexual activity. Previous studies with [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] show that male's ability to clear bacteria decreases with increase in sexual activity. We subjected this idea to test using two pathogens (Pseudomonas entomophila and Staphylococcus succinus) and three different populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. RESULTS: We found that sexual activity enhanced male survivorship in a pathogen specific manner. Sexually active males show higher resistance than virgins upon infection with Pseudomonas entomophila. Interestingly, the beneficial effects of sexual activity increased with time of co-habitation with females and declined when access to females was restricted. We observed no change in male survivorship upon experimentally varying the number of sexual interactions. CONCLUSION: Our results show that the sexual activity-immunity trade-off in males cannot be generalised. The trade-off is potentially mediated through complex interactions between the host, pathogen and the environment experienced by the host.
",24010544
0,7227,"Growth and size control during development.
The size and shape of organs are characteristic for each species. Even when organisms develop to different sizes due to varying environmental conditions, such as nutrition, organ size follows species-specific rules of proportionality to the rest of the body, a phenomenon referred to as allometry. Therefore, for a given environment, organs stop growth at a predictable size set by the species's genotype. How do organs stop growth? How can related species give rise to organs of strikingly different size? No definitive answer has been given to date. One of the major models for the studies of growth termination is the vinegar fly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Therefore, this review will focus mostly on work carried out in [START]Drosophila[END] to try to tease apart potential mechanisms and identify routes for further investigation. One general rule, found across the animal kingdom, is that the rate of growth declines with developmental time. Therefore, answers to the problem of growth termination should explain this seemingly universal fact. In addition, growth termination is intimately related to the problems of robustness (i.e. precision) and plasticity in organ size, symmetric and asymmetric organ development, and of how the 'target' size depends on extrinsic, environmental factors.
",29142108
0,7227,"Water acquisition and partitioning in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: effects of selection for desiccation-resistance.
We examined physiological features related to water balance in five replicate populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that have undergone selection for enhanced resistance to desiccation (D populations) and in five replicate control (C) populations. Adult D flies contain 34 % more water than the control flies. We examined two hypotheses for increased water acquisition in the D flies: (i) that they accumulate more water early in development and (ii) that they have a reduced post-eclosion diuretic water loss. We found no evidence of differential water or dry mass acquisition between the C and D populations prior to adulthood. We also found no evidence of differential post-eclosion diuresis, i.e. both C and D groups showed insignificant changes in water volume in the 4 h period immediately after eclosion. In addition, we quantified water content in the intra- and extracellular compartments of the C and D populations and were able to identify the hemolymph as the primary storage site of the 'extra' water carried by the desiccation-resistant flies. We estimated that 68 % of the increased water volume observed in the D flies was contained in the hemolymph. Desiccation-resistance was strongly correlated with hemolymph volume and only weakly with intracellular water volume. Survival during desiccation was also strongly related to the carbohydrate content of the D flies. It has been presumed that the D flies accumulate carbohydrate primarily as intracellular glycogen, which would result in a significant increase in intracellular water volume. We found that carbohydrate content was weakly correlated with intracellular water volume and more strongly with hemolymph volume. The carbohydrate pool in the D flies may, therefore, be contained in the extracellular compartment as well as in cells. These results are suggestive of the importance of modifications in hemolymph volume and hemolymph solute concentrations in the evolution of enhanced desiccation-tolerance in populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
",11606606
0,7227,"Quantitative analysis of antennal mosaic generation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by the MARCM system.
Mosaics have been used in [START]Drosophila[END] to study development and to generate mutant structures when a mutant allele is homozygous lethal. New approaches of directed somatic recombination based on FRT/FLP methods, have increased mosaicism rates but likewise multiple clones in the same individual appeared more frequently. Production of single clones could be essential for developmental studies; however, for cell-autonomous gene function studies only the presence of homozygous cells for the target recessive allele is relevant. Herein, we report the number and extension of antennal mosaics generated by the MARCM system at different ages. This information is directed to obtain the appropriated mosaic type for the intended application. By applying heat shock at 10 different developmental stages from 0-12 h to 6-7 days after egg laying, more than 50% of mosaics were obtained from 5,028 adults. Single recombinant clones appeared mainly at early stages while massive recombinant areas were observed with late treatments.
",18543310
0,7227,"Bacteria-induced sexual isolation in [START]Drosophila[END].
Commensal bacteria can induce sexual isolation between populations of [START]Drosophila[END]. This phenomenon has implications for speciation, and raises questions about its behavioral and developmental mechanisms, which are not yet known. In this Extra View, we discuss related work by others, bearing directly on these issues, and we speculate about how bacteria might influence fly behavior. There are many reports of interaction between [START]Drosophila[END] and their microbiota that significantly impacts mating preferences. Sexual isolation can be enhanced or reduced by altering the culture media, or the microbiota inhabiting those media. More dramatically, the endoparasite Wolbachia has induced strong mate preferences in some instances. While a sudden, ecologically induced shift in mating preferences falls far short of the changes required for speciation, it might be a first step in that direction. We hypothesize that bacteria-induced sexual isolation is caused by chemosensory cues. In our experiments, bacteria altered the profile of cuticular hydrocarbons, which function as sex pheromones. Commensal bacteria may act directly on these hydrocarbons, or they may affect their synthesis. Alternatively, bacterial metabolites might perfume the flies in ways that affect mate choice. In that event, habituation or conditioning likely plays a role.
",21525789
0,7227,"Targeted Lipidomics of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] During Development.
Lipids play critical roles in developmental processes, and alterations in lipid metabolism are linked to a wide range of human diseases, including neurodegeneration, cancer, metabolic diseases, and microbial infections. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], more commonly known as the [START]fruit fly[END], is a powerful organism for developmental biology and human disease research. We have previously developed a comprehensive biochemical tool, based on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), to probe the dynamics of lipid remodeling during [START]D. melanogaster[END] development. This chapter introduces a step-by-step protocol for extracting and analyzing lipids across all developmental stages (embryo, larvae, pupa, and adult) of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. The targeted semi-quantitative approach offers a comprehensive coverage of more than 400 lipid species spanning the lipid classes, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, triacylglycerols, and sterols.
",33954948
0,7227,"Regulative interactions between cells from different imaginal disks of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The regulative behavior of cells from the imaginal wing disk of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] can be modified by interaction with cells from different disk types. Both thoracic and nonthoracic disks are able to interact, but there are major differences in the effectiveness of interaction. The finding lends experimental support to the idea that cells in different fields within the same organism use the same mechanism for specifying positional information. A similar conclusion has been reached by Wilcox and Smith based on studies of the mutation wingless.
",98843
0,7227,"Odour avoidance learning in the larva of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
[START]Drosophila[END] larvae can be trained to avoid odours associated with electric shock. We describe here, an improved method of aversive conditioning and a procedure for decomposing learning retention curve that enables us to do a quantitative analysis of memory phases, short term (STM), middle term (MTM) and long term (LTM) as a function of training cycles. The same method of analysis when applied to learning mutants dunce, amnesiac, rutabaga and radish reveals memory deficits characteristic of the mutant strains.
",19920347
0,7227,"Innate antiviral immunity in [START]Drosophila[END].
The study of [START]Drosophila[END], and other genetically tractable insects, has expanded our understanding of innate immunity and more recently antiviral innate mechanisms. The [START]Drosophila[END] antiviral program includes inflammatory signaling cascades as well as antiviral RNA silencing and autophagy. This review will highlight the recent discoveries in antiviral immunity in insects and will reveal some of the lessons learned.
",20137906
0,7227,"A comparison of the transcriptome of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in response to entomopathogenic fungus, ionizing radiation, starvation and cold shock.
BACKGROUND: The molecular mechanisms that determine the organism's response to a variety of doses and modalities of stress factors are not well understood. RESULTS: We studied effects of ionizing radiation (144, 360 and 864 Gy), entomopathogenic fungus (10 and 100 CFU), starvation (16 h), and cold shock (+4, 0 and -4 C) on an organism's viability indicators (survival and locomotor activity) and transcriptome changes in the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] model. All stress factors but cold shock resulted in a decrease of lifespan proportional to the dose of treatment. However, stress-factors affected locomotor activity without correlation with lifespan. Our data revealed both significant similarities and differences in differential gene expression and the activity of biological processes under the influence of stress factors. CONCLUSIONS: Studied doses of stress treatments deleteriously affect the organism's viability and lead to different changes of both general and specific cellular stress response mechanisms.
",26694630
0,7227,"Using the Q system in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
In [START]Drosophila[END], the GAL4/UAS/GAL80 repressible binary expression system is widely used to manipulate or mark tissues of interest. However, complex biological systems often require distinct transgenic manipulations of different cell populations. For this purpose, we recently developed the Q system, a second repressible binary expression system. We describe here the basic steps for performing a variety of Q system experiments in vivo. These include how to generate and use Q system reagents to express effector transgenes in tissues of interest, how to use the Q system in conjunction with the GAL4 system to generate intersectional expression patterns that precisely limit which tissues will be experimentally manipulated and how to use the Q system to perform mosaic analysis. The protocol described here can be adapted to a wide range of experimental designs.
",21738124
0,7227,"Genome-wide approaches to understanding behaviour in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Understanding how an organism exhibits specific behaviours remains a major and important biological question. Studying behaviour in a simple model organism like the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has the advantages of advanced molecular genetics approaches along with well-defined anatomy and physiology. With advancements in functional genomic technologies, researchers are now attempting to uncover genes and pathways involved in complex behaviours on a genome-wide scale. A systems-level network approach, which will include genomic approaches, to study behaviour will be key to understanding the regulation and modulation of behaviours and the importance of context in regulating them.
",22843979
0,7227,"The bacterial symbiont Wolbachia induces resistance to RNA viral infections in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Wolbachia are vertically transmitted, obligatory intracellular bacteria that infect a great number of species of arthropods and nematodes. In insects, they are mainly known for disrupting the reproductive biology of their hosts in order to increase their transmission through the female germline. In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], however, a strong and consistent effect of Wolbachia infection has not been found. Here we report that a bacterial infection renders [START]D. melanogaster[END] more resistant to Drosophila C virus, reducing the load of viruses in infected flies. We identify these resistance-inducing bacteria as Wolbachia. Furthermore, we show that Wolbachia also increases resistance of [START]Drosophila[END] to two other RNA virus infections (Nora virus and Flock House virus) but not to a DNA virus infection (Insect Iridescent Virus 6). These results identify a new major factor regulating [START]D. melanogaster[END] resistance to infection by RNA viruses and contribute to the idea that the response of a host to a particular pathogen also depends on its interactions with other microorganisms. This is also, to our knowledge, the first report of a strong beneficial effect of Wolbachia infection in [START]D. melanogaster[END]. The induced resistance to natural viral pathogens may explain Wolbachia prevalence in natural populations and represents a novel Wolbachia-host interaction.
",19222304
0,7227,"Symbiotic bacteria are responsible for diet-induced mating preference in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], providing support for the hologenome concept of evolution.
Diet-induced mating preference in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] results from amplification of the commensal bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum, providing a new role for gut microbiota and support for the hologenome concept of evolution. When the flies were treated with antibiotics prior to changing their diet, mating preference did not occur. These data also indicate that other potentially beneficial bacteria could be irreversibly lost by antibiotic treatment and that their replacement could provide a health benefit. We suggest that [START]D. melanogaster[END] can be a useful model organism to study the activities of gut microbiota and their interaction with the immune system.
",21804354
0,7227,"Can [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] represent a model system for the detection of reproductive adverse drug reactions?
Once a molecule is identified as a potential drug, the detection of adverse drug reactions is one of the key components of its development and the FDA approval process. We propose using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to screen for reproductive adverse drug reactions in the early stages of drug development. Compared with other non-mammalian models, [START]D. melanogaster[END] has many similarities to the mammalian reproductive system, including putative sex hormones and conserved proteins involved in genitourinary development. Furthermore, the [START]D. melanogaster[END] model would present significant advantages in time efficiency and cost-effectiveness compared with mammalian models. We present data on methotrexate (MTX) reproductive adverse events in multiple animal models, including [START]fruit flies[END], as proof-of-concept for the use of the [START]D. melanogaster[END] model.
",19482095
0,7227,"The effects of the timing of exposure to cadmium on the oviposition behavior of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Animals can greatly increase their fitness by choosing oviposition sites free from damaging substances such as the heavy metal cadmium (Cd). Previous research has shown that [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] reared on uncontaminated media lay fewer eggs on substrates containing Cd. In this study, we examined the effects of prior exposure to Cd on oviposition site preference. We tested flies that had been exposed to Cd continuously from egg to adult, only during pre-adult stages, or for the 4 days of adulthood prior to testing. We found that flies avoid laying eggs on Cd-contaminated medium and also that flies exposed to Cd as adults laid significantly fewer eggs than controls never exposed to Cd. We did not observe consistent changes in oviposition as a result of pre-adult exposure alone. Our results suggest that the presence of cadmium in the environment, even at low doses and for short periods of time during adulthood, can harm the fitness of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
",30298455
0,7227,"Characterization of the mus308 gene in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Among the available mutagen-sensitive mutations in [START]Drosophila[END], those at the mus308 locus are unique in conferring hypersensitivity to DNA cross-linking agents but not to monofunctional agents. Those mutations are also associated with an elevated frequency of chromosomal aberrations, altered DNA metabolism and the modification of a deoxyribonuclease. This spectrum of phenotypes is shared with selected mammalian mutations including Fanconi anemia in humans. In anticipation of the molecular characterization of the mus308 gene, it has been localized cytogenetically to 87C9-87D1,2 on the right arm of chromosome three. Nine new mutant alleles of the gene have been generated by X-ray mutagenesis and one was recovered following hybrid dysgenesis. Characterization of these new alleles has uncovered additional phenotypes of mutations at this locus. Homozygous mus308 flies that have survived moderate mutagen treatment exhibit an altered wing position that is correlated with reduced flight ability and an altered mitochondrial morphology. In addition, observations of elevated embryo mortality are potentially explained by an aberrant distribution of nuclear material in early embryos which is similar to that seen in the mutant giant nuclei.
",8417992
0,7227,"Thermal acclimation of flies from three populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] fails to support the seasonality hypothesis.
In seasonal environments, natural selection should favor genotypes that acclimate to slow and predictable changes in temperature. Selective pressure for acclimation should be especially strong for animals that complete many generations per year, because seasonal warming or cooling causes offspring to experience different temperatures than their parents did. Here, we studied variation in acclimation capacity among three populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. We used a reverse acclimation design to see whether developmental acclimation persisted throughout adulthood. Flies developed from fertilization to adulthood at either 16  or 26  C. Then, flies either remained at the same temperature or moved to the other temperature for 7 days. We measured fecundity at seven temperatures ranging from 14  to 36 C. Genotypes from North Carolina and Vermont laid more eggs at 16  C after spending the larval and adult stages at 16  C, instead of 26  C. In both populations, the benefit of acclimation to 16  C during development was erased by acclimation to 26  C during adulthood. In contrast to our prediction, genotypes from Indiana laid fewer eggs at 16  C or 26  C after developing at this temperature. Overall, these data provide only weak support for the models of optimal acclimation in seasonal environments.
",30975420
0,7227,"The effects of selective history and environmental heterogeneity on inbreeding depression in experimental populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Inbreeding depression varies considerably among populations, but only some aspects of this variation have been thoroughly studied. Because inbreeding depression requires genetic variation, factors that influence the amount of standing variation can affect the magnitude of inbreeding depression. Environmental heterogeneity has long been considered an important contributor to the maintenance of genetic variation, but its effects on inbreeding depression have been largely ignored by empiricists. Here we compare inbreeding depression, measured in two environments, for 20 experimental populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that have been maintained under four different selection regimes, including two types of environmentally homogeneous selection and two types environmentally heterogeneous selection. In line with theory, we find considerably higher inbreeding depression in populations from heterogeneous selection regimes. We also use our data set to test whether inbreeding depression is correlated with either stress or the phenotypic coefficient of variation (CV), as suggested by some recent studies. Though both of these factors are significant predictors of inbreeding depression in our study, there is an effect of assay environment on inbreeding depression that cannot be explained by either stress or CV.
",23535617
0,7227,"The adult component of selection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: some aspects of early-remating activity of females.
As an important factor of the adult component of selection, mating behaviour was studied in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], with emphasis on non-virgin females. We found that 30-50 per cent of the females in a laboratory population will remate within 6 h of first mating under no-choice conditions. This high percentage of early rematings was not due to the continuous confinement of the females with males but indicated a rapid return of receptivity of a significant proportion of the females. Remating behaviour was significantly influenced by both the genotype of the female and the genotype of her two successive partners. Age of females was only important insofar as it concerned young, 1 or 2-day old, females. These females showed less remating than older females. Willingness to remate was also affected by the number of sperm stored. Females that had been inseminated by less fertile males, i.e. males that had already mated two or three times, showed higher remating percentages than females inseminated by more fertile males. Notwithstanding this sperm effect, females were estimated to remate approximately every second day. It is suggested that a high frequency of remating and the resulting sperm competition are significant components of [START]Drosophila[END] life-history.
",8407356
0,7227,"The genetics of the dorsal-Bicaudal-D region of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The chromosomal region 36C on 2L contains two maternal-effect loci, dorsal (dl) and Bicaudal-D (Bic-D), which are involved in establishing polarity of the [START]Drosophila[END] embryo along the dorsal-ventral and anterior-posterior axes, respectively. To analyze the region genetically, we isolated X-ray-induced dorsal alleles, which we recognized by virtue of the haplo-insufficient temperature-sensitive dorsal-dominant phenotype in progeny of single females heterozygous for a mutagenized chromosome. From the 20,000 chromosomes tested, we isolated three deficiencies, two inversions with breakpoint in dl and one apparent dl point mutant. One of the deficiencies, Df(2L)H20 (36A6,7; 36F1,2) was used to screen for EMS-induced lethal- and maternal-effect mutants mapping in the vicinity of dl and Bic-D. We isolated 44 lethal mutations defining 11 complementation groups. We also recovered as maternal-effect mutations four dl alleles, as well as six alleles of quail and one allele of kelch, two previously identified maternal-effect genes. Through complementation tests with various viable mutants and deficiencies in the region, a total of 18 loci were identified in an interval of about 30 cytologically visible bands. The region was subdivided into seven subregions by deficiency breakpoints. One lethal complementation group as well as the two maternal loci, Bic-D and quail, are located in the same deficiency interval as is dl.
",3089869
0,7227,"The east gene of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is expressed in the developing embryonic nervous system and is required for normal olfactory and gustatory responses of the adult.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae and adults respond to a wide range of chemosensory stimuli. We describe the genetics and developmental expression of the east gene, mutations which result in adult-specific chemosensory defects. The original isolate of east is semidominant for the behavioral phenotype. Several mutations have been generated, some of which are recessive lethals and others that are viable alleles that show a recessive, adult-specific, chemosensory defect. No larval chemosensory defects were observed. The east gene is expressed in the neurogenic region at the time of neuroblast segregation and in cells in the peripheral and central nervous system. Our results suggest that east+ expression in the nervous system is required for a normal adult chemosensory response and both increases and decreases in levels of the gene product result in a mutant phenotype.
",1426631
0,7227,"Modelling the Bicoid gradient.
Morphogen gradients provide embryonic tissues with positional information by inducing target genes at different concentration thresholds and thus at different positions. The Bicoid morphogen gradient in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] embryos has recently been analysed quantitatively, yet how it forms remains a matter of controversy. Several biophysical models that rely on production, diffusion and degradation have been formulated to account for the observed dynamics of the Bicoid gradient, but no one model can account for all its characteristics. Here, we discuss how existing data on this gradient fit the various proposed models and what aspects of gradient formation these models fail to explain. We suggest that knowing a few additional parameters, such as the lifetime of Bicoid, would help to identify and develop better models of Bicoid gradient formation.
",20570935
0,7227,"Hybrid lethal systems in the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] species complex. II. The Zygotic hybrid rescue (Zhr) gene of [START]D. melanogaster[END].
Hybrid females from Drosophila simulans females x [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] males die as embryos while hybrid males from the reciprocal cross die as larvae. We have recovered a mutation in melanogaster that rescues the former hybrid females. It was located on the X chromosome at a position close to the centromere, and it was a zygotically acting gene, in contrast with mhr (maternal hybrid rescue) in simulans that rescues the same hybrids maternally. We named it Zhr (Zygotic hybrid rescue). The gene also rescues hybrid females from embryonic lethals in crosses of Drosophila mauritiana females x [START]D. melanogaster[END] males and of Drosophila sechellia females x [START]D. melanogaster[END] males. Independence of the hybrid embryonic lethality and the hybrid larval lethality suggested in a companion study was confirmed by employing two rescue genes, Zhr and Hmr (Hybrid male rescue), in doubly lethal hybrids. A model is proposed to explain the genetic mechanisms of hybrid lethalities as well as the evolutionary pathways.
",8436277
0,7227,"Acrylamide is genotoxic to the somatic and germ cells of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The genotoxic effects of acrylamide, a recently detected carcinogen, have been studied in the somatic (wing primordia) and germ cells of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by the wing mosaic assay and the sex-linked recessive lethal test respectively. Larvae, 72 +/- 4 h old, were exposed to 6 different concentrations of acrylamide ranging between 0.25 mM and 5.0 mM in instant medium for 48 h. It is observed that acrylamide is both mutagenic and recombinogenic in the wing disc cells and induces sex-linked recessive lethals.
",1899131
0,7227,"Genetic variability and robustness of host odor preference in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Chemosensory stimuli play a crucial role for host selection in insects, including the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. [START]Drosophila[END] has been instrumental in unraveling the neurological basis of olfactory processing in insects. Basic knowledge regarding chemical ecology and thorough studies of olfactory preferences are still lacking to a great extent in [START]D. melanogaster[END], however. We have characterized repeatable variation in olfactory preference between five classical [START]D. melanogaster[END] wild-type strains toward a large array of natural host odors and synthetic compounds. By recording the rate of attraction over up to 24 hr, we could compare stimuli varying in attractiveness and characterize phenotypic parameters on the basis of individual stimuli and the whole stimulus array. Behavioral differences between strains were predominantly due to variation in a single phenotypic parameter: their overall responsiveness toward optimal and suboptimal olfactory stimuli. These differences were not explained by variation in olfactory sensitivity, locomotory activity, or general vigor monitored by survival. Comparisons with three recently established wild-type strains indicated that a high behavioral threshold against accepting suboptimal olfactory stimuli is the characteristic phenotype of wild [START]D. melanogaster[END].
",18804372
0,7227,"Analysis of the cell division cycle in [START]Drosophila[END].
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] presents in an unparalleled opportunity to study the regulation of the cell division cycle in the context of cellular differentiation, growth regulation and the development of a multicellular organism. The complexity of [START]Drosophila[END] cell cycles and the large number of techniques available can, however, be overwhelming. We aim to provide here (1) an overview of cell cycle regulation and techniques in [START]Drosophila[END] and (2) a detailed description of techniques we recently used to study embryonic mitoses.
",17189862
0,7227,"Biological stoichiometry of growth in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We examined the relationship between growth rate, C:N:P stoichiometry, and nucleic acid content in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. The ""Growth Rate Hypothesis"" predicts that N and P contents per unit body mass will be high during ontogenetic stages characterized by rapid growth, reflecting the large requirement for P-rich ribosomal RNA during these periods. The ratio of RNA:DNA also is predicted to change with changes in growth rate. Growth is rapid in early [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae, slowing considerably just prior to pupation. As predicted, a positive relationship was found between growth rate and N and P content, but not C. Thus, body C:P and N:P ratios declined with increasing growth rate. The relationship between RNA content and growth rate also was positive. Additionally, the fraction of total body P contributed by ribosomal RNA increased with increasing growth rate.
",16310212
0,7227,"Endosymbiont-based immunity in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] against parasitic nematode infection.
Associations between endosymbiotic bacteria and their hosts represent a complex ecosystem within organisms ranging from humans to protozoa. [START]Drosophila[END] species are known to naturally harbor Wolbachia and Spiroplasma endosymbionts, which play a protective role against certain microbial infections. Here, we investigated whether the presence or absence of endosymbionts affects the immune response of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae to infection by Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes carrying or lacking their mutualistic Gram-negative bacteria Xenorhabdus nematophila (symbiotic or axenic nematodes, respectively). We find that the presence of Wolbachia alone or together with Spiroplasma promotes the survival of larvae in response to infection with S. carpocapsae symbiotic nematodes, but not against axenic nematodes. We also find that Wolbachia numbers are reduced in Spiroplasma-free larvae infected with axenic compared to symbiotic nematodes, and they are also reduced in Spiroplasma-containing compared to Spiroplasma-free larvae infected with axenic nematodes. We further show that S. carpocapsae axenic nematode infection induces the Toll pathway in the absence of Wolbachia, and that symbiotic nematode infection leads to increased phenoloxidase activity in [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae devoid of endosymbionts. Finally, infection with either type of nematode alters the metabolic status and the fat body lipid droplet size in [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae containing only Wolbachia or both endosymbionts. Our results suggest an interaction between Wolbachia endosymbionts with the immune response of [START]D. melanogaster[END] against infection with the entomopathogenic nematodes S. carpocapsae. Results from this study indicate a complex interplay between insect hosts, endosymbiotic microbes and pathogenic organisms.
",29466376
0,7227,"Neuropeptide Mapping of Dimmed Cells of Adult [START]Drosophila[END] Brain.
Neuropeptides are structurally highly diverse messenger molecules that act as regulators of many physiological processes such as development, metabolism, reproduction or behavior in general. Differentiation of neuropeptidergic cells often corresponds with the presence of the transcription factor DIMMED. In the central nervous system of the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], DIMMED commonly occurs in neuroendocrine neurons that release peptides as neurohormones but also in interneurons with complex branching patterns. Fly strains with green fluorescence protein (GFP)-expressing dimmed cells make it possible to systematically analyze the processed neuropeptides in these cells. In this study, we mapped individual GFP-expressing neurons of adult [START]D. melanogaster[END] from the dimmed (c929)>GFP line. Using single cell mass spectrometry, we analyzed 10 types of dimmed neurons from the brain/gnathal ganglion. These cells included neuroendocrine cells with projection into the retrocerebral complex but also a number of large interneurons. Resulting mass spectra not only provided comprehensive data regarding mature products from 13 neuropeptide precursors but also evidence for the cellular co-localization of neuropeptides from different neuropeptide genes. The results can be implemented in a neuroanatomical map of the [START]D. melanogaster[END] brain. Graphical Abstract  .
",29372551
0,7227,"Neuronal homeostasis through translational control.
Translational repression is a key component of the mechanism that establishes segment polarity during early embryonic development in the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Two proteins, Pumilio (Pum) and Nanos, block the translation of hunchback messenger RNA in only the posterior segments, thereby promoting an abdominal fate. More recent studies focusing on postembryonic neuronal function have shown that Pum is also integral to numerous mechanisms that allow neurons to adapt to the changing requirements placed on them in a dynamic nervous system. These mechanisms include those contributing to dendritic structure, synaptic growth, neuronal excitability, and formation of long-term memory. This article describes these new studies and highlights the role of translational repression in regulation of neuronal processes that compensate for change.
",16215276
0,7227,"The role of commensal microbes in the lifespan of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Commensal microbes have mutualistic relationships with their host and mainly live in the host intestine. There are many studies on the relationships between commensal microbes and host physiology. However, there are inconsistent results on the effects of commensal microbes on host lifespan. To clarify this controversy, we generated axenic flies by using two controlled methods - bleaching and antibiotic treatment - and investigated the relationship between the commensal microbes and host lifespan in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. The removal of microbes by using bleaching and antibiotic treatments without detrimental effects increased fly lifespan. Furthermore, a strain of flies colonized with a high load of microbiota showed a greater effect on lifespan extension when the microbes were eliminated, suggesting that commensal bacteria abundance may be a critical determinant of host lifespan. Consistent with those observations, microbial flora of aged fly gut significantly decreased axenic fly lifespan via an increase in bacterial load rather than through a change of bacterial composition. Our elaborately controlled experiments showed that the elimination of commensal microbes without detrimental side effects increased fly lifespan, and that bacterial load was a significant determinant of lifespan. Furthermore, our results indicate the presence of a deterministic connection between commensal microbes and host lifespan.
",31299010
0,7227,"Genetics of life history in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. II. Exploratory selection experiments.
two types of small-scale selection experiments were performed. (1) Artificial selection experiments were performed on age-specific female fecundity. Selection for early fecundity over three generations produced a statistically detectable direct response. There was no detectable indirect response in other life-history characters. Selection for late fecundity over three generations did not produce any detectable direct response. Indirect responses were detected: early egg-laying decreased and longevity increased. (2) Natural selection for late-age fitness components increased late fecundity, female longevity, and the duration of female reproduction, while early fecundity and mean egg-laying rate decreased.
",6790341
0,7227,"The regulation of organ size in [START]Drosophila[END]: physiology, plasticity, patterning and physical force.
The correct regulation of organ size is a fundamental developmental process, the failure of which can compromise organ function and organismal integrity. Consequently, the mechanisms that regulate organ size have been subject to intense research. This research has highlighted four classes of mechanism that are involved in organ size regulation: physiology, plasticity, patterning and physical force. Nevertheless, how these mechanisms are integrated and converge on the cellular process that regulate organ growth is unknown. One group of animals where this integration is beginning to be achieved is in the insects. Here, I review the different mechanisms that regulate organ size in insects, and describe our current understanding of how these mechanisms interact. The genes and hormones involved are remarkably conserved in all animals, so these studies in insects provide a precedent for future research on organ size regulation in mammals.
",20885854
0,7227,"Anatomy and Physiology of the Digestive Tract of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The gastrointestinal tract has recently come to the forefront of multiple research fields. It is now recognized as a major source of signals modulating food intake, insulin secretion and energy balance. It is also a key player in immunity and, through its interaction with microbiota, can shape our physiology and behavior in complex and sometimes unexpected ways. The insect intestine had remained, by comparison, relatively unexplored until the identification of adult somatic stem cells in the [START]Drosophila[END] intestine over a decade ago. Since then, a growing scientific community has exploited the genetic amenability of this insect organ in powerful and creative ways. By doing so, we have shed light on a broad range of biological questions revolving around stem cells and their niches, interorgan signaling and immunity. Despite their relatively recent discovery, some of the mechanisms active in the intestine of flies have already been shown to be more widely applicable to other gastrointestinal systems, and may therefore become relevant in the context of human pathologies such as gastrointestinal cancers, aging, or obesity. This review summarizes our current knowledge of both the formation and function of the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] digestive tract, with a major focus on its main digestive/absorptive portion: the strikingly adaptable adult midgut.
",30287514
0,7227,"Preadult parental diet affects offspring development and metabolism in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
When [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae are reared on isocaloric diets differing in their amounts of protein relative to sugar, emerging adults exhibit significantly different development times and metabolic pools of protein, glycogen and trigylcerides. In the current study, we show that the influence of larval diet experienced during just one generation extends into the next generation, even when that subsequent generation had been shifted to a standard diet during development. Offspring of flies that were reared on high protein relative to sugar underwent metamorphosis significantly faster, had higher reproductive outputs, and different metabolic pool contents compared to the offspring of adults from low protein relative to sugar diets. In addition, isofemale lines differed in the degree to which parental effects were observed, suggesting a genetic component to the observed transgenerational influences.
",23555695
0,7227,"Persistence of a Wolbachia infection frequency cline in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and the possible role of reproductive dormancy.
Field populations of arthropods are often polymorphic for Wolbachia but the factors maintaining intermediate Wolbachia frequencies are generally not understood. In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], Wolbachia frequencies are highly variable across the globe. We document the persistence of a Wolbachia infection frequency cline in [START]D. melanogaster[END] populations from eastern Australia across at least 20 years, with frequencies generally high in the tropics but lower in cool temperate regions. The results are interpreted using a model of frequency dynamics incorporating cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), imperfect maternal transmission and Wolbachia effects on fitness. Clinal variation is less pronounced in eastern North America which may reflect annual recolonization at higher latitudes. Limited samples from Africa from latitudes matching our tropical and subtropical samples from Australia and North America show comparably high infection frequencies, but some equatorial samples show lower frequencies. Adult dormancy across cold periods may contribute to the Australian Wolbachia cline. Infected flies exposed to cold conditions for an extended period had reduced fecundity and viability, an effect not evident in unexposed controls. These fitness costs may contribute to the relatively low Wolbachia frequencies in Australian temperate areas; whereas different processes, including CI induced by young males, may contribute to higher frequencies in tropical locations.
",27076356
0,7227,"Programmed cell death and patterning in [START]Drosophila[END].
Selective cell death provides developing tissues with the means to precisely sculpt emerging structures. By imposing patterned cell death across a tissue, boundaries can be created and tightened. As such, programmed cell death is becoming recognized as a major mechanism for patterning of a variety of complex structures. Typically, cell types are initially organized into a fairly loose pattern; selective death then removes cells between pattern elements to create correct structures. In this review, we examine the role of selective cell death across the course of [START]Drosophila[END] development, including the tightening of embryonic segmental boundaries, head maturation, refining adult structures such as the eye and the wing, and the ability of cell death to correct for pattern defects introduced by gene mutation. We also review what is currently known of the relationship between signals at the cell surface that are responsible for tissue patterning and the basal cell death machinery, an issue that remains poorly understood.
",11139279
0,7227,"No trade-off between learning ability and parasitoid resistance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Learning ability and immunity to parasites are linked at the physiological level in several insect species. The aim of this work was to investigate the relationship between learning and immunity at an evolutionary level. We tested whether selection for improved learning ability in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] led to changes in parasitoid resistance as a correlated response. Similarly, we assayed whether selection for better parasitoid resistance led to a change in learning ability. There was no significant difference between selected and control lines in either case; the estimated confidence intervals for the differences indicate that a trade-off relationship is unlikely.
",16780538
0,7227,"Target genes of homeodomain proteins.
Homeodomain proteins are transcription factors that share a related DNA binding domain, the homeodomain. This class of proteins was first recognized in the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] where they cause homeotic transformations such as a fly with four wings instead of two (Lewis EB. A gene complex controlling segmentation in [START]Drosophila[END]. Nature 1978;276:565-570 [Ref. 18]). They are now known to exist in all eukaryotes where they perform important functions during development. Given that homeodomain proteins are transcription factors, they control the expression of downstream genes to regulate development. Which genes are controlled by homeodomain proteins and how many of them are there? This review focuses on a recent paper by Liang and Biggin (Liang Z, Biggin MD. Eve and Ftz regulate a wide array of genes in blastoderm embryos: the selector homeoproteins directly or indirectly regulate most genes in [START]Drosophila[END]. Development 1998; 125:4471-4482 [Ref. 1]), which proposes that the [START]Drosophila[END] homeodomain proteins Even-skipped and Fushi-tarazu directly control the expression of the majority of genes in the [START]Drosophila[END] genome. An alternative view, that most genes are only indirectly affected by homeodomain proteins is also discussed.
",10377888
0,7227,"MachiBase: a [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] 5'-end mRNA transcription database.
MachiBase (http://machibase.gi.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp/) provides a comprehensive and freely accessible resource regarding [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] 5'-end mRNA transcription at different developmental states, supporting studies on the variabilities of promoter transcriptional activities and gene-expression profiles in the fruitfly. The data were generated in conjunction with the recently developed high-throughput genome sequencer Illumina/Solexa using a newly developed 5'-end mRNA collection method.
",18842623
0,7227,"Cold temperature preference in bacterially infected [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] improves survival but is remarkably suboptimal.
Altering one's temperature preference (e.g. behavioral fever or behavioral chill) is a common immune defense among ectotherms that is likely to be evolutionarily conserved. However, the temperature chosen by an infected host may not be optimal for pathogen defense, causing preference to be inefficient. Here we examined the efficiency of temperature preference in Drosophila melanogaster infected with an LD50 of the gram negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. To this end, we estimated the host's uninfected and infected temperature preferences as well as their optimal survival temperature. We found that flies decreased their preference from 26.3 C to 25.2 C when infected, and this preference was stable over 48h. Furthermore, the decrease in temperature preference was associated with an increased chance of surviving the infection. Nevertheless, the infected temperature preference did not coincide with the optimum temperature for infection survival, which lies at or below 21.4 C. These data suggest that the behavioral response to P. aeruginosa infection is considerably inefficient, and the mechanisms that may account for this pattern are discussed. Future studies of infected temperature preferences should document its efficiency, as this understudied aspect of behavioral immunity can provide important insight into preference evolution.
",27530304
0,7227,"Drosophotoxicology: An Emerging Research Area for Assessing Nanoparticles Interaction with Living Organisms.
The rapid development of nanotechnology allowed the fabrication of a wide range of different nanomaterials, raising many questions about their safety and potential risks for the human health and environment. Most of the current nanotoxicology research is not standardized, hampering any comparison or reproducibility of the obtained results. Drosophotoxicology encompasses the plethora of methodological approaches addressing the use of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a choice organism in toxicology studies. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] model offers several important advantages, such as a relatively simple genome structure, short lifespan, low maintenance cost, readiness of experimental manipulation comparative to vertebrate models from both ethical and technical points of view, relevant gene homology with higher organisms, and ease of obtaining mutant phenotypes. The molecular pathways, as well as multiple behavioral and developmental parameters, can be evaluated using this model in lower, medium or high throughput type assays, allowing a systematic classification of the toxicity levels of different nanomaterials. The purpose of this paper is to review the current research on the applications of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] model for the in vivo assessment of nanoparticles toxicity and to reveal the huge potential of this model system to provide results that could enable a proper selection of different nanostructures for a certain biomedical application.
",26907252
0,7227,"Enterococci Mediate the Oviposition Preference of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] through Sucrose Catabolism.
Sucrose, one of the main products of photosynthesis in plants, functions as a universal biomarker for nutritional content and maturity of different fruits across diverse ecological niches. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] congregates to lay eggs in rotting fruits, yet the factors that influence these decisions remains uncovered. Here, we report that lactic acid bacteria Enterococci are critical modulators to attract [START]Drosophila[END] to lay eggs on decaying food. [START]Drosophila[END]-associated Enterococci predominantly catabolize sucrose for growing their population in fly food, and thus generate a unique ecological niche with depleted sucrose, but enriched bacteria. Female flies navigate these favorable oviposition sites by probing the sucrose cue with their gustatory sensory neurons. Acquirement of indigenous microbiota facilitated the development and systemic growth of [START]Drosophila[END], thereby benefiting the survival and fitness of their offspring. Thus, our finding highlights the pivotal roles of commensal bacteria in influencing host behavior, opening the door to a better understanding of the ecological relationships between the microbial and metazoan worlds.
",29044155
0,7227,"Does cold activate the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] immune system?
Cold exposure appears to activate aspects of the insect immune system; however, the functional significance of the relationship between cold and immunity is unclear. Insect success at low temperatures is shaped in part by interactions with biotic stressors, such as pathogens, thus it is important to understand how and why immunity might be activated by cold. Here we explore which components of the immune system are activated, and whether those components differ among different kinds of cold exposure. We exposed [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to both acute (2h, -2 C) and sustained (10h, -0.5 C) cold, and measured potential (antimicrobial peptide expression, phenoloxidase activity, haemocyte counts) and realised (survival of fungal infection, wound-induced melanisation, bacterial clearance) immunity following recovery. Acute cold increased circulating haemocyte concentration and the expression of Turandot-A and diptericin, but elicited a short-term decrease in the clearance of gram-positive bacteria. Sustained cold increased the expression of Turandot-A, with no effect on other measures of potential or realised immunity. We show that measures of potential immunity were up-regulated by cold, whereas realised immunity was either unaffected or down-regulated. Thus, we hypothesize that cold-activation of potential immunity in [START]Drosophila[END] may be a compensatory mechanism to maintain stable immune function during or after low temperature exposure.
",27765624
0,7227,"The effects of microgravity on the character of progeny of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
To study how the microgravitational environment influences the character of the progeny of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], the S1 insects produced during the 8-days of space flight were self-bred for four generations. Higher variational rate was found in S2. After removing the variant flies, the variational rate of the remaining [START]Drosophila[END] progeny decreased generation by generation. There was no notable sex-linked recessive lethal mutation of parent flies and no gene mutation found in their test-cross examination. It indicates that the germ-cell of parent adult flies were not much influenced by microgravity, but the embryo of filial generation bred in space were greatly influenced by microgravity. Therefore, the mutagenesis during the embryogenic development should be taken into account in the bio-breeding under the space microgravitational environment.
",11541480
0,7227,"The immune response of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The response of the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to various microorganism infections relies on a multilayered defense. The epithelia constitute a first and efficient barrier. Innate immunity is activated when microorganisms succeed in entering the body cavity of the fly. Invading microorganisms are killed by the combined action of cellular and humoral processes. They are phagocytosed by specialized blood cells, surrounded by toxic melanin, or lysed by antibacterial peptides secreted into the hemolymph by fat body cells. During the last few years, research has focused on the mechanisms of microbial recognition by various pattern recognition receptors and of the subsequent induction of antimicrobial peptide expression. The cellular arm of the [START]Drosophila[END] innate immune system, which was somehow neglected, now constitutes the new frontier.
",15199954
0,7227,"Consequences of chronic bacterial infection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Even when successfully surviving an infection, a host often fails to eliminate a pathogen completely and may sustain substantial pathogen burden for the remainder of its life. Using systemic bacterial infection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], we characterize chronic infection by three bacterial species from different genera - Providencia rettgeri, Serratia marcescens, and Enterococcus faecalis-following inoculation with a range of doses. To assess the consequences of these chronic infections, we determined the expression of antimicrobial peptide genes, survival of secondary infection, and starvation resistance after one week of infection. While higher infectious doses unsurprisingly lead to higher risk of death, they also result in higher chronic bacterial loads among the survivors for all three infections. All three chronic infections caused significantly elevated expression of antimicrobial peptide genes at one week post-infection and provided generalized protection again secondary bacterial infection. Only P. rettgeri infection significantly influenced resistance to starvation, with persistently infected flies dying more quickly under starvation conditions relative to controls. These results suggest that there is potentially a generalized mechanism of protection against secondary infection, but that other impacts on host physiology may depend on the specific pathogen. We propose that chronic infections in [START]D. melanogaster[END] could be a valuable tool for studying tolerance of infection, including impacts on host physiology and behavior.
",31648237
0,7227,"An assessment of sperm survival in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Recently published evidence based on cytological staining indicates that sperm die rapidly after being stored in female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. However, measuring sperm death in this way has a potential artifact: the death of sperm owing to the extraction, mounting, and staining of sperm. Here we use a protocol that bypasses all of these potential extraneous mortality factors to test the hypothesis that there is high mortality of stored sperm in [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Contrary to the findings from cytological staining, our data indicates that mortality of stored sperm is quite low.
",17348926
0,7227,"Mechanisms and biological impacts of graphene and multi-walled carbon nanotubes on [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: Oxidative stress, genotoxic damage, phenotypic variations, locomotor behavior, parasitoid resistance, and cellular immune response.
The use of graphene and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) has now become rather common in medical applications as well as several other areas thanks to their useful physicochemical properties. While in vitro testing offers some potential, in vivo research into toxic effects of graphene and MWCNTs could yield much more reliable data. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has recently gained significant popularity as a dynamic eukaryotic model in examining toxicity, genotoxicity, and biological effects of exposure to nanomaterials, including oxidative stress, cellular immune response against two strains (NSRef and G486) of parasitoid wasp (Leptopilina boulardi), phenotypic variations, and locomotor behavior risks. [START]D. melanogaster[END] was used as a model organism in our study to identify the potential risks of exposure to graphene (thickness: 2-18 nm) and MWCNTs in different properties (as pure [OD: 10-20 nm short], modified by amide [NH2 ] [OD: 7-13 nm length: 55 mum], and modified by carboxyl [COOH] [OD: 30-50 nm and length: 0.5-2 mum]) at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 250 mug/ml. Significant effects were observed at two high doses (100 and 250 mug/ml) of graphene or MWCNTs. This is the first study to report findings of cellular immune response against hematopoiesis and parasitoids, nanogenotoxicity, phenotypic variations, and locomotor behavior in [START]D. melanogaster[END].
",34486762
0,7227,"Measuring the fitness benefits of male mate choice in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
It is increasingly realized that the potential for male mate choice is widespread across many taxa. However, measurements of the relative magnitude of the fitness benefits that such choice can confer are lacking. Here, we directly measured, in a comprehensive set of tests that manipulated key variables, the fitness benefits of male mate choice in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] by measuring egg production in females that were chosen or rejected by males. The results provided significant evidence for male mate choice. In absolute terms, the observed degree of choice increased male fitness by an average of only 1.59 eggs. However, using a novel technique we show that this benefit of choice represented 14.5% of the maximum potential fitness benefit of choice. The magnitude of mate choice was not significantly altered by variation in (1) mate compatibility, (2) phenotypic plasticity in male mate choice, or (3) whether choosing males were preferred or nonpreferred by females. Overall, we show that male mate choice represents a subtle but significant opportunity for sexual selection, and we offer a novel and widely applicable method for quantifying mate choice.
",22834761
0,7227,"Phenotypic and genetic effects of contrasting ethanol environments on physiological and developmental traits in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A central problem in evolutionary physiology is to understand the relationship between energy metabolism and fitness-related traits. Most attempts to do so have been based on phenotypic correlations that are not informative for the evolutionary potential of natural populations. Here, we explored the effect of contrasting ethanol environments on physiological and developmental traits, their genetic (co)variances and genetic architecture in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Phenotypic and genetic parameters were estimated in two populations (San Fernando and Valdivia, Chile), using a half-sib family design where broods were split into ethanol-free and ethanol-supplemented conditions. Our findings show that metabolic rate, body mass and development times were sensitive (i.e., phenotypic plasticity) to ethanol conditions and dependent on population origin. Significant heritabilities were found for all traits, while significant genetic correlations were only found between larval and total development time and between development time and metabolic rate for flies of the San Fernando population developed in ethanol-free conditions. Posterior analyses indicated that the G matrices differed between ethanol conditions for the San Fernando population (mainly explained by differences in genetic (co)variances of developmental traits), whereas the Valdivia population exhibited similar G matrices between ethanol conditions. Our findings suggest that ethanol-free environment increases the energy available to reduce development time. Therefore, our results indicate that environmental ethanol could modify the process of energy allocation, which could have consequences on the evolutionary response of natural populations of [START]D. melanogaster[END].
",23505567
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and the future of 'evo-devo' biology in space. Challenges and problems in the path of an eventual colonization project outside the earth.
Space exploration, especially its future phase involving the International Space Station (ISS) makes possible the study of the effects on living systems of long-term expositions to such a strange environment. This phase is being initiated when Biological Sciences are crossing a no-return line into a new territory where the connection between phenotype and genotype may be finally made. We briefly review the paradoxical results obtained in Space experiments performed during the last third of the XX Century. They reveal that simple unicellular systems sense the absence of gravity changing their cytoskeletal organization and the signal transduction pathways, while animal development proceeds unaltered in these conditions, in spite of the fact that these processes are heavily involved in embryogenesis. Longer-term experiments possible in the ISS may solve this apparent contradiction. On the other hand, the current constraints on the scientific use of the ISS makes necessary the development of new hardware and the modification of current techniques to start taking advantage of this extraordinary technological facility. We discuss our advances in this direction using one of the current key biological model systems, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. In addition, the future phase of Space exploration, possibly leading to the exploration and, may be, the colonization of another planet, will provide the means of performing interesting evolutionary experiments, studying how the terrestrial biological systems will change in their long-term adaptation to new, very different environments. In this way, Biological Research in Space may contribute to the advancement of the new Biology, in particular to the branch known as ""Evo-Devo"". On the other hand, as much as the Space Adventure will continue involving human beings as the main actors in the play, long-term multi-generation experiments using a fast reproducing species, such as [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], capable of producing more than 300 generations in 15 years, the useful life foreseen for ISS, will be important. Among other useful information, they will help in detecting the possible changes that a biological species may undergo in such an environment, preventing the uncontrolled occurrence of irreversible deleterious effects with catastrophic consequences on the living beings participating in this endeavour.
",14631629
0,7227,"Dissection of oenocytes from adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], as in other insects, a waxy layer on the outer surface of the cuticle, composed primarily of hydrocarbon compounds, provides protection against desiccation and other environmental challenges. Several of these cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) compounds also function as semiochemical signals, and as such mediate pheromonal communications between members of the same species, or in some instances between different species, and influence behavior. Specialized cells referred to as oenocytes are regarded as the primary site for CHC synthesis. However, relatively little is known regarding the involvement of the oenocytes in the regulation of the biosynthetic, transport, and deposition pathways contributing to CHC output. Given the significant role that CHCs play in several aspects of insect biology, including chemical communication, desiccation resistance, and immunity, it is important to gain a greater understanding of the molecular and genetic regulation of CHC production within these specialized cells. The adult oenocytes of [START]D. melanogaster[END] are located within the abdominal integument, and are metamerically arrayed in ribbon-like clusters radiating along the inner cuticular surface of each abdominal segment. In this video article we demonstrate a dissection technique used for the preparation of oenocytes from adult [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Specifically, we provide a detailed step-by-step demonstration of (1) how to fillet prepare an adult [START]Drosophila[END] abdomen, (2) how to identify the oenocytes and discern them from other tissues, and (3) how to remove intact oenocyte clusters from the abdominal integument. A brief experimental illustration of how this preparation can be used to examine the expression of genes involved in hydrocarbon synthesis is included. The dissected preparation demonstrated herein will allow for the detailed molecular and genetic analysis of oenocyte function in the adult [START]fruit fly[END].
",20689503
0,7227,"Nitric oxide and [START]Drosophila[END] development.
Mechanisms controlling the transition of precursor cells from proliferation to differentiation during organism development determine the distinct anatomical features of tissues and organs. NO may mediate such a transition since it can suppress DNA synthesis and cell proliferation. Inhibition of NOS activity in the imaginal discs of [START]Drosophila[END] larvae results in hypertrophy of tissues and organs of the adult fly, whereas ectopic overexpression of NOS has the reciprocal, hypotrophic, effect. Furthermore, NO production is crucial for the establishment of ordered neuronal connections in the visual system of the fly, indicating that NO affects the acquisition of the differentiated phenotype by the neural tissue. Increasing evidence points to a broad role that NO may play in animal development by acting as an essential negative regulator of precursor cell proliferation during tissue and organ morphogenesis.
",10556972
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila[END] mechanoreceptors as a model for studying asymmetric cell division.
Asymmetric cell division (ACD) is one of the processes creating the overall diversity of cell types in multicellular organisms. The essence of this process is that the daughter cells exit from it being different from both the parental cell and one another in their ability to further differentiation and specialization. The large bristles (macrochaetae) that are regularly arranged on the surface of the [START]Drosophila[END] adult function as mechanoreceptors, and since their development requires ACD, they have been extensively used as a model system for studying the genetic control of this process. Each macrochaete is composed of four specialized cells, the progeny resulting from several ACDs from a single sensory organ precursor (SOP) cell, which differentiates from the ectodermal cells of the wing imaginal disc in the third-instar larva and pupa. In this paper we review the experimental data on the genes and their products controlling the ACDs of the SOP cell and its daughter cells, and their further specialization. We discuss the main mechanisms determining the time when the cell enters ACD, as well as the mechanisms providing for the structural characteristics of asymmetric division, namely, polar distribution of protein determinants (Numb and Neuralized), orientation of the division spindle relative to these determinants, and unequal segregation of the determinants specifying the direction of daughter cell development.
",21671219
0,7227,"Context- and dose-dependent modulatory effects of naringenin on survival and development of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Naringenin, the predominant bioflavonoid found in grapefruit and tomato has diverse bioactive properties that encompass anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, anti-estrogenic, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-hyperglycemic characteristics. Naringenin has not been explored for its pro-longevity traits in [START]fruit flies[END]. Therefore, the current study explores its influence on longevity, fecundity, feeding rate, larval development, resistance to starvation stress and body weight in male and female wild-type [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Canton-S flies. Flies were fed with normal and high fat diets respectively. The results implied hormetic effects of naringenin on longevity and development in flies. In flies fed with standard and high fat diets, lower concentrations of naringenin (200 and 400 microM) augmented mean lifespan while higher concentrations (600 and 800 microM) were consistently lethal. However, enhanced longevity seen at 400 microM of naringenin was at the expense of reduced fecundity and food intake in flies. Larvae reared on standard diet having 200 microM of naringenin exhibited elevated pupation and emergence as flies. Eclosion time was hastened in larvae reared on standard diet having 200 microM of naringenin. Female flies fed with a standard diet having 200 and 400 microM of naringenin were more resistant to starvation stress. Reduction in body weight was observed in male and female flies fed with a high fat diet supplemented with 200 and 400 microM of naringenin respectively. Collectively, the results elucidated a context- and dose-dependent hormetic efficacy of naringenin that varied with gender, diet and stage of lifecycle in flies. 
",26520643
0,7227,"Trade-off of ovarian lipids and total body lipids for fecundity and starvation resistance in tropical populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], clines of starvation resistance along a latitudinal gradient (south to north) have been reported in India, which matched with their cline for total body lipids (TL ). Nevertheless, producing too many reserves is likely to be costly and a trade-off might exist with life-history traits. Previous studies on starvation resistance and life-history traits of [START]D. melanogaster[END] have mainly focused on quantification of total body lipids, instead of separating ovarian lipids from total body lipids. In the present study, we have quantified absolute ovarian lipids (OL ) versus absolute body lipids excluding ovarian lipids (BL ) and examined associations with fecundity as well as starvation resistance in two latitudinal populations (8.34 vs. 32.43 N) of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Firstly, we observed a trade-off between BL and OL that matched the trade-off of starvation resistance, longevity versus fecundity and development time in latitudinal populations of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Southern populations had higher starvation resistance, more BL and lesser OL, whereas northern populations had enhanced fecundity, OL and lesser BL . Secondly, within population, starvation resistance also correlated with BL , and fecundity with OL . However, there was no correlation between starvation resistance and OL . Moreover, there was utilization of BL and nonutilization of OL under starvation stress. Therefore, resources invested for fecundity in the form of OL were independent of evolved starvation resistance in [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Our results suggest that a common pool of energy storage compounds (lipids) are allocated differentially between fecundity and starvation resistance and are consistent with Y-model of resource allocation. 
",25223796
0,7227,"Care and feeding of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The information provided here should allow you to begin working with [START]Drosophila[END]. Mine your colleagues for alternative approaches, improvements, and refinements and develop your own. If you find a new and better way to do any aspect of fly work, take the time to share it with your colleagues through bionet.[START]drosophila[END] or DIN.
",7707948
0,7227,"In a variable thermal environment selection favors greater plasticity of cell membranes in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Theory predicts that developmental plasticity, the capacity to change phenotypic trajectory during development, should evolve when the environment varies sufficiently among generations, owing to temporal (e.g., seasonal) variation or to migration among environments. We characterized the levels of cellular plasticity during development in populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] experimentally evolved for over three years in either constant or temporally variable thermal environments. We used two measures of the lipid composition of cell membranes as indices of physiological plasticity (a.k.a. acclimation): (1) change in the ratio of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) to phosphatidylcholine (PC) and (2) change in lipid saturation (number of double bonds) in cool (16 C) relative to warm (25 C) developmental conditions. Flies evolved under variable environments had a greater capacity to acclimate the PE/PC ratio compared to flies evolved in constant environments, supporting the prediction that environments with high among-generation variance favor greater developmental plasticity. Our results are consistent with the selective advantage of a more environmentally sensitive allele that may have associated costs in constant environments.
",22671561
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as an experimental organism.
The [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been used as an experimental organism in studies of genetics since the early 1900s. It is now widely used not only in classical and molecular genetics but also, with many new biochemical, cell biological, and physiological techniques, to research problems requiring a multidisciplinary approach, such as those of developmental biology and neurobiology.
",3131880
0,7227,"Blood scent.
Blood cell production is tightly regulated by cell-intrinsic mechanisms and environmental factors. The study by Utpal Banerjee and colleagues and colleagues reveals that, in [START]Drosophila[END], olfactory signals control hematopoietic progenitor maintenance, thus uncovering a physiological link between sensory perception and hematopoietic response to environmental stress. 
",24267883
0,7227,"Combined expression patterns of QTL-linked candidate genes best predict thermotolerance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Knockdown resistance to high temperature (KRHT) is a thermal adaptation trait in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Here we used quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) to test for possible associations between KRHT and the expression of candidate genes within quantitative trait loci (QTL) in eight recombinant inbred lines (RIL). hsp60 and hsc70-3 map within an X-linked QTL, while CG10383, catsup, ddc, trap1, and cyp6a13 are linked in a KRHT-QTL on chromosome 2. hsc70-3 expression increased by heat-hardening. Principal Components analysis revealed that catsup, ddc and trap1 were either co-expressed or combined in their expression levels. This composite expression variable (e-PC1) was positively associated to KRHT in non-hardened RIL. In heat-hardened flies, hsp60 was negatively related to hsc70-3 on e-PC2, with effects on KRHT. These results are consistent with the notion that QTL can be shaped by expression variation in combined candidate loci. We found composite variables of gene expression (e-PCs) that best correlated to KRHT. Network effects with other untested linked loci are apparent because, in spite of their associations with KRHT phenotypes, e-PCs were sometimes uncorrelated with their QTL genotype.
",19651134
0,7227,"Neurogenetics of female reproductive behaviors in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
We follow an adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] female through the major reproductive decisions she makes during her lifetime, including habitat selection, precopulatory mate choice, postcopulatory physiological changes, polyandry, and egg-laying site selection. In the process, we review the molecular and neuronal mechanisms allowing females to integrate signals from both environmental and social sources to produce those behavioral outputs. We pay attention to how an understanding of [START]D. melanogaster[END] female reproductive behaviors contributes to a wider understanding of evolutionary processes such as pre- and postcopulatory sexual selection as well as sexual conflict. Within each section, we attempt to connect the theories that pertain to the evolution of female reproductive behaviors with the molecular and neurobiological data that support these theories. We draw attention to the fact that the evolutionary and mechanistic basis of female reproductive behaviors, even in a species as extensively studied as [START]D. melanogaster[END], remains poorly understood. 
",24880733
0,7227,"Genetic variation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] pathogen susceptibility.
Genetic variation in susceptibility to pathogens is a central concern both to evolutionary and medical biologists, and for the implementation of biological control programmes. We have investigated the extent of such variation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], a major model organism for immunological research. We found that within populations, different [START]Drosophila[END] genotypes show wide-ranging variation in their ability to survive infection with the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. Furthermore, striking divergence in susceptibility has occurred between genotypes from temperate and tropical African locations. We hypothesize that this may have been driven by adaptation to local differences in pathogen exposure or host ecology. Genetic variation within populations may be maintained by temporal or spatial variation in the costs and benefits of pathogen defence. Insect pathogens are employed widely as biological control agents and entomopathogenic fungi are currently being developed for reducing malaria transmission by mosquitoes. Our data highlight the need for concern about resistance evolution to these novel biopesticides in vector populations.
",16497252
0,7227,"The effects of genetic background on exercise performance in [START]Drosophila[END].
The use of the [START]Drosophila[END] model for studying the broad beneficial effects of exercise training has grown over the past decade. As work using [START]Drosophila[END] as an exercise model becomes more widespread, the influence of genetic background on performance should be examined in order to better understand its influence on assessments used to quantitatively measure and compare exercise phenotypes. In this article, we review the various methods of exercise training [START]Drosophila[END], and the performance of different wild-type [START]Drosophila[END] strains on various physiological assessments of exercise response. We conclude by summarizing the performance trends of commonly used strains.
",33100141
0,7227,"Measuring thermal behavior in smaller insects: A case study in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] demonstrates effects of sex, geographic origin, and rearing temperature on adult behavior.
Measuring thermal behavior in smaller insects is particularly challenging. In this study, we describe a new horizontal thermal gradient apparatus designed to study adult thermal behavior in small insects and apply it using [START]D. melanogaster[END] as a model and case study. Specifically, we used this apparatus and associated methodology to examine the effects of sex, geographic origin, and developmental rearing temperature on temperature preferences exhibited by adults in a controlled laboratory environment. The thermal gradient established by the apparatus was stable over diurnal and calendar time. Furthermore, the distribution of adult flies across thermal habitats within the apparatus remained stable following the period of acclimation, as evidenced by the high degree of repeatability across both biological and technical replicates. Our data demonstrate significant and predictable variation in temperature preference for all 3 assayed variables. Behaviorally, females were more sensitive than males to higher temperatures. Flies originating from high latitude, temperate populations exhibited a greater preference for cooler temperatures; conversely, flies originating from low latitude, tropical habitats demonstrated a relative preference for higher temperatures. Similarly, larval rearing temperature was positively associated with adult thermal behavior: low culture temperatures increased the relative adult preference for cooler temperatures, and this response was distinct between the sexes and for flies from the temperate and subtropical geographic regions. Together, these results demonstrate that the temperature chamber apparatus elicits robust, predictable, and quantifiable thermal preference behavior that could readily be applied to other taxa to examine the role of temperature-mediated behavior in a variety of contexts.
",27230726
0,7227,"The relationship between the functional complexity and the molecular organization of the Antennapedia locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The Antp locus is involved in the development of the thorax of the larval and adult [START]Drosophila[END]. The absence of Antp+ function during embryogenesis results in the larval mesothorax exhibiting characteristics of the prothorax and an ensuing lethality; the loss of Antp+ function in the development of the adult thorax causes specific portions of the leg, wing and humeral imaginal discs to develop abnormally. Every Antp mutation, however, does not cause all of these developmental defects. Certain mutant alleles disrupt humeral and wing disc development without affecting leg development, and they are not deficient for the wild-type function required during embryogenesis. Other Antp mutations result in abnormal legs, but do not alter dorsal thoracic development. Mutations of each type can complement to produce a normal adult fly, which suggests that there are at least two discrete functional units within the locus. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that each of the developmental defects arises from the alteration of a different physical region within the Antp DNA. These observations indicate that the complete developmental role of the Antp locus is defined by the spatial and temporal regulation of the expression of several individual functional units.
",3098627
0,7227,"Insulin signalling mediates the response to male-induced harm in female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Genetic manipulations in nutrient-sensing pathways are known to both extend lifespan and modify responses to environmental stressors (e.g., starvation, oxidative and thermal stresses), suggesting that similar mechanisms regulate lifespan and stress resistance. However, despite being a key factor reducing female lifespan and affecting female fitness, male-induced harm has rarely been considered as a stressor mediated by nutrient sensing pathways. We explored whether a lifespan-extending manipulation also modifies female resistance to male-induced harm. To do so, we used long-lived female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that had their insulin signalling pathway downregulated by genetically ablating the median neurosecretory cells (mNSC). We varied the level of exposure to males for control and ablated females and tested for interacting effects on female lifespan and fitness. As expected, we found that lifespan significantly declined with exposure to males. However, mNSC-ablated females maintained significantly increased lifespan across all male exposure treatments. Furthermore, lifespan extension and relative fitness of mNSC-ablated females were maximized under intermediate exposure to males, and minimized under low and high exposure to males. Overall, our results suggest that wild-type levels of insulin signalling reduce female susceptibility to male-induced harm under intense sexual conflict, and may also protect females when mating opportunities are sub-optimally low.
",27457757
0,7227,"Intestinal inflammation and stem cell homeostasis in aging [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
As a barrier epithelium, the intestinal epithelium has to coordinate physiological functions like digestion and nutrient resorption with the control of commensal bacteria and the prevention of pathogenic infections. It can therefore mount powerful innate immune and inflammatory responses, while, at the same time, maintaining tissue homeostasis through regenerative processes. How these different functions are coordinated remains unclear, and further insight is required to understand the age-related loss of homeostasis in this system, as well as the etiology of inflammatory and proliferative diseases of the gut. Recent work in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has provided important new insight into the regulation of regenerative activity, innate immune homeostasis, commensal control, as well as age-related dysfunction in the intestine. Interestingly, many of the identified processes and mechanisms mirror similar homeostatic processes in the vertebrate intestine. This review summarized the current understanding of how innate immune responses, changes in commensal bacteria, and other challenges influence regenerative activity in the aging intestinal epithelium of flies and draws parallels to similar processes in mammals. 
",24380076
0,7227,"Determinants of electrical properties in developing neurons.
The regulatory mechanisms that orchestrate the developmental acquisition of electrical properties in embryonic neurons are poorly understood. Progress in this important area is dependent on the availability of preparations that allow electrophysiology to be married with genetics. The powerful genetics of the fruitfly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has long been exploited to describe fundamental mechanisms associated with structural neuronal development (i.e. axon guidance). It has not, however, been fully employed to study the final stages of embryonic neural development and in particular the acquisition of electrical activity. This review focuses on the recent development of a [START]Drosophila[END] preparation that allows central neurons to be accessed by patch electrodes at both embryonic and larval stages. This preparation, which allows electrophysiology to be coupled with genetics, offers the prospect of making significant advances in our understanding of functional neuron development.
",16337413
0,7227,"Interactive effects of social environment, age and sex on immune responses in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Social environments have been shown to have multiple effects on individual immune responses. For example, increased social contact might signal greater infection risk and prompt a prophylactic upregulation of immunity. This differential investment of resources may in part explain why social environments affect ageing and lifespan. Our previous work using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] showed that single-sex social contact reduced lifespan for both sexes. Here, we assess how social interactions (isolation or contact) affect susceptibility to infection, phagocytotic activity and expression of a subset of immune- and stress-related genes in young and old flies of both sexes. Social contact had a neutral, or even improved, effect on post-infection lifespan in older flies and reduced the expression of stress response genes in females; however, it reduced phagocytotic activity. Overall, the effects of social environment were complex and largely subtle and do not indicate a consistent effect. Together, these findings indicate that social contact in [START]D. melanogaster[END] does not have a predictable impact on immune responses and does not simply trade-off immune investment with lifespan.
",31313398
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] positive transcriptional elongation factors regulate metabolic and sex-biased expression in adults.
BACKGROUND: Transcriptional elongation is a generic function, but is also regulated to allow rapid transcription responses. Following relatively long initiation and promoter clearance, RNA polymerase II can pause and then rapidly elongate following recruitment of positive elongation factors. Multiple elongation complexes exist, but the role of specific components in adult [START]Drosophila[END] is underexplored. RESULTS: We conducted RNA-seq experiments to analyze the effect of RNAi knockdown of Suppressor of Triplolethal and lilliputian. We similarly analyzed the effect of expressing a dominant negative Cyclin-dependent kinase 9 allele. We observed that almost half of the genes expressed in adults showed reduced expression, supporting a broad role for the three tested genes in steady-state transcript abundance. Expression profiles following lilliputian and Suppressor of Triplolethal RNAi were nearly identical raising the possibility that they are obligatory co-factors. Genes showing reduced expression due to these RNAi treatments were short and enriched for genes encoding metabolic or enzymatic functions. The dominant-negative Cyclin-dependent kinase 9 profiles showed both overlapping and specific differential expression, suggesting involvement in multiple complexes. We also observed hundreds of genes with sex-biased differential expression following treatment. CONCLUSION: Transcriptional profiles suggest that Lilliputian and Suppressor of Triplolethal are obligatory cofactors in the adult and that they can also function with Cyclin-dependent kinase 9 at a subset of loci. Our results suggest that transcriptional elongation control is especially important for rapidly expressed genes to support digestion and metabolism, many of which have sex-biased function.
",28521739
0,7227,"Effect of Thiovit(R) Jet on the structure of thoracic microtrichia/trichomes in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Widely used fungicides and pesticides are known to have profound effect on several nontarget organisms, which is a cause of concern. The present study aims to demonstrate the effect of a fungicide, Thiovit( ) Jet on the structure of epidermal microtrichia (trichome) of the dorsal thorax in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. External morphology and structural variations of thoracic appendages have been extensively studied using scanning electron microscope from flies treated with different concentrations of Thiovit Jet (20, 30, 40 or 200 mug/ml). Similar to the effect of other fungicides like captan and captafol which are reported to produce somatic mutations in the same organism, the present study successfully demonstrates variation in the trichome/microtrichia structure of the dorsal thorax of [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Structural variations were observed to be associated with different concentrations of Thiovit Jet (30, 40 and 200 mug/ml), but the maximum notable change was found with 40 mug/ml treatment. The gross abnormality in the trichome structure may be due to mutation in proteins associated with normal cuticular deposition.
",22301816
0,7227,"Visuomotor control: [START]Drosophila[END] bridges the gap.
[START]Fruit flies[END] with genetic lesions disrupting the structure of a brain region known as the protocerebral bridge fail to aim their movements correctly when crossing gaps, implicating this central brain neuropile in the visual control of goal-directed behaviour.
",20392418
0,7227,"Using artificial diets to understand the nutritional physiology of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Artificial diets have been in use for rearing insects for more than 100 years. Their composition ranges from completely chemically defined (holidic), to semi-defined (meridic) to non-defined (oligidic). Recently, meridic and holidic diets have been used to demonstrate previously unrecognised nutrient-sensitive behaviours and patterns of fitness trait expression in adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. This article presents a summary of the basic nutritional requirements of [START]Drosophila[END] followed by an account of some of these nutrient-modified phenotypes and what they can reveal about fundamental mechanisms. Precisely controlled nutrition, combined with the many advantages of [START]Drosophila[END] present an ideal system for the development of large scale metabolic modelling.
",29129274
0,7227,"FlyBase: a [START]Drosophila[END] database.
FlyBase (http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu/) is a comprehensive database of genetic and molecular data concerning [START]Drosophila[END] . FlyBase is maintained as a relational database (in Sybase) and is made available as html documents and flat files. The scope of FlyBase includes: genes, alleles (with phenotypes), aberrations, transposons, pointers to sequence data, gene products, maps, clones, stock lists, [START]Drosophila[END] workers and bibliographic references.
",9399806
0,7227,"Selection for resistance to a fungal pathogen in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
An artificial selection experiment designed to explore the evolution of resistance to a fungal pathogen, Beauveria bassiana, in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is reported here. The experiment was designed to test whether there is sufficient additive genetic variation in this trait for increased resistance to evolve, and, if so, whether there are correlated responses that might represent a cost to defence. After 15 generations of selection, flies from selected lines did not have higher overall fitness after infection compared with control lines. The response to selection for resistance against this pathogen is thus much weaker than against other species, in particular, parasitoids. There was, however, evidence for increased late-life fecundity in selected lines, which may indicate evolved tolerance of fungal infection. This increase was accompanied by reduced early-life fitness, which may reflect the well-known trade-off between early and late reproduction. In the absence of fungal infection, selected flies had lower fitness than control flies, and the possibility that this is also a trade-off with increased tolerance is explored.
",18301441
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a Versatile Model Organism in Food and Nutrition Research.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been widely used in the biological sciences as a model organism. [START]Drosophila[END] has a relatively short life span of 60-80 days, which makes it attractive for life span studies. Moreover, approximately 60% of the [START]fruit fly[END] genes are orthologs to mammals. Thus, metabolic and signal transduction pathways are highly conserved. Maintenance and reproduction of [START]Drosophila[END] do not require sophisticated equipment and are rather cheap. Furthermore, there are fewer ethical issues involved in experimental [START]Drosophila[END] research compared with studies in laboratory rodents, such as rats and mice. [START]Drosophila[END] is increasingly recognized as a model organism in food and nutrition research. [START]Drosophila[END] is often fed complex solid diets based on yeast, corn, and agar. There are also so-called holidic diets available that are defined in terms of their amino acid, fatty acid, carbohydrate, vitamin, mineral, and trace element compositions. Feed intake, body composition, locomotor activity, intestinal barrier function, microbiota, cognition, fertility, aging, and life span can be systematically determined in [START]Drosophila[END] in response to dietary factors. Furthermore, diet-induced pathophysiological mechanisms including inflammation and stress responses may be evaluated in the fly under defined experimental conditions. Here, we critically evaluate [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a versatile model organism in experimental food and nutrition research, review the corresponding data in the literature, and make suggestions for future directions of research.
",29619822
0,7227,"Sexual antagonism for resistance and tolerance to infection in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A critical task in evolutionary genetics is to explain the persistence of heritable variation in fitness-related traits such as immunity. Ecological factors can maintain genetic variation in immunity, but less is known about the role of other factors, such as antagonistic pleiotropy, on immunity. Sexually dimorphic immunity-with females often being more immune-competent-may maintain variation in immunity in dioecious populations. Most eco-immunological studies assess host resistance to parasites rather than the host's ability to maintain fitness during infection (tolerance). Distinguishing between resistance and tolerance is important as they are thought to have markedly different evolutionary and epidemiological outcomes. Few studies have investigated tolerance in animals, and the extent of sexual dimorphism in tolerance is unknown. Using males and females from 50 [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] genotypes, we investigated possible sources of genetic variation for immunity by assessing both resistance and tolerance to the common bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We found evidence of sexual dimorphism and sexual antagonism for resistance and tolerance, and a trade-off between the two traits. Our findings suggest that antagonistic pleiotropy may be a major contributor to variation in immunity, with implications for host-parasite coevolution. 
",24966317
0,7227,"Binucleation of Accessory Gland Lobe Contributes to Effective Ejection of Seminal Fluid in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The adult male accessory gland in insects is an internal reproductive organ analogous to the mammalian prostate, and secretes various components in the seminal fluid. Products of the accessory gland in the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] are known to control reproductive behaviors in mated females, such as food uptake, oviposition rate, and rejection of re-mating with other males, all of which increase male reproductive capacity. Production of larger amounts of accessory gland products is thus thought to result in higher male reproductive success. The epithelium of the [START]Drosophila[END] accessory gland lobe is composed of a unique population of binucleate cells. We previously predicted, based on measurements of cell size in mono/binucleate mosaic accessory glands, that binucleation results in a higher plasticity in cell shape, enabling more effective ejection of seminal fluid. However, the actual effect of binucleation on ejection of seminal fluid or reproductive capacity remained unclear, as we were unable to generate an organ with uniformly mononucleate cells. In the present study, we generated organs in which most of the epithelial cells are mononucleate by manipulating aurora B or fizzy-related to block binucleation. Mononucleation resulted in a less elastic accessory gland lobe, which decreased ejection volume and the oviposition of mated females; these effects were particularly pronounced over the long term. These results suggest that binucleation in accessory gland epithelial cells contributes to higher plasticity in the volume of this organ, and enhances male reproductive success through enabling ejection of larger amounts of seminal fluid.
",30298781
0,7227,"The origin of the second centriole in the zygote of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles surrounded by pericentriolar material (PCM). However, the sperm and the oocyte modify or lose their centrosomes. Consequently, how the zygote establishes its first centrosome, and in particular, the origin of the second zygotic centriole, is uncertain. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] spermatids contain a single centriole called the Giant Centriole (GC) and a Proximal centriole-like (PCL) structure whose function is unknown. We found that, like the centriole, the PCL loses its protein markers at the end of spermiogenesis. After fertilization, the first two centrioles are observed via the recruitment of the zygotic PCM proteins and are seen in asterless mutant embryos that cannot form centrioles. The zygote's centriolar proteins label only the daughter centrioles of the first two centrioles. These observations demonstrate that the PCL is the origin for the second centriole in the [START]Drosophila[END] zygote and that a paternal centriole precursor, without centriolar proteins, is transmitted to the egg during fertilization. 
",24532732
0,7227,"Chemical communication in insects: the peripheral odour coding system of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Animals use their chemosensory systems to detect and discriminate among chemical cues in the environment. Remarkable progress has recently been made in our knowledge of the molecular and cellular basis of chemosensory perception in insects, based largely on studies in the vinegar fly [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. This progress has been possible due to the identification of gene families for olfactory receptors, the use of electro-physiological recording techniques on sensory neurons, the manifold of genetic manipulations that are available in this species and insights from several insect model systems. The superfamilies of olfactory receptor proteins, the Or genes and the more recently discovered IR genes, represent the essential elements in olfactory coding, endowing olfactory receptor neurons with their abilities to respond to specific sets of odorants or pheromones. General odorants activate receptors in a combinatorial fashion, but some receptors are narrowly tuned to pheromones or to carbon dioxide. Surprisingly, olfactory receptors in insects are biochemically quite different to those in mammals and do not appear to signal via classical G protein pathways but rather via ionotropic mechanisms. Here we review the past decade of intensive research since the discovery of the first insect olfactory receptors in 1999, focusing on the molecules and cells that underly peripheral olfactory perception in [START]Drosophila[END].
",22399395
0,7227,"The indole alkaloid tryptamine impairs reproduction in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The plant-produced indole alkaloid tryptamine is one of a large array of neuroactive substances that may affect insect behavior, development, and physiology. We tested the role of tryptamine on insect reproduction using the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] (Meigen), as a model system. Measurements were made of reproductive success, oviposition rate, and preadult survival of insects on artificial diets containing tryptamine, its precursor tryptophan, as well as glycine and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). [START]Drosophila[END] reproduction was reduced to 15% of controls when adult insects mated and the young were allowed to develop on medium containing 75 mM tryptamine. Tryptamine-induced depression in reproductive success was due to decreased oviposition rate and preadult survival. Serotonin, but not tryptophan or glycine, also reduced oviposition rate. Preference tests indicated that tryptamine may act as an antiattractant or antifeedant in this species. The accumulation of the indole alkaloid tryptamine in plants may provide a mechanism for reducing insect reproduction, which is potentially useful in protecting crop plants.
",9725032
0,7227,"Spectral sensitivity of wild-type and mutant [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae.
Wild-type (Canton-S) [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae are generally repelled by white light. Mutant larval photokinesis A (lphA) larvae are less strongly repelled than controls. Mutant Larval photokinesis B (LphB) larvae are unresponsive to light, as are larvae from LI2, an isofemale line whose progenitors were recently derived from a natural population. To characterize the behavior of larvae from the mutant stocks and the isofemale line more precisely, we determined the range of wavelengths that repel wild-type (Canton-S) [START]D. melanogaster[END] larvae and identified wavelengths to which larvae are most sensitive. In comparison to adult flies, Canton-S larvae are much less sensitive to white light and respond to a narrower range of wavelengths. The wavelengths to which Canton-S larvae are maximally sensitive are 500 nm (green), 420 nm (indigo), and 380 nm (ultraviolet). Mutant lphA larvae respond abnormally to green and indigo light but are as strongly repelled by ultraviolet light as controls. In contrast, mutant LphB larvae and larvae from the LI2 isofemale line are unresponsive to green, indigo, or ultraviolet light. Thus, lphA larvae have a wavelength-specific defect, while LphB and LI2 larvae are generally unresponsive to wavelengths that repel wild-type larvae.
",10928215
0,7227,"Experimental evolution of resistance against a competing fungus in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Competition between microorganisms and arthropods has been shown to be an important ecological interaction determining animal development and spatial distribution patterns in saprophagous communities. In fruit-inhabiting [START]Drosophila[END], variation in insect developmental success is not only determined by species-specific effects of various noxious filamentous fungi but, as suggested by an earlier study, also by additive genetic variation in the ability to successfully withstand the negative impact of the fungi. If this variation represents a direct adaptive response to the degree to which insect breeding substrates are infested with harmful fungi, genetic variation for successful development in the presence of fungi could be maintained by variation in infestation of resource patches with fungi. We selected for the ability to resist the negative influence of mould by maintaining replicated [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] populations on substrates infested with Aspergillus nidulans. After five cycles of exposure to the fungus during the larval stage, the selected populations were compared with unselected control populations regarding adult survival and reproduction to reveal an evolved resistance against the fungal competitor. On fungus-infested larval feeding substrates, emerged adults from mould-selected populations had higher survival rates and higher early fecundity than the control populations. In the unselected populations, females had higher mortality rates than males, and a high proportion of both females and males appeared to be unable to lay eggs or fertilise eggs, respectively. When larvae developed on non-infested food we found indications of a loss of resistance to abiotic and starvation stress in the adult stage in flies from the selected populations. This suggests that there are costs associated with an increase in resistance against the microbial competitor. We discuss the underlying mechanisms that might have selected for increased resistance against harmful fungi.
",19597847
0,7227,"Sensitivity differences displayed by [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae of different ages to the toxic effects of growth on media containing aflatoxin B1.
Using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], the relative sensitivities of various larval stages to the toxic effects of growth on media supplemented with either 0.44 or 0.88 ppm aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were determined. Two strains of [START]fruit flies[END] were tested: strain A-11 which is relatively resistant to AFB1 induced toxicity, and strain A-9 which is quite sensitive. Eggs, mid-first, mid-second and early-, mid- and late-third instar larvae were transferred onto AFB1 media and allowed to complete larval and pupal development and eclose as adults. At the 0.44 ppm concentration, strain A-11 showed no effect, while only first instar larvae of strain A-9 showed significant mortality rates for first instar larvae, but the A-9 larvae die at higher rates than the A-11 larvae. In addition, second and third instar larvae of strain A-9 show significant mortality rates when grown at 0.88 ppm AFB1, while these stages are not affected in strain A-11.
",106976
0,7227,"When neurobiology and genetics meet: the study of visual system development in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The visual system of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is an exceptionally well suited model to study the molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying inter- and intracellular signalling during nervous system development. This review highlights some of the recent advances in this field, that show not only the power of the combined neurobiological and genetical approaches in shedding new light into long standing questions regarding nervous system development but also uncover a striking evolutionary conservation, at the molecular level, of the basic developmental pathways and signal transduction cascades underlying metazoan ontogenesis.
",8729270
0,7227,"Microscopy methods for the study of centriole biogenesis and function in [START]Drosophila[END].
Centrosomes regulate cell motility, adhesion, and polarity in interphase and participate in spindle formation in mitosis. They are composed of two centrioles, which are microtubule-based structures, and a proteinaceous matrix recruited by those, called pericentriolar material. Centrioles are also necessary for the nucleation of the axoneme, the microtubule inner structure of cilia and flagella. The [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], has played an important role in the study of cell biology processes and their contextualization in a variety of developmental phenomena. In this chapter, we describe immunofluorescence and electron microscopy methods used to study [START]Drosophila[END] early embryogenesis and spermatogenesis. These methods have been widely used to study centriole assembly and its function as a centrosome organizer during mitotic and meiotic cell divisions and as an axoneme nucleator in the formation of flagella.
",20719274
0,7227,"Physiological Maturation Lags Behind Behavioral Maturation in Newly Eclosed [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Males.
The accessory gland (AG) produces seminal fluid proteins that are transferred to the female upon mating in many insects. These seminal fluid proteins often promote a male's post-copulatory reproductive success. Despite its crucial function many males eclose with a small gland not yet containing the full set of proteins. Thus, they need a physiological maturation period. Using [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], we tested whether this physiological maturation is linked to behavioral maturation in males and to what extent seminal fluid allocation patterns are influenced by physiological maturation. To that end, we measured AG protein content (as a proxy for physiological maturation) of young, immature males that were either successful in gaining a mating, but prevented from transferring seminal fluid proteins, or unsuccessful, thus using mating success as a proxy for behavioral maturation. Furthermore, we compared ejaculate allocation in immature and mature males in a single mating. Though mating success and gland maturation increase with male age, we found no evidence for a fine-tuned synchronization of behavioral and physiological maturation in males. This is especially surprising since we found reduced ejaculate allocation in very young, immature males, hinting at reduced fitness benefits from early matings in [START]D. melanogaster[END].
",30588207
0,7227,"Geographic differentiation in wing shape in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Genetic variation of a suite of 12 morphometric wing characters was examined in 16 natural populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] from Eastern Europe and Central Asia using principal component analysis. The posterior wing compartment was found to differ in shape between the Eastern European and Central Asian populations. This result in agreement with data on wing shape variation from exposure to high and low temperatures under laboratory conditions.
",8522169
0,7227,"The [START]Drosophila[END] TNF ortholog eiger is required in the fat body for a robust immune response.
Eiger is the sole TNF family member found in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. This signaling molecule is induced during infection and is required for an appropriate immune response to many microbes; however, little is known about where eiger is produced. Here, we show that eiger is made in the fly's fat body during a Salmonella typhimurium infection. Using tissue-specific knockdown, we found that eiger expression in the fat body is required for all of the phenotypes we observed in eiger null mutant flies. This includes reduced melanization, altered antimicrobial peptide expression and reduced feeding rates. The effect of eiger on feeding rates alone may account for the entire phenotype seen in eiger mutants infected with S. typhimurium.
",20505310
0,7227,"Naturally occurring genetic variation in the age-specific immune response of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Immunosenescence, the age-related decline in immune response, is a well-known consequence of aging. To date, most studies of age-related changes in immune response focused on the cellular and physiological bases of this decline; we have virtually no understanding of the genetic basis of age-related changes in the immune system or if indeed such control exists. We used 25 chromosome substitution lines of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] derived from a natural population to address three questions: (i) How is the function of the innate immune system influenced by age? (ii) Is there a genetic basis for phenotypic variation in immune response at different ages? (iii) Is there a genetic basis for differences in the way that age influences the immune function? Virgin females from each line were assayed for immune response using clearance of infection with Escherichia coli at 1 and 4 weeks of age. We found significant genetic variation among lines in immune response at each age. Unexpectedly, when averaged across all lines, the immune response actually improved with age. However, there was significant variation in the effect of age on immune response with 11 lines showing improvement, nine lines showing no change and five exhibiting a decline with age. There was no genetic correlation of immune response across ages suggesting that different loci contribute to variation in immune response at each age. The genetic component of the variation in immune response increased with age, a pattern predicted by the mutation accumulation model of senescence. However, this increase in variation resulted in part from the improvement of the immune response in some lines with age. Thus the observed changes in genetic variation in immune function with age are not entirely explained by the mutation accumulation model.
",16803580
0,7227,"Encapsulation ability of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: a genetic analysis.
Insects are able to effectively recognize parasitoid eggs or larvae and to eliminate them by formation of a hemocytic capsule. Although the cellular process is now well documented, the genetic aspects of recognition of foreignness and the encapsulation process are still poorly understood. Experiments using the isofemale-strain method showed that the encapsulating ability of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] exercised against a parasitic wasp varies within a given population and that this variability is under partial genetic control.
",3926550
0,7227,"Studies on mutagen-sensitive strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. X. Repair of radiation-induced DNA damage in primary cell cultures after irradiation with X-rays.
The repair of X-ray-induced DNA lesions in repair-deficient mutant strains was studied as a way of investigating the mechanism of the induction of genetic damage. Genetic effects on the recovery of X-ray-induced damage by the repair-deficient strains ebony (photoreactivation repair-deficient) and mus(1)101D1 (post-replication repair-deficient) were interpreted as impaired repair of single- and double-strand DNA breaks. We investigated the repair of X-ray-induced DNA breaks and alkaline-labile sites in primary cell cultures of ebony and mus(1)101D1 and in cultures of their control strains. No significant differences were found between the repair rates in the mutants and control strains. This indicates that the genetic effects of these mutants are not due to an impaired rate of repair of DNA breaks.
",3102957
0,7227,"Heritability, evolvability, phenotypic plasticity and temporal variation in sperm-competition success of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Sperm-competition success (SCS) is seen as centrally important for evolutionary change: superior fathers sire superior sons and thereby inherit the traits that make them superior. Additional hypotheses, that phenotypic plasticity in SCS and sperm ageing explain variation in paternity, are less considered. Even though various alleles have individually been shown to be correlated with variation in SCS, few studies have addressed the heritability, or evolvability, of overall SCS. Those studies that have addressed found low or no heritability and have not examined evolvability. They have further not excluded phenotypic plasticity, and temporal effects on SCS, despite their known dramatic effects on sperm function. In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], we found that both standard components of sperm competition, sperm defence and sperm offence, showed nonsignificant heritability across several offspring cohorts. Instead, our analysis revealed, for the first time, the existence of phenotypic plasticity in SCS across an extreme environment (5% CO2 ), and an influence of sperm ageing. Evolvability of SCS was substantial for sperm defence but weak for sperm offence. Our results suggest that the paradigm of explaining evolution by sperm competition is more complex and will benefit from further experimental work on the heritability or evolvability of SCS, measuring phenotypic plasticity, and separating the effects of sperm competition and sperm ageing.
",26990919
0,7227,"[Development of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in space flight].
The review deals with the available literary data on different aspects of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] vital functions in the conditions of real and modeled microgravity. The developmental stages, embryogenesis and aging, specifically, and behavioral reactions are discussed. The presented results of morphological as well as molecular genetic analyses are indicative of structural changes in early [START]Drosophila[END] embryos and their compensation during subsequent development, and formation of an adaptive gene-expression pattern in microgravity.
",25163332
0,7227,"Differential effects of genetic vs. environmental quality in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] suggest multiple forms of condition dependence.
Condition is a central concept in evolutionary ecology, but the roles of genetic and environmental quality in condition-dependent trait expression remain poorly understood. Theory suggests that condition integrates genetic, epigenetic and somatic factors, and therefore predicts alignment between the phenotypic effects of genetic and environmental quality. To test this key prediction, we manipulated both genetic (mutational) and environmental (dietary) quality in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] and examined responses in morphological and chemical (cuticular hydrocarbon, CHC) traits in both sexes. While the phenotypic effects of diet were consistent among genotypes, effects of mutation load varied in magnitude and direction. Average effects of diet and mutation were aligned for most morphological traits, but non-aligned for the male sexcombs and CHCs in both sexes. Our results suggest the existence of distinct forms of condition dependence, one integrating both genetic and environmental effects and the other purely environmental. We propose a model to account for these observations. 
",25649176
0,7227,"The neuroarchitecture of the circadian clock in the brain of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Neuroethologists try to assign behavioral functions to certain brain centers, if possible down to individual neurons and to the expression of specific genes. This approach has been successfully applied for the control of circadian rhythmic behavior in the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Several so-called ""clock genes"" are expressed in specific neurons in the lateral and dorsal brain where they generate cell-autonomous molecular circadian oscillations. These clusters are connected with each other and contribute differentially to the control of behavioral rhythmicity. This report reviews the latest work on characterizing individual circadian pacemaker neurons in the [START]fruit fly[END]'s brain that control activity and pupal eclosion, leading to the questions by which neuronal pathways they are synchronized to the external light-dark cycle, and how they impose periodicity on behavior.
",12966496
0,7227,"Deficiency mapping of the genomic regions associated with effects on developmental stability in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Developmental stability is the tendency of morphological traits to resist the effects of developmental noise, and is commonly evaluated by examining fluctuating asymmetry (FA)-random deviations from perfect bilateral symmetry. Molecular mechanisms that control FA have been a long-standing topic of debate in the field of evolutionary biology and quantitative genetics. In this study, we mapped genomic regions associated with effects on the mean and FA of morphological traits, and characterized the trait specificity of those regions. A collection of isogenic deficiency strains established by the DrosDel project was used for deficiency mapping of genome regions associated with effects on FA. We screened 435 genome deficiencies or approximately 64.9% of the entire genome of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to map the region that demonstrated a significant effect on FA of morphological traits. We found that 406 deficiencies significantly affected the mean of morphological traits, and 92 deficiencies increased FA. These results suggest that several genomic regions have the potential to affect developmental stability. They also suggest the possibility of the existence of trait-specific and trait-nonspecific mechanisms for stabilizing developmental processes. The new findings in this study could provide insight into the understanding of the genetic architecture underlying developmental stability.
",22133226
0,7227,"Cell Sheet Morphogenesis: Dorsal Closure in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] as a Model System.
Dorsal closure is a key process during [START]Drosophila[END] morphogenesis that models cell sheet movements in chordates, including neural tube closure, palate formation, and wound healing. Closure occurs midway through embryogenesis and entails circumferential elongation of lateral epidermal cell sheets that close a dorsal hole filled with amnioserosa cells. Signaling pathways regulate the function of cellular structures and processes, including Actomyosin and microtubule cytoskeletons, cell-cell/cell-matrix adhesion complexes, and endocytosis/vesicle trafficking. These orchestrate complex shape changes and movements that entail interactions between five distinct cell types. Genetic and laser perturbation studies establish that closure is robust, resilient, and the consequence of redundancy that contributes to four distinct biophysical processes: contraction of the amnioserosa, contraction of supracellular Actomyosin cables, elongation (stretching?) of the lateral epidermis, and zipping together of two converging cell sheets. What triggers closure and what the emergent properties are that give rise to its extraordinary resilience and fidelity remain key, extant questions.
",28992442
0,7227,"Ecdysone signaling cascade and regulation of Drosophila metamorphosis.
Pulses of the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (ecdysone) regulate diverse biological responses during the life history of insects. Studies of the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], have provided significant insights into the mechanisms underlying ecdysone mediated regulation of development. During the dramatic metamorphosis of [START]Drosophila[END], ecdysone induces the histolysis of nearly all of the larval tissues and differentiation and morphogenesis of the structures composing the adult fly. These changes are mediated by a genetic signaling cascade that was first recognized as puffs in the giant polytene chromosomes of the salivary gland. This genetic regulatory cascade is composed of early and late genes that are intricately coordinated by changes in hormone titer. Early genes encode regulatory proteins that are involved in the proper regulation of late genes, which are thought to play a more direct role in development. The regulation and function of these genes is discussed in the context of the cell- and tissue-specific changes required for the reorganization of a larva to form an adult fly.
",8913033
0,7227,"Variation in the male pheromones and mating success of wild caught [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] males express two primary cuticular hydrocarbons (male-predominant hydrocarbons). These act as sex pheromones by influencing female receptivity to mating. The relative quantities of these hydrocarbons vary widely among natural populations and can contribute to variation in mating success. We tested four isofemale lines collected from a wild population to assess the effect of intrapopulation variation in male-predominant hydrocarbons on mating success. The receptivity of laboratory females to males of the four wild-caught lines varied significantly, but not consistently in the direction predicted by variation in male-predominant hydrocarbons. Receptivity of the wild-caught females to laboratory males also varied significantly, but females from lines with male-predominant hydrocarbon profiles closer to a more cosmopolitan one did not show a correspondingly strong mating bias toward a cosmopolitan male. Among wild-caught lines, the male-specific ejaculatory bulb lipid, cis-vaccenyl acetate, varied more than two-fold, but was not associated with variation in male mating success. We observed a strong inverse relationship between the receptivity of wild-caught females and the mating success of males from their own lines, when tested with laboratory flies of the opposite sex.
",21858189
0,7227,"Developmental genetics of [START]Drosophila[END].
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is one of the most valuable organisms in biological research, particularly in the areas of genetics and developmental biology. [START]Drosophila[END] has been used as a model organism in research for almost a century. The organism is easy to breed and has a short life cycle, making it ideal for the study of genetic mutations. The importance to human health and development lies in the homology of [START]Drosophila[END] genes to those in man, e.g., the homeobox gene complex.
",15838102
0,7227,"There and back again: The mechanisms of differentiation and transdifferentiation in [START]Drosophila[END] blood cells.
Transdifferentiation is a conversion of an already differentiated cell type into another cell type without the involvement of stem cells. This transition is well described in the case of vertebrate immune cells, as well as in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], which therefore serves as a suitable model to study the process in detail. In the [START]Drosophila[END] larva, the latest single-cell sequencing methods enabled the clusterization of the phagocytic blood cells, the plasmatocytes, which are capable of transdifferentiation into encapsulating cells, the lamellocytes. Here we summarize the available data of the past years on the plasmatocyte-lamellocyte transition, and make an attempt to harmonize them with transcriptome-based blood cell clustering to better understand the underlying mechanisms of transdifferentiation in [START]Drosophila[END], and in general.
",33131706
0,7227,"Longevity for free? Increased reproduction with limited trade-offs in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] selected for increased life span.
Selection for increased life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been shown to correlate with decreased early fecundity and increased fecundity later in life. This phenomenon has been ascribed to the existence of trade-offs in which limited resources can be invested in either somatic maintenance or reproduction. In our longevity selection lines, we did not find such a trade-off. Rather, we find that females have similar or higher fecundity throughout life compared to non-selected controls. To determine whether increased longevity affects responses in other traits, we looked at several stress resistance traits (chill coma recovery, heat knockdown, desiccation and starvation), geotactic behaviour, egg-to-adult viability, body size, developmental time as well as metabolic rate. Longevity selected flies were more starvation resistant. However, in females longevity and fecundity were not negatively correlated with the other traits assayed. Males from longevity selected lines were slower at recovering from a chill induced coma and resting metabolic rate increased with age, but did not correlate with life span.
",23353929
0,7227,"Determination of blastoderm cells in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
A method for culturing blastoderm cells of [START]Drosophila[END] in vivo has been developed that allows these cells to differentiate into larval or adult structures. By intermixture of genetically marked cells from bisected and whole embryos, it was shown that blastoderm cells are restricted in their potential for forming adult epidermal structures. Cells isolated from anterior-half embryos are determined for forming head and thoracic structures, whereas cells from posterior-half embryos are determined for forming thoracic and abdominal structures. The specificity of determination and the localization of determinative factors is discussed.
",5002429
0,7227,"Analysis of neurotransmitter tissue content of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in different life stages.
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is a widely used model organism for studying neurological diseases with similar neurotransmission to mammals. While both larva and adult [START]Drosophila[END] have central nervous systems, not much is known about how neurotransmitter tissue content changes through development. In this study, we quantified tyramine, serotonin, octopamine, and dopamine in larval, pupal, and adult fly brains using capillary electrophoresis coupled to fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Tyramine and octopamine content varied between life stages, with almost no octopamine being present in the pupa, while tyramine levels in the pupa were very high. Adult females had significantly higher dopamine content than males, but no other neurotransmitters were dependent on sex in the adult. Understanding the tissue content of different life stages will be beneficial for future work comparing the effects of diseases on tissue content throughout development.
",25437353
0,7227,"Spatial and temporal expression of the period gene in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The temporal and spatial expression of the period gene of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been analyzed by examining the expression of a per beta-galactosidase fusion gene in transformants and by in situ hybridization experiments with wild-type flies. Several strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], transformed with the fusion gene, have been generated. The gene is active in mid-late embryos in the midline of the nervous system. Thereafter, beta-galactosidase activity is undetectable until the pupal stage when the prothoracic gland-corpora allata and the optic lobes are beta-galactosidase positive. In adults a surprisingly large number of tissues stain positively, including antennae, proboscis, eyes, optic lobes, cells of the central brain, cells of the thoracic ganglia, gut, Malpighian tubules, and ovarian follicle cells. The temporal pattern of expression agrees well with previous estimates made from developmental Northern blots with RNA extracted from wild-type animals. We suggest that many of the tissues that express the per gene contain their own intrinsic oscillator activity.
",3129339
0,7227,"Quantitative Bioimaging to Investigate the Uptake of Mercury Species in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
The uptake of mercury species in the model organism [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was investigated by elemental bioimaging using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS). The mercury distribution in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was analyzed for the three species mercury(II) chloride, methylmercury chloride, and thimerosal after intoxication. A respective analytical method was developed and applied to the analysis of the entire [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] first, before a particular focus was directed to the cerebral areas of larvae and adult flies. For quantification of mercury, matrix-matched standards based on gelatin were prepared. Challenges of spatially dissolved mercury determination, namely, strong evaporation issues of the analytes and an inhomogeneous distribution of mercury in the standards due to interactions with cysteine containing proteins of the gelatin were successfully addressed by complexation with meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). No mercury was detected in the cerebral region for mercury(II) chloride, whereas both organic species showed the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Quantitatively, the mercury level in the brain exceeded the fed concentration indicating mercury enrichment, which was approximately 3 times higher for methylmercury chloride than for thimerosal. 
",26424032
0,7227,"[Animal ontogenetic cell signaling pathways by the example of Notch cascade of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]].
Intercellular communications are coordinated in developing vertebrates and invertebrates embryos by a few signaling pathways. Structural and functional components of the pathways are encoded by cascade of genes. The signal transduction from cell surface to the nucleus is the common feature of these pathways. It is initiated by interaction of secreted ligand (signal) with the outer segment of transmembrane receptor. Then, activation of the intracellular segment of receptor provides modification of signal transducers in cytoplasm including transcription factors that regulates expression of target genes. Cell signal transduction development is conserved between species. In individual organism signal pathways provide various responses due to a time or spatial disjunction of gene expression. Morphogenetic features, genetic structure and signal transduction sequence of events are considered by the example of Notch cascade of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
",15490578
0,7227,"Molecular genetics of Drosophila vision.
The fruitfly, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], is an excellent organism for dissecting the components of vision genetically. Many mutations have been generated that affect a diversity of processes important in vision. Through a combined application of molecular and genetic approaches many of the genes important in Drosophila vision are now being identified.
",2511836
0,7227,"Large-scale selective sweep among Segregation Distorter chromosomes in African populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Segregation Distorter (SD) is a selfish, coadapted gene complex on chromosome 2 of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that strongly distorts Mendelian transmission; heterozygous SD/SD(+) males sire almost exclusively SD-bearing progeny. Fifty years of genetic, molecular, and theory work have made SD one of the best-characterized meiotic drive systems, but surprisingly the details of its evolutionary origins and population dynamics remain unclear. Earlier analyses suggested that the SD system arose recently in the Mediterranean basin and then spread to a low, stable equilibrium frequency (1-5%) in most natural populations worldwide. In this report, we show, first, that SD chromosomes occur in populations in sub-Saharan Africa, the ancestral range of [START]D. melanogaster[END], at a similarly low frequency (approximately 2%), providing evidence for the robustness of its equilibrium frequency but raising doubts about the Mediterranean-origins hypothesis. Second, our genetic analyses reveal two kinds of SD chromosomes in Africa: inversion-free SD chromosomes with little or no transmission advantage; and an African-endemic inversion-bearing SD chromosome, SD-Mal, with a perfect transmission advantage. Third, our population genetic analyses show that SD-Mal chromosomes swept across the African continent very recently, causing linkage disequilibrium and an absence of variability over 39% of the length of the second chromosome. Thus, despite a seemingly stable equilibrium frequency, SD chromosomes continue to evolve, to compete with one another, or evade suppressors in the genome.
",19412335
0,7227,"Complete mitochondrial genome sequences of thirteen globally sourced strains of [START]fruit fly[END] ([START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]) form a powerful model for mitochondrial research.
The complete mitogenomes of 13 strains of the [START]fruit fly[END] [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] were sequenced. Haplotypes varied between 19 532 and 19 537 bp in length, and followed standard dipteran mitogenome content and organization. We detected a total of 354 variable sites between all thirteen haplotypes, while single pairs of haplotypes were separated by an average of 123 variable sites. The sequenced fly strains form a powerful model for mitochondrial research, when it comes to elucidating the links between the mitochondrial genotype and the phenotype.
",26709744
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila[END] immune cell migration and adhesion during embryonic development and larval immune responses.
The majority of immune cells in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] are plasmatocytes; they carry out similar functions to vertebrate macrophages, influencing development as well as protecting against infection and cancer. Plasmatocytes, sometimes referred to with the broader term of hemocytes, migrate widely during embryonic development and cycle in the larvae between sessile and circulating positions. Here we discuss the similarities of plasmatocyte developmental migration and its functions to that of vertebrate macrophages, considering the recent controversy regarding the functions of [START]Drosophila[END] PDGF/VEGF related ligands. We also examine recent findings on the significance of adhesion for plasmatocyte migration in the embryo, as well as proliferation, trans-differentiation, and tumor responses in the larva. We spotlight parallels throughout to vertebrate immune responses. 
",26210104
0,7227,"The effect of deleterious mutations and age on recombination in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
At the population level, recombination mediates the efficiency with which selection can eliminate deleterious mutations. At the individual level, deleterious alleles may influence recombination, which would change the rate at which linkage disequilibrium is eroded and thereby alter the efficiency with which deleterious alleles are purged. Here, we test whether the presence of a deleterious allele on one autosome affects recombination on another autosome. We find that deleterious alleles not only alter the rate but also the pattern of recombination. However, there is little support that different deleterious alleles affect recombination in a consistent manner. Because we have detailed information on individual females across their lifetimes, we are able to examine how recombination patterns change with age and find that these patterns are also affected by the presence of deleterious alleles. The differences among genotypes or among age classes are large enough to add substantial noise to genetic mapping experiments that do not consider these sources of variation.
",22276549
0,7227,"Conjugated Linoleic Acid Regulates Body Composition and Locomotor Activity in a Sex-Dependent Manner in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been reported to be a bioactive food component. However, there is limited knowledge on the sex-dependent effects of CLA on energy metabolism. In the present study, [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] was used to investigate the sex-dependent effects of CLA with respect to body fat, muscle, locomotion, and a key metabolic regulator, AMP-activated protein kinase alpha (AMPKalpha). Adult flies were fed a cornmeal-based fly food with 0.5% of CLA oil (50:50 of cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 CLA isomers in triacylglycerol (TAG) form), 0.5% safflower oil (high in linoleic acid [LNA] as control), or 0.5% water (as blank) for 5 days. Accumulation of CLA in tissue was verified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. CLA-fed flies had reduced TAG and increased locomotor activity when compared to LNA-fed control flies. In addition, CLA increased the muscle content when compared to the blank. Moreover, following CLA supplementation, increased AMPKalpha activity was observed in females, but not in males. These sex-dependent metabolic effects of CLA may be due to physiological differences in lipid metabolism and nutrient requirements. In conclusion, CLA promoted the body composition and locomotion behavior in [START]D. melanogaster[END] and regulated the sex-specific metabolism in part via AMPKalpha. As key physiological processes are conserved between fly and human, information obtained from this research could provide valuable insights into sex-dependent responses to CLA in humans.
",30334268
0,7227,"Stage-specific effects of candidate heterochronic genes on variation in developmental time along an altitudinal cline of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Previously, we have shown there is clinal variation for egg-to-adult developmental time along geographic gradients in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Further, we also have identified mutations in genes involved in metabolic and neurogenic pathways that affect development time (heterochronic genes). However, we do not know whether these loci affect variation in developmental time in natural populations. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here, we constructed second chromosome substitution lines from natural populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] from an altitudinal cline, and measured egg-adult development time for each line. We found not only a large amount of genetic variation for developmental time, but also positive associations of the development time with thermal amplitude and altitude. We performed genetic complementation tests using substitution lines with the longest and shortest developmental times and heterochronic mutations. We identified segregating variation for neurogenic and metabolic genes that largely affected the duration of the larval stages but had no impact on the timing of metamorphosis. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Altitudinal clinal variation in developmental time for natural chromosome substitution lines provides a unique opportunity to dissect the response of heterochronic genes to environmental gradients. Ontogenetic stage-specific variation in invected, mastermind, cricklet and CG14591 may affect natural variation in development time and thermal evolution.
",20585460
0,7227,"The effect of inbreeding on fluctuating asymmetry of wing veins in two laboratory strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Many authors have proposed that inbreeding destabilizes developmental processes. This destabilization may be reflected by increased fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in inbred compared to relatively outbred populations, but many studies have failed to find such differences. We measured the left and right wings of a large number of individual [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] from two genetically distinct populations to estimate changes in FA caused by inbreeding. The large sample size and experimental design allowed removal of potentially confounding directional asymmetry (DA) and measurement error terms. Trait means in the two populations were essentially unchanged by inbreeding (less than 0.5% smaller in both populations). Inbred lines showed higher signed FA variances (16 and 38% higher, significantly so in one population) and higher unsigned FA means (3.7 and 13.2%, significantly increased in one population). Significant DA was found in both populations, although the pattern differed between populations. DA did not change due to inbreeding.
",19277055
0,7227,"Natural genetic variation in social environment choice: context-dependent gene-environment correlation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Gene-environment correlation (rGE) occurs when an individual's genotype determines its choice of environment, generating a correlation between environment and genotype frequency. In particular, social rGE, caused by genetic variation in social environment choice, can critically determine both individual development and the course of social selection. Despite its foundational role in social evolution and developmental psychology theory, natural genetic variation in social environment choice has scarcely been examined empirically. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] provides an ideal system for investigating social rGE. Flies live socially in nature and have many opportunities to make social decisions; and natural, heterozygous genotypes may be replicated, enabling comparisons between genotypes across environments. Using this approach, I show that all aspects of social environment choice vary among natural genotypes, demonstrating pervasive social rGE. Surprisingly, genetic variation in group-size preference was density dependent, indicating that the behavioral and evolutionary consequences of rGE may depend on the context in which social decisions are made. These results provide the first detailed investigation of social rGE, and illustrate that that genetic variation may influence organismal performance by specifying the environment in which traits are expressed.
",21790578
0,7227,"Genome-wide analysis of genes associated with moderate and high DDT resistance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: Moderate to high DDT resistance in generally associated with overexpression of multiple genes and therefore has been considered to be polygenic. However, very little information is available about the molecular mechanisms that insect populations employ when evolving increased levels of resistance. The presence of common regulatory motifs among resistance-associated genes may help to explain how and why certain suites of genes are preferentially represented in genomic-scale analyses. RESULTS: A set of commonly differentially expressed genes associated with DDT resistance in the [START]fruit fly[END] was identified on the basis of genome-wide microarray analysis followed by qRT-PCR verification. More genes were observed to be overtranscribed in the highly resistant strain (91-R) than in the moderately resistant strain (Wisconsin) and susceptible strain (Canton-S). Furthermore, possible transcription factor binding sites that occurred in coexpressed resistance-associated genes were discovered by computational motif discovery methods. CONCLUSION: A glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-like putative transcription factor binding motif (TFBM) was observed to be associated with genes commonly differentially transcribed in both the 91-R and Wisconsin lines of DDT-resistant [START]Drosophila[END].
",23371854
0,7227,"External control of the [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] lifespan by combination of 3D oscillating low-frequency electric and magnetic fields.
We demonstrate that the lifespan of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] population is controllable by a combination of external three-dimensional oscillating low-frequency electric and magnetic fields (3D OLFEMFs). The lifespan was decreased or increased in dependence of the parameters of the external 3D OLFEMFs. We propose that metabolic processes in [START]D. melanogaster[END]'s body are either accelerated (in the case of reduced lifespan) or slowed down (in the case of increased lifespan) in function of 3D OLFEMFs that induce vibrational motions on sub-cellular and larger scales.
",23977947
0,7227,"[Effects of diethylhexyl phthalate on lipid peroxidation and the life-span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]].
OBJECTIVE: To observe the effects of diethlhexyl phthalate (DEHP) on lipid peroxidation and the life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. METHODS: Fed [START]Drosophila[END] with the concentration 0.20% DEHP of exposure after 0, 14, 28 days, the activity of total superoxide dismutase (SOD), CuZn-SOD and the concentration of malondialdehyde were determined. At the same time, the longevity test was carried out to examine the effect of DEHP on the [START]Drosophila[END]'s lifespan. RESULTS: The lifespan of [START]Drosophila[END] was shortened in a dose of DEHP exposed groups. The indexes of mean life span (MLS), 50% lethal time and mean maximum life span in three DEHP-treated groups (concentration of 0.05%, 0.10% and 0.20%) were lower than those of the controlled group respectively (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). The MLS of both [START]Drosophila[END] sexes were reduced from the control of 64 days and 59 days to the test 60 days-52 days and 54 days-49 days respectively. DEHP decreased the activity of SOD (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05), and lead to a time-dependent relation and an increase in the concentration of malondialdehyde (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05) in the DEHP-exposed [START]Drosophila[END] groups. CONCLUSION: DEHP might promote the process of lipid peroxidation and shorten the life span in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. It should be one of the reasons in the senescence of [START]Drosophila[END].
",15842832
0,7227,"Heat shock proteins and aging in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Heat shock proteins (Hsps) are conserved molecular chaperones that are upregulated following exposure to environmental stress and during aging. The mechanisms underlying the aging process are only beginning to be understood. The beneficial effects of Hsps on aging revealed in mild stress and overexpression experiments suggest that these proteins are part of an important cell protection system rather than being unspecific molecular chaperones. Among the Hsps families, small Hsps have the greatest influence on aging and the modulation of their expression during aging in [START]Drosophila[END] suggest that they are involved in pathways of longevity determination.
",14986859
0,7227,"Female and male genetic contributions to post-mating immune defence in female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Post-mating reduction in immune defence is common in female insects, and a trade-off between mating and immunity could affect the evolution of immunity. In this work, we tested the capacity of virgin and mated female [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] to defend against infection by four bacterial pathogens. We found that female [START]D. melanogaster[END] suffer post-mating immunosuppression in a pathogen-dependent manner. The effect of mating was seen after infection with two bacterial pathogens (Providencia rettgeri and Providencia alcalifaciens), though not after infection with two other bacteria (Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). We then asked whether the evolution of post-mating immunosuppression is primarily a 'female' or 'male' trait by assaying for genetic variation among females for the degree of post-mating immune suppression they experience and among males for the level of post-mating immunosuppression they elicit in their mates. We also assayed for an interaction between male and female genotypes to test the specific hypothesis that the evolution of a trade-off between mating and immune defence in females might be being driven by sexual conflict. We found that females, but not males, harbour significant genetic variation for post-mating immunosuppression, and we did not detect an interaction between female and male genotypes. We thus conclude that post-mating immune depression is predominantly a 'female' trait, and find no evidence that it is evolving under sexual conflict.
",20573620
0,7227,"Rapid divergence and convergence of life-history in experimentally evolved [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Laboratory selection experiments are alluring in their simplicity, power, and ability to inform us about how evolution works. A longstanding challenge facing evolution experiments with metazoans is that significant generational turnover takes a long time. In this work, we present data from a unique system of experimentally evolved laboratory populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] that have experienced three distinct life-history selection regimes. The goal of our study was to determine how quickly populations of a certain selection regime diverge phenotypically from their ancestors, and how quickly they converge with independently derived populations that share a selection regime. Our results indicate that phenotypic divergence from an ancestral population occurs rapidly, within dozens of generations, regardless of that population's evolutionary history. Similarly, populations sharing a selection treatment converge on common phenotypes in this same time frame, regardless of selection pressures those populations may have experienced in the past. These patterns of convergence and divergence emerged much faster than expected, suggesting that intermediate evolutionary history has transient effects in this system. The results we draw from this system are applicable to other experimental evolution projects, and suggest that many relevant questions can be sufficiently tested on shorter timescales than previously thought.
",27431916
0,7227,"Experimental Evolution and Heart Function in [START]Drosophila[END].
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] is a good model species for the study of heart function. However, most previous work on [START]D. melanogaster[END] heart function has focused on the effects of large-effect genetic variants. We compare heart function among 18 [START]D. melanogaster[END] populations that have been selected for altered development time, aging, or stress resistance. We find that populations with faster development and faster aging have increased heart dysfunction, measured as percentage heart failure after electrical pacing. Experimental evolution of different triglyceride levels, by contrast, has little effect on heart function. Evolved differences in heart function correlate with allele frequency changes at many loci of small effect. Genomic analysis of these populations produces a list of candidate loci that might affect cardiac function at the intersection of development, aging, and metabolic control mechanisms.
",28277957
0,7227,"Gene Expression as a Dosimeter in Irradiated [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Biological indicators would be of use in radiation dosimetry in situations where an exposed person is not wearing a dosimeter, or when physical dosimeters are insufficient to estimate the risk caused by the radiation exposure. In this work, we investigate the use of gene expression as a dosimeter. Gene expression analysis was done on 15,222 genes of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] ([START]fruit flies[END]) at days 2, 10, and 20 postirradiation, with X-ray exposures of 10, 1000, 5000, 10,000, and 20,000 roentgens. Several genes were identified, which could serve as a biodosimeter in an irradiated [START]D. melanogaster[END] model. Many of these genes have human homologues. Six genes showed a linear response (R2 > 0.9) with dose at all time points. One of these genes, inverted repeat-binding protein, is a known DNA repair gene and has a human homologue (XRCC6). The lowest dose, 10 roentgen, is very low for [START]fruit flies[END]. If the lowest dose is excluded, 13 genes showed a linear response with dose at all time points. This includes 5 of 6 genes that were linear with all radiation doses included. Of these 13 genes, 4 have human homologues and 8 have known functions. The expression of this panel of genes, particularly those with human homologues, could potentially be used as the biological indicator of radiation exposure in dosimetry applications.
",29035581
0,7227,"Deleterious mutations show increasing negative effects with age in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
BACKGROUND: In order for aging to evolve in response to a declining strength of selection with age, a genetic architecture that allows for mutations with age-specific effects on organismal performance is required. Our understanding of how selective effects of individual mutations are distributed across ages is however poor. Established evolutionary theories assume that mutations causing aging have negative late-life effects, coupled to either positive or neutral effects early in life. New theory now suggests evolution of aging may also result from deleterious mutations with increasing negative effects with age, a possibility that has not yet been empirically explored. RESULTS: To directly test how the effects of deleterious mutations are distributed across ages, we separately measure age-specific effects on fecundity for each of 20 mutations in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. We find that deleterious mutations in general have a negative effect that increases with age and that the rate of increase depends on how deleterious a mutation is early in life. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that aging does not exclusively depend on genetic variants assumed by the established evolutionary theories of aging. Instead, aging can result from deleterious mutations with negative effects that amplify with age. If increasing negative effect with age is a general property of deleterious mutations, the proportion of mutations with the capacity to contribute towards aging may be considerably larger than previously believed.
",32993647
0,7227,"Metabolomics profiling reveals the mechanism of caffeic acid in extending lifespan in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Caffeic acid is a phenolic compound widely synthesized by plants, which has shown health benefits for multiple aging-related diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the life-extending effect of caffeic acid and its underlying mechanisms. The effects of caffeic acid on lifespan, climbing behavior, starvation resistance, and heat sensitivity of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] ([START]D. melanogaster[END]) were evaluated. 1H-NMR-based metabolomics and biochemical detection were performed to explore the potential mechanisms. The results demonstrated that supplementation with caffeic acid extended the lifespan, and improved climbing behavior and stress resistance in [START]D. melanogaster[END]. Additionally, continuous supplementation with caffeic acid caused the metabolic profile of 30-day [START]D. melanogaster[END] closer to that of 3-day [START]D. melanogaster[END], among which 17 differential metabolites were significantly regulated by caffeic acid, involved in amino acid metabolism and mitochondrial metabolism. Furthermore, caffeic acid significantly prevented oxidative damage and improved mitochondrial function. Correlation analysis indicated that the differential metabolites regulated by caffeic acid were correlated with its antioxidant effect and mitochondrial improvement function. In conclusion, our data support that caffeic acid could extend lifespan in [START]D. melanogaster[END] through regulation of metabolic abnormality and improvement of mitochondrial function.
",32966485
0,7227,"Long-range projection neurons in the taste circuit of [START]Drosophila[END].
Taste compounds elicit innate feeding behaviors and act as rewards or punishments to entrain other cues. The neural pathways by which taste compounds influence innate and learned behaviors have not been resolved. Here, we identify three classes of taste projection neurons (TPNs) in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] distinguished by their morphology and taste selectivity. TPNs receive input from gustatory receptor neurons and respond selectively to sweet or bitter stimuli, demonstrating segregated processing of different taste modalities. Activation of TPNs influences innate feeding behavior, whereas inhibition has little effect, suggesting parallel pathways. Moreover, two TPN classes are absolutely required for conditioned taste aversion, a learned behavior. The TPNs essential for conditioned aversion project to the superior lateral protocerebrum (SLP) and convey taste information to mushroom body learning centers. These studies identify taste pathways from sensory detection to higher brain that influence innate behavior and are essential for learned responses to taste compounds.
",28164781
0,7227,"Radiation hormesis and radioadaptive response in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] flies with different genetic backgrounds: the role of cellular stress-resistance mechanisms.
The purpose of this work is to investigate the role of cellular stress-resistance mechanisms in the low-dose irradiation effects on [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] lifespan. In males and females with the wild type Canton-S genotype the chronic low dose irradiation (40 cGy) induced the hormetic effect and radiation adaptive response to acute irradiation (30 Gy). The hormesis and radioadaptive responses were observed in flies with mutations in autophagy genes (atg7, atg8a) but absent in flies with mutations in FOXO, ATM, ATR, and p53 homologues. The hormetic effect was revealed in Sirt2 mutant males but not in females. On the contrary, the females but not males of JNK/+ mutant strain showed adaptive response. The obtained results demonstrate the essential role of FOXO, SIRT1, JNK, ATM, ATR, and p53 genes in hormesis and radiation adaptive response of the whole organism.
",21234801
0,7227,"The effect of pathogens on selection against deleterious mutations in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
In natural populations, fitness is reduced by both deleterious mutations and parasites. Few studies have examined interactions between these two factors, particularly at the level of individual genes. We examined how the presence of a bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, affected the selection against each of eight deleterious mutations in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. We found that mutations tended to become more deleterious in the presence of disease. This increase in the average selection was primarily due to three genes with the remainder showing little evidence of change.
",19694894
0,7227,"Fruit flies for anti-pain drug discovery.
Recent work has indicated that [START]fruit flies[END] ([START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]) can be used in nociception research. Genetic screening identified a gene, painless, that is required for thermal and mechanical nociception in [START]Drosophila[END] larvae. On the other hand, pharmacological techniques and noxious heat were used to assay antinocieceptive behavior in intact adult [START]Drosophila[END]. In general, animal models for pain research are bound by ethical concerns. Since no serious ethical controversies have been raised regarding experiments in insects, [START]Drosophila[END] may be, for the time being an ethically acceptable animal model for combined genetic and pharmacological analgesia research.
",15763072
0,7227,"[START]Drosophila[END] Neurobiology: No Escape from 'Big Data' Science.
Combining a variety of large-scale, data-intensive techniques, a recent study has unraveled the neural pathways involved in [START]Drosophila[END] larval escape from a parasitoid wasp invasion. 
",26196487
0,7227,"Natural variation in differentiated hemocytes is related to parasitoid resistance in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
As a measure of parasitoid resistance, hemocyte load and encapsulation ability were measured in lines collected from natural populations of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] in Europe. Results show large geographic variation in resistance against the parasitoid wasp Asobara tabida among the field lines, but there was no clear correlation between resistance and total hemocyte load, neither before nor after parasitization. This was in contrast to the patterns that had been found in a comparison among species of [START]Drosophila[END], where total hemocyte counts were positively correlated to encapsulation rates. This suggests that the mechanisms underlying between-species variation in parasitoid resistance do not extend to the natural variation that exists within a species. Although hemocyte counts did not correspond to encapsulation ability within [START]D. melanogaster[END], the ratios of lamellocytes and crystal cells were very similar in lines with successful encapsulation responses. Apart from variation in the hemocytic response of the different hemocyte types, within-species variation was also observed for accurate targeting of the foreign body by the hemocytes. These results are discussed in the context of possible causes of variation in immune functions among natural populations.
",23123513
0,7227,"Latitudinal clines in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: body size, allozyme frequencies, inversion frequencies, and the insulin-signalling pathway.
Many latitudinal clines exist in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]: in adult body size, in allele frequency at allozyme loci, and in frequencies of common cosmopolitan inversions. The question is raised whether these latitudinal clines are causally related. This review aims to connect data from two very different fields of study, evolutionary biology and cell biology, in explaining such natural genetic variation in [START]D. melanogaster[END] body size and development time. It is argued that adult body size clines, inversion frequency clines, and clines in allele frequency at loci involved in glycolysis and glycogen storage are part of the same adaptive strategy. Selection pressure is expected to differ at opposite ends of the clines. At high latitudes, selection on [START]D. melanogaster[END] would favour high larval growth rate at low temperatures, and resource storage in adults to survive winter. At low latitudes selection would favour lower larval critical size to survive crowding, and increased male activity leading to high male reproductive success. Studies of the insulin-signalling pathway in [START]D. melanogaster[END] point to the involvement of this pathway in metabolism and adult body size. The genes involved in the insulin-signalling pathway are associated with common cosmopolitan inversions that show latitudinal clines. Each chromosome region connected with a large common cosmopolitan inversion possesses a gene of the insulin transmembrane complex, a gene of the intermediate pathway and a gene of the TOR branch. The hypothesis is presented that temperate [START]D. melanogaster[END] populations have a higher frequency of a 'thrifty' genotype corresponding to high insulin level or high signal level, while tropical populations possess a more 'spendthrift' genotype corresponding to low insulin or low signal level.
",15133196
0,7227,"Functional analysis of the SUMOylation pathway in [START]Drosophila[END].
SUMOylation, a reversible process used as a 'fine-tuning' mechanism to regulate the role of multiple proteins, is conserved throughout evolution. This post-translational modification affects several cellular processes by the modulation of subcellular localization, activity or stability of a variety of substrates. A growing number of proteins have been identified as targets for SUMOylation, although, for many of them, the role of SUMO conjugation on their function is unknown. The use of model systems might facilitate the study of SUMOylation implications in vivo. In the present paper, we have compiled what is known about SUMOylation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], where the use of genetics provides new insights on SUMOylation's biological roles.
",18793153
0,7227,"The morphogenesis of spermathecae and spermathecal glands in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Sperm storage in female insects is important for reproductive success and sperm competition. In [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] females, sperm viability during storage is dependent upon secretions produced by spermathecae and parovaria. Class III dermal glands are present in both structures. Spermathecal glands are initially comprised of a three-cell unit that is refined to a single secretory cell in the adult. It encapsulates an end-apparatus joining to a cuticular duct passing secretions to the spermathecal lumen. We have examined spermatheca morphogenesis using DIC and fluorescence microscopy. In agreement with a recent study, cell division ceases by 36 h after puparium formation (APF). Immunostaining of the plasma membrane at this stage demonstrates that gland cells wrap around the developing end-apparatus and each other. By 48-60 h APF, the secretory cell exhibits characteristic adult morphology of an enlarged nucleus and extracellular reservoir. A novel finding is the presence of an extracellular reservoir in the basal support cell that is continuous with the secretory cell reservoir. Some indication of early spermathecal gland formation is evident in the division of enlarged cells lying adjacent to the spermathecal lumen at 18 h APF and in cellular processes that bind clusters of cells between 24 and 30 h APF.
",23872109
0,7227,"Inbreeding effects on standard metabolic rate investigated at cold, benign and hot temperatures in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
Inbreeding increases homozygosity, which is known to affect the mean and variance of fitness components such as growth, fecundity and mortality rate. Across inbred lines inbreeding depression is typically observed and the variance between lines is increased in inbred compared to outbred lines. It has been suggested that damage incurred from increased homozygosity entails energetic cost associated with cellular repair. However, little is known about the effects of inbreeding on standard metabolic rate. Using stop-flow respirometry we performed repeated measurements of metabolic rate in replicated lines of inbred and outbred [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] at stressful low, benign and stressful high temperatures. The lowest measurements of metabolic rate in our study are always associated with the low activity period of the diurnal cycle and these measurements therefore serve as good estimates of standard metabolic rate. Due to the potentially added costs of genetic stress in inbred lines we hypothesized that inbred individuals have increased metabolic rate compared to outbred controls and that this is more pronounced at stressful temperatures due to synergistic inbreeding by environment interactions. Contrary to our hypothesis we found no significant difference in metabolic rate between inbred and outbred lines and no interaction between inbreeding and temperature. Inbreeding however effected the variance; the variance in metabolic rate was higher between the inbred lines compared to the outbred control lines with some inbred lines having very high or low standard metabolic rate. Thus genetic drift and not inbreeding per se seem to explain variation in metabolic rate in populations of different size. 
",24456661
0,7227,"The effects of age on radiation resistance and oxidative stress in adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
[START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] ([START]fruit fly[END]) is a well-established model organism for genetic studies of development and aging. We examined the effects of lethal ionizing radiation on male and female adult [START]Drosophila[END] of different ages, using doses of radiation from 200 to 1500 Gy. Fifty percent lethality 2 days postirradiation (LD(50/2)) in wild-type 1-day-old adult [START]fruit flies[END] was approximately 1238 Gy for males and 1339 Gy for females. We observed a significant age-dependent decline in the radiation resistance of both males and females. Radiation damage is postulated to occur by the generation of oxygen radicals. An age-related decline in the ability of flies to resist an agent that induces oxygen radicals, paraquat, was observed when comparing 10- and 20-day adults. Female flies are more resistant to paraquat than male flies. Oxidative stress mediated by paraquat was additive with sublethal exposures to radiation in young adults. Therefore, the ability to repair the damage caused by oxygen radicals seems to decline with the age of the flies. Because [START]Drosophila[END] adults are largely post-mitotic, our data suggest that adult [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] can serve as an excellent model to study the factors responsible for radiation resistance in post-mitotic tissue and age-dependent changes in this resistance.
",18494545
0,7227,"Chimaeras of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] obtained by injection of haploid nuclei.
Since the observation by Bridges of a few mosaics containing haploid tissue in [START]Drosophila[END], specimens supposedly haploid have rarely been found. A technique for the easy production of haploid animals or tissues could have important applications. We have now successfully designed such a technique by the production of chimaeras obtained by transplantation of haploid nuclei from a maternal effect mutant that produces haploid embryos. We have used this technique to test the proposal of Jack and Judd that the zeste locus of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] cannot repress the activity of unpaired alleles at the white locus.
",6776407
0,7227,"Analysis of [START]Drosophila[END] nervous system development following an early, brief exposure to ethanol.
The effects of ethanol on neural function and development have been studied extensively, motivated in part by the addictive properties of alcohol and the neurodevelopmental deficits that arise in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Absent from this research area is a genetically tractable system to study the effects of early ethanol exposure on later neurodevelopmental and behavioral phenotypes. Here, we used embryos of the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], as a model system to investigate the neuronal defects that arise after an early exposure to ethanol. We found several disruptions of neural development and morphology following a brief ethanol exposure during embryogenesis and subsequent changes in larval behavior. Altogether, this study establishes a new system to examine the effects of alcohol exposure in embryos and the potential to conduct large-scale genetics screens to uncover novel factors that sensitize or protect neurons to the effects of alcohol.
",31472090
0,7227,"Monitoring the effect of pathogenic nematodes on locomotion of [START]Drosophila[END] larvae.
One of the key factors that determine the interaction between hosts and their parasites is the frequency of their interactions, which depends on the locomotory behavior of both parts. To address host behavior we used natural infections involving insect pathogenic nematodes and [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] larvae as hosts. Using a modified version of a recently described method (FIMTrack) to assess several parameters in larger sets of animals, we initially detected specific differences in larval food searching when comparing [START]Drosophila[END] strains. These differences were further influenced by the presence of nematodes. Given a choice, [START]Drosophila[END] larvae clearly avoided nematodes irrespective of their genetic background. Our newly developed methods will be useful to test candidate genes and pathways involved in host/pathogen interactions in general and to assess specific parameters of their interaction.
",28631995
0,7227,"Microbial influence on [START]Drosophila[END] biology.
Commensal bacteria profoundly affect the biology of their animal partners. [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] has been broadly used to study microbiota effects on invertebrates, whose findings are frequently applicable to translational studies. The beneficial role of commensal microbes on [START]Drosophila[END] biology is extensively described, ranging from growth to metabolism, immunity and even behaviour. However, the mechanisms underlying these effects are not well understood. Studies continue to discover new layers of complexity in the host-bacteria partnership that constantly changes depending on a plethora of different variables. This review discusses the latest advances in understanding the molecular bases of microbiota impact on [START]Drosophila[END] physiology and behaviour, emphasizing its broad influence and the intricate interdependence of the two partners in shaping their biology.
",28668769
0,7227,"Incipient speciation in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] involves chemical signals.
The sensory and genetic bases of incipient speciation between strains of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] from Zimbabwe and those from elsewhere are unknown. We studied mating behaviour between eight strains - six from Zimbabwe, together with two cosmopolitan strains. The Zimbabwe strains showed significant sexual isolation when paired with cosmopolitan males, due to Zimbabwe females discriminating against these males. Our results show that flies' cuticular hydrocarbons (CHs) were involved in this sexual isolation, but that visual and acoustic signals were not. The mating frequency of Zimbabwe females was highly significantly negatively correlated with the male's relative amount of 7-tricosene (%7-T), while the mating of cosmopolitan females was positively correlated with %7-T. Variation in transcription levels of two hydrocarbon-determining genes, desat1 and desat2, did not correlate with the observed mating patterns. Our study represents a step forward in our understanding of the sensory processes involved in this classic case of incipient speciation.
",22355738
0,7227,"Conversion of the chill susceptible [START]fruit fly[END] larva ([START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]) to a freeze tolerant organism.
Among vertebrates, only a few species of amphibians and reptiles tolerate the formation of ice crystals in their body fluids. Freeze tolerance is much more widespread in invertebrates, especially in overwintering insects. Evolutionary adaptations for freeze tolerance are considered to be highly complex. Here we show that surprisingly simple laboratory manipulations can change the chill susceptible insect to the freeze tolerant one. Larvae of [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END], a [START]fruit fly[END] of tropical origin with a weak innate capacity to tolerate mild chilling, can survive when approximately 50% of their body water freezes. To achieve this goal, synergy of two fundamental prerequisites is required: (i) shutdown of larval development by exposing larvae to low temperatures (dormancy) and (ii) incorporating the free amino acid proline in tissues by feeding larvae a proline-augmented diet (cryopreservation).
",22331891
0,7227,"Strong and weak cross-sex correlations govern the quantitative-genetic architecture of social group choice in [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END].
When genotypes differ in niche-constructing traits, genotypes are expected to differ in which environments they experience, providing a novel causal relationship between genotypes, environments, and behavior. Such genetic variation in niche construction (or, more precisely, environment construction) is predicted to be especially important for social environments, yet the quantitative-genetic parameters governing such variation are still poorly understood. Here, we examine genetic variation and cross-sex genetic correlations for social environment-constructing behaviors. We focus on whether genetic variation in patch use-the tendency to spend time near food patches where conspecifics may be present-and group-size preference-the specific group size chosen when individuals are affiliating-is correlated or decoupled across sexes in the [START]fruit fly[END], [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END]. Across three choice treatments, we find genotype and sex differences in how much time individuals spend near patches, and which group sizes they prefer. We find that the genetic basis of patch use is strongly coupled across sexes, whereas the genetic basis of group-size preference is completely decoupled across sexes. We discuss how these findings augment and complicate our understanding of the evolutionary genetics of social behaviors.
",31769501
0,7227,"Impact of Potential Probiotic Lactobacillus Strains on Host Growth and Development in a [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] Model.
Lactobacillus paracasei SD1, Lactobacillus rhamnosus SD11, and Lactobacillus gasseri SD12 were proposed as potential probiotics for oral health. However, the effects of them on host physiology are still unknown. This study aimed to select strains that can promote host growth and development in monocolonized [START]Drosophila[END] model compared with axenic and the commercial Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG-treated flies. The morphogenesis and growth of axenic [START]Drosophila melanogaster[END] were assessed from embryo to adult stage when provided with each probiotic strain-supplemented food. The colonization and persistence of probiotic in fly gut were also evaluated. The results indicated that axenic condition caused the lowest adult weight and emergence rate. All probiotic groups had higher weight than axenic group. Lact. rhamnosus SD11 group presented high adult emergence rate equivalent to Lact. rhamnosus GG group, which is significantly higher than the others. However, Lact. gasseri SD12 group had significantly lower adult weight and emergence rate when compared with Lact. rhamnosus GG group. The gut probiotics levels were rapidly increased within the first day after receiving probiotics. After probiotic cessation, their number in gut decreased and was maintained at low level, except for Lact. gasseri SD12, which completely vanished since day one. In conclusion, Lact. paracasei SD1, Lact. rhamnosus SD11, and Lact. rhamnosus GG can affect morphogenesis and weight of flies when fed since immature stage and have short period gut colonization. The findings of this study could possibly imply comparable health-promoting effects between Lact. paracasei SD1 and Lact. rhamnosus SD11 to commercial strain in [START]Drosophila[END] model.
",32875521
0,7385,"Genome and Ontogenetic-Based Transcriptomic Analyses of the Flesh Fly, [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END].
The flesh fly, [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END], is a widely-used model for examining the physiology of insect diapause, development, stress tolerance, neurobiology, and host-parasitoid interactions. Flies in this taxon are implicated in myiasis (larval infection of vertebrates) and feed on carrion, aspects that are important in forensic studies. Here we present the genome of [START]S. bullata[END], along with developmental- and reproduction-based RNA-Seq analyses. We predict 15,768 protein coding genes, identify orthology in relation to closely related flies, and establish sex and developmental-specific gene sets based on our RNA-Seq analyses. Genomic sequences, predicted genes, and sequencing data sets have been deposited at the National Center for Biotechnology Information. Our results provide groundwork for genomic studies that will expand the flesh fly's utility as a model system.
",30926723
0,7385,"Quantitative Characterization of Output from the Directionally Selective Visual Interneuron H1 in the Grey Flesh Fly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END].
H1, a very well-studied insect visual interneuron, has a panoramic receptive field and is directionally selective in responding to optic flow. The synaptic basis for the directional selectivity of the H1 neuron has been studied using both theoretical and cellular approaches. Extracellular single-unit recordings are readily obtained by beginning students using commercially available adults of the grey flesh fly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END]. We describe an apparatus which allows students to present a series of moving visual stimuli to the eye of the restrained, minimally dissected adult [START]Sarcophaga[END], while recording both the single unit responses of the H1 neuron and the position and velocity of the moving stimulus. Students obtain quantitative and reproducible responses of H1, probing the response properties of the neuron by modulating stimulus parameters such as: direction and speed of movement, visual contrast, spatial wavelength, or the extent of the visual field occupied. Students learn to perform quantitative analysis of their data and to generate graphical representations of their results characterizing the tuning and receptive field of this neuron. This exercise demonstrates the utility of single unit recording of an identified interneuron in an awake restrained insect and promotes interpretation of these results in terms of the visual stimuli normally encountered by freely flying flies in their natural environment.
",35540945
0,7385,"Comparative developmental physiology and molecular cytology of the polytrophic ovarian follicles of the blowfly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END] and the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster.
1. The ovarian follicles of [START]Sarcophaga[END] and Drosophila consist of one oocyte and 15 nurse cells, the whole being surrounded by follicle cells. Although oocyte and nurse cells are genetically identical sibling cells, and although they are interconnected by cytoplasmic bridges, their physiology is very different. 2. The DNA content of the oocyte nucleus (germinal vesicle) never exceeds 4C, while values of polyploidisation up to 1024C have been measured in the nurse cells, this being dependent on their position within a follicle. 3. The nurse cell nuclei very actively synthesize RNA, while the germinal vesicle is almost completely inactive in this respect. 4. It has been possible to visualise the major cytoskeletal elements in the different ovarian cell types. Cellular markers of polarity and dorsoventral asymmetry have been described. 5. Electrophysiological measurements have been performed to find out whether or not the self-electrophoresis principle may be involved in polarised transport between nurse cells and oocyte. 6. Most of the vitellogenin is synthesized by the fat body but some follicle cells also synthesize small amounts. 7. The role of 20-OH ecdysone in the induction of vitellogenin synthesis in the fat body, as well as the presence of met-enkephalin like immunoreactivity in the gonads is well established in both species. Not so clear is the exact role of juvenile hormones and the nature of brain factors controlling ovarian development. 8. Drosophila has the advantage of its well documented genetics while the larger species [START]Sarcophaga[END] is preferable for the study of (electro-) physiological and cell biological mechanisms.
",1976473
0,7385,"Desiccation enhances rapid cold-hardening in the flesh fly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END]: evidence for cross tolerance between rapid physiological responses.
Many insects use rapid cold-hardening (RCH), a physiological response to sub-lethal exposure to stressors, such as chilling and desiccation, to enhance their cold tolerance within minutes. Recently, drought-induced RCH, triggered by brief, mild desiccation, was described in larvae of the freeze-tolerant gall fly (Eurosta solidaginis). However, its prevalence and ecological significance in other insects is not known. Consequently, we used a freeze-intolerant model, the flesh fly, [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END], to investigate the effects and mechanisms of drought-induced RCH. In addition, we investigated how drought- and cold-induced RCH interact by exposing flies to both desiccation and chilling. Desiccation for 3 h increased larval pupariation after cold shock from 28 to 40 %-the first example of drought-induced RCH in both a freeze-intolerant insect and in a non-overwintering life stage. We also found that desiccation and chilling together enhanced the cold hardiness of larvae and adults more than either did separately, suggesting that drought and cold trigger distinct physiological mechanisms that interact to afford greater cold tolerance. These results suggest that drought-induced RCH is a highly conserved response used by insects with diverse life history strategies. Furthermore, the protective interaction between drought- and cold-induced RCH suggests that, in nature, insects use multiple cues and physiological mechanisms to fine-tune their response to changing ambient conditions.
",27568301
0,7385,"Genomic organization in the flesh fly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END].
The genome of the flesh fly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END] has been characterized both cytologically and biochemically. [START]S. bullata[END] has a haploid DNA level of 0.61 picograms which is five times larger than the haploid genome size of Drosophila melanogaster. Reassociation kinetics of [START]Sarcophaga[END] DNA shows that its sequence organization is very similar to that of D. melanogaster in having a very large proportion of single copy DNA (81%) and only small amounts of highly and moderately repetitive DNA (9% and 6%, respectively). cRNAs from all three sequence classes were prepared and their cytological distributions on biploid and polytene cells determined by in situ hybridization. The cytological distribution of the highly repetitive probe was found to be restricted to the centromeric heterochromatin of two of the five autosomes and this sequence class was also found to be markedly underreplicated in polytene foot-pad cells.  No highly repetitive DNA was localized on either of the sex chromosomes, but only on the two large centromeric regions of chromosomes C and E. Moderately repetitive DNA was found uniformly distributed on all of the autosomes in both testis and polytene foot-pad squashes. As in the case of the highly repetitive sequence probe, no moderately repetitive DNA was detected on either the X or Y chromosomes. Moderately repetitive DNA in [START]Sarcophaga[END] was also shown to have the ""Drosophila type"" pattern of sequence interspersion with a moderately repetitive element of congruent to 5,000 nucleotides adjacent to a unique element of greater than 10,000 nucleotides. The [START]Sarcophaga[END] genome is the largest for which this type of interspersion has so far been demonstrated.
",533665
0,7385,"Changes in microRNA abundance may regulate diapause in the flesh fly, [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END].
Diapause, an alternative developmental pathway characterized by changes in developmental timing and metabolism, is coordinated by molecular mechanisms that are not completely understood. MicroRNA (miRNA) mediated gene silencing is emerging as a key component of animal development and may have a significant role in initiating, maintaining, and terminating insect diapause. In the present study, we test this possibility by using high-throughput sequencing and qRT-PCR to discover diapause-related shifts in miRNA abundance in the flesh fly, [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END]. We identified ten evolutionarily conserved miRNAs that were differentially expressed in diapausing pupae compared to their nondiapausing counterparts. miR-289-5p and miR-1-3p were overexpressed in diapausing pupae and may be responsible for silencing expression of candidate genes during diapause. miR-9c-5p, miR-13b-3p, miR-31a-5p, miR-92b-3p, miR-275-3p, miR-276a-3p, miR-277-3p, and miR-305-5p were underexpressed in diapausing pupae and may contribute to increased expression of heat shock proteins and other factors necessary for the enhanced environmental stress-response that is a feature of diapause. In [START]S. bullata[END], a maternal effect blocks the programming of diapause in progeny of females that have experienced pupal diapause, and in this study we report that several miRNAs, including miR-263a-5p, miR-100-5p, miR-125-5p, and let-7-5p were significantly overexpressed in such nondiapausing flies and may prevent entry into diapause. Together these miRNAs appear to be integral to the molecular processes that mediate entry into diapause.
",28300610
0,7385,"Gene expression responses in larvae of the fleshfly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END] after immune stimulation.
Insect larvae develop in decaying organic matter and their defence against various microorganisms must therefore be highly efficient. In the present study, we explored the transcriptional kinetics and induction levels of eight genes in [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END] larvae after infection or aseptic injury. Using real-time PCR, we studied the time-dependent immune response of larvae of the fleshfly [START]S. bullata[END]. We compared the mRNA levels of eight selected genes in induced and non-induced larvae. The third-instar larvae of [START]S. bullata[END] were induced by injecting a bacterial suspension of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa, or by simple aseptic injury with an entomological pin. We used intact larvae as a control for basal mRNA expression. Total RNA was isolated from the whole body, fat body and haemocytes. We determined the mRNA levels of genes encoding sapecin, transferrin, prophenoloxidase 1 and 2, storage-binding protein, cathe psin L, sarcocystatin, and 26/29 kDa protease. We found that there was massive up-regulation of genes encoding the fleshfly peptide sapecin, as well as the protein transferrin. We also detected down-regulation of, or no change in, the expression of genes that encode prophenoloxidase 1 and 2, storage-binding protein, cathepsin L, sarcocystatin, and 26/29 kDa protease.
",19545489
0,7385,"Two isoforms of Pepck in [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END] and their distinct expression profiles through development, diapause, and in response to stresses of cold and starvation.
Pepck is a metabolic enzyme that participates in gluconeogenesis through the conversion of oxaloacetate into phosphoenol pyruvate. Numerous transcriptomic studies have identified Pepck as a potential key player during diapause and various stresses responses. Here, we describe expression patterns of both cytosolic and mitochondrial isoforms of Pepck throughout development, during diapause, and in response to starvation and cold shock in the flesh fly, [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END]. We cloned full-length transcripts for both Pepck isoforms and observed that expression of both genes varied throughout development. Diapausing pupae have the highest relative expression of both isoforms, suggesting participation in the anticipatory production of sugars and sugar alcohols that occurs during this overwintering stage. In response to acute stress, the cytosolic isoform was upregulated whereas the mitochondrial variant remained unchanged. Cytosolic Pepck was strongly upregulated after 2 h recovery from cold shock and returned to baseline levels within 8 h. In response to 24 h of starvation, the cytosolic isoform was similarly upregulated and returned to control levels after 24 h of recovery. Acute stress is known to incur a metabolic cost, and Pepck could be a key player in this response. Although it remains unclear why there is such a dramatic divergence in the expression of the two isoforms, the distinction suggests specific roles for the two isoforms that depend on the developmental status of the fly and the stress conditions to which it is exposed.
",30392850
0,7385,"Mapping the peptide and protein immune response in the larvae of the fleshfly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END].
We chose the larvae of fleshfly [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END] to map the peptide and protein immune response. The hemolymph of the third-instar larvae of [START]S. bullata[END] was used for isolation. The larvae were injected with bacterial suspension to induce an antimicrobial response. The hemolymph was separated into crude fractions, which were subdivided by RP-HPLC, gel electrophoresis, and free-flow electrophoresis. In several fractions, we determined significant antimicrobial activities against the pathogenic bacteria Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Among antimicrobially active compounds we identified dipeptide beta-alanyl-L-tyrosine, protein transferrin, and two variants of peptide sapecin. We also partially characterized two novel antimicrobially active polypeptides; odorant-binding protein 99b, and a peptide which remains unidentified.
",18044819
0,7385,"Rearing [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END] fly hosts for Nasonia (parasitoid wasp).
Nasonia is a complex of four closely related species of wasps with several features that make it an excellent system for a variety of genetic studies. These include a short generation time, ease of rearing, interfertile species, visible and molecular markers, and a sequenced genome. It also can serve as a behavior model for studies of courtship, male aggression and territoriality, female dispersal, and sex ratio control. Nasonia vitripennis is a parasitoid of a number of calliphorid flies, such as [START]Sarcophaga bullata[END], allowing investigations of questions relating to parasitoid/host dynamics, host preference, and specialist versus generalist biology. [START]S. bullata[END] are relatively large, increasing the offspring yield that a single N. vitripennis female can produce. They are also easily reared in the lab if proper ventilation is available. This protocol describes the methods to collect and raise [START]S. bullata[END] larvae that will be used as hosts for N. vitripennis.
",20147053
0,28641,"Neural activity mapping of bumble bee (Bombus ignitus) brains during foraging flight using immediate early genes.
Honey bees and [START]bumble bees[END] belong to the same family (Apidae) and their workers exhibit a division of labor, but the style of division of labor differs between species. The molecular and neural bases of the species-specific social behaviors of Apidae workers have not been analyzed. Here, we focused on two immediate early genes, hormone receptor 38 (HR38) and early growth response gene-1 (Egr1), and late-upregulated ecdysone receptor (EcR), all of which are upregulated by foraging flight and expressed preferentially in the small-type Kenyon cells of the mushroom bodies (MBs) in the honey bee brain. Gene expression analyses in Bombus ignitus revealed that HR38 and Egr1, but not EcR, exhibited an immediate early response during awakening from CO2 anesthesia. Both premature mRNA for HR38 and mature mRNA for Egr1 were induced during foraging flight, and mRNAs for HR38 and Egr1 were sparsely detected inside the whole MB calyces. In contrast, EcR expression was higher in forager brains than in nurse bees and was expressed preferentially in the small-type Kenyon cells inside the MBs. Our findings suggest that Kenyon cells are active during foraging flight and that the function of late-upregulated EcR in the brain is conserved among these Apidae species.
",32398802
0,28641,"Complex relationship between amino acids, fitness and food intake in Bombus terrestris.
The ratio of amino acids to carbohydrates (AA:C) that [START]bumble bees[END] consume has been reported to affect their survival. However, it is unknown how dietary AA:C ratio affects other bumble bee fitness traits (e.g., fecundity, condition) and possible trade-offs between them. Moreover, while individual AAs affect phenotype in many species, the effects of AA blend on bumble bee fitness and food intake are unclear. We test how the AA:C ratio that [START]bumble bees[END] (Bombus terrestris) consume affects their condition (abdomen lipid and dry mass), survival following food removal, and ovarian activation. We then compare ovarian activation and food intake in bees fed identical AA:C ratios, but where the blend of AAs in diets differ, i.e., diets contained the same 10 AAs in an equimolar ratio or in the same ratio as in bee collected pollen. We found that AA:C ratio did not significantly affect survival following food removal or ovarian activation; however, high AA intake increased body mass, which is positively correlated with multiple fitness traits in [START]bumble bees[END]. AA blend (i.e., equimolar versus pollen) did not significantly affect overall ovarian activation or consumption of each experimental diet. However, there was an interaction between AA mix and dietary AA:C ratio affecting survival during the feeding experiment, and signs that there may have been weak, interactive effects of AA mix and AA:C ratio on food consumption. These results suggest that the effect of total AA intake on bumble bee phenotype may depend on the blend of individual AAs in experimental diets. We suggest that research exploring how AA blend affects bumble bee performance and dietary intake is warranted, and highlight that comparing research on bee nutrition is complicated by even subtle variation in experimental diet composition.
",34590185
0,28641,"Parasites and RNA viruses in wild and laboratory reared [START]bumble bees[END] Bombus pauloensis (Hymenoptera: Apidae) from Uruguay.
[START]Bumble bees[END] (Bombus spp.) are important pollinators insects involved in the maintenance of natural ecosystems and food production. Bombus pauloensis is a widely distributed species in South America, that recently began to be managed and commercialized in this region. The movement of colonies within or between countries may favor the dissemination of parasites and pathogens, putting into risk while populations of B. pauloensis and other native species. In this study, wild B. pauloensis queens and workers, and laboratory reared workers were screened for the presence of phoretic mites, internal parasites (microsporidia, protists, nematodes and parasitoids) and RNA viruses (Black queen cell virus (BQCV), Deformed wing virus (DWV), Acute paralysis virus (ABCV) and Sacbrood virus (SBV)). Bumble bee queens showed the highest number of mite species, and it was the only group where Conopidae and S. bombi were detected. In the case of microsporidia, a higher prevalence of N. ceranae was detected in field workers. Finally, the [START]bumble bees[END] presented the four RNA viruses studied for A. mellifera, in proportions similar to those previously reported in this species. Those results highlight the risks of spillover among the different species of pollinators.
",33901226
0,28641,"Bombus huntii, Bombus impatiens, and Bombus vosnesenskii (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Pollinate Greenhouse-Grown Tomatoes in Western North America.
[START]Bumble bees[END] (Bombus) are the primary pollinators of tomatoes grown in greenhouses and can significantly increase fruit weight compared with tomatoes that receive no supplemental pollination. More than a million colonies are sold worldwide annually to meet pollination needs. Due to mounting concerns over the transportation of [START]bumble bees[END] outside of their native ranges, several species native to western North American are currently being investigated as potential commercial pollinators. Here, two western, Bombus huntii Greene and Bombus vosnesenskii Radoszkowski, and one eastern species, Bombus impatiens Cresson, are compared for their efficacy as pollinators of greenhouse-grown tomatoes. In two experiments, colonies were placed in greenhouses and compared with control plants that received no supplemental pollination. In the first experiment, seed set was significantly increased with B. huntii pollination in one variety of cherry tomatoes. In the second experiment comparing all three bumble bee species, fruit weight was an average of 25.2 g heavier per fruit pollinated by bees versus the control, and the number of days to harvest was 2.9 d shorter for bee-pollinated fruit. In some rounds of pollination, differences were found among bumble bee species, but these were inconsistent across replicates and not statistically significant overall. Additionally, fruit weight was shown to be highly correlated to fruit diameter and seed set in all tests and, thus, is shown to be a reliable metric for assessing pollination in future studies. These results suggest that commercialization of western [START]bumble bees[END] is a viable alternative to the current practices of moving of nonnative bees into western North America to pollinate tomatoes. 
",26470206
0,28641,"Bee pathogens found in Bombus atratus from Colombia: A case study.
Bombus atratus [START]bumblebees[END] from Colombia that were caught in the wild and from breeding programs were screened for a broad set of bee pathogens. We discovered for the first time Lake Sinai Virus and confirmed the infection by other common viruses. The prevalence of Apicystis bombi, Crithidia bombi and Nosema ceranae was remarkably high. According to other studies the former two could have been co-introduced in South America with exotic [START]bumble bees[END] as Bombus terrestris or Bombus ruderatus. Given the fact that none of these species occur in Colombia, our data puts a new light on the spread of these pathogens over the South American continent. 
",26031564
0,28641,"[START]Bumble Bee[END] ([START]Bombus[END] vosnesenskii) Queen Nest Searching Occurs Independent of Ovary Developmental Status.
Studies on the physiological states of wild-caught organisms are essential to uncovering the links between ecological and physiological processes. [START]Bumble bee[END] queens emerge from overwintering in the spring. At this time, queens develop their ovaries and search for a nest site in which to start a colony. Whether these two processes, ovary development and nest-searching, interact with or influence one another remains an unresolved question in behavioral physiology. We explored the hypothesis that ovary development and nest-searching might be mechanistically connected, by testing whether (1) ovary development precedes nest-searching behavior; (2) nest occupation precedes ovary development; or (3) ovary development and nest-searching occur independently, in [START]bumble bee[END] ([START]Bombus[END] vosnesenskii) queens. We collected queens either nest-searching (and thus prior to occupying a nest) or pollen-collecting (and thus provisioning an occupied nest) and measured their degree of ovary activation. We further screened these queens for parasites or other symbionts, to identify additional factors that may impact their reproductive success at this time. We found that queens searched for and occupied nests at all stages of ovary development, indicating that these processes occur independently in this system. Nest-searching queens were more likely to have substantial mite loads than pollen-collecting queens, who had already located and occupied a nest. However, mite loads did not significantly predict ovary developmental status. Collectively, our work shows that nesting status and symbionts alone are insufficient to explain the variation in spring [START]bumble bee[END] queen ovary development. We propose that ovary development and nest-searching occur opportunistically, which may enable queens to begin laying eggs earlier in the season than if these processes occurred in discrete succession.
",35274079
0,28641,"Altitudinal variation in bumble bee (Bombus) critical thermal limits.
Organism critical thermal limits are often tightly linked to current geographic distribution and can therefore help predict future range shifts driven by changing environmental temperatures. Thermal tolerance of diverse organisms often varies predictably with latitude, with upper thermal limits changing little and lower thermal limits decreasing with latitude. Despite similarly steep gradients in environmental temperatures across altitude, few studies have investigated altitudinal variation in critical thermal limits. We estimated critical thermal minimum (CTmin), critical thermal maximum (CTmax) and recovery temperature (Trec) by tracking righting response of three bumble bee species during thermal ramps: Bombus huntii collected from 2180m asl, and Bombus bifarius and Bombus sylvicola collected from 3290m asl in Wyoming, USA. Overall, larger bees could tolerate more extreme temperatures, likely due to a thermal inertia driven lag between core body temperatures and air temperatures. Despite their smaller size, high altitude [START]bumble bees[END] tolerated colder air temperatures: they had ~1 C lower CTmin and recovered from cold exposure at ~3-4 C lower air temperatures. Conversely, low altitude bees tolerated ~5 C hotter air temperatures. These altitudinal differences in thermal tolerance parallel differences in average daily minimum (1.2 C) and maximum (7.5 C) temperatures between these sites. These results provide one of the few measurements of organism thermal tolerance across altitude and the first evidence for geographical differences in tolerance of temperature extremes in heterothermic [START]bumble bees[END]. 
",27264888
0,28641,"The diversity, evolution, and development of setal morphologies in [START]bumble bees[END] (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus spp.).
[START]Bumble bees[END] are characterized by their thick setal pile that imparts aposematic color patterns often used for species-level identification. Like all bees, the single-celled setae of [START]bumble bees[END] are branched, an innovation thought important for pollen collection. To date no studies have quantified the types of setal morphologies and their distribution on these bees, information that can facilitate understanding of their adaptive ecological function. This study defines several major setal morphotypes in the common eastern bumble bee Bombus impatiens Cresson, revealing these setal types differ by location across the body. The positions of these types of setae are similar across individuals, castes, and sexes within species. We analyzed the distribution of the two most common setal types (plumose and spinulate) across the body dorsum of half of the described bumble bee species. This revealed consistently high density of plumose (long-branched) setae across [START]bumble bees[END] on the head and mesosoma, but considerable variation in the amount of metasomal plumosity. Variation on the metasoma shows strong phylogenetic signal at subgeneric and smaller group levels, making it a useful trait for species delimitation research, and plumosity has increased from early Bombus ancestors. The distribution of these setal types suggests these setae may serve several functions, including pollen-collecting and thermoregulatory roles, and probable mechanosensory functions. This study further examines how and when setae of the pile develop, evidence for mechanosensory function, and the timing of pigmentation as a foundation for future genetic and developmental research in these bees.
",36573237
0,28641,"Effect of Number of Bombus impatiens (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Visits on Eggplant Yield.
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is a crop with perfect flowers capable of self-pollination. Insect pollination enhances fruit set, but little is known about how pollination success varies by number of visits from [START]bumble bees[END]. To quantify the efficiency of [START]bumble bees[END] at pollinating eggplants, we allowed 1, 2, 6, and 12 [START]bumble bees[END] (Bombus impatiens Cresson) to visit eggplant flowers and compared percentage of flowers that set fruit, fruit weight, and seed set after 3 wk. We compared yield from these visit numbers to eggplant flowers that were left open for unlimited visitation. Eggplant flowers set the most fruit from open-pollination and 12 visits. Larger, seedier fruits were formed in open-pollinated flowers. However, fruit characteristics in the 12 visit treatment were similar to lower visitation frequencies. We confirm B. impatiens as an efficient eggplant pollinator and document the greatest benefit from 12 bumble bee visits and open-pollinated flowers. To maintain effective eggplant pollination, local conditions must be conducive for bumble bee colony establishment and repeated pollen foraging trips. 
",26470277
0,28641,"Cryopreservation of seminal vesicle derived spermatozoa from Bombus impatiens and Apis mellifera - Implications for artificial insemination of [START]bumble bees[END].
This study evaluates the efficacy of a cryopreservation protocol for spermatozoa derived from the accessory testis of male Bombus impatiens. It is also the first report of successful cryopreservation of bumble bee spermatozoa. The spermatozoa viability was compared with the similarly treated honey bee spermatozoa derived from its accessory testis. The semen was frozen using a yolk-free non-activating buffer containing dimethyl sulphoxide and stored in liquid nitrogen for 24 h to ~14 days. Thereafter, the frozen samples were thawed rapidly and assessed by staining with live/dead differentiating fluorescent dyes. Semen viability in cryopreserved samples (55.8 +- 14.0%) was significantly different than controls (96.2 +- 10.5%). Similar assessment with A. mellifera resulted in 82.2 +- 7.0% viable cryopreserved spermatozoa versus 99.4 +- 0.1% in controls. A similar proportion of the sperm cells were also capable of motility upon dilution of the extender medium with phosphate buffered saline. The proportion of viable accessory testis derived sperm cells obtained post-cryopreservation was estimated to be sufficient to initiate long term storage and artificial insemination programs.
",34111443
0,7055,"Synopsis of the cyclocephaline [START]scarab beetles[END] (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae, Dynastinae).
The cyclocephaline scarabs (Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae: Cyclocephalini) are a speciose tribe of beetles that include species that are ecologically and economically important as pollinators and pests of agriculture and turf. We provide an overview and synopsis of the 14 genera of Cyclocephalini that includes information on: 1) the taxonomic and nomenclatural history of the group; 2) diagnosis and identification of immature life-stages; 3) economic importance in agroecosystems; 4) natural enemies of these beetles; 5) use as food by humans; 6) the importance of adults as pollination mutualists; 7) fossil cyclocephalines and the evolution of the group; 8) generic-level identification of adults. We provide an expanded identification key to genera of world Cyclocephalini and diagnoses for each genus. Character illustrations and generic-level distribution maps are provided along with discussions on the relationships of the tribe's genera.
",29670448
0,7055,"Liomenochilus ongi (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Melolonthinae: Systellopini), a new genus and new species from northern Western Australia.
Liomenochilus ongi new genus and new species (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Melolonthinae: Systellopini) is described from the Kimberley Region of northern Western Australia, Australia. It differs from the other six genera of systellopines by its general shape and colour; by its antennae with eight antennomeres, including a 3-lamellate club; and by the labro-clypeal suture being effaced medially and present only at the lateral declivity. A revised diagnosis for the tribe and a revised key to the seven genera of Systellopini are given.
",35391085
0,7055,"Dominant egg surface bacteria of Holotrichia oblita (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) inhibit the multiplication of Bacillus thuringiensis and Beauveria bassiana.
Holotrichia oblita (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and some other [START]scarab beetles[END] are the main soil-dwelling pests in China. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Beauveria bassiana (Bb) are entomopathogens that have been used as biocontrol agents of various pests. However, scarab larvae especially H. oblita exhibited strong adaptability to these pathogens. Compared to other scarabs, H. oblita could form a specific soil egg case (SEC) structure surrounding its eggs, and young larvae complete the initial development process inside this structure. In this study, we investigated the role of SEC structure and microorganisms from SEC and egg surface in pathogen adaptability. 16S rRNA gene analysis revealed low bacterial richness and high community unevenness in egg surface, with Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Fusobacteria dominating. In terms of OTUs composition analysis, the data show that the egg surface contains a large number of unique bacteria, indicating that the egg bacterial community may be derived from maternal transmission. Furthermore, we found that all culturable bacteria isolated from egg surface possessed antimicrobial activity against both Bt and Bb. The Pseudomonas bacteria with a significantly higher abundance in egg surface showed strong Bt- and Bb antagonistic ability. In conclusion, this study demonstrated a unique and antimicrobial bacterial community of H. oblita egg surface, which may contribute to its adaptability. Furthermore, the specific SEC structure surrounding the H. oblita eggs will provide a stable microenvironment for the eggs and egg surface bacteria, which probably provides more advantages for H. oblita adaptation ability.
",33947948
0,7055,"A review of the black species of Cyclocephala Dejean (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Dynastinae) from Colombia.
The black species of the genus Cyclocephala Dejean (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Dynastinae: Cyclocephalini) from Colombia are reviewed. I define species groups based on the morphology of adults, re-describe those species occurring in Colombia, describe two new species (Cyclocephala santandereana new species and Cyclocephala arhuacana new species), list the species reported for Colombia, provide a key to identify groups and the species within each group, and present species distribution and life history data. This review includes the Cyclocephala cribrata species group previously defined with C. boucheri Dechambre, C. carbonaria Arrow, C. cribrata Burmeister, C. dechambrei Dupuis, C. boliviana Dechambre, C. dilatata (Prell), C. ergastuli Dechambre, C. latipennis Arrow, C. marqueti Dechambre, C. proxima Dechambre, C. rogerpauli Moore, Branham, Cave, and C. variolosa Burmeister. The Cyclocephala fasciolata species group contains C. abrelata Ratcliffe Cave, C. brevipennis Endrdi, C. fasciolata Bates, C. melane Bates, and Cyclocephala santandereana new species. The Cyclocephala ligyrina species group has C. arhuacana new species, C. dalensi Ponchel, C. dyscinetoides Dechambre, C. endroedyyoungai Endrdi, C. kaszabi Endrdi, C. ligyrina Bates, Cyclocephala nigerrima Bates, C. rufa Endrdi, and C. scarabaeina (Gyllenhal). Cyclocephala carinatipennis Martnez Morn is proposed as a new junior synonym of C. rufa Endrdi. A larva of the Cyclocephala cribrata species group is described for the first time. An analysis of the characters of the adults and the described larva of the species group is performed to imply phylogenetic implications. New country records of C. dalensi and C. marqueti are recorded for Colombia.
",34810942
0,7055,"Mitochondrial phylogenomics reveals deep relationships of [START]scarab beetles[END] (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae).
In this study, we newly sequenced the complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of two phytophagous [START]scarab beetles[END], and investigated the deep level relationships within Scarabaeidae combined with other published beetle mitogenome sequences. The complete mitogenomes of Dicronocephalus adamsi Pascoe (Cetoniinae) and Amphimallon sp. (Melolonthinae) are 15,563 bp and 17,433 bp in size, respectively. Both mitogenomes have the typical set of 37 genes (13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, two ribosomal RNA genes) and an A+T-rich region, with the same gene arrangement found in the majority of beetles. The secondary structures for ribosomal RNA genes (rrnL and rrnS) were inferred by comparative analysis method. Results from phylogenetic analyses provide support for major lineages and current classification of Scarabaeidae. Amino acid data recovered Scarabaeidae as monophyletic. The Scarabaeidae was split into two clades. One clade contained the subfamilies Scarabaeinae and Aphodiinae. The other major clade contained the subfamilies Dynastinae, Rutelinae, Cetoniinae, Melolonthinae and Sericini. The monophyly of Scarabaeinae, Aphodiinae, Dynastinae, Cetoniinae and Sericini were strongly supported. The Scarabaeinae was the sister group of Aphodiinae. The Cetoniinae was sister to the Dynastinae + Rutelinae clade. The Melolonthinae was a non-monophyletic group. The removal of fast-evolving sites from nucleotide dataset using a pattern sorting method (OV-sorting) supported the family Scarabaeidae as a monophyletic group. At the tribe level, the Onthophagini was non-monophyletic with respect to Oniticellini. Ateuchini was sister to a large clade comprising the tribes Onthophagini, Oniticellini and Onitini. Eurysternini was a sister group of the Phanaeini + Ateuchini clade.
",36512580
0,7055,"The rose chafers (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Cetoniinae) of Guinea-Bissau: an annotated checklist and new records.
An annotated checklist of the species and subspecies of rose chafers ([START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Cetoniinae) hitherto known from Guinea-Bissau is given. This list includes historical and published species records, but also novel information from several entomological expeditions/missions to that country carried by the author (1983, 1992, 1995, 2006 and 2009). A total of 49 species and 3 subspecies are recorded for Guinea-Bissau. Endemic taxa are unknown for the country and some native species were recorded based on a single specimen only (some without precise locality data). Five genera and thirteen species are reported for the first time from Guinea-Bissau in this study. A historical review, as well as some considerations on the distribution and conservation status of these beetles in Guinea-Bissau is also presented.
",35391042
0,7055,"Australian Melolonthini (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Melolonthinae): reclassification of eight species to Antitrogus Burmeister, 1855 and Barryfilius new genus.
The status and generic placement of nine species of Australian Melolonthini (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Melolonthinae) are reassessed. The monotypic genus Othnonius Olliff, 1890, is synonymised with Antitrogus Burmeister, 1855 (new synonym), resulting in Antitrogus batesii (Olliff, 1890) new combination. Lepidiota ciliata Britton, 1978 is transferred to Antitrogus as Antitrogus ciliatus (Britton) new combination. A group of six species attributed to Lepidiota Kirby, 1828 that do not have the scales characteristic of that genus are transferred to Barryfilius new genus as Barryfilius laevis (Arrow, 1932) new combination (type species), Barryfilius centralis (Britton, 1978) new combination, Barryfilius contiguus (Britton, 1978) new combination, Barryfilius lewisae (Britton, 1978) new combination, Barryfilius quinarius (Britton, 1978) new combination, and Barryfilius vernus (Britton, 1978) new combination. Lepidiota oblonga Brenske, 1900, is shown to be a junior synonym of Lepidiota rothei Blackburn, 1888 (new synonym). Revised keys to the genera of Australian Melolonthini, and to the species of Antitrogus and Australian Lepidiota are provided. The higher classification of the group is reviewed, and a checklist of Australian genera and species is given.
",37044923
0,7055,"A review of the natural history of adult Cetoniinae (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]) from Argentina and adjacent countries.
A compilation of the known natural history of adult Cetoniinae (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]) from Argentina and adjacent countries is provided. Food items of adult Cetoniinae include pollen and/or nectar (flower visitors), sap and/or slime flux, ripened fruits on plants, green tissues and leaves, and honey. Of the 36 species of Cetoniinae from Argentina, food items are known only for 11 species (30.5%). Attraction to light and bait-traps, adult activity periods, vertebrate predators, and the occurrence in bird nests are presented and discussed. Other insects that share the same food sources and bait-traps with Cetoniinae are mentioned. 
",24869870
0,7055,"A review of the flightless genus Nanotermitodius Howden, 2003 (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Aphodiinae: Rhyparini).
The genus Nanotermitodius Howden, 2003 (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Aphodiinae: Rhyparini) is reviewed and a new species described. Only two species are presently known in the genus, Nanotermitodius andersoni Skelley, Smith, & Mora-Aguilar, new species, and Nanotermitodius peckorum Howden, 2003, which both occur in Oaxaca, Mexico. A key and distribution map for the species are presented.
",37045031
0,7055,"Australian Melolonthini (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Melolonthinae): a sixth species of Pseudholophylla Blackburn, 1911, and notes on the other known species.
The genus Pseudholophylla Blackburn, 1911 (Coleoptera: [START]Scarabaeidae[END]: Melolonthinae: Melolonthini) is reviewed and males of a sixth species, P. hurai new species, are described and differentiated from males of the remaining species. The only known female, of P. lepidoptera Blackburn, 1912, is described and illustrated. The genus occurs across northern Australia in areas of savanna, hot semi-arid or hot desert and specimens are collected rarely.
",35390986
0,6970,"Complete mitochondrial genomes of four species of praying mantises ([START]Dictyoptera[END], Mantidae) with ribosomal second structure, evolutionary and phylogenetic analyses.
Praying mantises are distributed all over the world. Though some Mantodea mitogenomes have been reported, an evolutionary genomic and phylogenetic analysis study lacks the latest taxonomic system. In the present study, four new mitogenomes were sequenced and annotated. Deroplatys truncate, D. lobate, Amorphoscelis chinensis and Macromantis sp. belong to Deroplatyidae, Amorphoscelidae and Photinaidae family, respectively. Our results indicated that the ATP8 gene may be lost in D. truncate and D. lobata mt genome, and four tRNA genes have not been found in D. truncate, D. lobata and Macromantis sp. A dN/dS pair analysis was conducted and it was found that all genes have evolved under purifying selection. Furthermore, we tested the phylogenetic relationships between the eight families of the Mantodea, including 35 species of praying Mantis. Based on the complete mitochondrial genome data, it was also suggested as sister to Deroplatyidae + Mantidae, Metallyticus sp., the only representative of Metallyticidae, is sister to the remaining mantises. Our results support the taxonomic system of Schwarz and Roy and are consistent with previous studies.
",34735444
0,6970,"Spatial Repellency Caused by Volatile Pyrethroids is Olfactory-Mediated in the German Cockroach Blattella germanica ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattellidae).
Pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides that have a repellent action. This effect has been associated with an increase in the locomotor activity, which causes the avoidance of the insecticide-treated area (excito-repellency). In this work, we studied with behavior and electrophysiological recordings the occurrence of olfactory-mediated repellency caused by pyrethroids of different volatility in the German cockroach Blattella germanica (Linnaeus, 1767). Male cockroaches were spatially repelled when they were exposed to D-allethrin vapors and vapothrin vapors in a dose-dependent manner. No repellency was observed when insects were exposed to permethrin, a non-volatile pyrethroid. To confirm the role of olfaction in this phenomenon, we measured the electrical activity of the cockroaches' antennae in response to these insecticides. There was a significant increase in the electrical activity in response to D-allethrin and vapothrin, but no increase was observed in insects exposed to permethrin. Locomotor activity of cockroaches exposed to pyrethroids was measured in order to discard excito-repellency. No changes in locomotor activity were observed for any of the insecticides. Finally, we found that volatile pyrethroids in the vapor phase cause spatial repellency in cockroaches, being the first report of an olfactory-mediated repellency phenomenon caused by pyrethroids in cockroaches.
",31820337
0,6970,"New data on the cockroaches previously attributed to the genus Duchailluia Rehn, 1933 ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattidae: Blattinae).
The new species of the genus Duchailluia Rehn, 1933, D. ivindo sp. nov., is described from Gabon. The genus Distylopyga Bey-Bienko, 1965 is restored from synonymy with Duchailluia. Distylopyga beccalonii sp. nov. from Thailand is described. Neostylopyga yemenica (Bey-Bienko, 1969) comb. nov. is transferred from Duchailluia. A detailed morphological descriptions of the new species are given, N. yemenica is redescribed inclusive male genitalia. The male genitalia of N. yemenica is described for the first time. The subfamily Duchailluiinae Roth, 2003 synonymized with Blattinae Latreille, 1810.
",30647345
0,6970,"Antibacterial/Antifungal Activity of Extracted Chitosan From American Cockroach ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattidae) and German Cockroach (Blattodea: Blattellidae).
We investigated bactericidal and fungicidal properties of chitosan extracted from adults and nymphs from both German cockroach, Blattella germanica (Blattodea: Blattellidae) and American cockroach, Periplaneta americana ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattidae). The cuticle of adults and nymphs extracted from both cockroaches were dried and ground. The powders were demineralized and deproteinized followed by deacetylation using NaOH. Finally, the chitosan yields were examined for antibacterial and antifungal activities. The degree of deacetylation (DD) was different between adults and nymph stages. The antimicrobial effect of American cockroach chitosan (ACC) and German cockroach chitosan (GCC) was tested against four bacteria and four fungi. The extracted chitosans from American cockroach, Periplaneta americana and German Cockroach, Blattella germanica suppressed the growth of Gram-negative/positive bacteria except Micrococcus luteus. The growth of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger were notability inhibited by the extracted chitosans. The antimicrobial effect of the chitosan depended on the cockroach species, with chitosan of the American cockroach showing more inhibitory effect. This difference may be due to differences in the structure of chitin between the two cockroach species.
",31139829
0,6970,"Life history and biology of the invasive Turkestan cockroach ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattidae).
The Turkestan cockroach, Blatta lateralis (Walker), has become an important invasive species throughout the southwestern United States and has been reported in the southern United States. It is rapidly replacing the oriental cockroach, Blatta orientalis (L.), in urban areas of the southwestern United States as the most important peri-domestic species. They typically inhabit in-ground containers such as water meter, irrigation, and electrical boxes, raises of concrete, cracks and crevices, and hollow block walls. On occasion, they will invade dwellings. At 26.7 degrees C, male and female nymphs developed into adults in an average of 222 and 224 d, respectively. Both males and females had five nymphal instars. Adult females deposited up to 25 oothecae. The oothecae averaged 16.8 eggs and 13.9 nymphs emerged per egg capsule, resulting in an 82.7% hatch rate. Adults lived for at least 612 d. Two parameters that might contribute to the success of Turkestan cockroaches compared with oriental cockroaches are that the developmental period of the nymphs of Turkestan cockroaches are shorter and adult female Turkestan cockroaches produce considerably more oothecae than do oriental cockroaches. These may explain the observations by Pest Management Professionals that Turkestan cockroaches are displacing oriental cockroaches in outdoor habitats throughout the southwestern United States.
",24498744
0,6970,"Diet quality affects bait performance in German cockroaches ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattellidae).
BACKGROUND: Bait formulations are widely used to control German cockroach (Blattella germanica) populations. To perform optimally, these formulations must compete favorably with non-toxic alternative foods present within the insect's habitat. We hypothesized that the nutritional history of cockroaches and their acceptance or avoidance of glucose would affect their food preference and thus bait efficacy. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a controlled laboratory experiment, first providing glucose-accepting and glucose-averse cockroaches nutritionally defined diets and then offering them identical diets containing the insecticide hydramethylnon as a bait proxy to evaluate the effect of diets of differing macronutrient composition on bait performance. RESULTS: The interaction between diet composition and bait composition affected the survival of adult males as well as first-instar nymphs exposed to excretions produced by these males. Survival analyses indicated different responses of glucose-averse and glucose-accepting insects, but generally any combination of diet and bait that resulted in high diet intake and low bait intake reduced secondary kill. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents a comprehensive examination of the effect of alternative foods on bait efficacy. We suggest that disparities between the nutritional quality of baits and the foods that are naturally available could profoundly impact the management of German cockroach infestations.   2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
",27098845
0,6970,"Insecticide Resistance of Several Field-Collected German Cockroach ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattellidae) Strains.
German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), remain one of the most difficult indoor insect species to control because of its ability to develop resistance to insecticides. The toxicity and resistance levels of five technical-grade insecticides (permethrin, chlorpyrifos, propoxur, imidacloprid, and fipronil) were determined for adult males of seven strains of the German cockroach, a laboratory-reared susceptible strain (S) and six field-collected strains (B, D, E, G, H, and I). Using topical application methods, fipronil was the most toxic insecticide to all seven strains. The LD50 values of fipronil in the susceptible strain (S) and the field-collected strains B, D, E, G, H, and I were 1.33, 2.62, 11.53, 5.07, 7.66, 5.15, and 10.15 ng/insect, respectively. The field-collected strains were most resistant to permethrin among the five insecticides, except for strain H. The resistance ratios of strains B, D, E, G, and I to permethrin were 31.8, 37.3, 51.9, 34.9, and 37.5, respectively. With a resistance ratio of 6.4, the field-collected strain H was most resistant to chlorpyrifos. The field-collected strains were not significantly resistant to propoxur. Strains B, H, and I were not significantly resistant to imidacloprid when compared with the susceptible strain. Based on the different resistance ratios for each insecticide, we conclude that there are high rates of insecticide resistance in German cockroaches from Franklin County, NC, and that the field-collected strains most likely had different treatment histories.
",28334316
0,6970,"An annotated checklist and key to the Bulgarian cockroaches ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattodea).
An annotated checklist of the Bulgarian species of cockroaches is prepared based on a full published scientific record and own unpublished data. According to the current state of knowledge the Bulgarian cockroach fauna includes 17 species and subspecies. One synonymization is established-Phyllodromica marginata erythronota Br. v. W., syn. n. = Ph. marginata. Two species (Capraiellus tamaninii and Supella longipalpa) are recorded for the first time for this country and other three (Ectobius punctatissimus, Phyllodromica subaptera and Phyllodromica pallida) are eliminated from the list of the Bulgarian fauna. The list is complemented with maps and full locality data and a dichotomic identification key for the studied taxa is presented. 
",27615847
0,6970,"Wood-feeding cockroaches as models for termite evolution (Insecta: [START]Dictyoptera[END]): Cryptocercus vs. Parasphaeria boleiriana.
Isoptera are highly specialized cockroaches and are one of the few eusocial insect lineages. Cryptocercus cockroaches have appeared to many as ideal models for inference on the early evolution of termites, due to their possible phylogenetic relationship and several shared key attributes in life history. Recently, Pellens, Grandcolas, and colleagues have proposed the blaberid cockroach Parasphaeria boleiriana to be an alternative model for the early evolution in termites. We compare the usefulness of Cryptocercus and P. boleiriana as models for termite evolution. Cryptocercus and lower Isoptera (1) can both feed on comparatively recalcitrant wood, (2) have an obligate, rich and unique hypermastigid and oxymonadid fauna in the hindgut, (3) transfer these flagellates to the next generation by anal trophallaxis, (4) have social systems that involve long-lasting biparental care, and, finally, (5) are strongly suggested to be sister groups, so that the key attributes (1)-(4) appear to be homologous between the two taxa. On the other hand, P. boleiriana (1) feeds on soft, ephemeral wood sources, (2) shows no trace of the oxymonadid and hypermastigid hindgut fauna unique to Cryptocercus and lower Isoptera, nor does it have any other demonstrated obligate relationship with hindgut flagellates, (3) is likely to lack anal trophallaxis, (4) has only a short period of uniparental brood care, and (5) is phylogenetically remote from the Cryptocercus+Isoptera clade. These facts would argue against any reasonable usage of P. boleiriana as a model for the early evolution of Isoptera or even of the clade Cryptocercus+Isoptera. Cryptocercus thus remains an appropriate model-taxon-by-homology for early termite evolution. As compared to P. boleiriana, some other Blaberidae (such as the Panesthiinae Salganea) appear more useful as model-taxa-by-homoplasy for the early evolution of the Cryptocercus+Isoptera clade, as their brooding behavior is more elaborate than in P. boleiriana.
",18226554
0,6970,"Screening of the Repellent Activity of 12 Essential Oils Against Adult German Cockroach ([START]Dictyoptera[END]: Blattellidae): Preparation of a Sustained Release Repellent Agent of Binary Oil-gamma-CD and its Repellency in a Small Container.
Cockroaches are important sanitary pests and very difficult to control worldwide. With public concern about traditional insecticides, cockroach control agents should be environmentally friendly, highly efficient, and economical. In this article, 12 essential oils were screened to test their repellent effect against Blattella germanica. To develop essential oils as repellent agents, the oils were further examined in binary synergistic combinations. Ilex chinensis Sims (Sapindales: Aquifoliaceae) oil, Lavandula spp (Tubiflorae: Labiatae) oil, and Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyland (Tubiflorae: Labiatae) oil showed excellent repellent activities with lower RD50 (repellency dose for 50% of treated adults) values of 218.634, 154.590, and 223.989 microg/cm2, respectively, compared to those of other oils and the positive control. The I. chinensis oil and E. ciliata oil (weight ratio of 1:1.41) combination also displayed a remarkable synergistic effect against B. germanica. Their cotoxicity coefficient was 214.4. The major chemical constituents in E. ciliata and I. chinensis oils were respectively 3,7-dimethyl-1, 6-octadien-3-ol and methyl salicylate. The binary oil mixtures were formulated as a sustained release agent with gamma-CD. The optimal preparation should be an 8:1 ratio of gamma-CD to oils, with a 1 h stirring time, 50 C stirring temperature, and 1:12 ratio of gamma-CD to ddH2O. The results of this study suggest that sustained release of binary oil-gamma-CD exhibited a prolonged repellent activity (10 h) against B. germanica. This sustained-release agent could be further investigated and developed as a novel repellent preparation.
",32772086
0,6981,"A neuromechanical simulation of insect walking and transition to turning of the cockroach [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END].
A neuromechanical simulation of the cockroach [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END] was developed to explore changes in locomotion when the animal transitions from walking straight to turning. The simulation was based upon the biological data taken from three sources. Neural circuitry was adapted from the extensive literature primarily obtained from the studies of neural connections within thoracic ganglia of stick insect and adapted to cockroach. The 3D joint kinematic data on straight, forward walking for cockroach were taken from a paper that describes these movements in all joints simultaneously as the cockroach walked on an oiled-plate tether (Bender et al. in PloS one 5(10):1-15, 2010b). Joint kinematics for turning were only available for some leg joints (Mu and Ritzmann in J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 191(11):1037-54, 2005) and thus had to be obtained using the methods that were applied for straight walking by Bender et al. (PloS one 5(10):1-15, 2010b). Once walking, inside turning, and outside turning were characterized, phase and amplitude changes for each joint of each leg were quantified. Apparent reflex reversals and joint activity changes were used to modify sensory coupling pathways between the CPG at each joint of the simulation. Oiled-plate experiments in simulation produced tarsus trajectories in stance similar to those seen in the animal. Simulations including forces that would be experienced if the insect was walking freely (i.e., weight support and friction) again produced similar results. These data were not considered during the design of the simulation, suggesting that the simulation captures some key underlying the principles of walking, turning, and transitioning in the cockroach. In addition, since the nervous system was modeled with realistic neuron models, biologically plausible reflex reversals are simulated, motivating future neurobiological research. 
",24178847
0,6981,"Control of obstacle climbing in the cockroach, [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END]. I. Kinematics.
An advantage of legged locomotion is the ability to climb over obstacles. We studied deathhead cockroaches as they climbed over plastic blocks in order to characterize the leg movements associated with climbing. Movements were recorded as animals surmounted 5.5-mm or 11-mm obstacles. The smaller obstacles were scaled with little change in running movements. The higher obstacles required altered gaits, leg positions and body posture. The most frequent sequence used was to first tilt the front of the body upward in a rearing stage, and then elevate the center of mass to the level of the top of the block. A horizontal running posture was re-assumed in a leveling-off stage. The action of the middle legs was redirected by rotations of the leg at the thoracal-coxal and the trochanteral-femoral joints. The subsequent extension movements of the coxal-trochanteral and femoral-tibial joints were within the range seen during horizontal running. The structure of proximal leg joints allows for flexibility in leg use by generating subtle, but effective changes in the direction of leg movement. This architecture, along with the resulting re-direction of movements, provides a range of strategies for both animals and walking machines.
",11935229
0,6981,"Effect of lysozyme on the lectin-mediated phagocytosis of Bacillus cereus by haemocytes of the cockroach, [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END].
Lysozyme-like activity has been demonstrated in both cell-free haemolymph and, more abundantly, in haemocyte-lysate supernatants of [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END]. This activity was non-inducible, but heat-stable, with a maximum activity at pH 6.2. When B. cereus was pre-incubated in a concentration of chicken egg-white lysozyme equivalent to the concentration of lysozyme-like activity in cell-free haemolymph, the phagocytosis of B. cereus opsonized with GlcNAc-specific lectins, i.e. BDL2, WGA and HPA, was significantly reduced by up to 50%, while phagocytosis of B. cereus opsonized with mannose-specific lectins, such as BDL1 and Con A, was significantly increased. Pre-incubation of B. cereus in a higher concentration of lysozyme resulted in a smaller, shorter lived increase in the phagocytic rate of bacteria opsonized with these mannose-specific lectins. The action of lysozyme on the peptidoglycan in the cell wall of B. cereus probably resulted in a reduction in the number of binding sites for the GlcNAc-specific lectins, and, therefore, reduced the phagocytic rate of BDL2, HPA and WGA-opsonized B. cereus. Concomitantly, the breakdown of peptidoglycan probably exposed mannose-containing polysaccharides, previously embedded in the peptidoglycan layer, resulting in an increase in the phagocytic rate of the BDL1- and Con A-opsonized B. cereus. These results are discussed in relation to the immune-potential of [START]B. discoidalis[END].
",10742514
0,6981,"Encoding wide-field motion and direction in the central complex of the cockroach [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END].
In the arthropod brain, the central complex (CX) receives various forms of sensory signals and is associated with motor functions, but its precise role in behavior is controversial. The optomotor response is a highly conserved turning behavior directed by visual motion. In tethered cockroaches, 20% procaine injected into the CX reversibly blocked this behavior. We then used multichannel extracellular recording to sample unit activity in the CX in response to wide-field visual motion stimuli, moving either horizontally or vertically at various temporal frequencies. For the 401 units we sampled, we identified five stereotyped response patterns: tonically inhibited or excited responses during motion, phasically inhibited or excited responses at the initiation of motion, and phasically excited responses at the termination of motion. Sixty-seven percent of the units responded to horizontal motion, while only 19% responded to vertical motion. Thirty-eight percent of responding units were directionally selective to horizontal motion. Response type and directional selectivity were sometimes conditional with other stimulus parameters, such as temporal frequency. For instance, 16% of the units that responded tonically to low temporal frequencies responded phasically to high temporal frequencies. In addition, we found that 26% of wide-field motion responding units showed a periodic response that was entrained to the temporal frequency of the stimulus. Our results show a diverse population of neurons within the CX that are variably tuned to wide-field motion parameters. Our behavioral data further suggest that such CX activity is required for effective optomotor responses. 
",25278467
0,6981,"Purification of the pro-phenol oxidase enzyme from haemocytes of the cockroach [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END].
Pro-phenol oxidase was purified from the haemocytes of the cockroach [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END] by Blue Sepharose chromatography, hydrophobic-interaction chromatography on a Phenyl-Superose column and, finally, gel filtration on a Superose 6 column. Results suggest that the molecule exists as a polymer of identical 76 kDa monomeric units. The enzyme is a glycoprotein with pI of 5.2 and can be converted by trypsin into phenol oxidase.
",8424776
0,6981,"Identification, purification and properties of a beta-1,3-glucan-specific lectin from the serum of the cockroach, [START]Blaberus discoidalis[END] which is implicated in immune defence reactions.
A lectin specific for laminarin, a beta-1,3-glucan, agglutinating baker's yeast and enhancing prophenoloxidase activation by laminarin, has been purified from the cockroach, [START]Blaberus[END] discoidalis, serum. Purification involved gel filtration with Bio-gel P300 and affinity chromatography on blue Sepharose CL-6B and laminarin-Sepharose 4B. The purified lectin has a molecular mass estimate of 520 kDa determined by gel filtration, and approximately 80 and 82 kDa by SDS-PAGE, under non-reducing and reducing conditions, respectively. After isoelectric focusing the lectin focused as a single band at pH 4.9. The purified lectin was stained by the periodic acid/Schiff's reagent showing that it is a glycoprotein, and was deglycosylated by endo-beta-N-acetylglu-cosaminidase F. Amino acid composition analysis showed the protein is similar to previously purified beta-1,3-glucan binding proteins from other invertebrates. In electron micrographs by negative staining, the protein formed large aggregates with 'Y'-shaped 'structural units' ca. 79 x 65 nm. Immunological tests confirmed that this lectin is not related to any other lectins previously purified from the same insect. This protein appears to be part of the hexamerin family of proteins. This is one of the first reports of a hexamerin-like molecule with lectin activity.
",10374258
0,6981,"Folate contents in insects as promising food components quantified by stable isotope dilution.
Concerning the increasing population, edible insects are of growing interest due to several advantages such as sustainable production and as a source of high-quality nutrients. One of the less studied nutrients are folates, in the context of insects is folates, which play an important role in human metabolism. In the article, we describe how six different insect species are reared and extracted for five common folate vitamers by high-performance liquid chromatography interfaced with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). For this purpose, house crickets (Acheta domesticus-adults), Jamaican field crickets (Gryllus assimilis-adults), discoid cockroaches ([START]Blaberus discoidalis[END]-nymphs), migratory locusts (Locusta migratoria-adults), mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), and lesser mealworms (Alphitobius diaperinus) were investigated. The total folate content differs between 59.1 +- 6.50 and 143 +- 11.1 mug/100 g. Also, the feed, which was adapted to the needs of the insects and differed for some species, was extracted for their total folate content. The four different feed compositions (rapeseed, chicken feed, bramble leaves, and a mix of chicken feed, wheat bran, and carrot/apples) showed a folate content of about 100 mug/100 g, except for hay, where the content was 300 mug/100 g. In general, the insect folate content is comparable to other food and seems to be a promising source of folates. However, the amount of consumption needed to meet the requirement must also be considered. Moreover, the effect of different influencing factors is not yet entirely clear and needs further investigation.
",36159461
0,6981,"Neuroendocrine and juvenile hormone effects on fat body protein synthesis during the reproductive cycle in female Blaberus discoidalis cockroaches.
Ovarian protein content and fat body protein synthesis were measured during the first gonotrophic cycle in virgin female Blaberus discoidalis cockroaches. Protein synthesis was measured for in vitro fat bodies from animals treated with combinations of a juvenile hormone analog (JHA = methoprene) and corpora cardiaca (CC) extracts. Ovarian protein content began to increase on Day 5 of adult life and reached its maximum at Days 20-22. Synthesis of proteins secreted by the in vitro fat body increased by 12-fold between emergence and its maximum on Day 18, then declined to nearly its original level by Day 33. Synthesis of nonsecreted, fat body proteins increased by 4-fold between emergence and a maximum on Day 21, then declined. CC extracts and JHA were administered to decapitated females to determine their regulative effects on fat body protein synthesis. The synthesis by the fat body of nonsecreted proteins was increased by both JHA and CC extracts. In contrast, synthesis of secreted proteins increased only in the presence of JHA. CC extracts, alone, had no effects on the synthesis of secreted proteins, but administration of CC extracts in combination with JHA increased the synthesis of the secreted proteins by 55% above that observed with JHA alone. SDS-PAGE of proteins secreted into the medium by the in vitro fat body demonstrated that JHA stimulated the synthesis of specific polypeptides, whereas CC extracts did not affect the synthesis of specific-secreted polypeptides. These results suggest that JH regulates specific protein synthesis by the fat body of [START]B. discoidalis[END]; neurohormones elevate the general capacity of the fat body for protein synthesis and amplify the specific effects of JH.
",3240848
0,6981,"Locomotion control of hybrid cockroach robots.
Natural systems retain significant advantages over engineered systems in many aspects, including size and versatility. In this research, we develop a hybrid robotic system using American (Periplaneta americana) and discoid ([START]Blaberus discoidalis[END]) cockroaches that uses the natural locomotion and robustness of the insect. A tethered control system was firstly characterized using American cockroaches, wherein implanted electrodes were used to apply an electrical stimulus to the prothoracic ganglia. Using this approach, larger discoid cockroaches were engineered into a remotely controlled hybrid robotic system. Locomotion control was achieved through electrical stimulation of the prothoracic ganglia, via a remotely operated backpack system and implanted electrodes. The backpack consisted of a microcontroller with integrated transceiver protocol, and a rechargeable battery. The hybrid discoid roach was able to walk, and turn in response to an electrical stimulus to its nervous system with high repeatability of 60%.
",25740855
0,6981,"Assessment of Toxicity of Nanoparticles Using Insects as Biological Models.
Nanomaterials have become increasingly important in medicine, manufacturing, and consumer products. A fundamental understanding of the effects of nanoparticles (NPs) and their interactions with biomolecules and organismal systems has yet to be achieved. In this chapter, we firstly provide a brief review of the interactions between nanoparticles and biological systems. We then provide an example by describing a novel method to assess the effects of NPs on biological systems, using insects as a model. Nanoparticles were injected into the central nervous system of the discoid cockroach ([START]Blaberus discoidalis[END]). It was found that insects became hyperactive compared to negative control (water injections). Our method could provide a generic method of assessing nanoparticles toxicity.
",32152986
0,7159,"Could land cover influence [START]Aedes aegypti[END] mosquito populations?
[START]Aedes aegypti[END] is mainly found in urban environments, where human activity guarantees the permanent availability of potential larval habitats. The present study aimed to test for a possible association between [START]Ae. aegypti[END] infestation and land cover classes. From 23 February to 22 May 2015, immature mosquitoes (except eggs) were sampled in artificial containers identified in dwellings in Cordoba city, Argentina. The proportion of each land cover class was determined by SPOT-5 (Satellites Pour 1'Observation de la Terre or Earth-observing Satellites) image classification. Generalized linear models were developed to assess a suite of predetermined hypotheses and identified cover class variables associated with [START]Ae. aegypti[END] infestation. Arboreal vegetation was identified as the land cover with the greatest relative importance, negatively associated with [START]Ae. aegypti[END] mosquitoes. More infestation was find in areas with less arboreal vegetation, which corresponds to more urbanized areas.
",31840284
0,7159,"In silico models for predicting vector control chemicals targeting [START]Aedes aegypti[END].
Human arboviral diseases have emerged or re-emerged in numerous countries worldwide due to a number of factors including the lack of progress in vaccine development, lack of drugs, insecticide resistance in mosquitoes, climate changes, societal behaviours, and economical constraints. Thus, [START]Aedes aegypti[END] is the main vector of the yellow fever and dengue fever flaviviruses and is also responsible for several recent outbreaks of the chikungunya alphavirus. As for the other mosquito species, the [START]A. aegypti[END] control relies heavily on the use of insecticides. However, because of increasing resistance to the different families of insecticides, reduction of Aedes populations is becoming increasingly difficult. Despite the unquestionable utility of insecticides in fighting mosquito populations, there are very few new insecticides developed and commercialized for vector control. This is because the high cost of the discovery of an insecticide is not counterbalanced by the 'low profitability' of the vector control market. Fortunately, the use of quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) modelling allows the reduction of time and cost in the discovery of new chemical structures potentially active against mosquitoes. In this context, the goal of the present study was to review all the existing QSAR models on [START]A. aegypti[END]. The homology and pharmacophore models were also reviewed. Specific attention was paid to show the variety of targets investigated in Aedes in relation to the physiology and ecology of the mosquito as well as the diversity of the chemical structures which have been proposed, encompassing man-made and natural substances. 
",25275884
0,7159,"Aedes aegypti Infection With Trypanosomatid Strigomonas culicis Alters Midgut Redox Metabolism and Reduces Mosquito Reproductive Fitness.
[START]Aedes aegypti[END] mosquitoes transmit arboviruses of important global health impact, and their intestinal microbiota can influence vector competence by stimulating the innate immune system. Midgut epithelial cells also produce toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) by dual oxidases (DUOXs) that are essential players in insect immunity. Strigomonas culicis is a monoxenous trypanosomatid that naturally inhabits mosquitoes; it hosts an endosymbiotic bacterium that completes essential biosynthetic pathways of the parasite and influences its oxidative metabolism. Our group previously showed that S. culicis hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-resistant (WTR) strain is more infectious to [START]A. aegypti[END] mosquitoes than the wild-type (WT) strain. Here, we investigated the influence of both strains on the midgut oxidative environment and the effect of infection on mosquito fitness and immunity. WT stimulated the production of superoxide by mitochondrial metabolism of midgut epithelial cells after 4 days post-infection, while WTR exacerbated H2O2 production mediated by increased DUOX activity and impairment of antioxidant system. The infection with both strains also disrupted the fecundity and fertility of the females, with a greater impact on reproductive fitness of WTR-infected mosquitoes. The presence of these parasites induced specific transcriptional modulation of immune-related genes, such as attacin and defensin A during WTR infection (11.8- and 6.4-fold, respectively) and defensin C in WT infection (7.1-fold). Thus, we propose that [START]A. aegypti[END] oxidative response starts in early infection time and does not affect the survival of the H2O2-resistant strain, which has a more efficient antioxidant system. Our data provide new biological aspects of [START]A. aegypti[END]-S. culicis relationship that can be used later in alternative vector control strategies.
",34485182
0,7159,"A Wolbachia symbiont in [START]Aedes aegypti[END] limits infection with dengue, Chikungunya, and Plasmodium.
Wolbachia are maternally inherited intracellular bacterial symbionts that are estimated to infect more than 60% of all insect species. While Wolbachia is commonly found in many mosquitoes it is absent from the species that are considered to be of major importance for the transmission of human pathogens. The successful introduction of a life-shortening strain of Wolbachia into the dengue vector [START]Aedes aegypti[END] that halves adult lifespan has recently been reported. Here we show that this same Wolbachia infection also directly inhibits the ability of a range of pathogens to infect this mosquito species. The effect is Wolbachia strain specific and relates to Wolbachia priming of the mosquito innate immune system and potentially competition for limiting cellular resources required for pathogen replication. We suggest that this Wolbachia-mediated pathogen interference may work synergistically with the life-shortening strategy proposed previously to provide a powerful approach for the control of insect transmitted diseases.
",20064373
0,7159,"Geosmin Attracts [START]Aedes aegypti[END] Mosquitoes to Oviposition Sites.
Geosmin is one of the most recognizable and common microbial smells on the planet. Some insects, like mosquitoes, require microbial-rich environments for their progeny, whereas for other insects such microbes may prove dangerous. In the vinegar fly Drosophila melanogaster, geosmin is decoded in a remarkably precise fashion and induces aversion, presumably signaling the presence of harmful microbes [1]. We have here investigated the effect of geosmin on the behavior of the [START]yellow fever mosquito[END] [START]Aedes aegypti[END]. In contrast to flies, geosmin is not aversive but mediates egg-laying site selection. Female mosquitoes likely associate geosmin with microbes, including cyanobacteria consumed by larvae [2], who also find geosmin-as well as geosmin-producing cyanobacteria-attractive. Using in vivo multiphoton calcium imaging from transgenic PUb-GCaMP6s mosquitoes, we show that [START]Ae. aegypti[END] code geosmin in a qualitatively similar fashion to flies, i.e., through a single olfactory channel with a high degree of sensitivity for this volatile. We further demonstrate that geosmin can be used as bait under field conditions, and finally, we show that geosmin, which is both expensive and difficult to obtain, can be substituted by beetroot peel extract, providing a cheap and viable potential mean for mosquito control and surveillance in developing countries.
",31839454
0,7159,"[START]Aedes aegypti[END], the dengue fever mosquito in Mexico City. Early invasion and its potential risks.
Introduction: Mexico City has no endemic presence of [START]Aedes aegypti[END], and it is therefore free of vector-borne diseases, such as dengue fever, Zika and chikungunya. However, evidence has shown the presence of [START]Aedes aegypti[END] eggs in the city since 2015. Objective: To report the constant and increasing presence of [START]Aedes aegypti[END] eggs in Mexico City from 2015 to 2018. Methods: Surveillance was carried out using ovitraps. Eggs were counted and hatched in order to determine the species. Results: From 2015 to 2018, 378 organisms were identified as [START]Ae. aegypti[END]. In total, 76 [START]Aedes aegypti[END]-positive ovitraps were collected at 50 different places in 11 boroughs of the city. Northeastern Mexico City was the area with the highest number of positive traps. Conclusions: The results may be indicating a period of early colonization and the probable existence of cryptic colonies of the mosquito; Mexico City could be at risk of experiencing vector-borne epidemics.
",33372934
0,7159,"Health education in [START]Aedes aegypti[END]: case study.
OBJECTIVES: Reporting the experience of health education regarding [START]Aedes aegypti[END] in the Federal District. METHODS: This is a case report, with descriptive approach, about the experience of nursing practice with education actions against the [START]Aedes aegypti[END] in communities of the Federal District, carried out between 2015 and 2018. Subjects of the research were undergraduate students in nursing, healthcare professionals, and the community. RESULTS: There have been 24 educational interventions against [START]Aedes aegypti[END], adapted to the needs of each population, using a ""giant"" sculpture of the mosquito, theater performances, lectures, booklets, and home visits. CONCLUSIONS: The project trained teachers, healthcare professionals, graduate students in nursing, and the community through the empowerment of this population, aiming at combating the [START]Aedes aegypti[END] vector.
",32267416
0,7159,"PeakMatcher facilitates updated [START]Aedes aegypti[END] embryonic cis-regulatory element map.
BACKGROUND: The [START]Aedes aegypti[END] mosquito is a threat to human health across the globe. The [START]A. aegypti[END] genome was recently re-sequenced and re-assembled. Due to a combination of long-read PacBio and Hi-C sequencing, the AaegL5 assembly is chromosome complete and significantly improves the assembly in key areas such as the M/m sex-determining locus. Release of the updated genome assembly has precipitated the need to reprocess historical functional genomic data sets, including cis-regulatory element (CRE) maps that had previously been generated for [START]A. aegypti[END]. RESULTS: We re-processed and re-analyzed the [START]A. aegypti[END] whole embryo FAIRE seq data to create an updated embryonic CRE map for the AaegL5 genome. We validated that the new CRE map recapitulates key features of the original AaegL3 CRE map. Further, we built on the improved assembly in the M/m locus to analyze overlaps of open chromatin regions with genes. To support the validation, we created a new method (PeakMatcher) for matching peaks from the same experimental data set across genome assemblies. CONCLUSION: Use of PeakMatcher software, which is available publicly under an open-source license, facilitated the release of an updated and validated CRE map, which is available through the NIH GEO. These findings demonstrate that PeakMatcher software will be a useful resource for validation and transferring of previous annotations to updated genome assemblies.
",33509290
0,7159,"Microevolution of [START]Aedes aegypti[END].
Scientific research into the epidemiology of dengue frequently focuses on the microevolution and dispersion of the mosquito [START]Aedes aegypti[END]. One of the world's largest urban agglomerations infested by [START]Ae. aegypti[END] is the Brazilian megalopolis of Sao Paulo, where >26,900 cases of dengue were reported until June 2015. Unfortunately, the dynamics of the genetic variability of [START]Ae. aegypti[END] in the Sao Paulo area have not been well studied. To reduce this knowledge gap, we assessed the morphogenetic variability of a population of [START]Ae. aegypti[END] from a densely urbanised neighbourhood of Sao Paulo. We tested if allelic patterns could vary over a short term and if wing shape could be a predictor of the genetic variation. Over a period of 14 months, we examined the variation of genetic (microsatellites loci) and morphological (wing geometry) markers in [START]Ae. aegypti[END]. Polymorphisms were detected, as revealed by the variability of 20 microsatellite loci (115 alleles combined; overall Fst = 0.0358) and 18 wing landmarks (quantitative estimator Qst = 0.4732). These levels of polymorphism are higher than typically expected to an exotic species. Allelic frequencies of the loci changed over time and temporal variation in the wing shape was even more pronounced, permitting high reclassification levels of chronological samples. In spite of the fact that both markers underwent temporal variation, no correlation was detected between their dynamics. We concluded that microevolution was detected despite the short observational period, but the intensities of change of the markers were discrepant. Wing shape failed from predicting allelic temporal variation. Possibly, natural selection (Qst>Fst) or variance of expressivity of wing phenotype are involved in this discrepancy. Other possibly influential factors on microevolution of [START]Ae. aegypti[END] are worth searching. Additionally, the implications of the rapid evolution and high polymorphism of this mosquito vector on the efficacy of control methods have yet to be investigated. 
",26360876
0,7159,"Global genetic diversity of [START]Aedes aegypti[END].
Mosquitoes, especially [START]Aedes aegypti[END], are becoming important models for studying invasion biology. We characterized genetic variation at 12 microsatellite loci in 79 populations of [START]Ae. aegypti[END] from 30 countries in six continents, and used them to infer historical and modern patterns of invasion. Our results support the two subspecies [START]Ae. aegypti[END] formosus and [START]Ae. aegypti[END] aegypti as genetically distinct units. [START]Ae. aegypti[END] aegypti populations outside Africa are derived from ancestral African populations and are monophyletic. The two subspecies co-occur in both East Africa (Kenya) and West Africa (Senegal). In rural/forest settings (Rabai District of Kenya), the two subspecies remain genetically distinct, whereas in urban settings, they introgress freely. Populations outside Africa are highly genetically structured likely due to a combination of recent founder effects, discrete discontinuous habitats and low migration rates. Ancestral populations in sub-Saharan Africa are less genetically structured, as are the populations in Asia. Introduction of [START]Ae. aegypti[END] to the New World coinciding with trans-Atlantic shipping in the 16th to 18th centuries was followed by its introduction to Asia in the late 19th century from the New World or from now extinct populations in the Mediterranean Basin. Aedes mascarensis is a genetically distinct sister species to [START]Ae. aegypti[END] s.l. This study provides a reference database of genetic diversity that can be used to determine the likely origin of new introductions that occur regularly for this invasive species. The genetic uniqueness of many populations and regions has important implications for attempts to control [START]Ae. aegypti[END], especially for the methods using genetic modification of populations.
",27671732
0,7446,"Wasp stings and plasma exchange.
Invasive species related to climate change and/or globalization may be associated with novel forms of kidney disease. This is the case for wasps. Several species of Asian wasps are increasingly found in America (e.g. Asian giant hornet, [START]Vespa mandarinia[END]) and Europe (e.g. yellow-legged Asian hornet, V. velutina; black shield hornet, V. bicolor; and Oriental hornet, V. orientalis). Some of these species have been associated with human deaths and acute kidney injury. The literature on wasps and acute kidney injury is scarce and mostly originates from Asia, so nephrologists outside Asia are not familiar with this health problem. In a recent issue of ckj, Liu et al. describe a simple, four-item Wasp Sting Severity Score (WSS) developed from 1131 wasp sting patients. [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] and V. velutina were among those causing hospitalization, although most cases were caused by the black-bellied hornet (V. basalis). Liu et al. propose that a WSS >=3 should guide early (<24 h after stings) plasma exchange, as plasma exchange was associated with lower mortality in severely affected patients but continuous venovenous haemofiltration and haemoperfusion were not. The WSS will require external validation. This manuscript should raise awareness about the potentially fatal consequences of stings by wasp species making their way into America and Europe.
",35892025
0,7446,"Identification of giant hornet [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] queen sex pheromone components.
The Vespidae is a diverse family of wasps and hornets that are formidable predators of insects, including social bees1, and includes a number of invasive species2. Recently, the world's largest hornet, [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] Smith (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), which occurs naturally in the Indomalayan region, has been found in Canada and the United States2. Some simulations indicate that it could rapidly spread throughout Washington and Oregon in the western US, as well as some eastern parts of the country2,3, threaten native bees and honeybees, and harm bee-pollinated crop production worth over $100 million annually3. There is consequently an urgent need to learn more about [START]V. mandarinia[END]'s reproductive biology and to develop trapping methods to locate its nests and to control its reproduction. We identified [START]V. mandarinia[END] queen-produced sex pheromone from the 5th and 6th intersegmental sternal glands of virgin queens. The major active compounds were hexanoic acid, octanoic acid, and decanoic acid. When placed in field traps, the synthetic compounds and a queen-equivalent mixture rapidly attracted hundreds of males but no females or other species.
",35290766
0,7446,"Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value of Different Species of Vespa Hornets.
We genetically identified three different species of hornets and analyzed the nutrient compositions of their edible brood. Samples were collected from a commercial production unit in Shizong province of China and from forests near Andong City in Korea. The species were identified as Vespa velutina, [START]V. mandarinia[END], and V. basalis from China and V. velutina from Korea. Farmed V. velutina and [START]V. mandarinia[END] were found to have similar protein contents, i.e., total amino acids, whereas V. basalis contained less protein. The V. velutina brood collected from the forest contained the highest amount of amino acids. Altogether 17 proteinogenic amino acids were detected and quantified with similar patterns of distribution in all three species: leucine followed by tyrosine and lysine being predominant among the essential and glutamic acid among the non-essential amino acids. A different pattern was found for fatty acids: The polyunsaturated fatty acid proportion was highest in [START]V. mandarinia[END] and V. basalis, but saturated fatty acids dominated in the case of V. velutina from two different sources. The high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids in the lipids of the hornets could be expected to exhibit nutritional benefits, including reducing cardiovascular disorders and inflammations. High minerals contents, especially micro minerals such as iron, zinc, and a high K/Na ratio in hornets could help mitigate mineral deficiencies among those of the population with inadequate nutrition.
",33672798
0,7446,"Risk Assessment for the Establishment of [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) in the Pacific Northwest, United States.
The recent introduction of the Asian giant hornet, [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] Smith, in the United States in late 2019 has raised concerns about its establishment in the Pacific Northwest and its potential deleterious effects on honey bees, Apis spp., and their pollination services in the region. Therefore, we conducted a risk assessment of the establishment of [START]V. mandarinia[END] in Washington, Oregon, Montana, and Idaho on a county-by-county basis. Our highly conservative tier-1 qualitative and semiquantitative risk assessment relied on the biological requirements and ecological relationships of [START]V. mandarinia[END] in the environments of the Pacific Northwest. Our risk characterization was based on climate and habitat suitability estimates for [START]V. mandarinia[END] queens to overwinter and colonize nests, density and distribution of apiaries, and locations of major human-mediated introduction pathways that may increase establishment of the hornet in the counties. Our results suggest that 32 counties in the region could be at low risk, 120 at medium risk, and 23 at high risk of establishment. Many of the western counties in the region were estimated to be at the highest risk of establishment mainly because of their suitable climate for queens to overwinter, dense forest biomass for nest colonization, and proximity to major port and freight hubs in the region. By design, our tier-1 risk assessment most likely overestimates the risk of establishment, but considering its negative effects, these counties should be prioritized in ongoing monitoring and eradication efforts of [START]V. mandarinia[END].
",34369564
0,7446,"The mitochondrial genome of the [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] Smith (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Vespinae) and a phylogenetic analysis of the Vespoidea.
We report the mitochondrial genome of the [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] Smith (GenBank accession no. KR059904) for the subfamily Vespinae (Hymenoptera: Vespidae). This is the first completely sequenced mitochodrial genome from the genus Vespa. All of the typical mitochondrial genes were sequenced with a length of 15 902 bp. In the [START]V. mandarinia[END] mitochondrial genome, four rearrangement events occurred compared with the pupative ancestral arrangement of insects, corresponding to the shuffling of trnQ and trnM, translocation of trnY to the region between A + T-rich region and trnI-trnM-trnQ, shuffling of trnS1 and trnE in the tRNA cluster of trnA-trnR-trnN-trnS1-trnE-trnF, and translocation of trnL1 from a location between nad1 and rrnL to the upstream of nad1 gene. Phylogenetic analysis using the Bayesian method based on all codon positions of the 13 protein-coding genes supports the monophyly of Vespidae and Formicidae. Within the Formicidae, the Myrmicinae and Dolichoderinae form a sister group, while within the Vespidae, the Eumeninae sister to lineage of Vespinae + Polistinae. Our study showed that the mitochondrial genomes between Vespinae and Polistinae shared more arrangement patterns than that between Vespinae and Eumeninae.
",26487370
0,7446,"Functional characterization, antimicrobial effects, and potential antibacterial mechanisms of new mastoparan peptides from hornet venom (Vespa ducalis, [START]Vespa mandarinia[END], and Vespa affinis).
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are a major threat to global public health, and there is an urgent need to find effective, antimicrobial treatments that can be well tolerated by humans. Hornet venom is known to have antimicrobial properties, and contains peptides with similarity to known antimicrobial eptides (AMPs), mastoparans. We identified multiple new AMPs from the venom glands of Vespa ducalis (U-VVTX-Vm1a, U-VVTX-Vm1b, and U-VVTX-Vm1c), [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] (U-VVTX-Vm1d), and Vespa affinis (U-VVTX-Vm1e). All of these AMPs have highly similar sequences and are related to the toxic peptide, mastoparan. Our newly identified AMPs have alpha-helical structures, are amphiphilic, and have antimicrobial properties. Both U-VVTX-Vm1b and U-VVTX-Vm1e killed bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923 and Escherichia coli ATCC25922, at the concentrations of 16 mug/mL and 32 mug/mL, respectively. None of the five AMPs exhibited strong toxicity as measured via their hemolytic activity on red blood cells. U-VVTX-Vm1b was able to increase the permeability of E. coli ATCC25922 and degrade its genomic DNA. These results are promising, demonstrate the value of investigating hornet venom as an antimicrobial treatment, and add to the growing arsenal of such naturally derived treatments.
",34237341
0,7446,"Giants are coming? Predicting the potential spread and impacts of the giant Asian hornet ([START]Vespa mandarinia[END], Hymenoptera:Vespidae) in the USA.
BACKGOUND: Biological invasions are a global concern in agriculture, food production and biodiversity. Among the invasive species, some hornets are known to have serious effects on honey bees, as found during the invasion of Vespa velutina in Europe. The recent findings of [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] individuals in Washington state in the west coast of the USA have raised alarm in the whole country. Here we estimate the potential spread of [START]V. mandarinia[END] in the USA, analyzing its potential impacts on honey bee colonies, economic losses in the honey bee industry and bee-pollinated croplands. RESULTS: We found that [START]V. mandarinia[END] could colonize Washington and Oregon states in the west coast and a significant proportion of the east coast. If this species spread across the country, it could threaten 95 216 +- 5551 honey bee colonies, threatening an estimated income of US$11.9 and 101.8 million for hive derived products and bee-pollinated crops production, respectively, while colonizing 60 837.8 km2 of bee-pollinated croplands. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that [START]V. mandarinia[END] will have serious effects in the USA, raising the need for prompt monitoring actions and planning at different administrative levels to avoid its potential spread.
",32841491
0,7446,"Inferring Distributional Shifts of Asian Giant Hornet [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] Smith in Climate Change Scenarios.
[START]Vespa mandarinia[END] Smith is a species with native distribution in Asia and with the potential distribution of invasion in the Americas. We use ecological niche models to be able to predict their potential distribution in Asia and their projection in the Americas using KUENM in R in climate change scenarios. The ecological niche of [START]V. mandarinia[END] is potentially distributed in Asia and is expected with invasion potential in the east coast of USA, part of the Mexico, Central America, and South America, while for 2050 it is projected with dispersion in North and Central of USA and rest of the Americas. The realized niche expanded in the Americas. Ecological niche modeling helps us infer the distribution of this species in Asia and its possible establishment of invasion in the USA, Mexico, Central America, and South America.
",33555561
0,7446,"Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Properties of a Natural Peptide from [START]Vespa mandarinia[END] Venom and Its Synthetic Analogues as a Possible Route to Defeat Drug-Resistant Microbes.
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) from wasp venom have a good track record and potential for drug development as tools against development of antimicrobial resistance. Herein, the biological function and activity profile of peptide VM, which was discovered in the venom of the wasp, [START]Vespamandarinia[END], and several of its third-position substituted analogues, were investigated. VM had potent antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria and biofilm, and all modified peptides achieved the significant enhancement of these capacities. The various physicochemical properties of amino acids substituted in analogues, generated the different mechanisms of action of bacterial membrane disruption. VM-3K showed a maximum 8-fold enhancement of antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria and also presented microbicidal properties against Gram-negative bacteria and fungi. This peptide also exhibited a high killing efficiency at low concentration and had a comparable selectivity index to VM. Furthermore, VM-3K produced a 90% survival of S. aureus-infected waxworms at a concentration of 5.656 mg/kg, at which concentration the natural template peptide only achieved 50% survival. This peptide also lacked short-term resistance generation. Thus, peptide VM-3K could be a promising broad-spectrum antimicrobial candidate for addressing the current antibiotic-resistant infection crisis. It is worth mentioning that this investigation on the relationship between peptide structure and mechanism of action could become an important aspect of drug research on short peptides.
",36138742
0,7446,"Foreign Pests as Potential Threats to North American Apiculture: Tropilaelaps mercedesae, Euvarroa spp, [START]Vespa mandarinia[END], and Vespa velutina.
Honey bees face a broad range of threats globally. Many of these threats originate outside of North America because honey bees are an introduced species. Invasive pests are among the most widely distributed, damaging, and economically costly honey bee hive associates. As international trade and travel continue at a rapid pace, the list of invasive apicultural pests likely will grow. Details of these organisms' life history relevant to management and eradication efforts are addressed. Methods and proposed methods of detection and management encountered abroad are discussed.
",34689920
0,6997,"Radiation induces stress and transgenerational impacts in the cricket, [START]Acheta domesticus[END].
PURPOSE: Radiation exposure of crickets during their fourth juvenile molt inflicted ionizing radiation damage and altered growth rate, adult size at sexual maturity. High levels of ionizing radiation also impacted the subsequent generation, likely via heritable epigenetic mechanisms. Using radiation as a proxy for external stress, we aim to understand the transgenerational impacts of stress on non-irradiated offspring. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We assess the impacts of ionizing radiation on maturation mass and growth rate in F0 male and female [START]house crickets[END] ([START]Acheta domesticus[END]). We also assessed trans-generational impacts of irradiation on growth rate and maturation mass on non-irradiated offspring of irradiated parents compared to non-irradiated controls. RESULTS: Early-life exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation-induced lower growth rate and maturation mass compared to controls (p < .0001). Non-irradiated male F1 offspring of irradiated parents demonstrated significantly lower mass at maturation (p = .0012) and significantly faster time of maturation (p < .0001) compared to F1 non-irradiated controls. CONCLUSION: Our results show that a single early-life exposure to ionizing radiation can alter male offspring development through accelerated maturation and reduced maturation mass.
",33428853
0,6997,"Technological Performance of Cricket Powder ([START]Acheta domesticus[END] L.) in Wheat-Based Formulations.
The recent socio-economic situation requires producers to change the composition of basic foods. The aim of this study was to assess the technological properties of wheat flour enriched with cricket powder (CP) (at 5%, 10%, and 20% levels) for the development of bread and pasta. The hydration (i.e., water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, water absorption index, water solubility index, and swelling power), foaming (i.e., foaming capacity and stability),emulsifying (emulsifying activity and emulsion stability), and rheological (during gluten aggregation, mixing, extension, and leavening) properties were investigated. Finally, bread and fresh pasta were prepared and characterized. Emulsifying activity, stability, and foaming capacity decreased in the presence of CP, whereas foaming stability and water solubility increased. The results on dough rheology highlighted the need to increase the amount of water, and to decrease the mixing and leavening time, to keep an acceptable bread volume. Indeed, 10% CP enrichment led to a product characterized by a similar volume and crumb hardness to the control (wheat flour). Despite the decrease in extensibility caused by CP, it was possible to produce fresh pasta enriched with CP, with the best cooking behavior obtained at a 5% replacement level.
",35735883
0,6997,"Consumption of cricket ([START]Acheta domesticus[END]) flour decreases insulin resistance and fat accumulation in rats fed with high-fat and -fructose diet.
The consumption of cricket ([START]Acheta domesticus[END], AD) has recently increased due to its high nutritional and bioactive compound contents. However, limited studies have explored the beneficial effects of AD consumption. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the protective effect of a diet supplemented with AD flour on obesity control and its complications in an in vivo model. The chemical profiling of the AD showed an important protein content, chitin, and polyunsaturated fatty acids contents. For the in vivo study, a high-fructose and saturated fat diet (HFFD) was supplemented with AD (4% and 8%). The 8% AD supplementation reduced body weight gain (19%) and serum triglycerides (37%) in HFFD-fed rats. These benefits were related to a greater lipid excretion in feces (97%) and the partial inhibition of pancreatic lipase in vitro by the aqueous extract and the hydrolyzed proteins obtained from AD. Additionally, the 8% AD supplementation improved insulin resistance measured by the HOMA index (61%). Thus, 8% AD supplementation to HFFD-fed rats was effective in preventing obesity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Obesity is a risk factor for developing insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. Therefore, there is an increasing interest in consuming foods rich in bioactive compounds as therapeutic alternatives for managing the development of obesity and its complications. Edible insects, such as crickets, are attractive for treating obesity due to their content of protein, fiber, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Studies have explored the effect of glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-enriched extracts from the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus against obesity. However, GAG content in crickets is low, and crickets are commonly consumed whole instead of extracts. The cricket [START]Acheta domesticus[END] (AD) is among the most rearing cricket species as it is easy to farm and has a better flavor. However, limited studies have explored the beneficial effects of AD consumption. This study demonstrates that AD prevents obesity and ameliorates dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. Therefore, AD is a valuable entomotherapeutic strategy to reduce the comorbidities associated with diet-induced obesity.
",35722751
0,6997,"Assessing Potential Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Trophic Transfer to Crickets ([START]Acheta domesticus[END]).
Although many studies have assessed the bioaccumulation of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in plant tissues, to date there has been minimal research on the bioaccumulation of PFAS in soil invertebrates that results from consuming PFAS-contaminated media. This study focused on two different consumption pathways in a population of crickets: individuals consuming PFAS-contaminated alfalfa and individuals consuming PFAS-spiked drinking water. Alfalfa was grown in a greenhouse and irrigated with PFAS-spiked water (~1 ppm) containing seven unique PFAS. The alfalfa was then harvested and fed to crickets. Another population of crickets was supplied with PFAS-spiked drinking water at similar concentrations to irrigation water for direct consumption. Alfalfa accumulation of PFAS and subsequent consumption by the crickets resulted in overall similar tissue concentrations to the crickets who consumed PFAS-spiked water directly. This indicates that source concentration (water) may be an important factor in assessing bioaccumulation of PFAS in organisms. To our knowledge, this is the first study which has assessed not only the direct trophic transfer of PFAS from contaminated vegetation to invertebrates, but also highlights the similarities in bioaccumulation regardless of ingestion pathway. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.   2022 SETAC.
",36102845
0,6997,"Valorization of cricket, [START]Acheta domesticus[END] (Linnaeus, 1758), flour as a source of dietary protein in Japanese quail, Coturnix japonica (Temminck and Schlegel, 1849), farming.
Objective: Quail production is ranked as an important alternative animal protein source in Cameroon. One of the main constraints of this production is the quality of feed, which lacks protein that is regularly supplied by fish meal. To avoid disagreements due to the constant shortage of fish meal, alternative protein sources are needed, and among them are crickets ([START]Acheta domesticus[END]). The goal of this study was to find out how well Japanese quails could be raised if fish meal was replaced with cricket meal. Materials and Methods: A total of 192, 4-week-old quails were divided into 12 similar sets of 8 females and 8 males. The Four experimental diets (T00, T15, T30, and T45) were all formulated based on the level (0%, 15%, 30%, and 45%, respectively) of fish meal substitution with cricket meal in the basal diet (crude protein: 20.18% and ME: 3,013.78 kcal/kg) and randomly assigned to three sets in a completely randomized design consisting of four treatments each repeated three times. Growth, carcass, and some reproduction parameters were collected. The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and the Duncan test, with a significance level of 5%. Results: Cricket meal diets increased body weight in males (204.32 +- 5.69 gm for T45) and regardless of the sex (226.72 +- 29.45 gm for T30) compared to 184.17 +- 3.11 gm and 214.55 +- 32.77 gm for the control group, respectively. In females, substitution at 30% increased body weight (253.80 +- 6.48 gm), while 45% induced a reduction (216.67 +- 6.49 gm) when compared to the control group value (244.92 +- 6.07 gm). Carcass yield and the proportion of different parts were not significantly affected by the experimental diets. Liver proportions were significantly higher at 15% and 35% cricket meal incorporation compared to 45%. First songs and egg laying were recorded at 7 weeks with T15, which also led to improved egg laying performance compared to the other treatments. Ovaries were poorly developed in the T45 females compared to the other treatments. Conclusions: Cricket flour might be a good candidate as a locally available protein source to substitute fish meal in the Japanese quail's diet at the finisher and reproductive stages, and the level of 30% seems to be more efficient.
",35891670
0,6997,"Valorisation Potential of Using Organic Side Streams as Feed for Tenebrio molitor, [START]Acheta domesticus[END] and Locusta migratoria.
Due to increasing welfare and population, the demand for alternative protein sources, obtained with minimal use of natural resources, is rising in today's society. Insects have the potential to be used as an alternative protein source since they are considered to be able to convert low-value biomass into high-value components, resulting in opportunities for valorisation of organic side streams. Moreover, insects are suggested to be a sustainable protein source, referring to the efficient ""feed to body"" mass conversion potential. The aim of this review was to explore the potential to rear the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), the [START]house cricket[END] ([START]Acheta domesticus[END]) and the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) on low or not yet valorised organic side streams within the food supply chain. This was performed by collecting research information focusing on the rearing of the insects in scope on organic biomass. In addition, the nutritional composition of the produced insects as well as their dietary requirements will be reviewed. Finally, the availability of side streams in the EU will be discussed as well as their potential to be used as insects feed.
",34564236
0,6997,"Octopamine affects courtship call structure in male [START]Acheta domesticus[END] crickets.
Secondary sexual displays vary considerably in both type and structure both within and across animal species. Although such variation is of keen interest to evolutionary biologists, the functional factors driving variation in male displays are poorly understood. In crickets, acoustic calls are produced by muscular contractions via stridulation of file and scraper wing components. We tested the effect of varying octopamine, an important biogenic amine neurohormone in invertebrates, on call production in male [START]Acheta domesticus[END] [START]house crickets[END] by blocking the octopamine receptors that influence skeletal muscle function with epinastine, a synthetic octopamine antagonist. We then measured male courtship calls and analyzed the call structure to quantify the differences in call structure based on the changes in carrier frequency, and whether chirps or ticks are a more prevalently expressed frequency in treated vs untreated males. Males treated with epinastine exhibited clear differences in call structure compared to untreated controls, such that epinastine-treated males were more likely to produce simpler calls and to exhibit their carrier frequencies as ticks rather than chirps. Thus, we were able to directly modify male courtship calling performance during mating interactions by altering the neuropharmacological milieu, demonstrating the potential role of biogenic amines in contributing to the diversity of call types in nature.
",35533572
0,6997,"[START]Acheta domesticus[END] (Cricket) feed resources among smallholder farmers in Lake Victoria region of Kenya.
The quality of domesticated crickets depends on the choice of feed substrate that has a direct impact on the economic viability of the farming operation. This study assessed the popular local cricket feeds in the Lake Victoria region. Data were collected through individual interviews, focus group discussions, personal observations, and growth experiments. Kales, sweet potato leaves, ugali, and banana peels were the most preferred by the farmers. Crickets fed on kales and sweet potatoes had a significantly higher weight gain and maturity rate than those fed on ugali and banana peels (p < .05). Additionally, crickets fed on kales and sweet potatoes had higher (82.4% and 78.6%, respectively) crude proteins compared to those fed on ugali (57.9%) and banana peels (62.9%). Kales and sweet potatoes can serve as cheaper, alternative local feeds for cricket farming. Empowerment of farmers through subsidies or provision of loans can enhance local cricket feed production.
",31993133
0,6997,"Physicochemical Characteristics of Biochar from Waste Cricket Chitin ([START]Acheta domesticus[END]).
The properties of biochar (BC) from crustacean chitin are relatively well understood, while there are few studies on BC from insect chitin. This study presents the characterization and phytotoxic assessment of BC produced from crickets and cricket chitin. Cricket powder (BCCR) and cricket chitin (BCCH) were pyrolyzed at 500  C and 700  C. Physicochemical characteristics, N ad-/desorption, FTIR, were examined. SEM images were also performed. Regardless of the pyrolysis temperature, biochars were characterized by a densely ""packed"" solid surface/monolithic type with a non-porous structure (0.05-0.22 m2/g) and high content of N (9.4-11.8%). BCCHs showed a higher pH (12.2-12.4) compared to BCCR (8.7-10.8). Based on the XRD analysis, BCs were characterized by an amorphous carbon turbostratic structure and a randomly oriented graphitic-like micro-crystallite structure. FTIR spectra of BCs confirmed the presence of various O2 and N-functional groups on the BC surface. BCCHs added to soil at rates from 0.5 to 1.5% significantly reduced the germination of Lepidium sativum. Stimulation of root elongation was also observed in the case of BCCR500 1.0% and BCCR700 1.5%. Thermal degradation of cricket powder and cricket chitin promotes the formation of organic N-containing heterocyclic rings, which lead to the production of N-doped carbons with potential uses in energy storage and the contaminations sorption.
",36432172
0,6997,"Entomomonas asaccharolytica sp. nov., isolated from [START]Acheta domesticus[END].
Strain F2AT, isolated from the cricket [START]Acheta domesticus[END], was subjected to a polyphasic taxonomic characterization. Cells of the strain were rod-shaped, Gram-stain-negative and catalase- and oxidase-positive. It did not assimilate any carbohydrates. The strain's 16S rRNA gene sequence showed highest similarity to Entomomonas moraniae QZS01T (96.4 %). The next highest similarity values were found to representatives of related genera (<93 %). The genome size of strain F2AT was 3.2 Mbp and the G+C content was 36.4 mol%. Average nucleotide identity values based on blast and MUMmer and average amino acid identity values between strain F2AT and E. moraniae QZS01T were 74.29/74.43, 83.88 and 74.70 %, respectively. The quinone system predominantly contained ubiquinone Q-8. In the polar lipid profile, diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol and an unidentified phospholipid were detected. The polyamine pattern consisted of the major compounds putrescine and spermidine. Major fatty acids were C18 : 1 omega7c and C16 : 0 and the hydroxyl acids were C12 : 0 3-OH, C14 : 0 2-OH and C14 : 0 3-OH. The diagnostic diamino acid of the peptidoglycan was meso-diaminopimelic acid. Due to its association with the only species of the genus Entomomonas but its distinctness from E. moraniae we here propose the novel species Entomomonas asaccharolytica sp. nov. F2AT (=CCM 9136T=LMG 32211T).
",34516367
0,7070,"A [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] whole-embryo culture protocol for studying the molecular mechanisms and morphogenetic movements involved in insect development.
The development of the [START]red flour beetle[END] [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] is more representative of arthropods than the evolutionarily derived fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Thus, [START]Tribolium[END] is becoming an emerging organism model for studying the evolution of the mechanisms that control embryonic development in arthropods. In this regard, diverse genetic and molecular tools are currently available for [START]Tribolium[END], as well as imaging and embryonic techniques. Recently, we developed a method for culturing embryos in order to study specific stages during [START]Tribolium[END] development. In this report, we present a detailed and ""easy-to-follow"" protocol for embryo handling and dissection, extending the use of whole-embryo culture to functional analysis by performing in vivo pharmacological manipulations. This experimental accessibility allowed us to study the relevance of microtubules in axis elongation, using nocodazole and taxol drugs to interfere with microtubule networks, followed by length measurement analysis. Additionally, we demonstrated that embryo handling had no effect on the development of [START]Tribolium[END] embryos, and we checked viability after dissection and bisection and during incubation using propidium iodide. The embryo culture protocol we describe here can be applied to study diverse developmental processes in [START]Tribolium[END]. We expect that this protocol can be adapted and applied to other arthropods. 
",26739999
0,7070,"Functions of a C-type lectin with a single carbohydrate-recognition domain in the innate immunity and movement of the [START]red flour beetle[END], [START]Tribolium castaneum[END].
C-type lectins (CTLs) are a superfamily of proteins found in almost all vertebrates and invertebrates. They play an important role in innate immune defences, development and epidermal structure. Here, a CTL with one carbohydrate-recognition domain containing a highly conserved Gln-Pro-Asp (QPD) motif was identified in [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] and given the name TcCTL5. Spatiotemporal analyses showed that Tcctl5 was highly expressed in the late pupa stage and mainly existed in the central nervous system and haemolymph. The transcript level of Tcctl5 was prominently induced after bacterial infection. Recombinant TcCTL5 proteins (rTcCTL5) were found to bind to lipopolysaccharide, peptidoglycan and tested bacteria and induce microbial agglutination in the presence of Ca2+ . Interestingly, when Tcctl5 was knocked down, the transcript level of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) (attacin1, defensins3, coleoptericin1 and cecropins3) was prominently downregulated after induction with Gram-negative Escherichia coli. More interestingly, Tcctl5 was knocked down, leading to increased mortality and loss of locomotor activity, which exhibited less travel distances among early adults. These results demonstrate that Tcctl5 plays an important role in the innate immune reaction and the movement of [START]T. castaneum[END]. Thus, it may represent an alternative molecular target for pest control and thus reduce the use of pesticides in agricultural production.
",33145845
0,7070,"[START]Tribolium castaneum[END] twist: gastrulation and mesoderm formation in a short-germ beetle.
Mesoderm formation has been extensively analyzed in the long-germ insect Drosophila melanogaster. In Drosophila, both the invagination and specification of the mesoderm is controlled by twist. Here we present a detailed description of mesoderm formation and twist regulation for the short-germ beetle [START]Tribolium castaneum[END]. In contrast to Drosophila, (1) the presumptive mesodermal cells of [START]Tribolium[END] are part of a mitotic domain and divide prior to ventral furrow formation, (2) ventral furrow formation progresses from posterior to anterior, (3) the number of cell layers within the furrow changes from multilayered in caudal to single layered in cephalic regions, and (4) there is a continuous production of mesodermal cells after gastrulation as new segments arise from the posterior growth zone. [START]Tribolium[END] twist (Tc-twist) is initially expressed in all presumptive mesodermal cells; however, after invagination, expression is maintained only in particular locations, which include the anterior compartments of the cephalic segments and a patch of cells at the posterior rim of the growth zone. The growth zone is multilayered with its inner cell layer being continuous with the mesoderm of the newly forming segments where twist expression is re-initiated anterior to the emerging engrailed stripes. A genomic region of Tc-twist was identified which drives ventral expression of a reporter construct in Drosophila. The expression of this Tc-twist construct in the background of Drosophila maternal mutations suggests that the dorsoventral system regulates Tc-twist, but that differences exist in regulation of the Dm-twist and Tc-twist genes by the terminal system.
",15645317
0,7070,"Functional analysis of TcCTL12 in innate immunity and development in [START]Tribolium castaneum[END].
C-type lectins (CTLs) play vital roles in invertebrates' innate immunity. Six CTL-X type lectins are identified in [START]Tribolium castaneum[END]. However, their functions and regulating mechanisms remain elusive. Here, TcCTL12, one CTL-X, was identified and cloned from [START]T. castaneum[END]. Spatiotemporal expression profiling revealed that TcCTL12 highly expressed in late pupa and early adult of [START]T. castaneum[END] in comparison with other developmental stages, and exhibited the highest expression level in the haemolymph and central nervous system (CNS). Then, the expression of TcCTL12 was remarkably induced by the stimulation of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Moreover, the recombinant protein TcCTL12 could bind pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) including LPS and PGN, and displayed agglutinative activity to both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in a calcium-dependent manner in vitro. Furthermore, RNAi of TcCTL12 caused [START]T. castaneum[END] pupation and eclosion defected. The abnormal pupa thinned their epidermal, and appeared the abnormal development of muscle cell compared with the control group. Additionally, depletion of TcCTL12 resulted in reducing fertility of offspring and affected their fecundity. In sum, these results indicated that TcCTL12 had extensive functions in the regulation of development in [START]T. castaneum[END], in addition to the immune response. It further expanded insights into CTL functions in insects.
",35245573
0,7070,"[START]Tribolium castaneum[END]: A Model for Investigating the Mode of Action of Insecticides and Mechanisms of Resistance.
The [START]red flour beetle[END], [START]Tribolium castaneum[END], is a worldwide insect pest of stored products, particularly food grains, and a powerful model organism for developmental, physiological and applied entomological research on coleopteran species. Among coleopterans, [START]T. castaneum[END] has the most fully sequenced and annotated genome and consequently provides the most advanced genetic model of a coleopteran pest. The beetle is also easy to culture and has a short generation time. Research on this beetle is further assisted by the availability of expressed sequence tags and transcriptomic data. Most importantly, it exhibits a very robust response to systemic RNA interference (RNAi), and a database of RNAi phenotypes (iBeetle) is available. Finally, classical transposonbased techniques together with CRISPR/Cas-mediated gene knockout and genome editing allow the creation of transgenic lines. As [START]T. castaneum[END] develops resistance rapidly to many classes of insecticides including organophosphates, methyl carbamates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids and insect growth regulators such as chitin synthesis inhibitors, it is further a suitable test system for studying resistance mechanisms. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in research focusing on the mode of action of insecticides and mechanisms of resistance identified using [START]T. castaneum[END] as a pest model.
",32400327
0,7070,"A C-type lectin TcCTL1 is required for embryogenesis in [START]Tribolium castaneum[END].
C-type lectin S group (CTL-S) plays a variety of roles in invertebrate including pathogen recognition and activation of immune responses. Previous studies have shown that CTL-S subfamily of [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] is mainly divided into two clades, of which only TcCTL1 was separately located in one clade. However, it remains unclear whether TcCTL1 occurs the differentiation of function. Therefore, the CTL-S TcCTL1 gene was cloned and characterized from [START]T. castaneum[END]. Functional analysis revealed that TcCTL1 could recognize and agglutinate pathogens, as well as activate immune signaling pathways to participate in immune response, which was consistent with our previously reported for TcCTL5 and TcCTL6. Differently, RNAi of TcCTL1 discovered that the egg produced by dsTcCTL1-treated adult could not hatch into larvae. Further DAPI-straining embryo indicated that the process of embryogenesis in dsTcCTL1-treated beetle was defeated, implying that TcCTL1 is required for embryogenesis in [START]T. castaneum[END] except for immune response. These results will aid implications for the understanding of CTL-S in invertebrate.
",36191687
0,7070,"Generating and testing the efficacy of transgenic Cas9 in [START]Tribolium castaneum[END].
CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has now expanded to many insect species, including [START]Tribolium castaneum[END]. However, compared to Drosophila melanogaster, the CRISPR toolkit of [START]T. castaneum[END] is limited. A particularly apparent gap is the lack of Cas9 transgenic animals, which generally offer higher editing efficiency. We address this by creating and testing transgenic beetles expressing Cas9. We generated two different constructs bearing basal heat shock promoter-driven Cas9, two distinct 3' UTRs, and one containing Cas9 fused to EGFP by a T2A peptide. Analyses of Cas9 activity in each transgenic line demonstrated that both designs are capable of inducing CRISPR- mediated changes in the genome in the absence of heat induction. Overall, these resources enhance the accessibility of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing for the [START]Tribolium[END] research community and provide a benchmark against which to compare future transgenic Cas9 lines.
",35429082
0,7070,"Amplification refractory mutation system based real-time PCR (ARMS-qPCR) for rapid resistance characterization of [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] to phosphine.
Resistance of [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] to phosphine is related to point mutations in DNA code corresponding to amino acid changes associated with a core metabolic enzyme dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DLD), but the mutation patterns vary among different resistant populations. Thus, there is a great need to develop a cost-effective method to detect core mutations in [START]T. castaneum[END], which would be the key factor to understand the molecular basis of phosphine resistance. Amplification refractory mutation system-based quantitative Real-Time PCR (ARMS-qPCR) is an ideal method that can rapidly detect point mutations. Here, the P45S and G131D mutations existed in the DLD of [START]T. castaneum[END] selected from strong Chinese resistance phenotypes, and the DLD P45S mutation, which represents a strong phosphine resistance allele, was confirmed as the most abundant mutation to determine strong resistance genotypes. Our study found that 85 out of 120 beetles carried the P45S resistance allele, including 51 homozygous and 34 heterozygous individuals. Moreover, there was a strong linear relationship (R2 = 0.917) between the resistance ratio and the resistance allele frequency among the strongly resistant populations. Our data showed that the ARMS-qPCR method that we developed could rapidly determine strong resistance phenotypes of [START]T. castaneum[END] to phosphine by detecting the DLD P45S mutation. These results not only provide a detailed example for developing an ARMS-qPCR-based method to characterize pesticide resistance, but also support further elucidation of the molecular basis of phosphine resistance.
",36127043
0,7070,"Functional characterization of a special dicistronic transcription unit encoding histone methyltransferase su(var)3-9 and translation regulator eIF2gamma in [START]Tribolium castaneum[END].
Operons are rare in eukaryotes, where they often allow concerted expression of functionally related genes. While a dicistronic transcription unit encoding two unrelated genes, the suppressor of position-effect variegation su(var)3-9 and the gamma subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2gamma) has been found in insecta, and its significance is not well understood. Here, we analyzed the evolutionary history of this transcription unit in arthropods and its functions by using model Coleoptera insect [START]Tribolium castaneum[END]. In [START]T. castaneum[END], Tcsu(var)3-9 fused into the 80 N-terminal amino acids of TceIF2gamma, the transcription of these two genes are resolved by alternative splicing. Phylogenetic analysis supports the natural gene fusion of su(var)3-9 and eIF2gamma occurred in the ancestral line of winged insects and silverfish, but with frequent re-fission during the evolution of insects. Functional analysis by using RNAi for these two genes revealed that gene fusion did not invoke novel functions for the gene products. As a histone methyltransferase, Tcsu(var)3-9 is primarily responsible for H3K9 di-, and tri-methylation and plays important roles in metamorphosis and embryogenesis in [START]T. castaneum[END]. While TceIF2gamma plays essential roles in [START]T. castaneum[END] by positively regulating protein translation mediated ecdysteroid biosynthesis. The vulnerability of the gene fusion and totally different role of su(var)3-9 and eIF2gamma in [START]T. castaneum[END] confirm this gene fusion is a non-selected, constructive neutral evolution event in insect. Moreover, the positive relationship between protein translation and ecdysteroid biosynthesis gives new insights into correlations between translation regulation and hormonal signaling.
",32749451
0,7070,"[START]Tribolium castaneum[END] defensins are primarily active against Gram-positive bacteria.
The [START]red flour beetle[END] [START]Tribolium castaneum[END] is a destructive insect pest of stored food and feed products, and a model organism for development, evolutionary biology and immunity. The insect innate immune system includes antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with a wide spectrum of targets including viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. Defensins are an evolutionarily-conserved class of AMPs and a potential new source of antimicrobial agents. In this context, we report the antimicrobial activity, phylogenetic and structural properties of three [START]T. castaneum[END] defensins (Def1, Def2 and Def3) and their relevance in the immunity of [START]T. castaneum[END] against bacterial pathogens. All three recombinant defensins showed bactericidal activity against Micrococcus luteus and Bacillus thuringiensis serovar tolworthi, but only Def1 and Def2 showed a bacteriostatic effect against Staphylococcus epidermidis. None of the defensins showed activity against the Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas entomophila or against the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. All three defensins were transcriptionally upregulated following a bacterial challenge, suggesting a key role in the immunity of [START]T. castaneum[END] against bacterial pathogens. Phylogenetic analysis showed that defensins from [START]T. castaneum[END], mealworms, Udo longhorn beetle and houseflies cluster within a well-defined clade of insect defensins. We conclude that [START]T. castaneum[END] defensins are primarily active against Gram-positive bacteria and that other AMPs may play a more prominent role against Gram-negative species. 
",26522790
0,278856,"Iteradensovirus from the Monarch Butterfly, [START]Danaus plexippus plexippus[END].
The 5,006-nucleotide (nt)-long genome of a new virus from monarch butterfly pupae was cloned and sequenced. It was flanked by inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) of 239 nt with 163-nt hairpins. The monosense genome with three open reading frames is typical of the genus Iteradensovirus in the subfamily Densovirinae of the family Parvoviridae. 
",24744339
0,278856,"Long-term monitoring indicates shifting fall migration timing in monarch butterflies ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]).
Eastern North American monarch butterflies ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) embark on a yearly migration between summer breeding grounds in the northern United States and southern Canada and overwintering sites in central Mexico, traveling up to 4300 km. This annual multi-generational migration cycle, like many seasonal natural phenomena, may be impacted by recent changes in climate and habitat. We investigated long-term trends in monarch abundance and fall migration timing over a 29-year period in Cape May, New Jersey, using data collected from daily population surveys designed to track patterns of occurrence during the fall migration period through Cape May (1 Sept-31 Oct). Between 1992 and 2020, the migration midpoint, average peak migration day and first peak migration day shifted between 16 and 19 days later in the season, an average of approximately six days per decade. This observed shift in migration timing is correlated with increasing temperatures in September and October in northeastern monarch breeding grounds over the study period. Our data do not demonstrate a significant directional trend in monarch abundance over the study period, yet population data collected at overwintering sites in Mexico indicate a substantial decline over the same period. Further postponement of fall migration may lead to lower migration success and exacerbate the overall decline of this iconic species.
",34693598
0,278856,"Postembryonic brain development in the monarch butterfly,[START]Danaus plexippus plexippus[END] L. : II. The optic lobes.
1. Temporal and spatial aspects of postembryonic optic lobe development in a Lepidopteran,Danaus plexippus plexippus L., were analyzed using serial section reconstructions and H3-thymidine radioautography to display loci of cell production and progressive movements of populations of cells. 2. Optic lobe development begins early in larval life and is continuous without perceptible fluctuations corresponding to molting. The production of new cells begins during the first larval stages and is completed within a few days after pupation. 3. Development of adult optic centers appears to be independent of the larval optic center and also of adult eye development which does not get underway until pupation. At pupation the larval stemmata migrate toward the brain along the stemmatal nerve which persists and later serves as the framework by which ommatidial neurones reach the brain. 4. Ganglion cells of the adult optic lobe are produced by two coiled rod-like aggregates of neuroblasts, the inner and outer optic lobe anlagen, which lie lateral to the protocerebrum and are already present in the brain of the newly hatched larva. Neuroblasts of the anlagen divide both symetrically to produce more neuroblasts and asymmetrically to yield one neuroblast and one smaller cell, the ganglion-mother cell. Subsequent ganglion-mother cell divisions produce the new ganglion cells which are continuously displaced from the anlage by additional cells. Following pupation mitotic activity in the anlagen diminishes and neuroblasts degenerate. By the fourth day after pupation the anlagen have disappeared. 5. Fiber differentiation begins within a few days of cell formation. Fibers travel in bundles usually toward the center of the coiled anlagen where they form the neuropile masses. With contributions from a growing population of ganglion cells, fibermasses grow rapidly in size and complexity. 6. The geometric arrangement of anlagen, cortices, and neuropile is dynamic and interdependent. Progressive changes in anlagen configuration result from the combined effects of an increasing neuroblast population, growing optic cortices, and expanding fibermasses between the arms of the anlagen. In turn, the cortices and fibermasses which follow anlagen contours also change form. The complex of these parts, initially small and coiled, gradually enlarges and uncoils until at the time of anlagen degeneration the three optic fibermasses and their cortices are in approximately their final arrangement. 7. The outer anlage forms cells of the lamina cortex at its lateral rim and cells of the medulla at its medial rim. Cells of the lobula cortex are produced by strands of inner anlage neuroblasts extending laterally between the arms of the coiled outer anlage. 8. Cells of the medulla cortex are first seen during the second larval instar and several days later the medulla fibermass is discernible. Cortex and fibermass lie medial to the outer anlage which is moved progressively more laterally as more cells are produced. Cells labelled with H3-Td R at the beginning of the third instar become the tangential cells of the adult optic lobe. Those labelled at the fourth and fith stages occupy positions near the tangential cells, and those labelled at pupation ultimately lie at the lateral edge of the cortex. 9. Production of the lamina cortex begins later and procedes more slowly. Cells here are first apparent during the fourth instar and form a cellular cap covering the lateral part of the optic lobe. Labelling studies show that the earliest formed cells finally occupy the most posterior region of the lamina cortex. The lamina fibermass is first seen in the mid-fifth instar brain. 10. For most of larval life the lobula cortex forms a plug of cells just inside the lamina. While the anlage remains coiled, the first-formed cells are at the center of the plug, but ultimately they lie at the most medial part of the cortex. Production of lobula cells begins during the third instar and by the mid-fourth instar the lobula neuropile can be seen medial to them. 11. As a result of these studies with H3-Td R injection and fixation after varying intervals it has been possible to estimate the age of cells at a particular developmental stage. Because this material offers an organized arrangement of cells of a wide range of identifiable ages and levels of maturation within a single individual, it provides an excellent model for the study of progressive neurone differentiation.
",28304487
0,278856,"Monarch Butterfly ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) Life-Stage Risks from Foliar and Seed-Treatment Insecticides.
Conservation of North America's eastern monarch butterfly ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) population would require establishment of milkweed (Asclepias spp.) and nectar plants in the agricultural landscapes of the north central United States. A variety of seed-treatment and foliar insecticides are used to manage early- and late-season pests in these landscapes. Thus, there is a need to assess risks of these insecticides to monarch butterfly life stages to inform habitat conservation practices. Chronic and acute dietary toxicity studies were undertaken with larvae and adults, and acute topical bioassays were conducted with eggs, pupae, and adults using 6 representative insecticides: beta-cyfluthrin (pyrethroid), chlorantraniliprole (anthranilic diamide), chlorpyrifos (organophosphate), imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam (neonicotinoids). Chronic dietary median lethal concentration values for monarch larvae ranged from 1.6 x 10-3 (chlorantraniliprole) to 5.3 (chlorpyrifos) mug/g milkweed leaf, with the neonicotinoids producing high rates of arrested pupal ecdysis. Chlorantraniliprole and beta-cyfluthrin were generally the most toxic insecticides to all life stages, and thiamethoxam and chlorpyrifos were generally the least toxic. The toxicity results were compared to insecticide exposure estimates derived from a spray drift model and/or milkweed residue data reported in the literature. Aerial applications of foliar insecticides are expected to cause high downwind mortality in larvae and eggs, with lower mortality predicted for adults and pupae. Neonicotinoid seed treatments are expected to cause little to no downslope mortality and/or sublethal effects in larvae and adults. Given the vagile behavior of nonmigratory monarchs, considering these results within a landscape-scale context suggests that adult recruitment will not be negatively impacted if new habitat is established in close proximity of maize and soybean fields in the agricultural landscapes of the north central United States. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:1761-1777.   2021 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
",33590905
0,278856,"Neo-sex Chromosomes in the Monarch Butterfly, [START]Danaus plexippus[END].
We report the discovery of a neo-sex chromosome in the monarch butterfly, [START]Danaus plexippus[END], and several of its close relatives. Z-linked scaffolds in the [START]D. plexippus[END] genome assembly were identified via sex-specific differences in Illumina sequencing coverage. Additionally, a majority of the [START]D. plexippus[END] genome assembly was assigned to chromosomes based on counts of one-to-one orthologs relative to the butterfly Melitaea cinxia (with replication using two other lepidopteran species), in which genome scaffolds have been mapped to linkage groups. Sequencing coverage-based assessments of Z linkage combined with homology-based chromosomal assignments provided strong evidence for a Z-autosome fusion in the Danaus lineage, involving the autosome homologous to chromosome 21 in M. cinxia Coverage analysis also identified three notable assembly errors resulting in chimeric Z-autosome scaffolds. Cytogenetic analysis further revealed a large W chromosome that is partially euchromatic, consistent with being a neo-W chromosome. The discovery of a neo-Z and the provisional assignment of chromosome linkage for >90% of [START]D. plexippus[END] genes lays the foundation for novel insights concerning sex chromosome evolution in this female-heterogametic model species for functional and evolutionary genomics.
",28839116
0,278856,"Hearing in caterpillars of the monarch butterfly ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]).
Many species of caterpillars have been reported to respond to sound, but there has been limited formal study of what sounds they hear, how they hear them and how they respond to them. Here, we report on hearing in caterpillars of the monarch butterfly ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]). Fourth and fifth instar caterpillars respond to sounds by freezing, contracting, and flicking their thorax in a vertical direction. Behavioural responses were evoked by sound frequencies between 50 and 900 Hz, with best sensitivity at 100-200 Hz. The lowest mean threshold was 79 dB SPL (particle velocity 605 mum s-1) at 150 Hz. When presented with a repeated 200 Hz sound tone, caterpillars habituate by no longer responding. A series of ablation experiments confirmed that the primary sensory receptors are a pair of long hairs, called trichoid sensilla, located on the upper prothorax. These sensilla are ~450 microm long, rest in a socket and are innervated by a single bipolar sensory neuron. Removal of these setae reduced responses significantly compared with controls. Other setae contributed minimally to hearing in response to 200 Hz tones, and tubercles and prothoracic shields played no apparent role in sound reception. We propose that hearing functions to prevent attacks by aerial insect predators and parasitoids, which produce flight sounds in the frequency range to which the caterpillars are sensitive. This research lays the foundation for further investigations on the function and evolution of hearing in caterpillars, and has significance for the conservation of threatened monarch butterfly larvae living near noisy urban environments and roadways.
",31672722
0,278856,"Genome assembly of Danaus chrysippus and comparison with the Monarch [START]Danaus plexippus[END].
Milkweed butterflies in the genus Danaus are studied in a diverse range of research fields including the neurobiology of migration, biochemistry of plant detoxification, host-parasite interactions, evolution of sex chromosomes, and speciation. We have assembled a nearly chromosomal genome for Danaus chrysippus (known as the African Monarch, African Queen, and Plain Tiger) using long-read sequencing data. This species is of particular interest for the study of genome structural change and its consequences for evolution. Comparison with the genome of the North American Monarch [START]Danaus plexippus[END] reveals generally strong synteny but highlights 3 inversion differences. The 3 chromosomes involved were previously found to carry peaks of intraspecific differentiation in D. chrysippus in Africa, suggesting that these inversions may be polymorphic and associated with local adaptation. The D. chrysippus genome is over 40% larger than that of D. plexippus, and nearly all of the additional ~100 Megabases of DNA comprises repeats. Future comparative genomic studies within this genus will shed light on the evolution of genome architecture.
",35100331
0,278856,"Prevalence of monarch ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) and queen (Danaus gilippus) butterflies in West Texas during the fall of 2018.
BACKGROUND: The monarch butterfly ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) is a conspicuous insect that has experienced a drastic population decline over the past two decades. While there are several factors contributing to dwindling monarch populations, habitat loss is considered the most significant threat to monarchs. In the United States, loss of milkweed, particularly in the Midwest, has greatly reduced the available breeding habitat of monarchs. This has led to extensive efforts to conserve and restore milkweed resources throughout the Midwest. Recently, these research and conservation efforts have been expanded to include other important areas along the monarch's migratory path. RESULTS: During the fall of 2018, we conducted surveys of monarch eggs and larvae through West Texas. We documented monarch and queen butterfly (Danaus gilippus) reproduction throughout the region and used the proportion of monarch and queen larva to estimate the number of monarch eggs. Peak egg densities for monarchs were as high as 0.78 per milkweed ramet after correction for the presence of queens. Despite our observations encompassing only a limited sample across one season, the peak monarch egg densities we observed exceeded published reports from when monarch populations were higher. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to correct for the presence of queens when calculating the density of monarch eggs. This research also provides insight into monarch utilization of less well-known regions, such as West Texas, and highlights the need to expand the scope of monarch monitoring and conservation initiatives. While the importance of monarch research and conservation in the Midwest is unquestionable, more comprehensive efforts may identify new priorities in monarch conservation and lead to a more robust and effective overall strategy, particularly given the dynamic and rapidly changing global environment.
",32532338
0,278856,"A de novo transcriptional atlas in [START]Danaus plexippus[END] reveals variability in dosage compensation across tissues.
A detailed knowledge of gene function in the monarch butterfly is still lacking. Here we generate a genome assembly from a Mexican nonmigratory population and used RNA-seq data from 14 biological samples for gene annotation and to construct an atlas portraying the breadth of gene expression during most of the monarch life cycle. Two thirds of the genes show expression changes, with long noncoding RNAs being particularly finely regulated during adulthood, and male-biased expression being four times more common than female-biased. The two portions of the monarch heterochromosome Z, one ancestral to the Lepidoptera and the other resulting from a chromosomal fusion, display distinct association with sex-biased expression, reflecting sample-dependent incompleteness or absence of dosage compensation in the ancestral but not the novel portion of the Z. This study presents extended genomic and transcriptomic resources that will facilitate a better understanding of the monarch's adaptation to a changing environment.
",34172835
0,278856,"Migrators within migrators: exploring transposable element dynamics in the monarch butterfly, [START]Danaus plexippus[END].
BACKGROUND: Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are an important model system in ecology and evolution. A high-quality chromosomal genome assembly is available for the monarch butterfly ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]), but it lacks an in-depth transposable element (TE) annotation, presenting an opportunity to explore monarch TE dynamics and the impact of TEs on shaping the monarch genome. RESULTS: We find 6.21% of the monarch genome is comprised of TEs, a reduction of 6.85% compared to the original TE annotation performed on the draft genome assembly. Monarch TE content is low compared to two closely related species with available genomes, Danaus chrysippus (33.97% TE) and Danaus melanippus (11.87% TE). The biggest TE contributions to genome size in the monarch are LINEs and Penelope-like elements, and three newly identified families, r2-hero_dPle (LINE), penelope-1_dPle (Penelope-like), and hase2-1_dPle (SINE), collectively contribute 34.92% of total TE content. We find evidence of recent TE activity, with two novel Tc1 families rapidly expanding over recent timescales (tc1-1_dPle, tc1-2_dPle). LINE fragments show signatures of genomic deletions indicating a high rate of TE turnover. We investigate associations between TEs and wing colouration and immune genes and identify a three-fold increase in TE content around immune genes compared to other host genes. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a detailed TE annotation and analysis for the monarch genome, revealing a considerably smaller TE contribution to genome content compared to two closely related Danaus species with available genome assemblies. We identify highly successful novel DNA TE families rapidly expanding over recent timescales, and ongoing signatures of both TE expansion and removal highlight the dynamic nature of repeat content in the monarch genome. Our findings also suggest that insect immune genes are promising candidates for future interrogation of TE-mediated host adaptation.
",35172896
0,13037,"Lack of evidence for a fine-scale magnetic map sense for fall migratory Eastern North [START]American monarch[END] butterflies ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]).
How first-time animal migrants find specific destinations remains an intriguing ecological question. Migratory marine species use geomagnetic map cues acquired as juveniles to aide long-distance migration, but less is known for long-distance migrants in other taxa. We test the hypothesis that naive Eastern North American fall migratory monarch butterflies ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]), a species that possesses a magnetic sense, locate their overwintering sites in Central Mexico using inherited geomagnetic map cues. We examined whether overwintering locations and the abundance of monarchs changed with the natural shift of Earth's magnetic field from 2004 to 2018. We found that migratory monarchs continued to overwinter at established sites in similar abundance despite significant shifts in the geomagnetic field, which is inconsistent with monarchs using fine-scale geomagnetic map cues to find overwintering sites. It is more likely that monarchs use geomagnetic cues to assess migratory direction rather than location and use other cues to locate overwintering sites.
",36407908
0,13037,"Long-term monitoring indicates shifting fall migration timing in monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus).
Eastern North American monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) embark on a yearly migration between summer breeding grounds in the northern United States and southern Canada and overwintering sites in central Mexico, traveling up to 4300 km. This annual multi-generational migration cycle, like many seasonal natural phenomena, may be impacted by recent changes in climate and habitat. We investigated long-term trends in monarch abundance and fall migration timing over a 29-year period in Cape May, New Jersey, using data collected from daily population surveys designed to track patterns of occurrence during the fall migration period through Cape May (1 Sept-31 Oct). Between 1992 and 2020, the migration midpoint, average peak migration day and first peak migration day shifted between 16 and 19 days later in the season, an average of approximately six days per decade. This observed shift in migration timing is correlated with increasing temperatures in September and October in northeastern monarch breeding grounds over the study period. Our data do not demonstrate a significant directional trend in monarch abundance over the study period, yet population data collected at overwintering sites in Mexico indicate a substantial decline over the same period. Further postponement of fall migration may lead to lower migration success and exacerbate the overall decline of this iconic species.
Long-term monitoring indicates shifting fall migration timing in monarch butterflies ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]).
Eastern North [START]American monarch[END] butterflies ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) embark on a yearly migration between summer breeding grounds in the northern United States and southern Canada and overwintering sites in central Mexico, traveling up to 4300 km. This annual multi-generational migration cycle, like many seasonal natural phenomena, may be impacted by recent changes in climate and habitat. We investigated long-term trends in monarch abundance and fall migration timing over a 29-year period in Cape May, New Jersey, using data collected from daily population surveys designed to track patterns of occurrence during the fall migration period through Cape May (1 Sept-31 Oct). Between 1992 and 2020, the migration midpoint, average peak migration day and first peak migration day shifted between 16 and 19 days later in the season, an average of approximately six days per decade. This observed shift in migration timing is correlated with increasing temperatures in September and October in northeastern monarch breeding grounds over the study period. Our data do not demonstrate a significant directional trend in monarch abundance over the study period, yet population data collected at overwintering sites in Mexico indicate a substantial decline over the same period. Further postponement of fall migration may lead to lower migration success and exacerbate the overall decline of this iconic species.
",34693598
0,13037,"Host plant specificity of the [START]monarch butterfly[END] [START]Danaus plexippus[END]: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
The preference-performance hypothesis explains host specificity in phytophagous insects, positing that host plants chosen by adults confer the greatest larval fitness. However, adults sometimes oviposit on plants supporting low larval success because the components of host specificity (adult preference, plant palatability, and larval survival) are non-binary and not necessarily correlated. Palatability (willingness to eat) is governed by chemical cues and physical barriers such as trichomes, while survival (ability to complete development) depends upon nutrition and toxicity. Absence of a correlation between the components of host specificity results in low-performance hosts supporting limited larval development. Most studies of specificity focus on oviposition behavior leaving the importance and basis of palatability and survival under-explored. We conducted a comprehensive review of 127 plant species that have been claimed or tested to be hosts for the [START]monarch butterfly[END] [START]Danaus plexippus[END] to classify them as non-hosts, low performance, or high performance. We performed a meta-analysis to test if performance status could be explained by properties of neurotoxic cardenolides or trichome density. We also conducted a no-choice larval feeding experiment to identify causes of low performance. We identified 34 high performance, 42 low performance, 33 non-hosts, and 18 species with unsubstantiated claims. Mean cardenolide concentration was greater in high- than low-performance hosts and a significant predictor of host status, suggesting possible evolutionary trade-offs in monarch specialization. Other cardenolide properties and trichome density were not significant predictors of host status. In the experiment, we found, of the 62% of larvae that attempted to eat low-performance hosts, only 3.5% survived to adult compared to 85% of those on the high-performance host, demonstrating that multiple factors affect larval host plant specificity. Our study is the first to classify all known host plants for monarchs and has conservation implications for this threatened species.
",35700160
0,13037,"Monarchs Reared in Winter in California Are Not Large Enough to Be Migrants. Comment on James et al. First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, [START]Danaus plexippus[END] (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California. Insects 2021, 12, 946.
A recent study in this journal aimed to understand certain changes in the wintering behavior of monarch butterflies, specifically in the western subpopulation of North America [...].
",35055906
0,13037,"Reply to Davis, A.K. Monarchs Reared in Winter in California Are Not Large Enough to Be Migrants. Comment on ""James et al. First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, [START]Danaus plexippus[END] (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California. Insects 2021, 12, 946"".
This is a reply to the comment from Davis [...].
",35055907
0,13037,"Iteradensovirus from the [START]Monarch Butterfly[END], Danaus plexippus plexippus.
The 5,006-nucleotide (nt)-long genome of a new virus from [START]monarch butterfly[END] pupae was cloned and sequenced. It was flanked by inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) of 239 nt with 163-nt hairpins. The monosense genome with three open reading frames is typical of the genus Iteradensovirus in the subfamily Densovirinae of the family Parvoviridae. 
",24744339
0,13037,"Prevalence of monarch (Danaus plexippus) and queen (Danaus gilippus) butterflies in West Texas during the fall of 2018.
BACKGROUND: The monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a conspicuous insect that has experienced a drastic population decline over the past two decades. While there are several factors contributing to dwindling monarch populations, habitat loss is considered the most significant threat to monarchs. In the United States, loss of milkweed, particularly in the Midwest, has greatly reduced the available breeding habitat of monarchs. This has led to extensive efforts to conserve and restore milkweed resources throughout the Midwest. Recently, these research and conservation efforts have been expanded to include other important areas along the monarch's migratory path. RESULTS: During the fall of 2018, we conducted surveys of monarch eggs and larvae through West Texas. We documented monarch and queen butterfly (Danaus gilippus) reproduction throughout the region and used the proportion of monarch and queen larva to estimate the number of monarch eggs. Peak egg densities for monarchs were as high as 0.78 per milkweed ramet after correction for the presence of queens. Despite our observations encompassing only a limited sample across one season, the peak monarch egg densities we observed exceeded published reports from when monarch populations were higher. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to correct for the presence of queens when calculating the density of monarch eggs. This research also provides insight into monarch utilization of less well-known regions, such as West Texas, and highlights the need to expand the scope of monarch monitoring and conservation initiatives. While the importance of monarch research and conservation in the Midwest is unquestionable, more comprehensive efforts may identify new priorities in monarch conservation and lead to a more robust and effective overall strategy, particularly given the dynamic and rapidly changing global environment.
Prevalence of monarch ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) and queen (Danaus gilippus) butterflies in West Texas during the fall of 2018.
BACKGROUND: The [START]monarch butterfly[END] ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) is a conspicuous insect that has experienced a drastic population decline over the past two decades. While there are several factors contributing to dwindling monarch populations, habitat loss is considered the most significant threat to monarchs. In the United States, loss of milkweed, particularly in the Midwest, has greatly reduced the available breeding habitat of monarchs. This has led to extensive efforts to conserve and restore milkweed resources throughout the Midwest. Recently, these research and conservation efforts have been expanded to include other important areas along the monarch's migratory path. RESULTS: During the fall of 2018, we conducted surveys of monarch eggs and larvae through West Texas. We documented monarch and queen butterfly (Danaus gilippus) reproduction throughout the region and used the proportion of monarch and queen larva to estimate the number of monarch eggs. Peak egg densities for monarchs were as high as 0.78 per milkweed ramet after correction for the presence of queens. Despite our observations encompassing only a limited sample across one season, the peak monarch egg densities we observed exceeded published reports from when monarch populations were higher. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to correct for the presence of queens when calculating the density of monarch eggs. This research also provides insight into monarch utilization of less well-known regions, such as West Texas, and highlights the need to expand the scope of monarch monitoring and conservation initiatives. While the importance of monarch research and conservation in the Midwest is unquestionable, more comprehensive efforts may identify new priorities in monarch conservation and lead to a more robust and effective overall strategy, particularly given the dynamic and rapidly changing global environment.
",32532338
0,13037,"Evaluating toxicity of Varroa mite (Varroa destructor)-active dsRNA to [START]monarch butterfly[END] ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) larvae.
Varroa mites (Varroa destructor) are parasitic mites that, combined with other factors, are contributing to high levels of honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony losses. A Varroa-active dsRNA was recently developed to control Varroa mites within honey bee brood cells. This dsRNA has 372 base pairs that are homologous to a sequence region within the Varroa mite calmodulin gene (cam). The Varroa-active dsRNA also shares a 21-base pair match with [START]monarch butterfly[END] ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]) calmodulin mRNA, raising the possibility of non-target effects if there is environmental exposure. We chronically exposed the entire monarch larval stage to common (Asclepias syriaca) and tropical (Asclepias curassavica) milkweed leaves treated with concentrations of Varroa-active dsRNA that are one- and ten-fold higher than those used to treat honey bee hives. This corresponded to concentrations of 0.025-0.041 and 0.211-0.282 mg/g leaf, respectively. Potassium arsenate and a previously designed monarch-active dsRNA with a 100% base pair match to the monarch v-ATPase A mRNA (leaf concentration was 0.020-0.034 mg/g) were used as positive controls. The Varroa mite and monarch-active dsRNA's did not cause significant differences in larval mortality, larval or pupal development, pupal weights, or adult eclosion rates when compared to negative controls. Irrespective of control or dsRNA treatment, larvae that consumed approximately 7500 to 10,500-mg milkweed leaf within 10 to 12 days had the highest pupal weights. The lack of mortality and sublethal effects following dietary exposure to dsRNA with 21-base pair and 100% base pair match to mRNAs that correspond to regulatory genes suggest monarch mRNA may be refractory to silencing by dsRNA or monarch dsRNase may degrade dsRNA to a concentration that is insufficient to silence mRNA signaling.
",34077444
0,13037,"A de novo transcriptional atlas in Danaus plexippus reveals variability in dosage compensation across tissues.
A detailed knowledge of gene function in the monarch butterfly is still lacking. Here we generate a genome assembly from a Mexican nonmigratory population and used RNA-seq data from 14 biological samples for gene annotation and to construct an atlas portraying the breadth of gene expression during most of the monarch life cycle. Two thirds of the genes show expression changes, with long noncoding RNAs being particularly finely regulated during adulthood, and male-biased expression being four times more common than female-biased. The two portions of the monarch heterochromosome Z, one ancestral to the Lepidoptera and the other resulting from a chromosomal fusion, display distinct association with sex-biased expression, reflecting sample-dependent incompleteness or absence of dosage compensation in the ancestral but not the novel portion of the Z. This study presents extended genomic and transcriptomic resources that will facilitate a better understanding of the monarch's adaptation to a changing environment.
A de novo transcriptional atlas in [START]Danaus plexippus[END] reveals variability in dosage compensation across tissues.
A detailed knowledge of gene function in the [START]monarch butterfly[END] is still lacking. Here we generate a genome assembly from a Mexican nonmigratory population and used RNA-seq data from 14 biological samples for gene annotation and to construct an atlas portraying the breadth of gene expression during most of the [START]monarch[END] life cycle. Two thirds of the genes show expression changes, with long noncoding RNAs being particularly finely regulated during adulthood, and male-biased expression being four times more common than female-biased. The two portions of the [START]monarch[END] heterochromosome Z, one ancestral to the Lepidoptera and the other resulting from a chromosomal fusion, display distinct association with sex-biased expression, reflecting sample-dependent incompleteness or absence of dosage compensation in the ancestral but not the novel portion of the Z. This study presents extended genomic and transcriptomic resources that will facilitate a better understanding of the [START]monarch[END]'s adaptation to a changing environment.
",34172835
0,13037,"Migrators within migrators: exploring transposable element dynamics in the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus.
BACKGROUND: Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are an important model system in ecology and evolution. A high-quality chromosomal genome assembly is available for the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), but it lacks an in-depth transposable element (TE) annotation, presenting an opportunity to explore monarch TE dynamics and the impact of TEs on shaping the monarch genome. RESULTS: We find 6.21% of the monarch genome is comprised of TEs, a reduction of 6.85% compared to the original TE annotation performed on the draft genome assembly. Monarch TE content is low compared to two closely related species with available genomes, Danaus chrysippus (33.97% TE) and Danaus melanippus (11.87% TE). The biggest TE contributions to genome size in the monarch are LINEs and Penelope-like elements, and three newly identified families, r2-hero_dPle (LINE), penelope-1_dPle (Penelope-like), and hase2-1_dPle (SINE), collectively contribute 34.92% of total TE content. We find evidence of recent TE activity, with two novel Tc1 families rapidly expanding over recent timescales (tc1-1_dPle, tc1-2_dPle). LINE fragments show signatures of genomic deletions indicating a high rate of TE turnover. We investigate associations between TEs and wing colouration and immune genes and identify a three-fold increase in TE content around immune genes compared to other host genes. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a detailed TE annotation and analysis for the monarch genome, revealing a considerably smaller TE contribution to genome content compared to two closely related Danaus species with available genome assemblies. We identify highly successful novel DNA TE families rapidly expanding over recent timescales, and ongoing signatures of both TE expansion and removal highlight the dynamic nature of repeat content in the monarch genome. Our findings also suggest that insect immune genes are promising candidates for future interrogation of TE-mediated host adaptation.
Migrators within migrators: exploring transposable element dynamics in the [START]monarch butterfly[END], [START]Danaus plexippus[END].
BACKGROUND: Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are an important model system in ecology and evolution. A high-quality chromosomal genome assembly is available for the [START]monarch butterfly[END] ([START]Danaus plexippus[END]), but it lacks an in-depth transposable element (TE) annotation, presenting an opportunity to explore monarch TE dynamics and the impact of TEs on shaping the monarch genome. RESULTS: We find 6.21% of the monarch genome is comprised of TEs, a reduction of 6.85% compared to the original TE annotation performed on the draft genome assembly. Monarch TE content is low compared to two closely related species with available genomes, Danaus chrysippus (33.97% TE) and Danaus melanippus (11.87% TE). The biggest TE contributions to genome size in the monarch are LINEs and Penelope-like elements, and three newly identified families, r2-hero_dPle (LINE), penelope-1_dPle (Penelope-like), and hase2-1_dPle (SINE), collectively contribute 34.92% of total TE content. We find evidence of recent TE activity, with two novel Tc1 families rapidly expanding over recent timescales (tc1-1_dPle, tc1-2_dPle). LINE fragments show signatures of genomic deletions indicating a high rate of TE turnover. We investigate associations between TEs and wing colouration and immune genes and identify a three-fold increase in TE content around immune genes compared to other host genes. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a detailed TE annotation and analysis for the monarch genome, revealing a considerably smaller TE contribution to genome content compared to two closely related Danaus species with available genome assemblies. We identify highly successful novel DNA TE families rapidly expanding over recent timescales, and ongoing signatures of both TE expansion and removal highlight the dynamic nature of repeat content in the monarch genome. Our findings also suggest that insect immune genes are promising candidates for future interrogation of TE-mediated host adaptation.
",35172896
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) cadherin fragments function as synergists for Cry1A and Cry1C Bacillus thuringiensis toxins against noctuid moths Helicoverpa zea, Agrotis ipsilon and Spodoptera exigua.
BACKGROUND: Specific Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) toxins are effective against a narrow spectrum of species. While specificity is an advantage for limiting adverse effects on non-target organisms, it is also the primary drawback of Bt's application for controlling multiple pest species in agriculture, forestry and other areas. Recently, it was reported that a small toxin-binding fragment of [START]Manduca sexta[END] (Joh.) cadherin acts as a synergist of Bt toxins to [START]M. sexta[END], Heliothis virescens F. and Helicoverpa zea (Boddie). These insects are quite susceptible to the Cry1A toxins. The first aim of the present study was to determine if longer-sized fragments of [START]M. sexta[END] cadherin differed in the level of toxin enhancement. The second aim was to examine enhancement of Bt toxins against relatively Bt-tolerant insects Agrotis ipsilon (Hufn.) and Spodoptera exigua (Hubner). RESULTS: Cadherin fragments longer than previously reported had improved synergistic properties. Significant enhancement of Bt Cry1A toxins against A. ipsilon and S. exigua was found. A cadherin fragment also increased Cry1C toxicity to S. exigua. CONCLUSIONS: The commercial development of this synergist has the potential to widen the spectrum of Bt toxicity to other important agricultural lepidopteran insect pests and thus increase its usefulness in agriculture.
",19489014
0,7130,"The molecular mechanisms of cuticular melanization: the ecdysone cascade leading to dopa decarboxylase expression in [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Many insect developmental color changes are known to be regulated by both ecdysone and juvenile hormone. Yet the molecular mechanisms underlying this regulation have not been well understood. This review highlights the hormonal mechanisms involved in the regulation of two key enzymes [dopa decarboxylase (DDC) and phenoloxidase] necessary for insect cuticular melanization, and the molecular action of 20-hydroxyecdysone on various transcription factors leading to DDC expression at the end of a larval molt in [START]Manduca sexta[END]. In addition, the ecdysone cascade found in [START]M. sexta[END] is compared with that of other organisms.
",19552890
0,7130,"The lysozyme from insect ([START]Manduca sexta[END]) is a cold-adapted enzyme.
Enzymatic activity is dependent on temperature, although some proteins have evolved to retain activity at low temperatures at the expense of stability. Cold adapted enzymes are present in a variety of organisms and there is ample interest in their structure-function relationships. Lysozyme (E.C. 3.2.1.17) is one of the most studied enzymes due to its antibacterial activity against Gram positive bacteria and is also a cold adapted protein. In this work the characterization of lysozyme from the insect [START]Manduca sexta[END] and its activity at low temperatures is presented. Both [START]M. sexta[END] lysozymes natural and recombinant showed a higher content of alpha-helix secondary structure compared to that of hen egg white lysozyme and a higher specific enzymatic activity in the range of 5-30 degrees C. These results together with measured thermodynamic activation parameters support the designation of [START]M. sexta[END] lysozyme as a cold adapted enzyme. Therefore, the insect recombinant lysozyme is feasible as a model for structure-function studies for cold-adapted proteins.
",17979817
0,7130,"Zinc and [START]Manduca sexta[END] hemocyte functions.
Two metalloproteases have recently been linked to the immune response in Lepidoptera. In addition, zinc is highly important in many mammalian immune-related functions. Because of these, we investigated the effect of zinc and two zinc-protease inhibitors on [START]Manduca sexta[END] hemocyte behavior in vitro. Plasmatocytes were significantly more elongated in Grace's medium supplemented with 100 micro m zinc chloride than in the absence of zinc. To test whether zinc-dependent proteases were responsible for the increased length seen in the presence of zinc, we tested two zinc-protease inhibitors, phosphoramidon and bestatin. Each resulted in decreased plasmatocyte length compared to the control, but the distributions of lengths differed with each inhibitor. Each inhibitor also affected plasmatocyte network formation in vitro. This work suggests (1) that at least two different zinc proteases are involved in the cellular defense response of [START]M. sexta[END], and (2) that zinc should be included in media used for in vitro studies of the immune response.
",15455040
0,7130,"Rhodnius, Golden Oil, and Met: A History of Juvenile Hormone Research.
Juvenile hormone (JH) is a unique sesquiterpenoid hormone which regulates both insect metamorphosis and insect reproduction. It also may be utilized by some insects to mediate polyphenisms and other life history events that are environmentally regulated. This article details the history of the research on this versatile hormone that began with studies by V. B. Wigglesworth on the ""kissing bug"" Rhodnius prolixus in 1934, through the discovery of a natural source of JH in the abdomen of male Hyalophora cecropia moths by C. M. Williams that allowed its isolation (""golden oil"") and identification, to the recent research on its receptor, termed Methoprene-tolerant (Met). Our present knowledge of cellular actions of JH in metamorphosis springs primarily from studies on Rhodnius and the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] [START]Manduca sexta[END], with recent studies on the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, the silkworm Bombyx mori, and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster contributing to the molecular understanding of these actions. Many questions still need to be resolved including the molecular basis of competence to metamorphose, differential tissue responses to JH, and the interaction of nutrition and other environmental signals regulating JH synthesis and degradation.
",32850806
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] IRP1: molecular characterization and in vivo response to iron.
[START]Manduca sexta[END] IRP1 was cloned and sequenced. The deduced amino acid sequence of [START]Manduca[END] IRP1 shows high similarity to other IRP1 proteins. The Cys residues required as ligands for the iron sulfur cluster, as well as all residues necessary for aconitase activity are conserved in the insect protein. Purified recombinant [START]Manduca[END] IRP1 binds specifically to transcripts of the iron responsive element (IRE) of [START]Manduca[END] or human ferritin subunit mRNA. Binding activity of the recombinant protein was not influenced by the presence of beta-mercaptoethanol. However, IRP/IRE binding activity of cytoplasmic extracts from fat body was decreased by reducing agents in a dose-responsive manner. Fat body IRP1/IRE binding activity was reduced for [START]Manduca sexta[END] larvae injected with low doses of iron, while IRP1 mRNA and protein levels remained stable. At higher iron doses, binding activity increased and stabilized. Hemolymph ferritin levels showed an inverse relationship to IRP1/IRE binding activity. These data suggest that the [START]Manduca[END] IRP1 is likely involved in translational control of ferritin synthesis in a manner similar to that found in vertebrates. However, factors other than iron can influence IRP/IRE interaction and hemolymph ferritin levels in insects.
",11719072
0,7130,"Clues on the function of [START]Manduca sexta[END] perilipin 2 inferred from developmental and nutrition-dependent changes in its expression.
Cellular triglycerides (TG) are stored in cytosolic lipid droplets (LDs). Perilipins (PLIN) are a group of LD-proteins that play important roles in the assembly and transport of LDs and in TG metabolism. Two members of the PLIN family are found in insects (PLIN1 & 2 or Lsd1 & 2). We have cloned and expressed [START]Manduca sexta[END] PLIN2 (MsPLIN2), and studied developmental and nutritional changes in the expression of PLIN2. Nutritional changes induced fast alterations in PLIN2 mRNA and protein levels in fat body and midgut of the feeding larvae. The relationship observed between PLIN2 expression and TG synthesis in both larval fat body and midgut suggests that PLIN2 is needed when tissues are accumulating TG. However, when the fat body was storing TG at maximal capacity, MsPLIN2 levels declined. This unexpected finding suggests the occurrence of alternative mechanism/s to shield TG from the action of lipases in [START]M. sexta[END] LDs. In addition, it implies that the cellular level of lipid storage could be modulating MsPLIN2 expression and/or degradation. The study also confirmed that MsPLIN2 was most abundant in the adult fat body, which is characterized by a high rate of TG hydrolysis and lipid mobilization. Whether MsPLIN2 is directly involved in lipolysis and/or the secretion of lipids in the fat body of adult of [START]M. sexta[END] is unknown at this time. Nonetheless, the coexistence of high PLIN2 and lipolysis levels suggests a complex role for MsPLIN2. Altogether, we found that MsPLIN2 is needed when the synthesis of glycerides, DG and TG, is active even if the insect is accumulating or consuming TG.
",27939924
0,7130,"Proteomic analysis of pharate pupal molting fluid from the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The insect cuticle is a key component of their success, being important for protection, communication, locomotion, and support. Conversely, as an exoskeleton, it also limits the size of the insect and must be periodically molted and a new one synthesized, to permit growth. To achieve this, the insect secretes a solution of chitinases, proteases and other proteins, known collectively as molting fluid, during each molting process to break down and recycle components of the old cuticle. Previous research has focused on the degradative enzymes in molting fluid and offered some characterization of their biochemical properties. However, identification of the specific proteins involved remained to be determined. We have used 2D SDS-PAGE and LC/MS-based proteomic analysis to identify proteins in the molting fluid of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END], undergoing the larval to pupal molt. We categorized these proteins based on their proposed functions including chitin metabolism, proteases, peptidases, and immunity. This analysis complements previous reported work on [START]M. sexta[END] molting fluid and identifies candidate genes for enzymes involved in cuticle remodeling. Proteins classified as having an immune function highlight potential for molting fluid to act as an immune barrier to prevent infections during the cuticle degradation and ecdysis processes. Several proteins known to function in melanin synthesis as an immune response in hemolymph were present in molting fluid. We demonstrated that the bacterium Micrococcus luteus and the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana can stimulate activation of phenoloxidase in molting fluid, indicating that the recognition proteins, protease cascade, and prophenoloxidase needed for melanin synthesis are present as a defense against infection during cuticle degradation. This analysis offers insights for proteins that may be important not only for molting in [START]M. sexta[END] but for insects in general.
",36115517
0,7130,"Analysis of mutually exclusive alternatively spliced serpin-1 isoforms and identification of serpin-1 proteinase complexes in [START]Manduca sexta[END] hemolymph.
Mutually exclusive alternative splicing produces transcripts for 12 serpin-1 isoforms in [START]Manduca sexta[END] that differ only in the region encoding the carboxyl-terminal 36-40-amino acid residues. This variable region includes the reactive center loop, which determines the inhibitory selectivity of the serpin. We investigated mRNA levels of individual serpin-1 isoforms by quantitative PCR. The 12 isoforms were expressed at similar levels in hemocytes, but in fat body isoform B mRNA was present at significantly higher levels than isoforms C, D, E, F, G, J, K, and Z. To investigate the presence of individual serpin-1 isoforms in plasma we used immunoaffinity purification of serpin-1 isoforms from [START]M. sexta[END] plasma, followed by two-dimensional PAGE and identification of protein spots by digestion with a series of proteinases and analysis of the resulting peptides by MALDI-TOF/TOF. We identified nine of the 12 serpin-1 isoforms and, through analysis of putative serpin-1-proteinase complexes, identified three endogenous [START]M. sexta[END] proteinase targets of serpin-1. Our results suggest that [START]M. sexta[END] serpin-1 isoforms A, E, and J can inhibit hemolymph proteinase 8, which activates the cytokine spatzle. At least one isoform of serpin-1 can inhibit hemocyte proteinase 1, another [START]M. sexta[END] blood proteinase. In addition, a complex of serpin-1K in a complex with [START]M. sexta[END] midgut chymotrypsin was identified, suggesting serpin-1 isoforms may also function to protect insect tissues from digestive proteinases that may leak into the hemocoel.
",20624920
0,7130,"A comprehensive analysis of the [START]Manduca sexta[END] immunotranscriptome.
As a biochemical model, [START]Manduca sexta[END] has substantially contributed to our knowledge on insect innate immunity. The RNA-Seq approach was implemented in three studies to examine tissue immunotranscriptomes of this species. With the latest and largest focusing on highly regulated process- and tissue-specific genes, we further analyzed the same set of data using BLAST2GO to explore functional aspects of the larval fat body (F) and hemocyte (H) transcriptomes with (I) or without (C) immune challenge. Using immunity-related sequences from other insects, we found 383 homologous contigs and compared them with those discovered based on relative abundance changes. The major overlap of the two lists validated our previous research designed for gene discovery and transcript profiling in organisms lacking sequenced genomes. By concatenating the contigs, we established a repertoire of 232 immunity-related genes encoding proteins for pathogen recognition (16%), signal transduction (53%), microbe killing (13%) and others (18%). We examined their transcript levels along with attribute classifications and detected prominent differences in nine of the 30 level 2 gene ontology (GO) categories. The increase in extracellular proteins (155%) was consistent with the highly induced synthesis of defense molecules (e.g., antimicrobial peptides) in fat body after the immune challenge. We identified most members of the putative Toll, IMD, MAPK-JNK-p38 and JAK-STAT pathways and small changes in their mRNA levels. Together, these findings set the stage for on-going analysis of the [START]M. sexta[END] immunogenome.
",23178408
0,7130,"Shifting Nicotiana attenuata's diurnal rhythm does not alter its resistance to the specialist herbivore [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Arabidopsis thaliana plants are less resistant to attack by the generalist lepidopteran herbivore Trichoplusia ni when plants and herbivores are entrained to opposite, versus identical diurnal cycles and tested under constant conditions. This effect is associated with circadian fluctuations in levels of jasmonic acid, the transcription factor MYC2, and glucosinolate contents in leaves. We tested whether a similar effect could be observed in a different plant-herbivore system: the wild tobacco Nicotiana attenuata and its co-evolved specialist herbivore, [START]Manduca sexta[END]. We measured larval growth on plants under both constant and diurnal conditions following identical or opposite entrainment, profiled the metabolome of attacked leaf tissue, quantified specific metabolites known to reduce [START]M. sexta[END] growth, and monitored [START]M. sexta[END] feeding activity under all experimental conditions. Entrainment did not consistently affect [START]M. sexta[END] growth or plant defense induction. However, both were reduced under constant dark conditions, as was [START]M. sexta[END] feeding activity. Our data indicate that the response induced by [START]M. sexta[END] in N. attenuata is robust to diurnal cues and independent of plant or herbivore entrainment. We propose that while the patterns of constitutive or general damage-induced defense may undergo circadian fluctuation, the orchestration of specific induced responses is more complex. 
",26699809
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] experience high parasitoid pressures in the field but minor fitness costs of consuming plant secondary compounds.
Plant-herbivore coevolutionary interactions have led to a range of plant defenses that minimize insect damage and a suite of counter adaptations that allow herbivores to feed on defended plants. Consuming plant secondary compounds results in herbivore growth and developmental costs but can have beneficial effects such as deterrence or harm of parasitoid enemies. Therefore, the role of secondary compounds on herbivore fitness must be considered in the context of the abundance and level of harm from natural enemies and the costs herbivores incur feeding on plant secondary compounds.In this study, I combined field measurements of Cotesia congregata wasp parasitism pressure with detailed measurements of the costs of plant secondary compounds across developmental stages in the herbivore host, [START]Manduca sexta[END].I show that C. congregata parasitoids exert large negative selective pressures, killing 31%-57% of [START]M. sexta[END] larvae in the field. [START]Manduca sexta[END] developed fastest during instars most at risk for parasitoid oviposition but growth was slowed by consumption of plant secondary compounds. The negative effects of consuming plant secondary compounds as larvae influenced adult size traits but there were no immune, survival, or fecundity costs.These results suggest that developmental costs experienced by [START]M. sexta[END] herbivores consuming defensive compounds are minor in comparison to the strong negative survival pressures from abundant parasitoid enemies.
",34707825
0,7130,"Odor tracking flight of male [START]Manduca sexta[END] moths along plumes of different cross-sectional area.
Males of the hawkmoth, [START]Manduca sexta[END], track wind-borne plumes of female sex pheromone by flying upwind, while continuously turning from side-to-side and changing altitude. Their characteristic ""zigzagging"" trajectory has long been thought to result from the interaction of two mechanisms, an odor-modulated orientation to wind and a built-in central nervous system turning program. An interesting and as of yet unanswered question about this tracking behavior is how the cross-section of an odor plume or its clean-air ""edges"" affects moths' odor tracking behavior. This study attempts to address this question by video recording and analyzing the behavior of freely flying [START]M. sexta[END] males tracking plumes from pheromone sources of different lengths and orientations with equal odor concentration per unit area. Our results showed that moths generated significantly wider tracks in wide plumes from the longest horizontally-oriented sources as compared to narrower point-source plumes, but had relatively unaltered tracks when orienting to plumes from the same length sources oriented vertically. This suggests that in addition to wind and the presence of pheromones, the area of the plume's cross section or its edges may also play an important role in the plume tracking mechanisms of [START]M. sexta[END]. 
",24081678
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] hemolymph protease-1, activated by an unconventional non-proteolytic mechanism, mediates immune responses.
Tissue damage or pathogen invasion triggers the auto-proteolysis of an initiating serine protease (SP), rapidly leading to sequential cleavage activation of other cascade members to set off innate immune responses in insects. Recently, we presented evidence that [START]Manduca sexta[END] hemolymph protease-1 zymogen (proHP1) is a member of the SP system in this species, and may activate proHP6. HP6 stimulates melanization and induces antimicrobial peptide synthesis. Here we report that proHP1 adopts an active conformation (*) to carry out its function, without a requirement for proteolytic activation. Affinity chromatography using HP1 antibodies isolated from induced hemolymph the 48 kDa proHP1 and also a 90 kDa band (detected by SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions) containing proHP1 and several serpins, as revealed by mass spectrometric analysis. Identification of tryptic peptides from these 90 kDa complexes included peptides from the amino-terminal regulatory part of proHP1, indicating that proHP1* was not cleaved, and that it had formed a complex with the serpins. As suicide inhibitors, serpins form SDS-stable, acyl-complexes when they are attacked by active proteases, indicating that proHP1* was catalytically active. Detection of [START]M. sexta[END] serpin-1, 4, 9, 13 and smaller amounts of serpin-3, 5, 6 in the complexes suggests that it is regulated by multiple serpins in hemolymph. We produced site-directed mutants of proHP1b for cleavage by bovine blood coagulation factor Xa at the designed proteolytic activation site, to generate a form of proHP1b that could be activated by Factor Xa. However, proHP1b cut by Factor Xa failed to activate proHP6 and, via HP6, proHP8 or proPAP1. This negative result is consistent with the suggestion that proHP1* is a physiological mediator of immune responses. Further research is needed to investigate the conformational change that results in conversion of proHP1 to active proHP1*.
",28366787
0,7130,"Illness-induced anorexia and its possible function in the caterpillar, [START]Manduca sexta[END].
Although many animals exhibit illness-induced anorexia when immune-challenged, the adaptive significance of this behavior remains unclear. Injecting [START]Manduca sexta[END] larvae (caterpillars) with live bacteria (Serratia marcescens), heat-killed bacteria or bacterial lipopolysaccharides resulted in a decline in feeding, demonstrating illness-induced anorexia in this species. We used [START]M. sexta[END] to test four commonly suggested adaptive functions for illness-induced anorexia. (1) Food deprivation did not reduce the iron content of the hemolymph. (2) Immune-challenged [START]M. sexta[END] were not more likely to move to a different part of the plant. Therefore, the decline in feeding is unlikely to be an adaptive response allowing the animal to move away from a patch of contaminated food. (3) [START]M. sexta[END] force-fed S. marcescens bacteria were not more susceptible to a S. marcescens systemic infection than were [START]M. sexta[END] force-fed nutrient broth. (4) Force-feeding infected [START]M. sexta[END] during illness-induced anorexia did not increase mortality and short-term food deprivation did not enhance survival. However, force-feeding [START]M. sexta[END] with a high lipid diet (linseed oil and water) resulted in an increase in mortality when challenged with S. marcescens. Force-feeding sucrose or water did not reduce resistance. Force-feeding a high lipid diet into healthy animals did not reduce weight gain, suggesting that it was not toxic. We hypothesize that there is a conflict between lipid metabolism and immune function, although whether this conflict has played a role in the evolution of illness-induced anorexia remains unknown. The adaptive function of illness-induced anorexia requires further study in both vertebrates and invertebrates.
",17126528
0,7130,"Molecular interactions between the specialist herbivore [START]Manduca sexta[END] (lepidoptera, sphingidae) and its natural host Nicotiana attenuata. VI. Microarray analysis reveals that most herbivore-specific transcriptional changes are mediated by fatty acid-amino acid conjugates.
Evidence is accumulating that insect-specific plant responses are mediated by constituents in the oral secretions and regurgitants (R) of herbivores, however the relative importance of the different potentially active constituents remains unclear. Fatty acid-amino acid conjugates (FACs) are found in the R of many insect herbivores and have been shown to be necessary and sufficient to elicit a set of herbivore-specific responses when the native tobacco plant Nicotiana attenuata is attacked by the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END]. Attack by this specialist herbivore results in a large transcriptional reorganization in N. attenuata, and 161 genes have been cloned from previous cDNA differential display-polymerase chain reaction and subtractive hybridization with magnetic beads analysis. cDNAs of these genes, in addition to those of 73 new R-responsive genes identified by cDNA-amplified fragment-length polymorphism display of R-elicited plants, were spotted on polyepoxide coated glass slides to create microarrays highly enriched in [START]Manduca[END] spp.- and R-induced genes. With these microarrays, we compare transcriptional responses in N. attenuata treated with R from the two most damaging lepidopteran herbivores of this plant in nature, [START]M. sexta[END] and Manduca quinquemaculata, which have very similar FAC compositions in their R, and with the two most abundant FACs in [START]Manduca[END] spp. R. More than 68% of the genes up- and down-regulated by [START]M. sexta[END] R were similarly regulated by M. quinquemaculata R. A majority of genes up-regulated (64%) and down-regulated (49%) by [START]M. sexta[END] R were similarly regulated by treatment with the two FACs. In contrast, few genes showed similar transcriptional changes after H(2)O(2)- and R-treatment. These results demonstrate that the two most abundant FACs in [START]Manduca[END] spp. R can account for the majority of [START]Manduca[END] spp.-induced alterations of the wound response of N. attenuata.
",12692348
0,7130,"Hyperphagocytic haemocytes in [START]Manduca sexta[END].
We have discovered a new type of haemocyte in the larval stage of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END] moth [START]Manduca sexta[END] that has extreme phagocytic ability; each cell can engulf up to 500 bacteria. This level of phagocytosis may be unprecedented among animal cells. Although these hyperphagocytic cells (HP) only represent about 1% of the circulating haemocytes, they are responsible for sequestering the majority of the bacteria by circulating haemocytes when non-pathogenic, heat-killed Escherichia coli are injected into the haemolymph. Extreme phagocytosis by HP is not limited to Gram-negative bacteria since heat-killed Staphylococcus aureus as well as positively and negatively charged microspheres are also highly phagocytosed. Evidence is presented to show that phagocytosis by HP is involved in the early stages of nodule formation in infected insects. In addition, HP are also present in non-infected insects, characterised by their distinctive spreading morphology, which becomes impaired following hyperphagocytosis of bacteria. This is the first time that a dedicated ""professional"" phagocytic class of haemocyte has been reported for an invertebrate. The importance of these specialised cell types in the [START]M. sexta[END] immune response and their role in nodule formation is discussed.
",15607505
0,7130,"Changes in composition and levels of hemolymph proteins during metamorphosis of [START]Manduca sexta[END].
The [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END], is a lepidopteran model species widely used to study insect biochemical processes. Some of its larval hemolymph proteins are well studied, and a detailed proteomic analysis of larval plasma proteins became available in 2016, revealing features such as correlation with transcriptome data, formation of immune complexes, and constitution of an immune signaling system in hemolymph. It is unclear how the composition of these proteins may change in other developmental stages. In this paper, we report the proteomes of cell-free hemolymph from prepupae, pupae on day 4 and day 13, and young adults. Of the 1824 proteins identified, 907 have a signal peptide and 410 are related to immunity. Drastic changes in abundance of the storage proteins, lipophorins and vitellogenin, for instance, reflect physiological differences among prepupae, pupae, and adults. Considerably more proteins lacking signal peptide are present in the late pupae, suggesting that plasma contains relatively low concentrations of intracellular components released from remodeling tissues during metamorphosis. The defense proteins detected include 43 serine proteases and 11 serine protease homologs. Some of these proteins are members of the extracellular immune signaling network found in feeding larvae, and others may play additional roles and hence confer new features in the later life stages. In summary, the proteins and their levels revealed in this study, together with their transcriptome data, are expected to stimulate focused explorations of humoral immunity and other physiological systems in wandering larvae, pupae, and adults of [START]M. sexta[END] and shed light upon functional and comparative genomic research in other holometabolous insects.
",33096211
0,7130,"[START]Manduca sexta[END] prophenoloxidase activating proteinase-1 (PAP-1) gene: organization, expression, and regulation by immune and hormonal signals.
Insect phenoloxidase (PO) participates in melanotic encapsulation, wound healing, and cuticle sclerotization. It is converted from prophenoloxidase (proPO) by a proPO-activating proteinase (PAP). [START]Manduca sexta[END] PAP-1, the final component of a serine proteinase cascade, cleaves proPO to generate active PO. In an effort to understand the transcriptional regulation, we isolated a genomic clone of the PAP-1 gene, determined its nucleotide sequence, and elucidated its exon-intron organization. Computer analysis revealed several immune and hormone responsive elements in the upstream region. Southern blot analysis suggested that the [START]M. sexta[END] genome contains a single copy of PAP-1 gene. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed that PAP-1 was constitutively expressed in fat body, trachea, and nerve tissue of the fifth instar larvae. The mRNA levels in hemocytes and fat body markedly increased in response to a bacterial challenge. We also observed tissue-specific and developmental regulation of the gene's transcription. Treating [START]M. sexta[END] fat body culture with 20-hydroxyecdysone reduced the PAP-1 mRNA level. These data indicated that the expression of PAP-1 gene is under the dual control of immune and hormonal signals.
",15857768
0,7130,"A Life's Journey Through Insect Metamorphosis.
This autobiographical article describes the research career of Lynn M. Riddiford from its early beginnings in a summer program for high school students at Jackson Laboratory to the present ""retirement"" at the Friday Harbor Laboratories. The emphasis is on her forays into many areas of insect endocrinology, supported by her graduate students and postdoctoral associates. The main theme is the hormonal regulation of metamorphosis, especially the roles of juvenile hormone (JH). The article describes the work of her laboratory first in the elucidation of the endocrinology of the [START]tobacco hornworm[END], [START]Manduca sexta[END], and later in the molecular aspects of the regulation of cuticular and pigment proteins and of the ecdysone-induced transcription factor cascade during molting and metamorphosis. Later studies utilized Drosophila melanogaster to answer further questions about the actions of JH.
",31600455
0,7067,"Proteins from [START]Tenebrio molitor[END]: An interesting functional ingredient and a source of ACE inhibitory peptides.
The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory potential of the main protein fractions from [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] larvae (TML) was examined to evaluate their use as a novel antihypertensive functional food. Both fractions contained YAN tripeptide, previously reported as responsible for ACE inhibition. Although YAN has been synthesized and was used as a standard for LC-MS/MS quantification and IC50 against ACE was determined, low yields of YAN from TML did not explain adequately the activity of the whole protein fraction. LC-HRMS/MS investigation led to the identification of other three peptides, which were evaluated in silico, synthesized and tested against ACE. Among them, tetrapeptide NIKY showed the most promising activity (52 microM), highlighting once more the potential of TML and paving the way for exploitation in novel foods.
",35751205
0,7067,"[START]Tenebrio molitor[END]: possible source of polystyrene-degrading bacteria.
BACKGROUND: The excessive use of polystyrene as a packaging material has resulted in a rise in environmental pollution. Polystyrene waste has continually increased water pollution, soil pollution and the closing of landfill sites since it is durable and resistant to biodegradation. Therefore, the challenge in polystyrene disposal has caused researchers to look for urgent innovative and eco-friendly solutions for plastic degradation. The current study focuses on the isolation and identification of bacteria produced by the larvae of beetle [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] ([START]yellow mealworms[END]), that enable them to survive when fed with polystyrene foam as their sole carbon diet. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The biodegradation of polystyrene by [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] was investigated by breeding and rearing the mealworms in the presence and absence of polystyrene. A comparison was made between those fed with a normal diet and those fed on polystyrene. The mealworms which were fed with polystyrene were then dissected and the guts were collected to isolate and identify the bacteria in their guts. The viability and metabolic activity of the isolates were investigated. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by sequencing was used for molecular identification of the isolates. The PCR products were directly sequenced using Sanger's method and the phylogenetic tree and molecular evolutionary analyses were constructed using MEGAX software with the Neighbour Joining algorithm. The evolutionary distances were computed using the Maximum Composite Likelihood method. RESULTS: The decrease in mass of the polystyrene as feedstock confirmed that the mealworms were depending on polystyrene as their sole carbon diet. The frass egested by mealworms also confirmed the biodegradation of polystyrene as it contained very tiny residues of polystyrene. Three isolates were obtained from the mealworms guts, and all were found to be gram-negative. The sequencing results showed that the isolates were Klebsiella oxytoca ATCC 13182, Klebsiella oxytoca NBRC 102593 and Klebsiella oxytoca JCM 1665. CONCLUSION: Klebsiella oxytoca ATCC 13182, Klebsiella oxytoca NBRC 102593 and Klebsiella oxytoca JCM 1665 maybe some of the bacteria responsible for polystyrene biodegradation.
",34983479
0,7067,"[START]Tenebrio molitor[END] in the circular economy: a novel approach for plastic valorisation and PHA biological recovery.
The increase in the world population leads to rising demand and consumption of plastic raw materials; only a small percentage of plastics is recovered and recycled, increasing the quantity of waste released into the environment and losing its economic value. The plastics represent a great opportunity in the circular perspective of their reuse and recycling. Research is moving, on the one hand, to implement sustainable systems for plastic waste management and on the other to find new non-fossil-based plastics such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). In this review, we focus our attention on [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] ([START]TM[END]) as a valuable solution for plastic biodegradation and biological recovery of new biopolymers (e.g. PHA) from plastic-producing microorganisms, exploiting its highly diversified gut microbiota. [START]TM[END]'s use for plastic pollution management is controversial. However, [START]TM[END] microbiota is recognised as a source of plastic-degrading microorganisms. [START]TM[END]-based plastic degradation is improved by co-feeding with food loss and waste as a dietary energy source, thus valorising these low-value substrates in a circular economy perspective. [START]TM[END] as a bioreactor is a valid alternative to traditional PHA recovery systems with the advantage of obtaining, in addition to highly pure PHA, protein biomass and rearing waste from which to produce fertilisers, chitin/chitosan, biochar and biodiesel. Finally, we describe the critical aspects of these [START]TM[END]-based approaches, mainly related to [START]TM[END] mass production, eventual food safety problems, possible release of microplastics and lack of dedicated legislation.
",34453255
0,7067,"Current Status of Immune Deficiency Pathway in [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] Innate Immunity.
[START]Yellow mealworm[END] ([START]Tenebrio molitor[END]) is a highly beneficial beetle that serves as an excellent source of edible protein as well as a practical study model. Therefore, studying its immune system is important. Like in other insects, the innate immune response effected through antimicrobial peptides production provides the most critical defense armory in [START]T. molitor[END]. Immune deficiency (Imd) signaling is one of the major pathways involved in the humoral innate immune response in this beetle. However, the nature of the molecules involved in the signaling cascade of the Imd pathway, from recognition to the production of final effectors, and their mechanism of action are yet to be elucidated in [START]T. molitor[END] model. In this review, we present a general overview of the current literature available on the Imd signaling pathway and its identified interaction partners in [START]T. molitor[END].
",35860244
0,7067,"Autophagy in [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] Immunity: Conserved Antimicrobial Functions in Insect Defenses.
The [START]yellow mealworm[END] beetle ([START]Tenebrio molitor[END]) has been exploited as an experimental model to unravel the intricacies of cellular and humoral immunity against pathogenic infections. Studies on this insect model have provided valuable insights into the phenotypic plasticity of immune defenses against parasites and pathogens. It has thus been possible to characterize the hemocoelic defenses of [START]T. molitor[END] that rely on the recognition of non-self-components of pathogens by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). The subsequent signaling cascade activating pathways such as the NF-kappaB controlled by Toll and IMD pathways lead to the synthesis of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), onset of hemocyte-driven phagocytosis, and activation of the prophenoloxidase cascade regulating the process of melanization. Nevertheless, the activation of autophagy-mediated defenses of [START]T. molitor[END] against the facultative intracellular gram-positive bacterium Listeria monocytogenes provides clear evidence of the existence of a cross-talk between autophagy and the IMD pathway. Moreover, the identification of several autophagy-related genes (Atgs) in [START]T. molitor[END] transcriptome and expressed sequence tag (EST) databases has contributed to the understanding of the autophagy-signaling cascade triggered by L. monocytogenes challenge. Providing further evidence of the cross-talk hypothesis, TmRelish has been shown to be required not only for regulating the synthesis of AMPs through the PGRP-LE/IMD pathway activation but also for the expression of Atgs in [START]T. molitor[END] larvae following L. monocytogenes challenge. Notably, L. monocytogenes can stimulate the [START]T. molitor[END] innate immune system by producing molecules recognized by the multifunctional PRR (TmPGRP-LE), which stimulates intracellular activation of the IMD pathway and autophagy. Considering the conservation of autophagy components involved in combating intracellular pathogens, it will be interesting to extrapolate a dynamic cross-talk model of immune activation. This review summarizes the most significant findings on the regulation of autophagy in [START]T. molitor[END] during L. monocytogenes infection and on the role of the innate immunity machinery, including the NF-kappaB pathway, in the control of pathogenic load.
",34135896
0,7067,"Sustainable farming of the mealworm [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] for the production of food and feed.
The farming of edible insects is an alternative strategy for the production of protein-rich food and feed with a low ecological footprint. The industrial production of insect-derived protein is more cost-effective and energy-efficient than livestock farming or aquaculture. The mealworm [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] is economically among the most important species used for the large-scale conversion of plant biomass into protein. Here, we review the mass rearing of this species and its conversion into food and feed, focusing on challenges such as the contamination of food/feed products with bacteria from the insect gut and the risk of rapidly spreading pathogens and parasites. We propose solutions to prevent the outbreak of infections among farmed insects without reliance on antibiotics. Transgenerational immune priming and probiotic bacteria may provide alternative strategies for sustainable insect farming.
",28525347
0,7067,"[START]Tenebrio molitor[END] as a source of interesting natural compounds, their recovery processes, biological effects, and safety aspects.
Nowadays, it is urgent to produce in larger quantities and more sustainably to reduce the gap between food supply and demand. In a circular bioeconomy vision, insects receive great attention as a sustainable alternative to satisfy food and nutritional needs. Among all insects, [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] ([START]TM[END]) is the first insect approved by the European Food Safety Authority as a novel food in specific conditions and uses, testifying its growing relevance and potential. This review holistically presents the possible role of [START]TM[END] in the sustainable and circular solution to the growing needs for food and nutrients. We analyze all high value-added products obtained from [START]TM[END] (powders and extracts, oils and fatty acids, proteins and peptides, and chitin and chitosan), their recovery processes (evaluating the best ones in technical and environmental terms), their nutritional and economical values, and their biological effects. Safety aspects are also mentioned. [START]TM[END] potential is undoubted, but some aspects still need to be discussed, including the health effects of substances and microorganisms in its body, the optimal production conditions (that affect product quality and safety), and [START]TM[END] capacity to convert by-products into new products. Environmental, economic, social, and market feasibility studies are also required to analyze the new value chains. Finally, to unlock the enormous potential of edible insects as a source of nutritious and sustainable food, it will be necessary to overcome the cultural, psychological, and regulatory barriers still present in Western countries.
",34773434
0,7067,"[START]Tenebrio molitor[END] (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)-Optimization of Rearing Conditions to Obtain Desired Nutritional Values.
The present study dealt with the influence of temperature and feed on the nutritional value of [START]Tenebrio molitor[END], especially on the content of crude protein, amino acids, fat, and fatty acid profile. [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] larvae were kept in 15, 20, and 25 C and fed with wheat bran, lentil flour, and mixture. The parameters were analyzed by international standard methods. Generally, with an increase of the lentils in the feed, the crude protein content increased. The changes in the temperature and the feed were most pronounced on the essential amino acids Val, Arg, and Leu. The highest average fat content was determined at 20 C in insects fed with wheat bran. The lowest fat content was determined at 15 C in bran-fed insects. The dependency of fat content on the temperature in feeding with lentil flour and a mixture of wheat bran and lentil flour was statistically insignificant (P > 0.05, Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney post hoc tests). The highest content of polyene fatty acids was achieved at a rearing temperature of 15 C and the bran diet. It was concluded that a higher proportion of protein diet could increase the content of crude protein in the insects. An increase in the temperature generally leads only to a slight increase in the content of nitrogenous substances. The influence of feed on this nutritional parameter is therefore much more significant than the effect of the rearing temperature. In general, it can be stated that the feed and the temperature also significantly affect the fat content.
",33089873
0,7067,"The Wnt gene family in [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] and other coleopterans.
The Wnt gene family is involved in a wide range of developmental processes. Despite its significance, the evolution and function of Wnt genes remain largely unclear. Here, an exhaustive survey of Wnt genes was conducted in [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] and 17 other beetle genomes. A total of 146 Wnt genes were identified, creating a comprehensive coleopteran Wnt gene catalog. Comparative genomics indicates that dynamic evolutionary patterns of Wnt gene loss and duplication occurred in Coleoptera, leading to the diverse Wnt gene repertoire in various beetles. A striking loss of particular Wnt gene subfamilies occurs in Coleoptera. Remarkably, Wnt gene duplication was discovered for the first time in insects. Further analysis of Wnt gene expression in [START]T. molitor[END] indicates that each Wnt gene, including the duplicated ones, has a unique spatial or temporal expression pattern. The current study provides valuable insight into the evolution and functional validation of Wnt genes in Coleoptera.
",35584033
0,7067,"Neuropeptidomes of [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] L. and Zophobas atratus Fab. (Coleoptera, Polyphaga: Tenebrionidae).
Neuropeptides are signaling molecules that regulate almost all physiological processes in animals. Around 50 different genes for neuropeptides have been described in insects. In Coleoptera, which is the largest insect order based on numbers of described species, knowledge about neuropeptides and protein hormones is still limited to a few species. Here, we analyze the neuropeptidomes of two closely related tenebrionid beetles: [START]Tenebrio molitor[END] and Zophobas atratus both of which are model species in physiological and pharmacological research. We combined transcriptomic and mass spectrometry analyses of the central nervous system to identify neuropeptides and neuropeptide-like and protein hormones. Several precursors were identified in [START]T. molitor[END] and Z. atratus, of which 50 and 40, respectively, were confirmed by mass spectrometry. This study provides the basis for further functional studies of neuropeptides as well as for the design of environmentally friendly and species-specific peptidomimetics to be used as biopesticides. Furthermore, since [START]T. molitor[END] has become accepted by the European Food Safety Authority as a novel food, a deeper knowledge of the neuropeptidome of this species will prove useful for optimizing production programs at an industrial scale.
",36107737