BACKGROUND
dictyostelium discoideum is a compact amoeba that spends much of its natural existence crawling through the soil, searching for and ingesting bacteria.
when food sources are exhausted, individual amoebae trigger a developmental program that initiates both inter and intracellular signaling, to aggregate ~ <dig>  amoebae and form a multicellular mass.
each cell within this mass undergoes multiple adhesions and conformational changes, forming a cooperative slug that can migrate to new areas.
the slug undergoes further multicellular differentiation to form supportive stalk cells, a rudimentary immuno-like surveillance system, and regenerative spores that resist environmental stresses.
this dualistic life cycle and its associated transitions  have made dictyostelium an attractive model in which to study cell motility, signal transduction, and a relatively simple developmental program .
motility-wise, dictyostelium behaves in a manner similar to that of many vertebrate cells .
yet, this organism clearly retains a simplicity associated with its relatively small and compact genome, and exhibits features commonly seen in protozoa and fungi .
characterization of the actin cytoskeleton in dictyostelium has led to the identification of actin binding proteins, multiple myosin motors, and signaling cascades whose functions are conserved among eukaryotic cells.
preliminary characterization of the microtubule-associated network has revealed a level of complexity intermediate between some of the simple single-celled eukaryotes and metazoans.
for example, the machinery in dictyostelium that drives movement along microtubules contains  <dig> motors ; twice the number found in saccharomyces cerevisiae  <cit> , but less than a quarter of the number encoded in the human genome  <cit> .
paradoxically, deletions of kinesins whose homologs are essential for vertebrate activities have produced relatively mild phenotypes in dictyostelium.
are these results reflective of dictyostelium's unique life cycle?
or do they reveal core functional redundancies and interactions that, like the actin system work, can be utilized to understand microtubule-based motor action in more complex systems?
because of their homologies to motors with known functions,  <dig> of the  <dig> kinesins in dictyostelium can be placed within existing kinesin families and subdivided into two functional categories .
four members are closely related to kinesins in metazoans that have organelle transport functions, while eight members are related to motors significant for mitotic events.
to date, six individual kinesins have been genetically disrupted by homologous recombination in dictyostelium , producing varied effects on cell function.
disruption of kif <dig>  resulted in significant cytokinetic defects  <cit> .
kif12- cells failed to divide in suspension, but were able to undergo non-mitotic cytofission on a surface to enable their propagation.
for each of the other five kinesins, single deletions did not produce significant effects on cell development or viability.
however, closer examination revealed defects suggestive of redundant or cooperative effects with other motor activities.
for example, kif1- cells  showed a 62% decrease in overall organelle movements in vivo  <cit> .
there was a 90% reduction in plus end-directed motility as measured in an in vitro assay, but no demonstrable effects on mitochondrial movement.
when examined in detail, kif13- cells  showed an increased rate and decreased stability of mitotic spindle elongation  <cit> .
when combined with an otherwise viable dynein perturbation , kif13-/ <dig> k cells were unable to divide properly.
kif2- , kif5- , and kif7-  cells showed mitotic, actin-filament, and developmental defects respectively, but only when challenged with overexpression or competition assays that further stressed the individual cells  <cit> .
in contrast, mammalian homologs of kif <dig>  kif <dig>  kif <dig>  were found to be essential for cell viability  <cit> .
thus the non-lethal disruption of these genes in dictyostelium offers us the opportunities to examine basal motor activities and interactions, to further understand the motors functions and regulation.
we address here the consequences of individual disruption of four kinesin genes in dictyostelium, and we contrast the functional redundancies among such motors in single-celled organisms with their functional specificity in metazoan organisms.
RESULTS
kif <dig>  kif <dig>  kif <dig>  and kif <dig> are not essential genes in dictyostelium
genomic fragments of kif <dig>  kif <dig>  kif <dig>  and kif <dig> were isolated by pcr amplification of wild-type ax- <dig> cell dna, and were used to generate deletion-mutant alleles for their respective kinesin genes .
a similar strategy was followed for each gene.
internal restriction enzyme sites of the amplified fragments were utilized to replace coding sequence with a  <dig> -kb blasticidin resistance cassette.
genomic sequences flanking the cassette  targeted the insertion of these mutant alleles into their wild-type gene by homologous recombination, and thus disrupted transcription of the native gene product.
integration of the mutant alleles at their correct sites was confirmed by pcr and southern blot analyses .
northern blot analysis further confirmed loss of full-length mrna in kif8-, kif10-, and kif11- transformants .
there was no evidence for shorter transcripts that would indicate partial expression of the sequence upstream of the integration site for these three clones.
northern blots of kif4- were performed, but we were unable to detect the native message in wild-type cells.
very low message levels of the kif <dig> gene, undetectable during log phase growth has been previously reported  <cit> , and is consistent with tight cell-cycle regulation of kinesin-7/cenp-e homologs in other organisms  <cit> .
individual disruptions of all four kinesins resulted in viable cells with no gross morphological defects.
cells were comparable in size with wild-type controls and retained the ability to undergo a complete developmental cycle so as to generate viable spores .
kif8-, kif10-, and kif11- cells grew at log-phase rates indistinguishable from wild-type ax- <dig> cells .
interestingly, kif4- cells grew significantly more slowly than the wild type, or the other three kinesin-null strains.
this reduced growth rate was observed both in solution  and on solid support in petri dishes.
kif11- cells appeared to reach stationary phase at a higher density than the other strains, but otherwise showed no difference in viability or morphology than wild type cells.
microtubule distributions appear normal in kinesin null cells
since these motors interact with and move along microtubules, and since motor activity is responsible for significant microtubule movement in dictyostelium, we stained fixed cells with tubulin antibodies to determine whether deletions led to any aberrant microtubule distributions.
figure  <dig> shows a gallery of interphase cells from wild-type ax- <dig> cells and from the four kinesin mutant lines.
all cells display the conventional radial distribution of microtubules that emanate from a centrally located organizing center , and, in the few examples shown of binucleate cells, the two centrosomes remain spatially distinct.
interestingly, mtocs are less distinct in the kif8- and kif10- cell lines than they are in wild-type, kif4-, or kif11- cells.
mtoc's are present in the individual image slices of kif8- or kif10- cells, but when summed as projections, the ring like appearance of the dictyostelium centrosome is either less apparent or the microtubules do not seem as tightly focused into this structure .
there were no obvious morphological defects in mitotic microtubule arrays in any of the four kinesin null strains , although this qualitative observation should be examined in greater detail .
kif <dig>  kif <dig>  and dynein cooperate to organize interphase microtubules
we previously characterized a dominant-negative, dynein-mediated defect whereby the entire microtubule network in interphase cells became motile and circulated throughout the cytoplasm   <cit> .
the directionality of such motion suggested a role for a kinesin-like motor that pushes against microtubules.
to address whether any of the kinesins examined here could have been responsible for generating that aberrant motility, we expressed the 380-kda dynein motor fragment in each of the four kinesin null backgrounds.
the distinctive comet-like microtubule phenotype was found in  <dig> % of the control  <dig> k cells, and in roughly half of the kif4- and kif11- cell lines  .
however, expression of the 380-kda polypeptide in either kif8- or kif10- cells, at levels comparable to affect microtubule organization in control cells , failed to create aberrant microtubule arrays  .
these results suggest that dynein, kif <dig>  and kif <dig> cooperate in producing lateral microtubule motions that organize the interphase microtubule distribution.
numbers represent individual fixed cells, either containing a normal, radial interphase microtubule array , or a mutant comet-like microtubule array  resulting from dynein motor overexpression  in different control or kinesin null cell stains.
% comet refers to the percentage of total cells that showed the distinctive mutant phenotype.
kif <dig> and dynein cooperate in mitotic spindle assembly
the kif4- deletion is notable, since these cells grow significantly slower than the three other kinesin knockout strains.
interestingly, kif4- cells appear normal in shape and size, indicating that the slow growth is not the result of structurally defective cell division .
when kif4- cells were transformed with the 380-kda expression plasmid, the cell growth rate was reduced even further.
while cells grown on a solid surface gradually increased in number, suspension cultures of kif4-/ <dig> k cells remained at their initial cell density, even when measured for as long as a week.
although defective mitotic figures were not evident in the kinesin-alone knockouts, there was a significant increase in aberrant spindle formation in kif4-/ <dig> k cells.
66% of the observed mitotic kif4-/ <dig> k cells  showed division defects of various types, including multi-polar spindles and supernumerary or fragmented centrosomes .
although normal-appearing spindles were found among the cell population, it is probable that defective spindle assembly plays a major role in the decreased growth rate of these cells.
the results described here indicate that kif <dig> and dynein cooperate in some aspect of mitotic spindle assembly; closer evaluation of cell division in these cells is in progress.
discussion
we have presented gene deletions for four of the  <dig> kinesin family members in dictyostelium, and have described the effects of these deletions on cell growth and viability.
individually, none of the four gene products is essential for cell viability nor do the proteins play critical roles in this organism's ability to undergo chemotaxis or to develop upon starvation.
the knockout strains do, however, show subtle defects suggesting that many of the key forms of intracellular motility essential for dictyostelium biosynthesis and reproduction are supported by more than one motor protein.
in wild-type dictyostelium cells, both plus end-directed microtubule pushing, and minus end-directed pulling forces are important for maintenance of centrosome position and the radial distribution of interphase microtubules  <cit> .
if minus end-directed dynein motility is impaired, a kinesin-like activity appears to dominate and push both the centrosome and microtubule array throughout the cytoplasm  <cit> .
here we have identified two kinesins, kif <dig>  and kif <dig> , that appear to collaborate with dynein in this organization process.
in other eukaryotic cells, kinesin- <dig> motors participate in a number of diverse activities  <cit> .
one subset of kinesin- <dig> family members  function during mitotic events, with chromatin- and spindle-associated motors that organize bipolar microtubule assemblies and facilitate chromosome alignment  <cit> .
other subsets of kinesin- <dig> motors  appear to power interphase organelle transport in cultured cells such as fibroblasts and post-mitotic neurons  <cit> .
the single dictyostelium kinesin- <dig>  is a divergent member of this family, the motor domain is most closely homologous with kif <dig> subfamily, yet it contains carboxy-terminal wd- <dig> repeat motifs in the heavy chain tail that are characteristic of the kif <dig> subfamily  <cit> .
the kinesin- <dig> family of motors  is thought to mediate chromosome movements through a combination of translocation and microtubule depolymerization activities  has previously been shown to cooperate with dynein in positioning mitotic spindles through cortically mediated force production and through control of microtubule length  <cit> .
deletions of kinesin- <dig> isoforms in schizosaccharomyces pombe also suggest a combined force and length control mechanism that positions nuclei and spindles through microtubule-cortex interactions  <cit> .
in the absence of either kinesin- <dig> or kinesin- <dig> in dictyostelium, we are unable to induce the distinctive centrosome movements via dynein motor overexpression.
it is conceivable that kif <dig> and kif <dig> counterbalance dynein-mediated forces through force-production or anchoring activities at the cell cortex  and via lateral microtubule-microtubule interactions  that supply sufficient rigidity to allow plus end-directed motors to effectively push  microtubules.
in wild-type dictyostelium, the balance between opposing dynein and kinesin motor activities serves to reinforce the centrosome position and help maintain the radial character of the interphase microtubule array as these cells crawl around and change shape.
disruption of the kinesin- <dig> motor  in the mouse is embryonic lethal  <cit> ; this motor is thought to be essential for the proper connection between kinetochores of condensed chromosomes and the mitotic spindle  <cit> .
in contrast, neither member of the kinesin- <dig> family in dictyostelium  is essential for mitosis, although removal of kif <dig>  the isoform that is most homologous to the vertebrate kinetochore cenp-e greatly affects cell growth rate.
preliminary characterization of kif <dig> suggests that this motor functions together with dynein in organizing spindle assembly during cell division.
while the motor domain of kif <dig> is homologous with the kinesin- <dig> family  <cit> , this polypeptide is significantly shorter and expressed at a much higher level than other cenp-e-like proteins.
outside of a minor enhancement of stationary phase cell density, removal of this motor has no obvious effect on cell viability or function.
closer inspection of each kinesin, and of cells lacking their expression will be required before we can fully understand their individual function
our study here extends previous work from several laboratories that, taken together, have individually deleted  <dig> of the total  <dig> kinesins in dictyostelium  <cit> .
all of these deletions have proven to generate cell lines that can survive over multiple generations of growth, indicating that none of these  <dig> kinesin motors is immediately required for cell viability.
although the kif <dig> disruption  produced significant defects in cytokinesis, mutant cells were still able to undergo some form of division that allows strain propagation  <cit> .
the only, potentially essential, kinesin gene reported so far in dictyostelium encodes one of the organelle transporter motors, kif <dig>  <cit> .
kif <dig> can be isolated biochemically and shown capable of powering microtubule gliding, but efforts by röhlk et al,  <cit>  and in our own lab  have not yet yielded viable cells lacking this motor.
the resiliency of dictyostelium to motor disruptions is similar to systematic analyses of kinesin isoforms in s. cerevisiae, where all six kinesin-related motors  can be individually deleted without loss of viability  <cit> .
the yeast work provided a major guiding principle, for it was the first to suggest that high degree of functional redundancy is present among kinesin family members, and that deletion of motor combinations is required to inhibit cell division.
although, to our knowledge, complete survey disruptions have not yet been reported in other simple eukaryotes, there are clear indications of motor redundancy in some cell models such as s. pombe  <cit> , aspergillus nidulans,  <cit> and ustilago maydis  <cit> .
the kinesins in dictyostelium likewise possess overlapping functions.
the evolutionary transition from very simple single-celled eukaryotes into metazoans generally correlates with an increased number of gene family members.
s. cerevisiae contains  <dig> kinesin genes  <cit> ; s. pombe has  <dig>  <cit> ; u. maydis has  <dig>  <cit> ; and a. nidulans has  <dig>  <cit> ).
in contrast, even the primitive metazoan caenorhabditis elegans has  <dig> kinesin genes  <cit> ; drosophila melanogaster has  <dig>  <cit> , and the human genome codes for  <dig> kinesins  <cit>  .
one might expect that larger gene families enhance the opportunity for redundant mechanisms, but at least for kinesins, the opposite seems to hold true .
despite the greater number of motor sequences, human cell lines appear far more sensitive to disruption of individual kinesins than do yeast or dictyostelium.
cell division and organelle transport is likely more complex in metazoans, entailing open nuclear spindles, strict spindle position and orientation requirements, cell-type specificities, and many transport features that are not required in unicellular organisms.
thus one could argue that in metazoans, each kinesin motor is custom built for one selective function while in simpler eukaryotes, the motors retain a more generic ability to power microtubule-based transport in a variety of contexts.
understanding the functional details of the same kinesin ortholog in different organisms will therefore define sequence motifs that lead to essential and non-essential functions of basically the same engine, and thus will lead to a more complete understanding of how the motor protein operates.
normal text , italicized text  differentiates the individual kinesin-isoform disruptions  and their effects on mitosis.
the bold text for the kinesin- <dig> family members indicates cytokinesis defects.
in this case, cells can proceed through one or more divisions, but longer term, the mutated protein is essential for organism viability.
references for s.c  <cit> , d.d <cit> , c.e  <cit> , d.m  <cit> , and h.s  <cit> .
CONCLUSIONS
analysis of the kinesin gene family in dictyostelium suggests that a significant level of functional redundancy or overlap exists among the organism's motor activities.
this result is similar to findings from functional analyses performed in basal organisms such as yeast and fungi, but it contrasts sharply with the roles of individual motors in metazoans.
at first glance, most of the kinesins in dictyostelium can be deleted individually without penalty to growth or viability.
yet, upon closer scrutiny or in cases where we impose under additional stresses, we can discern clear phenotypic changes in the cell that provide insight into motor function that may not be obvious in other organisms.
given its greater complement of motor isoforms, and its greater utility of microtubule function relative to other basal eukaryotes, dictyostelium offers an interesting model in which to investigate functional interactions and the regulation of multiple motor proteins.

 dictyostelium discoideum is a compact amoeba that spends much of its natural existence crawling through the soil, searching for and ingesting bacteria. when food sources are exhausted, individual amoebae trigger a developmental program that initiates both inter and intracellular signaling, to aggregate ~ amoebae and form a multicellular mass. each cell within this mass undergoes multiple adhesions and conformational changes, forming a cooperative slug that can migrate to new areas. the slug undergoes further multicellular differentiation to form supportive stalk cells, a rudimentary immuno-like surveillance system, and regenerative spores that resist environmental stresses. this dualistic life cycle and its associated transitions have made dictyostelium an attractive model in which to study cell motility, signal transduction, and a relatively simple developmental program. motility-wise, dictyostelium behaves in a manner similar to that of many vertebrate cells. yet, this organism clearly retains a simplicity associated with its relatively small and compact genome, and exhibits features commonly seen in protozoa and fungi. characterization of the actin cytoskeleton in dictyostelium has led to the identification of actin binding proteins, multiple myosin motors, and signaling cascades whose functions are conserved among eukaryotic cells. preliminary characterization of the microtubule-associated network has revealed a level of complexity intermediate between some of the simple single-celled eukaryotes and metazoans. for example, the machinery in dictyostelium that drives movement along microtubules contains motors; twice the number found in saccharomyces cerevisiae, but less than a quarter of the number encoded in the human genome. paradoxically, deletions of kinesins whose homologs are essential for vertebrate activities have produced relatively mild phenotypes in dictyostelium. are these results reflective of dictyostelium's unique life cycle? or do they reveal core functional redundancies and interactions that, like the actin system work, can be utilized to understand microtubule-based motor action in more complex systems? because of their homologies to motors with known functions, of the kinesins in dictyostelium can be placed within existing kinesin families and subdivided into two functional categories. four members are closely related to kinesins in metazoans that have organelle transport functions, while eight members are related to motors significant for mitotic events. to date, six individual kinesins have been genetically disrupted by homologous recombination in dictyostelium, producing varied effects on cell function. disruption of kif resulted in significant cytokinetic defects. kif12- cells failed to divide in suspension, but were able to undergo non-mitotic cytofission on a surface to enable their propagation. for each of the other five kinesins, single deletions did not produce significant effects on cell development or viability. however, closer examination revealed defects suggestive of redundant or cooperative effects with other motor activities. for example, kif1- cells showed a 62% decrease in overall organelle movements in vivo. there was a 90% reduction in plus end-directed motility as measured in an in vitro assay, but no demonstrable effects on mitochondrial movement. when examined in detail, kif13- cells showed an increased rate and decreased stability of mitotic spindle elongation. when combined with an otherwise viable dynein perturbation, kif13-/ k cells were unable to divide properly. kif2-, kif5-, and kif7- cells showed mitotic, actin-filament, and developmental defects respectively, but only when challenged with overexpression or competition assays that further stressed the individual cells. in contrast, mammalian homologs of kif kif kif were found to be essential for cell viability. thus the non-lethal disruption of these genes in dictyostelium offers us the opportunities to examine basal motor activities and interactions, to further understand the motors functions and regulation. we address here the consequences of individual disruption of four kinesin genes in dictyostelium, and we contrast the functional redundancies among such motors in single-celled organisms with their functional specificity in metazoan organisms.  kif kif kif and kif are not essential genes in dictyostelium genomic fragments of kif kif kif and kif were isolated by pcr amplification of wild-type ax- cell dna, and were used to generate deletion-mutant alleles for their respective kinesin genes. a similar strategy was followed for each gene. internal restriction enzyme sites of the amplified fragments were utilized to replace coding sequence with a -kb blasticidin resistance cassette. genomic sequences flanking the cassette targeted the insertion of these mutant alleles into their wild-type gene by homologous recombination, and thus disrupted transcription of the native gene product. integration of the mutant alleles at their correct sites was confirmed by pcr and southern blot analyses. northern blot analysis further confirmed loss of full-length mrna in kif8-, kif10-, and kif11- transformants. there was no evidence for shorter transcripts that would indicate partial expression of the sequence upstream of the integration site for these three clones. northern blots of kif4- were performed, but we were unable to detect the native message in wild-type cells. very low message levels of the kif gene, undetectable during log phase growth has been previously reported, and is consistent with tight cell-cycle regulation of kinesin-7/cenp-e homologs in other organisms. individual disruptions of all four kinesins resulted in viable cells with no gross morphological defects. cells were comparable in size with wild-type controls and retained the ability to undergo a complete developmental cycle so as to generate viable spores. kif8-, kif10-, and kif11- cells grew at log-phase rates indistinguishable from wild-type ax- cells. interestingly, kif4- cells grew significantly more slowly than the wild type, or the other three kinesin-null strains. this reduced growth rate was observed both in solution and on solid support in petri dishes. kif11- cells appeared to reach stationary phase at a higher density than the other strains, but otherwise showed no difference in viability or morphology than wild type cells. microtubule distributions appear normal in kinesin null cells since these motors interact with and move along microtubules, and since motor activity is responsible for significant microtubule movement in dictyostelium, we stained fixed cells with tubulin antibodies to determine whether deletions led to any aberrant microtubule distributions. figure shows a gallery of interphase cells from wild-type ax- cells and from the four kinesin mutant lines. all cells display the conventional radial distribution of microtubules that emanate from a centrally located organizing center, and, in the few examples shown of binucleate cells, the two centrosomes remain spatially distinct. interestingly, mtocs are less distinct in the kif8- and kif10- cell lines than they are in wild-type, kif4-, or kif11- cells. mtoc's are present in the individual image slices of kif8- or kif10- cells, but when summed as projections, the ring like appearance of the dictyostelium centrosome is either less apparent or the microtubules do not seem as tightly focused into this structure. there were no obvious morphological defects in mitotic microtubule arrays in any of the four kinesin null strains, although this qualitative observation should be examined in greater detail. kif kif and dynein cooperate to organize interphase microtubules we previously characterized a dominant-negative, dynein-mediated defect whereby the entire microtubule network in interphase cells became motile and circulated throughout the cytoplasm. the directionality of such motion suggested a role for a kinesin-like motor that pushes against microtubules. to address whether any of the kinesins examined here could have been responsible for generating that aberrant motility, we expressed the 380-kda dynein motor fragment in each of the four kinesin null backgrounds. the distinctive comet-like microtubule phenotype was found in % of the control k cells, and in roughly half of the kif4- and kif11- cell lines. however, expression of the 380-kda polypeptide in either kif8- or kif10- cells, at levels comparable to affect microtubule organization in control cells, failed to create aberrant microtubule arrays. these results suggest that dynein, kif and kif cooperate in producing lateral microtubule motions that organize the interphase microtubule distribution. numbers represent individual fixed cells, either containing a normal, radial interphase microtubule array, or a mutant comet-like microtubule array resulting from dynein motor overexpression in different control or kinesin null cell stains. % comet refers to the percentage of total cells that showed the distinctive mutant phenotype. kif and dynein cooperate in mitotic spindle assembly the kif4- deletion is notable, since these cells grow significantly slower than the three other kinesin knockout strains. interestingly, kif4- cells appear normal in shape and size, indicating that the slow growth is not the result of structurally defective cell division. when kif4- cells were transformed with the 380-kda expression plasmid, the cell growth rate was reduced even further. while cells grown on a solid surface gradually increased in number, suspension cultures of kif4-/ k cells remained at their initial cell density, even when measured for as long as a week. although defective mitotic figures were not evident in the kinesin-alone knockouts, there was a significant increase in aberrant spindle formation in kif4-/ k cells. 66% of the observed mitotic kif4-/ k cells showed division defects of various types, including multi-polar spindles and supernumerary or fragmented centrosomes. although normal-appearing spindles were found among the cell population, it is probable that defective spindle assembly plays a major role in the decreased growth rate of these cells. the results described here indicate that kif and dynein cooperate in some aspect of mitotic spindle assembly; closer evaluation of cell division in these cells is in progress. discussion we have presented gene deletions for four of the kinesin family members in dictyostelium, and have described the effects of these deletions on cell growth and viability. individually, none of the four gene products is essential for cell viability nor do the proteins play critical roles in this organism's ability to undergo chemotaxis or to develop upon starvation. the knockout strains do, however, show subtle defects suggesting that many of the key forms of intracellular motility essential for dictyostelium biosynthesis and reproduction are supported by more than one motor protein. in wild-type dictyostelium cells, both plus end-directed microtubule pushing, and minus end-directed pulling forces are important for maintenance of centrosome position and the radial distribution of interphase microtubules. if minus end-directed dynein motility is impaired, a kinesin-like activity appears to dominate and push both the centrosome and microtubule array throughout the cytoplasm. here we have identified two kinesins, kif and kif, that appear to collaborate with dynein in this organization process. in other eukaryotic cells, kinesin- motors participate in a number of diverse activities. one subset of kinesin- family members function during mitotic events, with chromatin- and spindle-associated motors that organize bipolar microtubule assemblies and facilitate chromosome alignment. other subsets of kinesin- motors appear to power interphase organelle transport in cultured cells such as fibroblasts and post-mitotic neurons. the single dictyostelium kinesin- is a divergent member of this family, the motor domain is most closely homologous with kif subfamily, yet it contains carboxy-terminal wd- repeat motifs in the heavy chain tail that are characteristic of the kif subfamily. the kinesin- family of motors is thought to mediate chromosome movements through a combination of translocation and microtubule depolymerization activities has previously been shown to cooperate with dynein in positioning mitotic spindles through cortically mediated force production and through control of microtubule length. deletions of kinesin- isoforms in schizosaccharomyces pombe also suggest a combined force and length control mechanism that positions nuclei and spindles through microtubule-cortex interactions. in the absence of either kinesin- or kinesin- in dictyostelium, we are unable to induce the distinctive centrosome movements via dynein motor overexpression. it is conceivable that kif and kif counterbalance dynein-mediated forces through force-production or anchoring activities at the cell cortex and via lateral microtubule-microtubule interactions that supply sufficient rigidity to allow plus end-directed motors to effectively push microtubules. in wild-type dictyostelium, the balance between opposing dynein and kinesin motor activities serves to reinforce the centrosome position and help maintain the radial character of the interphase microtubule array as these cells crawl around and change shape. disruption of the kinesin- motor in the mouse is embryonic lethal; this motor is thought to be essential for the proper connection between kinetochores of condensed chromosomes and the mitotic spindle. in contrast, neither member of the kinesin- family in dictyostelium is essential for mitosis, although removal of kif the isoform that is most homologous to the vertebrate kinetochore cenp-e greatly affects cell growth rate. preliminary characterization of kif suggests that this motor functions together with dynein in organizing spindle assembly during cell division. while the motor domain of kif is homologous with the kinesin- family, this polypeptide is significantly shorter and expressed at a much higher level than other cenp-e-like proteins. outside of a minor enhancement of stationary phase cell density, removal of this motor has no obvious effect on cell viability or function. closer inspection of each kinesin, and of cells lacking their expression will be required before we can fully understand their individual function our study here extends previous work from several laboratories that, taken together, have individually deleted of the total kinesins in dictyostelium. all of these deletions have proven to generate cell lines that can survive over multiple generations of growth, indicating that none of these kinesin motors is immediately required for cell viability. although the kif disruption produced significant defects in cytokinesis, mutant cells were still able to undergo some form of division that allows strain propagation. the only, potentially essential, kinesin gene reported so far in dictyostelium encodes one of the organelle transporter motors, kif. kif can be isolated biochemically and shown capable of powering microtubule gliding, but efforts by röhlk et al, and in our own lab have not yet yielded viable cells lacking this motor. the resiliency of dictyostelium to motor disruptions is similar to systematic analyses of kinesin isoforms in s. cerevisiae, where all six kinesin-related motors can be individually deleted without loss of viability. the yeast work provided a major guiding principle, for it was the first to suggest that high degree of functional redundancy is present among kinesin family members, and that deletion of motor combinations is required to inhibit cell division. although, to our knowledge, complete survey disruptions have not yet been reported in other simple eukaryotes, there are clear indications of motor redundancy in some cell models such as s. pombe, aspergillus nidulans, and ustilago maydis. the kinesins in dictyostelium likewise possess overlapping functions. the evolutionary transition from very simple single-celled eukaryotes into metazoans generally correlates with an increased number of gene family members. s. cerevisiae contains kinesin genes; s. pombe has; u. maydis has; and a. nidulans has ). in contrast, even the primitive metazoan caenorhabditis elegans has kinesin genes; drosophila melanogaster has, and the human genome codes for kinesins. one might expect that larger gene families enhance the opportunity for redundant mechanisms, but at least for kinesins, the opposite seems to hold true. despite the greater number of motor sequences, human cell lines appear far more sensitive to disruption of individual kinesins than do yeast or dictyostelium. cell division and organelle transport is likely more complex in metazoans, entailing open nuclear spindles, strict spindle position and orientation requirements, cell-type specificities, and many transport features that are not required in unicellular organisms. thus one could argue that in metazoans, each kinesin motor is custom built for one selective function while in simpler eukaryotes, the motors retain a more generic ability to power microtubule-based transport in a variety of contexts. understanding the functional details of the same kinesin ortholog in different organisms will therefore define sequence motifs that lead to essential and non-essential functions of basically the same engine, and thus will lead to a more complete understanding of how the motor protein operates. normal text, italicized text differentiates the individual kinesin-isoform disruptions and their effects on mitosis. the bold text for the kinesin- family members indicates cytokinesis defects. in this case, cells can proceed through one or more divisions, but longer term, the mutated protein is essential for organism viability. references for s.c, d.d, c.e, d.m, and h.s.  analysis of the kinesin gene family in dictyostelium suggests that a significant level of functional redundancy or overlap exists among the organism's motor activities. this result is similar to findings from functional analyses performed in basal organisms such as yeast and fungi, but it contrasts sharply with the roles of individual motors in metazoans. at first glance, most of the kinesins in dictyostelium can be deleted individually without penalty to growth or viability. yet, upon closer scrutiny or in cases where we impose under additional stresses, we can discern clear phenotypic changes in the cell that provide insight into motor function that may not be obvious in other organisms. given its greater complement of motor isoforms, and its greater utility of microtubule function relative to other basal eukaryotes, dictyostelium offers an interesting model in which to investigate functional interactions and the regulation of multiple motor proteins. 
removal of kif significantly impairs the rate of cell growth and, when combined with a previously characterized dynein inhibition, results in dramatic defects in mitotic spindle assembly. our work underscores the functional redundancy of motor isoforms in basal organisms while highlighting motor specificity in more complex metazoans. the results reported here extend the number of kinesin gene disruptions in dictyostelium, to now total among the isoforms. we performed individual disruptions of the kinesin genes, kif kif kif and kif none of the motors encoded by these genes are essential for development or viability of dictyostelium. using a gene knockout strategy, we address here the individual function of four of the kinesin proteins in dictyostelium. kinesin and dynein are the two families of microtubule-based motors that drive much of the intracellular movements in eukaryotic cells. since motor disruption in dictyostelium can readily be combined with other motility insults and stresses, this organism offers an excellent system to investigate functional interactions among the kinesin motor family.
 kinesin and dynein are the two families of microtubule-based motors that drive much of the intracellular movements in eukaryotic cells. using a gene knockout strategy, we address here the individual function of four of the kinesin proteins in dictyostelium. the goal of our ongoing project is to establish a minimal motility proteome for this basal eukaryote, enabling us to contrast motor functions here with the often far more elaborate motor families in the metazoans.  we performed individual disruptions of the kinesin genes, kif kif kif and kif none of the motors encoded by these genes are essential for development or viability of dictyostelium. removal of kif significantly impairs the rate of cell growth and, when combined with a previously characterized dynein inhibition, results in dramatic defects in mitotic spindle assembly. kif and kif appear to cooperate with dynein to organize the interphase radial microtubule array.  the results reported here extend the number of kinesin gene disruptions in dictyostelium, to now total among the isoforms. none of these motors, individually, are required for short-term viability. in contrast, homologs of at least six of the kinesins are considered essential in humans. our work underscores the functional redundancy of motor isoforms in basal organisms while highlighting motor specificity in more complex metazoans. since motor disruption in dictyostelium can readily be combined with other motility insults and stresses, this organism offers an excellent system to investigate functional interactions among the kinesin motor family. 