Toyoaki Nakamura: Economic activity, prices, and monetary policy in Japan
Central bank: boj | Type: speech | Date: 2022-02-09

Bank

of

Japan February

9,

2022

## Economic Activity, Prices, and Monetary Policy in JapanSpeech at a Meeting with Local Leaders in Yamanashi (via webcast)

## NAKAMURA ToyoakiMember of the Policy Board(English translation based on the Japanese original)

## I.

Economic and Price Developments at Home and Abroad

## A.

Recent Developments and Outlook for Economic Activity and PricesI will begin my speech by talking about recent developments in economic activity and prices.Overseas economies have recovered on the whole, albeit with variation across countries and regions, with the impact of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) waning gradually (Chart 1).

In

advanced

economies,

resumption

of

economic

activity

continues

as

vaccination

has progressed, while priority public health measures have been taken to respond specifically to the

spread

of

the

Omicron

variant.

Emerging

and

commodity-exporting

economies

have generally picked up on the back of progress with vaccinations.Against this background, a pick-up in Japan's economy has become evident (Chart 2).

Exports and production continue on an uptrend, albeit with the effects of supply-side constraints.

A pick-up in private consumption has also become evident since early autumn 2021, although downward pressure due to the spread of the Omicron variant has recently been a cause for concern.

On the price front, the year-on-year rate of change in the consumer price index (CPI) for all items less fresh food, or core CPI, despite being affected by the reduction in mobile phone charges, has been slightly positive, reflecting price rises

in energy and other items (Chart 3).Japan's economy is likely to recover as the impact of COVID-19 and the effects of supplyside constraints gradually wane.

The year-on-year rate of change in the core CPI is also likely to increase in positive territory due to a dissipation of the effects of a reduction in mobile phone charges on the back of a moderate pass-through of raw material cost increases.

## B.

Risk Factors for Economic Activity and PricesThis outlook is subject to a number of uncertainties; specifically, I am particularly attentive to the following factors.The first

is

the

Chinese

economy,

sometimes

referred

to

as

"the

world's

market"

or

"the workshop of the world." There is a risk that the spread of the Omicron variant under China's zero-Covid

policy

will

lead

to

globally

prolonged

supply-side

constraints

and

protractedinflationary pressures, in addition to pushing down the global economy.

Attention should also be paid to such factors as the aging population, intensified conflict between China and both the

United

States

and

Europe,

and

the

decline

in

medium-

to

long-term

growth

potential mainly due to the imposition of stronger restrictions.The second factor is firms' price-setting behavior.

Uncertainties surround future developments

in

the

pass-through

of

raw

material

cost

increases,

leaving

potential

for movement in either direction.

If cost increases are not passed on sufficiently, this could cause firms to fall into a vicious cycle where their business performance will deteriorate, making it inevitable that they will cut wages and investment for the future.

On the other hand, the passthrough of cost increases may also proceed further than expected; firms have recently become increasingly sensitive to inflation,

with

upstream

price

rises

gradually

spreading

to downstream (Chart 4).

I consider it crucial for firms' price-setting stance to become active in order for Japan's economy to shift toward a new growth path and to achieve the Bank's price stability target.The third factor is a change in households' preference for holding on to their cash and deposits.

The amount outstanding of households' cash and deposits continued to grow, increasing by 44 trillion yen relative to the pre-pandemic trend, and reaching 1,072 trillion yen as of endSeptember 2021 (Chart 5).

If the impact of COVID-19 gradually wanes, this is expected to result in a materialization of pent-up demand, thereby stimulating economic activity.

In fact, with the younger generation in particular having been showing greater interest in financial asset investment, it is hoped -- as I will elaborate on later -- that if households can reap the fruits of global economic growth by gaining stable income through the dividends from their investment

in

financial

assets,

this

will

help

bring

about

a

virtuous

cycle

of

growth

and distribution in the long run.

At the same time, these trends naturally weaken when households lower their growth expectations for Japanese firms.

I am therefore paying close attention to how these trends develop alongside firms' efforts toward achieving growth.The

fourth

factor

is

investment

behavior,

particularly

among

small

and

medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

The amount outstanding of cash and deposits has been on an increasing trend

for

both

large

enterprises

and

SMEs.

In

contrast,

net

interest-bearing

debt

--

thedifference between interest-bearing debt and cash and deposits -- has been decreasing as a trend among SMEs, unlike large enterprises, showing no clear increase since 2018 (Chart 6).

Shifting our focus to business fixed investment for fiscal 2021, large enterprises across all industries have been in line with past averages, maintaining a 9 percent-plus increase over the previous fiscal year.

In contrast, the Bank of Japan's December 2021 Tankan (Short-Term Economic Survey of Enterprises in Japan) shows that business fixed investment for SMEs across all industries, which tends to be revised upward through the fiscal year-end, has been relatively weak (Chart 7).

Attention should be paid to whether SMEs strengthen their stance of

cutting

investment

and

hoarding

cash

and

deposits,

as

this

will

delay

a

long-standing challenge to Japan's economy, namely, raising productivity.

## II.

Conduct of Monetary PolicyLet me now turn to the Bank's policy conduct.The Bank has conducted powerful monetary easing in response to COVID-19 since March 2020 through the following three measures: (1) the Special Program to Support Financing in Response to the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19); (2) an ample and flexible provision of funds; and (3) purchases of exchange-traded funds (ETFs) and Japan real estate investment trusts

(J-REITs).

The

Bank's

responses

have

had

positive

effects,

coupled

with

the government's measures and active efforts by financial institutions, and financial conditions in Japan have been accommodative on the whole.That said, weakness remains in the financial positions of firms in some segments, such as the face-to-face services industry, and of small and medium-sized firms.

There also continues to be significant uncertainty surrounding the impact of COVID-19, including the spread of the Omicron variant.

Against this background, the Bank decided in December 2021 to extend the Special Program in part by six months with a view to doing its utmost to support financing, mainly of small and medium-sized firms (Chart 8).

The Bank will continue to closely monitor any changes in the situation, including those related to the impact of COVID-19, and take appropriate measures.

On this basis, it will persistently continue with the current powerful monetary easing to achieve the price stability target of 2 percent.In the meantime, since climate change could exert an extremely large impact on developments in economic activity and prices as well as financial conditions from a medium- to long-term perspective, the Bank has implemented as one of its policy responses a fund-provisioning measure to support private financial institutions' various efforts in fields related to climate change.

It conducted its first operation under the measure in December 2021, through which funds amounting to more than 2 trillion yen were provided.

The result of the operation seems to indicate that financial institutions have already made a certain amount of climate changerelated

investment

or

loans.

This

raises

the

possibility

that

investment

made

by

firms

to address

climate

change,

including

by

small

and

medium-sized

firms,

will

be

larger

than anticipated.

While

this

is

expected

to

bring

about

a

long-term

expansion

in

domestic investment, the Bank will continue to closely monitor firms' initiatives and investment plans.

## III.

Transformation of the Success Model from Japan's Rapid Economic Growth Period and Challenges to Realizing New Growth

## A.

Structural Changes in Japan's Economy and Efforts to Transform the Economic SystemI would now like to share my view on structural changes in Japan's economy and efforts to transform the economic system from a longer-term perspective, based on my own experience at a private firm I worked at from 1975 to 2020.The business model that drove Japan's export-led growth from the rapid economic growth period through 1984 was set against the backdrop of Japan's stable political and economic environment during the Cold War and a depreciation of the

yen.

It was characterized by concentrated domestic investment in cheaply manufacturing high-quality products in existing product areas, such as automobiles and household electrical appliances, and selling them to the

world.

Meanwhile,

so-called

Japan

Inc.

was

formed,

built

around

(1)

long-term employment practices marked by lifetime employment and the seniority system, (2) longterm business relationships, such as the main bank system and corporate relationships with subcontractors and affiliates, and (3) government-corporate cooperation channeled through administrative guidance and industry organizations.

This integrated system also underpinned the country's export-led growth aimed at catching up with other advanced economies.However, drastic changes took place in Japan's economic environment from the latter half of the

1980s

--

for

instance,

the

yen's

rapid

appreciation

following

the

Plaza

Accord,

the completion of the catching-up process, the end of the Cold War, advances in globalization, and the rise of emerging economies.

Japan entered an era in which growth required risk taking, and its economic system stood in need of transformation to adapt to the new era.

However, such

transformation

was

postponed,

with

firms

burdened

by

the

"three

excesses"

in employment,

production

capacity,

and

debt,

mainly

due

to

the

economic

bubble

and

its bursting. 1Even from the late 1990s into the new millennium, at the time of the Asian financial crisis and

the

bursting

of

the

U.S.

dot-com

bubble,

long-term

employment

practices

and

other obstacles

hampered

many

Japanese

firms

from

pushing

through

the

realignment

of

their business portfolios, which would have enhanced their value-added.

Faced with deteriorating business performance, they responded by overhauling their cost structure, cutting costs in, for example,

labor

--

including

investment

in

human

resources

--

research

and

development (R&D), and depreciation expenses, while maintaining their existing business portfolios.

This gave rise to excessive competition among firms in Japan and a continued decline in prices.

Furthermore, long-term deflation made the recovery of investment costs increasingly unlikely, which, along with other factors including those just mentioned, caused more firms to shy away from investment and the pursuit of innovation.Japan's economy then suffered two crises, namely, the 2008 Global Financial Crisis and the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, both of which coincided with firms being faced with so-called six headwinds, including

a historically

strong

yen. 2 To adapt to the headwinds, large enterprises in the manufacturing sector made further inroads overseas and increased their

capacity

for

generating

earnings

abroad

despite

the

strong

yen.

Outward

direct investment, including that by the nonmanufacturing sector, began to expand further around 2013, and continues even now to contribute to Japan's stable current account surplus trend through

the

surplus

in

primary

income

--

or

the

positive

balance

associated

with

foreign1

Economic Planning Agency, Economic Survey of Japan , July 1999 (available only in Japanese).2

The six headwinds are (1) a historically strong yen; (2) delayed creation of Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs); (3) high effective corporate tax rates; (4) rigidity in the labor market; (5) strict environmental regulations; and (6) power shortages and high energy costs.investment

(Chart

9).

However,

these

developments

have

been

seen

primarily

in

large enterprises; there is still an ongoing financial surplus in the corporate sector.On this point, if firms do not actively make investments, innovation in creating new products, services, and businesses will fall short, as was the case during Japan's long-term deflationary period.

Partly due to a decline in growth expectations, households that receive wages from firms will in turn hold back on spending and investment, hoarding more of their deposits.

Even if firms make efforts to sustain demand with price cuts, funds from households will likely decrease.

Firms will then further hold back on investments, leading to a greater lack of innovation and reduced flow of funds; as a result, the economy will slip into low growth (see Chart 10 for a simplified representation).That said, Japan's economy is in the midst of a sea change.

Of the six headwinds, the issues of a historically strong yen, delayed creation of EPAs, and high corporate tax rates can be said to have been mostly resolved.

In particular, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP-11), which came into effect in December 2018, and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), which came into effect in January 2022,

have

lowered

barriers

to

exports

and

overseas

expansion,

raising

hopes

of

more aggressive corporate activities taking advantage of these frameworks.

Meanwhile, digitalization and climate change response, which are considered to be key areas of Japan's growth

strategy,

require

sustainable

large-scale

domestic

investment

involving

numerous firms across the value chain.

Moreover, as firms revisit the value chain, we are likely to see some

SMEs

and

startups

experiencing

significant growth, mainly

through business realignment.

This

could,

in

turn,

spur

the

creation

of

new

businesses

and

products

and promote growth in new areas of demand.

My hope is that the revival of such dynamism will change the excessive savings mindset among firms; boost the flow of funds as investments in, for example, equipment, software, R&D, human resources, and merger and acquisition (M&A) activities

stimulate

further

investments;

and

realize

new

economic

growth

and

a sustained increase in

wages

(see

Chart

11

for

a

simplified

representation

of

this

virtuous cycle).

## B.

Challenges and Initiatives in Realizing New GrowthTo bring about such a virtuous cycle, it will be necessary to overcome the dearth of dynamism -- a major challenge for Japan's economy -- in tandem with the transition to a post-pandemic society.

In particular, the Japanese-style employment system rooted in long-term employment practices, including seniority-based wages and internal promotions, will need to be reformed, as will the country's rigid labor market.The Japanese-style employment system was effective in an era of steady growth in supply and

demand

through

exports

and

domestic

industrial

clusters,

with

growth

being

driven through process innovation, exemplified by kaizen (continuous improvement).

Now, however, in the so-called VUCA era, 3 which is characterized by the creation of high value through intangible assets and growth that requires risk taking, it is not easy for individual firms to sustain growth by going it alone.

If firms become fixated on maintaining all of their business lines, they will be slow to realign their business portfolios and will end up losing focus.

As excessive costs build up and profits decline in such firms, growth in employee wages will end up being constrained, which will in turn increase concerns regarding the future.It should be noted that, from fiscal 2022, Japan's baby boomer generation will begin moving into the category of advanced elderly.

Greater labor force participation by women and seniors contributed to economic growth over the past decade.

However, as further increase in the labor

force

participation

rate

proves

difficult,

the

more

pressing

need

will

be

to

improve productivity (Chart 12).

On the one hand, boosting productivity will require business owners to

emphasize

the

growth

of

both

the

business

and

its

human

capital;

they

will

need

to consolidate less productive businesses under their best owners (companies that are expected to maximize the value of the business over the medium to long term); and they will have to channel resources into growth businesses such as through M&A activities.

On the other hand, I think it is critical for both firms and households to be forward-looking in their actions to achieve

growth

and

affluence,

with,

for

example,

individuals

continually

pursuing

selfbetterment to gain knowledge and skills that lead to greater added value.3

VUCA, an acronym which stands for volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity, refers to a situation in which large-scale changes make it difficult to predict the future.From this perspective, it is also vital to develop both a social safety net and a sustainable social security system that encourage active risk taking.

For example, corporate pensions are a key factor in enabling working people of child-rearing age to change jobs without adding to their anxiety about post-retirement years.

To encourage the broader adoption of corporate pension

plans

among

SMEs,

the

Japanese

government

introduced

in

2018

a

simplified defined-contribution pension plan, and iDeCo+ (iDeCo Plus), a defined-contribution plan for small and medium-sized businesses.

Although the government has since continued to refine the plan to make it available to a wider range of people, the number of iDeCo+ subscribers still stands at around a mere 23,000. 4 Looking at trends among people changing jobs by size of enterprise, the number of people moving between large enterprises and from SMEs to large enterprises has increased significantly, while the number of those moving between SMEs and from large enterprises to SMEs has declined or remained flat.

It is possible that the issue of pension plans may be one of the reasons labor migration to SMEs has not increased (Chart 13).

Realizing

new

growth

in

Japan's

economy

will

require

smooth

labor

migration

into growth businesses, including startups.

I look to corporate managers, financial institutions, and local administrations to accelerate their efforts to this end.

## IV.

Realizing

New

Growth

by

Reviving

the

Dynamism

of

Japanese

Firms

and Reinforcing Investment in Human CapitalThere is a growing trend around the world to step up efforts to build a new form of capitalism that is focused on sustainability and human capital to generate new investment and growth.

The government is positioning Japan to take the lead in this trend.

The emergency proposal announced by the Council of New Form of Capitalism Realization in November 2021 is a comprehensive

statement,

encompassing

strategies

for

both

growth

and

distribution. 5 In particular, I would like to offer my opinion on what is involved in reviving the dynamism of Japanese firms and reinforcing investment in human capital.

## A.

Reviving the Dynamism of Japanese FirmsSustained

growth

in

income

is

generated

by

economic

growth,

and

economic

growth

is4

National Pension Fund Association, "Review of Subscriptions (as of November 2021)" (available only in Japanese).5

Council of New Form of Capitalism Realization, Emergency Proposal Toward the Launch of a "New Form of Capitalism" that Carves Out the Future , November 8, 2021 (available only in Japanese).generated by innovation arising from sustained corporate growth investment.

I think the key to this innovation lies in the revival of corporate dynamism and the development of the human resources necessary to pursue new businesses.My impression is that the risk aversion in the so-called VUCA era has led to a dearth of innovation.

According to statistics

from

the

Organisation

for

Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD), the percentage of firms in Japan that have brought new products and services to the market is 9.9 percent for the manufacturing sector and 4.9 percent for the services sector.

This is considerably lower than the 18.8 percent in manufacturing and 9.0 percent in services in Germany and the 12.7 percent and 7.6 percent in the United States. 6Japan has historically excelled at process innovation, but with advances in digitalization, the country now lags far behind in this area as well.

Among U.S. firms, digitization (converting analog

or

paper-based

data

into

digital

format)

and

digitalization

(digitalizing

individual business operations and manufacturing processes) have streamlined and made more efficient the

workforces

of

existing

businesses

while

creating

new

employment

opportunities

in growth

businesses.

It

seems

to

have

been

difficult

for

these

mechanisms

to

gain

traction among Japanese firms, and this has led to delays in digitalization.However, advanced economies are pursuing digital transformation (DX) not chiefly to reform the cost structure but rather to move toward a business model in which data creates value.

Meanwhile, the expansion of cloud-based services has lowered hurdles to digitalization, for instance, by enabling lower-cost and faster implementation.

This, I believe, provides firms with the opportunity to step up the pace of transformation of their business models and make significant headway into new stages of growth.Furthermore, for Japan to take the lead in areas such as digitalization and climate change response, the growth of startups that can carry forward such initiatives will be critical.

The number of Japanese startups has been on the rise in recent years.

However, Japan's entry and exit rates remain low compared to other advanced economies (Chart 14).

A survey of Japanese6

OECD, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2017 , November 2017.entrepreneurs reported "fear of failure" as the biggest reason for the low number of business start-ups

in

Japan. 7 It

is

important

to

foster

an

environment

that

is

supportive

of

second chances, by for example expanding the safety net, and thereby promote a positive approach to taking on challenges.Few startups experience significant growth in Japan -- the country has only six unicorns, that is,

unlisted

startups

valued

at

over

1

billion

U.S.

dollars.

By

comparison,

there

are

488 unicorns in the United States, 170 in China, 37 in the United Kingdom, and 25 in Germany. 8 In

addition

to

talent

and

a

customer

base,

funding

is

essential

to

promote

the

growth

of startups.

Yet

the

volume

of

venture

capital

investment

in

startups

in

Japan

remains

tiny compared to the United States (Chart 15).To address this situation, the government has announced plans to lay the groundwork for the creation and growth of startups, such as streamlining the initial public offering (IPO) process and

exploring

a

framework

for

special

purpose

acquisition

companies

(SPACs)

from

the perspective of investor protection.

I expect such efforts, coupled with an inflow of venture capital, to support startup growth.

At the same time, I look for more active M&A activities to help integrate ventures with their best owners, and for entrepreneurs to keep trying to start new businesses and drive growth.

My strong hope is that these developments will revive the dynamism of Japanese firms and generate a wealth of innovation, thereby allowing Japan to soon realize new growth.

## B.

Reinforcing Investment in Human CapitalAnother key to innovation, alongside corporate dynamism, is human capital.Under

Japan's

long-term

employment

practices,

marked

by

seniority-based

wages

and internal promotions, both management

and

employees

prioritized achieving greater production

efficiency,

and

there

was

a

strong

tendency

for

them

to

emphasize

gaining experience through business activities and on-the-job training.

In an era where boosting the efficiency of existing business operations was the driving force behind growth, I think that7

Venture Enterprise Center, Venture White Paper 2021 , December 2021 (available only in Japanese).8

Survey by CB Insights (as of December 31, 2021).Japanese-style human resource (HR) development functioned effectively.In the current VUCA era, however, it is no longer possible to achieve sustainable growth simply by boosting the efficiency of existing business operations.

Also, on-the-job training alone, being an extension of existing business operations, is not adequate to the discontinuous nature

of

innovation.

Investment

in

human

capital

is

vital

for

acquiring

new

ideas

and capabilities.

Such investment has been muted in Japan, however, being typically treated as a "cost" in corporate accounting.

We see the difference, for example, in the ratio of Japanese firms' vocational training costs to GDP, which is low relative to other advanced economies (Chart 16).

Meanwhile, the average amount of money spent by firms per employee on offthe-job training and self-development support is also on the wane (Chart 17).To encourage firms to invest in human capital, Japan's Prime Minister announced in a policy speech in January that the government would formulate rules for corporate disclosure of nonfinancial information, including investment in human capital, within the year.

Until now, it has been difficult to link HR strategies to management strategies because there have been no benchmarks for comparison with other firms, and management has not been equipped to set key performance indicators (KPIs).

By making human capital investment more transparent, the new government measure is expected to make it easier for management to set concrete targets and formulate strategies to realize them.

Furthermore, the measure has the potential to accelerate

corporate

growth,

as

both

investors

and

employees

can

use

the

information

to evaluate firms in terms of growth potential, among other factors.

## C.

Toward a Virtuous Cycle of Growth and DistributionAs such efforts gain momentum, I think that they will lead to sustainable economic growth and accelerate the shift to an era in which employees are better equipped to choose which firm they wish to work for.

Regarding distribution, average income per household decreased from 6.17 million yen in 2000 to 5.52 million yen in 2018, but this includes the effect of population aging (Chart 18).

Looking at households other than the elderly, while average income fell from 6.78 million yen in 2000 to 6.10 million yen in 2012, it subsequently rose to 6.59 million yen in 2018, prior to the outbreak of COVID-19.

To bring prosperity to Japan's super-aging society as a whole, it will be crucial to further raise the income level of workers.One of the unintended consequences of structural labor shortages is that employees will have greater

power

to

choose

which

firm

they

wish

to

work

for.

Consequently,

managers

are expected to implement growth strategies that enhance the appeal and growth potential of their firms and adopt more dynamic HR policies, including greater investment in human capital to foster

employee

development,

higher

compensation

levels,

the

use

of

stock

options,

and putting in place more robust pension plans.Individuals, too, will be expected to enhance their skills to increase their added value.

They will need to expand their sources of stable income and build a post-retirement nest egg by investing in financial assets focusing on the long term, on diversification, and on regular contributions.

Household financial assets in Japan amounted to approximately 2,000 trillion yen as of the end of September 2021.

However, cash and deposits accounted for by far the highest proportion of the total, at 54 percent, with stocks and investment trusts representing a mere 15 percent.

The situation in the United States is quite the opposite, with cash and deposits accounting for 13 percent and stocks and investment trusts 51 percent of household financial assets as of end-March 2021.The deep-rooted tendency of Japanese households to hold their assets in cash and deposits is likely shaped by the trauma of the collapse of the bubble economy and the experience of the long-term economic stagnation that followed.

Experience has made older people in particular tend to believe that the stock price

of Japanese firms is linked to Japan's GDP.

However, people

in

their

20s

and

30s

have

had

virtually

no

experience

of

such

trauma,

and

they understand that, with the globalization of Japanese firms, stock prices rise in line with growth in

the

global

economy.

In

fact,

with

the

institutional

support

now

available,

such

as

the Nippon

Individual

Savings Account

(NISA)

and

iDeCo

pension

plans,

there

is

growing interest in investment trusts, especially among young people.If households can reap the fruits of global economic growth by gaining stable income through the

dividends

from

their

investment

in

financial

assets

focusing

on

the

long

term,

on diversification, and on regular contributions, I think that this will help bring about a virtuous cycle of growth and distribution.

Moreover, buoyed by the Bank's persistent monetary easing, I believe that active innovation by firms and by individuals will increase the potential growthrate of Japan's economy and bring the country closer to achieving the Bank's 2 percent price stability target.Thank you.

## Economic Activity, Prices, and Monetary Policy in JapanSpeech at a Meeting with Local Leaders in Yamanashi (via webcast)February 9, 2022NAKAMURA Toyoaki Member of the Policy Board Bank of Japan

## IMF Projections in the World Economic Outlook (January 2022)Source: IMF.

## Japan's Real GDPSource: Cabinet Office.

## Japan's CPI (Less Fresh Food)- Notes: 1.

Energy consists of petroleum products (gasoline, kerosene, and liquefied propane), electricity, and manufactured and piped gas charges.2.

Figures for the "effects of the consumption tax hike and free education policies" from April 2020 onward are based on staff estimations and include the effects of measures such as free higher education introduced in April 2020.Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications.

## Price Sentiment IndexNote: The Price Sentiment Index is calculated as follows.

Using the Naïve Bayes classifier, comments on current economic conditions in the Economy Watchers Survey are first classified into (A) comments implying inflation, (B) comments implying deflation, (C) comments implying zero inflation, and (D) comments not referring to price developments.

The Price Sentiment Index is then calculated as (A-B) / (A+B+C) × 100 and normalized (3-month backward moving averages).Source: Cabinet Office.

## Cash and Deposits Held by Japanese HouseholdsNote: The pre-pandemic trend line is based on the average rate of increase for 2010 through 2019.Source: Bank of Japan.

## Firms' Net Interest-Bearing Debt and Cash and Deposits in JapanNotes: 1.

Net interest-bearing debt = borrowings from financial institutions + bonds - cash and deposits, based on the "Financial Statements Statistics of Corporations by Industry, Quarterly."2.

Figures exclude finance and insurance, and are 4-quarter backward moving averages.3.

Enterprises with capital of 1 billion yen or more are large enterprises, and those with capital of 10 million yen or more but less than 100 million yen are SMEs.Source: Ministry of Finance.

## Developments in Fixed Investment in TankanLarge Enterprises (All Industries)SMEs (All Industries)Notes: 1.

The graphs indicate the revision pattern of fixed investment.

The horizontal axis represents the point in time when the survey is conducted for each fiscal year: the first survey for each year (March survey) is on the left, and the last survey (June survey of the following year; actual result) is on the right.2.

Excludes software and R&D investment.Source: Bank of Japan.

## Extension of Financing Support for SMEs

## Japan's Financial Conditions: Improved on the WholeLarge firms: Issuance conditions for CP and corporate bonds have been favorable.

Precautionary demand for liquidity has subsided in the loan market.SMEs:Financial positions have been on an improving trend on the whole, but weakness has remained in some segments, such as the face-to-face services industry.

## Partial Extension of the Special Program to Support Financing in Response to COVID-19 (until end-March 2022 — until end-September 2022)| Purchases of CP and corporate bonds |

| - ; - = - — OVID- Special Funds-Supplying Operations to Facilitate Financing in Response to COVID-19

| - ; - = - — OVID- Special Funds-Supplying Operations to Facilitate Financing in Response to COVID-19

| - ; - = - — OVID- Special Funds-Supplying Operations to Facilitate Financing in Response to COVID-19

||--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|| Purchases of CP and corporate bonds |

| Against private debt pledged as collateral

| | Aen ee government- | Aen ee loans

| Against non-government- supported loans

|| .

Additional purchases to be completed Continue purchasing the same amount as prior to the COVID-19 pandemic | To be completed

| Extend by six months the fund-provisioning to financial institutions against their loans » Under the revised terms and conditions * Applied interest rate: 0% (Category IIT) * Amount added to the Macro Add-on Balances: the amount outstanding of funds provided | |, |). 4. the current terms and conditions * Applied interest rate: 0.2% (Category I) * Amount added to the Macro Add-on Balances: twice as much as the amount outstanding of funds provided Extend by six months |ANNaMainly for SMEsMainly for large firms and housing loansFor the time being, the Bank will closely monitor the impact of COVID-19 and will not hesitate to take additional easing measures if necessary.XQ

## Current AccountNote: Figures for 2021/Q4 are October-November averages.Source: Ministry of Finance and Bank of Japan.

## Small Flow of Funds: Sluggish Corporate/Household Investment and Insufficient InnovationNote: The arrows show the direction of the main flow of funds.

## Large Flow of Funds:Virtuous Cycle Driven by Active Corporate/Household InvestmentNote: The arrows show the direction of the main flow of funds.

## GDP and Labor Input

## Number of Employed Persons and GDP

## Labor Force Participation Rate21Note: In the left-hand chart, the figure for real GDP for CY 2021 is the seasonally adjusted annualized amount for 2021/Q1-Q3.Sources: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications; Cabinet Office.

## Number of Job Changers by Size of Enterprise- Notes: 1.

SMEs are enterprises with 5-299 employees.

Large enterprises are those with 300 employees or more.2.

Figures represent data for the first half of each year (January-June).Sources: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare; Small and Medium Enterprise Agency.International Comparison of Entry and Exit Rates Chart 14Note: Japan's figures are on a fiscal-year basis.Sources: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare; Small and Medium Enterprise Agency; U.S. Census Bureau; Eurostat.

## Venture Capital Investment

## Ratio of Firms' Vocational Training Costs to GDPNote: Figures are estimated by Professor MIYAGAWA Tsutomu (Gakushuin University) based on the Cabinet Office's "System of National Accounts," "JIP Database," and INTAN-Invest Database.Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.

## Firms' Investment in Off-the-Job Training and Self-Development Support

## Off-the-Job TrainingSelf-Development SupportNote: Figures are the average amount of spending per worker.Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.

## Average Income per HouseholdSource: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.